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{{Short description|1963 civil rights movement demonstration}}
{{About|1963 civil rights movement demonstration|other uses|List of rallies and protest marches in Washington, D.C.}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2024}} {{Use American English|date=February 2024}}
{{Infobox civil conflict
| title = March on Washington
| partof = the [[Civil Rights Movement]]
| image = Civil rights march on Washington, D.C. from Lincoln (cropped).jpg
| place = [[Washington, D.C.]], U.S.
| date = {{start date and age|1963|08|28}}
| caption = View from the [[Lincoln Memorial]] toward<br>the [[Washington Monument]]
| map_type = 
| map_size = 
| map_caption = 
| coordinates = {{Coord|38|53|21|N|77|3|0|W|region:US-DC_type:event|display=inline,title}}
| causes = *[[Centennial]] of the [[Emancipation Proclamation]]
*Success of the [[Birmingham campaign]]
*Mass movements and demonstrations throughout the [[United States]]
| result = *200,000 to 300,000 people participate
*Speech "[[I Have a Dream]]" delivered by [[Martin Luther King Jr.]]
*Catalyst to pass [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] and the [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]]
| concessions = 
| sidebox = {{CRM in Washington D.C.}}
}}
The '''March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom''' (commonly known as the '''March on Washington''' or the '''Great March on Washington''') was held in [[Washington, D.C.]], on August 28, 1963.<ref>{{Cite web |title=March on Washington |url=https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/march-on-washington |access-date=2021-01-23 |website=History|language=en}}</ref> The purpose of the march was to advocate for the civil and economic rights of [[African American]]s. At the march, several popular singers of the time, including [[Mahalia Jackson]] and [[Marian Anderson]], performed and many of the movement's leaders gave speeches. The most notable speech came from the final speaker, Dr. [[Martin Luther King Jr.]], standing in front of the [[Lincoln Memorial]], as he delivered his historic "[[I Have a Dream]]" speech in which he called for an end to legalized [[Racism in the United States|racism]] and [[racial segregation]].<ref name="suarez">{{Cite episode |author-link=Ray Suarez |last=Suarez |first=Ray |network=[[Public Broadcasting Service]] |title=The March on Washington Remembered |series=[[PBS NewsHour]] |access-date=2013-05-21 |date=2003-08-28 |url=https://www.pbs.org/video/the-march-on-washington-remembered-235/}}</ref>

The march was organized by [[Bayard Rustin]] and [[A. Philip Randolph]], who built an alliance of civil rights, labor, and religious organizations<ref name="Veterans"/> that came together under the banner of "jobs and freedom."<ref name="program"/> Estimates of the number of participants varied from 200,000 to 300,000,<ref name=WDL/> but the most widely cited estimate is 250,000 people.<ref>Hansen, D. D. (2003). ''The Dream: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Speech that Inspired a Nation''. New York: Harper Collins. p. 177. {{ISBN?}}</ref> Observers estimated that 75–80% of the marchers were black.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.archives.gov/kansas-city/press/2013/13-29.html |title=50th Anniversary of the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom Panel Discussion at the Black Archives of Mid-America |format=press release |publisher=The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration |date=August 7, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004044615/http://www.archives.gov/kansas-city/press/2013/13-29.html |archive-date=October 4, 2015 |access-date=August 1, 2017}}</ref> The march was one of the largest [[Demonstration (people)|political rallies]] for human rights in United States history.<ref name="program">{{Citation |publisher=National Archives and Records Administration |last=Bayard Rustin Papers |title=March on Washington (Program) |access-date=2013-05-21 |date=1963-08-28 |url=http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=96#}}</ref> [[Walter Reuther]], president of the [[United Auto Workers]], was the most integral and highest-ranking white organizer of the march.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Euchner |first=Charles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YpFWUrynUl4C&q=%22walter+reuther%22+%22most+significant%22+march+on+washington&pg=PT281 |title=Nobody Turn Me Around: A People's History of the 1963 March on Washington |date=2010 |publisher=Beacon Press |isbn=978-0-8070-9552-2 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=American Educator |url=https://www.aft.org/periodical/american-educator/fall-2013 |date=Fall 2013 |website=American Federation of Teachers |page=35 |language=en |access-date=2020-05-27}}</ref>

The march is credited with helping to pass the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dubrin |first=Doug |title=The March on Washington and Its Impact |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/extra/teachers/lessonplans/history/dream2_8-20.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130109190937/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/extra/teachers/lessonplans/history/dream2_8-20.html |archive-date=2013-01-09 |access-date=2020-08-29 |website=www.pbs.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Jenkins |first=Alan |date=2013-08-28 |title=An important goal of the 1963 March on Washington remains unfulfilled |url=https://thehill.com/blogs/congress-blog/civil-rights/319011--an-important-goal-of-the-1963-march-on-washington-remains-unfulfilled |access-date=2020-08-29 |website=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]] |language=en}}</ref> It preceded the [[Selma to Montgomery marches|Selma Voting Rights Movement]], when national media coverage contributed to passage of the [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]] that same year.<ref>{{cite book |last=Weinstein |first=Allen |title=The Story of America: Freedom and Crisis from Settlement to Superpower |url=https://archive.org/details/storyofamericafr00wein |url-access=registration |publisher=DK Publishing, Inc. |year=2002 |isbn=978-0789489036}}</ref>

==Background==
{{Main|Civil rights movement}}
[[African Americans]] were legally freed from slavery under the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Thirteenth Amendment]] and granted citizenship in the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]], and African American men were granted full voting rights by the [[Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fifteenth Amendment]] in the years soon after the end of the [[American Civil War]], but Democrats regained power after the end of the [[Reconstruction era]] (in 1877) and imposed many restrictions on people of color in the South. At the turn of the century, Southern states passed constitutions and laws that [[Disfranchisement after Reconstruction era|disenfranchised most black people]] and many poor whites, excluding them from the political system. The whites imposed social, economic, and political repression against black people into the 1960s, under a system of legal discrimination known as [[Jim Crow laws]], which were pervasive in the [[Southern United States|American South]]. Black people suffered discrimination from private businesses as well, and most were prevented from voting, sometimes through violent means.<ref>Bass, ''Like a Mighty Stream'' (2002), pp. 31, 34–36.</ref> Twenty-one states prohibited [[interracial marriage]].<ref>Euchner, ''Nobody Turn Me Around'' (2010), p. 128.</ref>

During the 20th century, civil rights organizers began to develop ideas for a march on Washington, DC, to seek justice. Earlier efforts to organize such a demonstration included the [[March on Washington Movement]] of the 1940s. [[A. Philip Randolph]]—the president of the [[Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters]], president of the Negro American Labor Council,<ref name=WDL>{{cite web |title=Civil Rights March on Washington, D.C.: Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., President of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, and Mathew Ahmann, Executive Director of the National Catholic Conference for Interracial Justice, in a Crowd |date=28 August 1963 |url=http://www.wdl.org/en/item/2738/ |publisher=[[World Digital Library]] |access-date=10 February 2013}}</ref> and vice president of the [[AFL–CIO]]—was a key instigator in 1941. With [[Bayard Rustin]], Randolph called for 100,000 black workers to march on Washington,<ref name="Veterans"/> in protest of discriminatory hiring during World War II by [[List of United States defense contractors|U.S. military contractors]] and demanding an [[Executive order (United States)|Executive Order]] to correct that.<ref>Bass, ''Like a Mighty Stream'' (2002), pp. 44–46.</ref> Faced with a mass march scheduled for July 1, 1941, [[President of the United States|President]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] issued [[Executive Order 8802]] on June 25.<ref>Bass, ''Like a Mighty Stream'' (2002), pp. 49–51.</ref> The order established the [[Committee on Fair Employment Practice]] and banned discriminatory hiring in the defense industry, leading to improvements for many defense workers.<ref>Neil A. Wynn, "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/259634 The Impact of the Second World War on the American Negro]"; ''Journal of Contemporary History'' 6(2), 1971; p. 46.</ref> Randolph called off the March.<ref>Bass, ''Like a Mighty Stream'' (2002), pp. 51–52.</ref>

Randolph and Rustin continued to organize around the idea of a mass march on Washington. They envisioned several large marches during the 1940s, but all were called off (despite criticism from Rustin).<ref>Euchner, ''Nobody Turn Me Around'' (2010), pp. 16–17.</ref> Their [[Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom]], held at the Lincoln Memorial on May 17, 1957, featured key leaders including [[Adam Clayton Powell Jr.|Adam Clayton Powell]], Dr. [[Martin Luther King Jr.]], and [[Roy Wilkins]]. [[Mahalia Jackson]] performed.<ref>Bass, ''Like a Mighty Stream'' (2002), p. 75.</ref>

The 1963 march was part of the rapidly expanding [[Civil Rights Movement]], which involved demonstrations and [[nonviolent direct action]] across the United States.<ref>Barber, ''Marching on Washington'' (2002), p. 142. "In 1963, however, the March on Washington was but one aspect of a national explosion of actions against racial discrimination that many criticized as being outside traditional politics. ... In the South after 1960, the widespread adoption of direct action—purposeful defiance of segregation laws and injunctions against demonstrations—inspired activists and attracted new attention from the media, the federal government, and white segregationists."</ref> 1963 marked the 100th anniversary of the signing of the [[Emancipation Proclamation]] by President [[Abraham Lincoln]]. Leaders represented major civil rights organizations. Members of The [[National Association for the Advancement of Colored People]] (NAACP) and the [[Southern Christian Leadership Conference]] put aside their differences and came together for the march. Many whites and black people also came together in the urgency for change in the nation.

That year violent confrontations broke out in the South: in [[Pine Bluff, Arkansas | Pine Bluff]], [[Arkansas]]; [[Goldsboro, North Carolina | Goldsboro]], [[North Carolina]]; [[Somerville, Tennessee | Somerville]], [[Tennessee]]; [[Saint Augustine, Florida| Saint Augustine]], [[Florida]]; and across [[Mississippi]].  A violent incident also occurred in [[Cambridge, Maryland | Cambridge]], [[Maryland]].  In most cases, white people attacked nonviolent demonstrators seeking civil rights.<ref>Euchner, ''Nobody Turn Me Around'' (2010), p. xvi. "Violence swept the South all year. Vigilantes in Clarksdale firebombed the home of Aaron Henry, the head of Mississippi's NAACP. After a gas bomb went off in a church in Itta Bena, Mississippi, mobs threw bottles and rocks at activists spilling onto the streets. Vigilantes shot into the home of college professors helping the movement in Jackson. A civil rights worker traveling from Itta Bena to Jackson was shot in the neck and shoulder. A bomb destroyed a two-family home in Jackson. Whites in the North Carolina town of Goldsboro ran down demonstrators in a car and threw bottles and rocks. Whites in Pine Bluff, in Arkansas, attacked civil rights workers with ammonia and bottles. Someone shot into the home of an NAACP board member in Saint Augustine. When nine activists prayed in a country courthouse in Somerville, Tennessee, police allowed hoodlums into the building to beat them up."</ref> Many people wanted to march on Washington, but disagreed over how the march should be conducted. Some called for a complete shutdown of the city through [[civil disobedience]]. Others argued that the civil rights movement should remain nationwide in scope, rather than focus its energies on the nation's capital and federal government.<ref>Euchner, ''Nobody Turn Me Around'' (2010), p. 2.</ref> There was a widespread perception that the [[Presidency of John F. Kennedy|Kennedy administration]] had not lived up to its promises in the 1960 election, and King described Kennedy's race policy as "tokenism".<ref name=Bartlett />

On May 24, 1963, Attorney General [[Robert F. Kennedy]] invited African-American novelist [[James Baldwin]], along with a large group of cultural leaders, to a meeting in New York to discuss race relations. However, the meeting became antagonistic, as black delegates felt that Kennedy did not have an adequate understanding of the race problem in the nation. The public failure of the meeting, which came to be known as the [[Baldwin–Kennedy meeting]], underscored the divide between the needs of Black America and the understanding of Washington politicians. But the meeting also provoked the [[Presidency of John F. Kennedy|Kennedy administration]] to take action on the civil rights of African Americans.<ref>Euchner, ''Nobody Turn Me Around'' (2010), pp. 120–121. "In the TV interview, Baldwin was ashen, disoriented. He had had no idea, before now, just how aloof the Kennedys appeared. He thought the administration's caution came from ruthless political calculation. But now it seemed that the pampered sons of old Joe Kennedy just had no idea—''no understanding at all''—about race in America. The secret meeting was immediately leaked to the press. Within weeks, the velocity of the civil rights movement would lead President [[John F. Kennedy]] to give the most aggressive presidential address in history on race, which was quickly followed with the most comprehensive legislation in modern history.</ref> On June 11, 1963, President Kennedy gave a notable [[Civil Rights Address|civil rights address]] on national television and radio, announcing that he would begin to push for civil rights legislation. That night (early morning of June 12, 1963), Mississippi activist [[Medgar Evers]] was murdered in his own driveway, further escalating national tension around the issue of [[racial inequality in the United States|racial inequality]].<ref>Bass, ''Like a Mighty Stream'' (2002), pp. 67–69.</ref> After Kennedy's [[Assassination of John F. Kennedy|assassination]], his proposal was signed into law by President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] as the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]].

== Planning and organization ==
[[A. Philip Randolph]] and [[Bayard Rustin]] began planning the march in December 1961. They envisioned two days of protest, including sit-ins and lobbying followed by a mass rally at the Lincoln Memorial. They wanted to focus on joblessness and to call for a public works program that would employ black people. In early 1963 they called publicly for "a massive March on Washington for jobs".<ref>Barber, ''Marching on Washington'' (2002), p. 144. {{ISBN?}}</ref> They received help from [[Stanley Aronowitz]] of the [[Amalgamated Clothing Workers]]; he gathered support from radical organizers who could be trusted not to report their plans to the Kennedy administration. The unionists offered tentative support for a march that would be focused on jobs.<ref>Euchner, ''Nobody Turn Me Around'' (2010), p. 17. "By going to the old Communists and socialists, Arnowitz later recalled, Rustin hoped to 'outflank Kennedy's labor connections' and King's moderate, nonviolent SCLC. If Rustin went to Kennedy's backers, they would report to the president. Later, in fact, when United Auto Workers joined the march effort, UAW people fed inside intelligence to the White House. In the earliest planning stages, in 1962, it was better to steer clear of Kennedy's financial and political network."</ref>

On May 15, 1963, without securing the cooperation of the NAACP or the Urban League, Randolph announced an "October Emancipation March on Washington for Jobs".<ref>Euchner, ''Nobody Turn Me Around'' (2010), p. 20.</ref> He reached out to union leaders, winning the support of the UAW's [[Walter Reuther]], but not of [[AFL–CIO]] president [[George Meany]].<ref name=Euchner21>Euchner, ''Nobody Turn Me Around'' (2010), p. 21.</ref> Randolph and Rustin intended to focus the March on [[economic inequality]], stating in their original plan that "integration in the fields of education, housing, transportation and public accommodations will be of limited extent and duration so long as fundamental economic inequality along racial lines persists."<ref>[[David J. Garrow]], "[https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/18/books/review/the-march-on-washington-by-william-p-jones.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 The Long March 'The March on Washington,' by William P. Jones]"; ''New York Times'', 15 August 2013.</ref> As they negotiated with other leaders, they expanded their stated objectives to "Jobs and Freedom", to acknowledge the agenda of groups that focused more on civil rights.<ref name=JonesDissent />
[[File:Photograph_of_White_House_Meeting_with_Civil_Rights_Leaders._June_22,_1963_-_NARA_-_194190_(no_border).tif|thumb|350x350px|Leaders of the March on Washington meeting with Vice President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] and Attorney General [[Robert F. Kennedy]] at the White House on June 22, 1963.|alt=]]
In June 1963, leaders from several different organizations formed the [[Council for United Civil Rights Leadership]], an umbrella group to coordinate funds and messaging.<ref>Garrow, ''Bearing the Cross'' (1986), pp. 269–270.</ref> This coalition of leaders, who became known as the "[[Big Six (activists)|Big Six]]", included: Randolph, chosen as titular head of the march; [[James Farmer]], president of the [[Congress of Racial Equality]]; [[John Lewis]], chairman of the [[Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee]]; Dr. [[Martin Luther King Jr.]], president of the [[Southern Christian Leadership Conference]];<ref name="WDL" /> [[Roy Wilkins]], president of the [[National Association for the Advancement of Colored People|NAACP]];<ref name="WDL" /> and [[Whitney Young]], president of the [[National Urban League]]. King in particular had become well known for his role in the [[Birmingham campaign]] and for his [[Letter from Birmingham Jail]].<ref>Bass, ''Like a Mighty Stream'' (2002), pp. 66–67.</ref> Wilkins and Young initially objected to Rustin as a leader for the march, worried that he would attract the wrong attention because he was a homosexual, a former Communist, and a draft resister.<ref name="Euchner21" /> They eventually accepted Rustin as deputy organizer, on the condition that Randolph act as lead organizer and manage any political fallout.<ref>Euchner, ''Nobody Turn Me Around'' (2010), p. 22. "That plan—the elder statesman as director, the controversial organizer as the details man—broke the tension. Randolph got his deputy, but Wilkins warned Randolph that he was responsible for any controversy. He had to take the heat. And he had to control his protogé."</ref>

About two months before the march, the Big Six broadened their organizing coalition by bringing on board four white men who supported their efforts: [[Walter Reuther]], president of the [[United Automobile Workers]]; [[Eugene Carson Blake]], former president of the [[National Council of Churches]]; [[Mathew Ahmann]], executive director of the National Catholic Conference for Interracial Justice; and [[Joachim Prinz]], president of the [[American Jewish Congress]]. Together, the Big Six plus four became known as the "Big Ten."<ref>{{Cite book |title=Nobody turn me around : a people's history of the 1963 march on Washington |last=C. |first=Euchner, Charles |date=2010 |publisher=Beacon Press |isbn=978-0807001554 |location=Boston |oclc=441152928}}</ref><ref name="Thompson">{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/in-march-on-washington-white-activists-were-largely-overlooked-but-strategically-essential/2013/08/25/f2738c2a-eb27-11e2-8023-b7f07811d98e_story.html |title=In March on Washington, white activists were largely overlooked but strategically essential |last=Thompson |first=Krissah |date=2013-08-25 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=2018-03-20 |language=en-US |issn=0190-8286}}</ref> John Lewis later recalled, "Somehow, some way, we worked well together. The six of us, plus the four. We became like brothers."<ref name="Thompson"/>

On June 22, the organizers met with President Kennedy, who warned against creating "an atmosphere of intimidation" by bringing a large crowd to Washington. The civil rights activists insisted on holding the march. Wilkins pushed for the organizers to rule out [[civil disobedience]] and described this proposal as the "perfect compromise". King and Young agreed. Leaders from the [[Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee]] (SNCC) and [[Congress of Racial Equality]] (CORE), who wanted to conduct direct actions against the Department of Justice, endorsed the protest before they were informed that civil disobedience would not be allowed. Finalized plans for the March were announced in a press conference on July 2.<ref>Barber, ''Marching on Washington'' (2002), pp. 147–148.</ref> President Kennedy spoke favorably of the March on July 17, saying that organizers planned a peaceful assembly and had cooperated with the Washington, D.C., police.<ref>Barber, ''Marching on Washington'' (2002), p. 149.</ref>[[File:Civil Rights March on Washington, D.C. (Leaders of the march posing in front of the statue of Abraham Lincoln... - NARA - 542063 (cropped).jpg|thumb|350x350px|Leaders of the march in front of the statue of Abraham Lincoln: (sitting L-R) [[Whitney Young]], [[Cleveland Robinson]], [[A. Philip Randolph]], [[Martin Luther King Jr.]], and [[Roy Wilkins]]; (standing L-R) [[Mathew Ahmann]], [[Joachim Prinz]], [[John Lewis]], [[Eugene Carson Blake]], [[Floyd McKissick]], and [[Walter Reuther]]]]
Mobilization and logistics were administered by Rustin, a civil rights veteran and organizer of the 1947 [[Journey of Reconciliation]], the first of the [[Freedom Rides]] to test the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] ruling that banned [[racial discrimination]] in interstate travel. Rustin was a long-time associate of both Randolph and Dr. King. With Randolph concentrating on building the march's political coalition, Rustin built and led the team of two hundred activists and organizers who publicized the march and recruited the marchers, coordinated the buses and trains, provided the marshals, and set up and administered all of the logistic details of a mass march in the nation's capital.{{sfn|Branch|1988|p=872}} During the days leading up to the march, these 200 volunteers used the ballroom of Washington DC radio station [[WUST]] as their operations headquarters.<ref>Euchner, Charles, ''"Nobody Turn Me Around": A People's History of the 1963 March on Washington'', 2010.</ref>

The march was not universally supported among civil rights activists. Some, including Rustin (who assembled 4,000 volunteer marshals from New York), were concerned that it might turn violent, which could undermine pending legislation and damage the international image of the movement.{{sfn|Branch|1988|p=871}} The march was condemned by [[Malcolm X]], spokesperson for the [[Nation of Islam]], who termed it the "farce on Washington".{{sfn|Branch|1988|p=874}}

March organizers disagreed about the purpose of the march. The NAACP and Urban League saw it as a gesture of support for the civil rights bill that had been introduced by the [[John F. Kennedy|Kennedy]] Administration. Randolph, King, and the [[Southern Christian Leadership Conference]] (SCLC) believed it could raise both civil rights and economic issues to national attention beyond the Kennedy bill. CORE and SNCC believed the march could challenge and condemn the Kennedy administration's inaction and lack of support for civil rights for African Americans.<ref name="Veterans">{{Cite web |title=March on Washington for Jobs & Freedom |url=http://www.crmvet.org/tim/tim63b.htm#1963mow |publisher=Veterans of the Civil Rights Movement}}</ref>

Despite their disagreements, the group came together on a set of goals:

*Passage of meaningful civil rights legislation;
*Immediate elimination of [[school segregation in the United States|school segregation]] (the Supreme Court had ruled that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional in 1954, in ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'');
*A program of public works, including job training, for the unemployed;
*A Federal [[anti-discrimination law|law prohibiting discrimination]] in public or private hiring;
*A $2-an-hour [[minimum wage]] nationwide ({{Inflation|US|2|1963|r=0|fmt=eq}});
*Withholding Federal funds from programs that tolerate discrimination;
*Enforcement of the 14th Amendment to the Constitution by reducing congressional representation from States that disenfranchise citizens;
*A Fair Labor Standards Act broadened to include employment areas then excluded;
*Authority for the Attorney General to institute injunctive suits when constitutional rights of citizens are violated.<ref name="Federal Highway Administration">{{cite web |url=http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/highwayhistory/road/s33.cfm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522170609/http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/highwayhistory/road/s33.cfm |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 22, 2011 |title=Getting to the March on Washington, August 28, 1963 – The Road to Civil Rights – Highway History – FHWA<!-- Bot generated title -->}}</ref>

Although in years past, Randolph had supported "Negro only" marches, partly to reduce the impression that the civil rights movement was dominated by white communists, organizers in 1963 agreed that white and black people marching side by side would create a more powerful image.<ref>Barber, ''Marching on Washington'' (2002), pp. 156–157.</ref>

The Kennedy Administration cooperated with the organizers in planning the March, and one member of the Justice Department was assigned as a full-time liaison.<ref name=Barber151>Barber, ''Marching on Washington'' (2002), p. 151.</ref> Chicago and New York City (as well as some corporations) agreed to designate August 28 as "Freedom Day" and give workers the day off.<ref name=Barber156 />

To avoid being perceived as radical, organizers rejected support from Communist groups. However, some politicians claimed that the March was Communist-inspired, and the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] (FBI) produced numerous reports suggesting the same.<ref>Barber, ''Marching on Washington'' (2002), p. 159.</ref><ref>Garrow, ''Bearing the Cross'' (1986), p. 278. "Throughout the mid-July Senate hearings on the civil rights bill, segregationist spokesmen such as Mississippi Governor Ross Barnett repeatedly made wild accusations that the civil rights movement was a Communist conspiracy, allegations that were reported under headlines such as BARNETT CHARGES KENNEDYS ASSIST RED RACIAL PLOT. Several senators asked the FBI and Justice Department to respond to these claims, and on July 25, Attorney General [[Robert F. Kennedy]] released a carefully worded statement to the effect that no civil rights leaders were 'Communists or Communist-controlled'. That same day, the ''Atlanta Constitution'', aided by another FBI leak, revealed that Jack O'Dell had continued to frequent SCLC's New York office even after his 'permanent' resignation four weeks earlier."</ref> In the days before August 28, the FBI called celebrity backers to inform them of the organizers' communist connections and advising them to withdraw their support.<ref>Euchner, ''Nobody Turn Me Around'' (2010), p. 57. "The FBI attempted to exploit fears about violence and Communist infiltration of the civil rights movement—fears that were partly the result of J. Edgar Hoover's long campaign against the movement. FBI agents made last minute-calls to celebrities. ''Do you know,'' the agents asked, ''that many of the march's leaders are Communists? Do you know that Communists and other leftists could create chaos at the march? Do you know that it's not too late to pull out of the march? Stay away!''"</ref> When [[William C. Sullivan]] produced a lengthy report on August 23 suggesting that Communists had failed to appreciably infiltrate the civil rights movement, FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]] rejected its contents.<ref>Euchner, ''Nobody Turn Me Around'' (2010), pp. 57–58.</ref> [[Strom Thurmond]] launched a prominent public attack on the March as Communist, and singled out Rustin in particular as a Communist and a gay man.<ref>Euchner, ''Nobody Turn Me Around'' (2010), p. 116.</ref>

Organizers worked out of a building at West 130th St. and Lenox in [[Harlem]].<ref>Euchner, ''Nobody Turn Me Around'' (2010), p. 71.</ref> They promoted the march by selling buttons, featuring two hands shaking, the words "March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom", a union bug, and the date August 28, 1963. By August 2, they had distributed 42,000 of the buttons. Their goal was a crowd of at least 100,000 people.<ref name=Barber156>Barber, ''Marching on Washington'' (2002), p. 156.</ref>

As the march was being planned, activists across the country received bomb threats at their homes and in their offices. The ''Los Angeles Times'' received a message saying its headquarters would be bombed unless it printed a message calling the president a "Nigger Lover". Five airplanes were grounded on the morning of August 28 due to bomb threats. A man in Kansas City telephoned the FBI to say he would put a hole between King's eyes; the FBI did not respond. Roy Wilkins was threatened with assassination if he did not leave the country.<ref>Euchner, ''Nobody Turn Me Around'' (2010), pp. 63–65.</ref>

==Convergence==
Thousands traveled by road, rail, and air to Washington, D.C., on Wednesday, August 28. Marchers from Boston traveled overnight and arrived in Washington at 7am after an eight-hour trip, but others took much longer bus rides from cities such as Milwaukee, Little Rock, and St. Louis. Organizers persuaded New York's MTA to run extra subway trains after midnight on August 28, and the New York City bus terminal was busy throughout the night with peak crowds.<ref>Euchner, ''Nobody Turn Me Around'' (2010), p. 73.</ref> A total of 450 buses left New York City from Harlem. Maryland police reported that "by 8:00 a.m., 100 buses an hour were streaming through the Baltimore Harbor Tunnel."<ref>Barber, ''Marching on Washington'' (2002), p. 161.</ref> The United Automobile Workers financed bus transportation for 5,000 of its rank-and-file members, providing the largest single contingent from any organization.<ref>{{Cite book |title=American vanguard : the United Auto Workers during the Reuther years, 1935–1970 |author=Barnard, John |date=2004 |publisher=Wayne State University Press |isbn=978-0814332979 |location=Detroit |page=388 |oclc=52819692}}</ref>

One reporter, Fred Powledge, accompanied African Americans who boarded six buses in Birmingham, Alabama, for the 750-mile trip to Washington. ''[[The New York Times]]'' carried his report:
<blockquote>The 260 demonstrators, of all ages, carried picnic baskets, water jugs, Bibles and a major weapon—their willingness to march, sing and pray in protest against discrimination. They gathered early this morning [August 27] in Birmingham's [[Kelly Ingram Park]], where state troopers once [four months previous in May] used fire hoses and dogs to put down their demonstrations. It was peaceful in the Birmingham park as the marchers waited for the buses. The police, now part of a moderate city power structure, directed traffic around the square and did not interfere with the gathering ... An old man commented on the 20-hour ride, which was bound to be less than comfortable: "You forget we Negroes have been riding buses all our lives. We don't have the money to fly in airplanes."</blockquote>

John Marshall Kilimanjaro, a demonstrator traveling from [[Greensboro, North Carolina]], said:<ref>Bass, ''Like a Mighty Stream'' (2002), p. 81.</ref>
<blockquote>Contrary to the mythology, the early moments of the March—getting there—was no picnic. People were afraid. We didn't know what we would meet. There was no precedent. Sitting across from me was a black preacher with a white collar. He was an [[African Methodist Episcopal|AME]] preacher. We talked. Every now and then, people on the bus sang 'Oh Freedom' and 'We Shall Overcome,' but for the most part there wasn't a whole bunch of singing. We were secretly praying that nothing violent happened.</blockquote>

Other bus rides featured racial tension, as black activists criticized liberal white participants as fair-weather friends.<ref>Euchner, ''Nobody Turn Me Around'' (2010), p. 25.</ref>

Hazel Mangle Rivers, who had paid $8 for her ticket—"one-tenth of her husband's weekly salary"—was quoted in the August 29 ''New York Times''. Rivers said that she was impressed by Washington's civility:
<blockquote>The people are lots better up here than they are down South. They treat you much nicer. Why, when I was out there at the march a white man stepped on my foot, and he said, "Excuse me," and I said "Certainly!" That's the first time that has ever happened to me. I believe that was the first time a white person has ever really been nice to me.<ref name="Federal Highway Administration"/></blockquote>

Some participants who arrived early held an all-night vigil outside the [[United States Department of Justice|Department of Justice]], claiming it had unfairly targeted civil rights activists and that it had been too lenient on [[white supremacy|white supremacists]] who attacked them.<ref>Euchner, ''Nobody Turn Me Around'' (2010), pp. 43–44.</ref>

=== Security preparations ===
[[File:Civil Rights March on Washington, D.C. (Aerial view of Washington Monument showing marchers.) - NARA - 541997.tif|thumb|left|upright|Aerial view of Washington Monument showing marchers]]

The Washington, D.C., police forces were mobilized to full capacity for the march, including reserve officers and deputized firefighters. A total of 5,900 police officers were on duty.<ref>Bass, ''Like a Mighty Stream'' (2002), p. 24.</ref> The government mustered 2,000 men from the [[United States National Guard|National Guard]], and brought in 3,000 outside soldiers to join the 1,000 already stationed in the area.<ref>Barber, ''Marching on Washington'' (2002), p. 150. "In coordination with the Kennedy administration, the police department proposed to keep on duty all police officers on August 28 and to commission firefighters and the police reserve as temporary officers. In addition, they decided to mobilize 2,000 National Guardsmen preemptively. Likewise, the Kennedy administration planned to turn out every Capitol, White House, and Park Police officer and arranged to supplement the 1,000 soldiers in the area with 3,000 additional men."</ref> These additional soldiers were flown in on helicopters from bases in Virginia and North Carolina. The Pentagon readied 19,000 troops in the suburbs.<ref name="pillar">{{cite book |last=Branch |first=Taylor |date=1998 |title=Pillar of Fire: America in the King Years, 1963–65 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |page=[https://archive.org/details/pillaroffireamer00bran/page/132 132] |isbn=0-684-80819-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/pillaroffireamer00bran/page/132}}</ref> All of the forces involved were prepared to implement a coordinated conflict strategy named "Operation Steep Hill".<ref>Euchner, ''Nobody Turn Me Around'' (2010), p. 28. "The army's plan, in the event of a civil disturbance, was to roar 320 miles north into Andrews Air Force Base in Maryland and then send soldiers to the Mall by helicopter to battle the violence. The soldiers would break the mob into wedges, isolate and subdue the most violent elements, and protect the peaceable protestors. ... The soldiers at Fort Bragg were part of Operation Steep Hill, a joint battle plan of the White House, the Justice Department, the Pentagon, and the Washington Metropolitan Police."</ref>

For the first time since [[Prohibition in the United States|Prohibition]], liquor sales were banned in Washington D.C.<ref>Barber, ''Marching on Washington'' (2002), p. 160.</ref> Hospitals stockpiled blood plasma and cancelled elective surgeries.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.npr.org/2013/08/28/216411095/behind-march-on-washingtons-sunny-reputation-laid-deep-fear |title=Behind March On Washington's 'Sunny Reputation,' A Deep Fear |work=NPR.org}}</ref> Major League Baseball cancelled two games between the Minnesota Twins and the last place Washington Senators although the venue, D.C. Stadium, was nearly four miles from the Lincoln Memorial rally site.<ref name="pillar" />

Rustin and [[Walter Fauntroy]] negotiated some security issues with the government, gaining approval for private marshals with the understanding that these would not be able to act against outside agitators. The FBI and Justice Department refused to provide preventive guards for buses traveling through the South to reach D.C.<ref>Euchner, ''Nobody Turn Me Around'' (2010), pp. 60–62.</ref> William Johnson recruited more than 1,000 police officers to serve on this private force.<ref>Euchner, ''Nobody Turn Me Around'' (2010), p. 102.</ref> [[Julius Hobson]], an FBI informant who served on the March's security force, told the team to be on the lookout for FBI infiltrators who might act as [[agents provocateurs]].<ref>Euchner, ''Nobody Turn Me Around'' (2010), p. 101. "During that training, Julius Hobson emphasized the dangers posed by the FBI. Agent provocateurs would spread all over the Mall, looking for opportunities to start fights, Hobson said. The major task of the volunteer security guards, then, was to spot those agents and alert someone before any fights started. No one knew it at the time, but Hobson was a paid informant for the FBI.</ref> Jerry Bruno, President Kennedy's advance man, was positioned to cut the power to the public address system in the event of any incendiary rally speech.<ref name="pillar" />

=== Venue and sound system ===
The organizers originally planned to hold the march outside the [[United States Capitol|Capitol Building]].<ref name="David. 236">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/onceingreatcityd00mara/page/236 |title=Once in a great city : a Detroit story |last=Maraniss |first=David |author-link=David Maraniss |year=2015 |isbn=978-1476748399 |publisher= Simon & Schuster|location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/onceingreatcityd00mara/page/236 236] |oclc=894936463}}</ref> However, Reuther persuaded them to move the march to the [[Lincoln Memorial]].<ref name="David. 236"/> He believed the Lincoln Memorial would be less threatening to Congress and the occasion would be appropriate underneath the gaze of President Abraham Lincoln's statue.<ref name="David. 236"/> The committee, notably Rustin, agreed to move the site on the condition that Reuther pay for a $19,000 (equivalent to $172,500 in 2021) sound system so that everyone on the [[National Mall]] could hear the speakers and musicians.<ref name="David. 236"/>

Rustin pushed hard for the expensive sound system, maintaining that "We cannot maintain order where people cannot hear." The system was obtained and set up at the Lincoln Memorial, but was sabotaged on the day before the March. Its operators were unable to repair it. Fauntroy contacted Attorney General [[Robert F. Kennedy]] and his civil rights liaison [[Burke Marshall]], demanding that the government fix the system. Fauntroy reportedly told them: "We have a couple hundred thousand people coming. Do you want a fight here tomorrow after all we've done?" The system was successfully rebuilt overnight by the [[Signal Corps (United States Army)|U.S. Army Signal Corps]].<ref>Euchner, ''Nobody Turn Me Around'' (2010), pp. 8–9.</ref>

==March==
[[File:Civil Rights March on Washington, D.C. (Leaders marching from the Washington Monument to the Lincoln Memorial) - NARA - 542010.jpg|thumb|Close up of some leaders of the March on Washington walking along Constitution Avenue.]]
[[File:March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, Martin Luther King, Jr. and Joachim Prinz 1963.jpg|thumbnail|Leaders arrived late and linked arms in front of marchers on Constitution Avenue.]]
The march commanded national attention by preempting regularly scheduled television programs. As the first ceremony of such magnitude ever initiated and dominated by African Americans, the march also was the first to have its nature wholly misperceived in advance. Dominant expectations ran from paternal apprehension to dread. On ''[[Meet the Press]]'', reporters grilled Roy Wilkins and Martin Luther King Jr. about widespread foreboding that "it would be impossible to bring more than 100,000 militant Negroes into Washington without incidents and possibly rioting." [[Life magazine|''Life'' magazine]] declared that the capital was suffering "its worst case of invasion jitters since the [[First Battle of Bull Run]]." The jails shifted inmates to other prisons to make room for those arrested in [[mass arrest]]. With nearly 1,700 extra correspondents supplementing the Washington press corps, the march drew a media assembly larger than the Kennedy inauguration two years earlier.<ref name="Federal Highway Administration"/> Students from the [[University of California, Berkeley]] came together as black power organizations and emphasized the importance of the African-American freedom struggle. The march included black political parties; and William Worthy was one of many who led college students during the freedom struggle era.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Deborah Gray White |author1-link=Deborah Gray White |author2=Mia Bay |author2-link=Mia Bay |author3=Waldo E. Martin Jr |author3-link=Waldo Martin |title=Freedom on my Mind: African Americans and the New Century, 2000 – Present |date=2013 |publisher=Bedford, Boston/ St.Martin's |location=New York |page=667}}</ref>

[[File:Civil Rights March on Washington, D.C. (Faces of marchers.) - NARA - 542070.tif|thumb|Nearly 250,000 people marched, including 60,000 white participants]]
On August 28, more than 2,000 [[bus]]es, 21 chartered [[train]]s, 10 chartered airliners, and uncounted cars converged on Washington.{{sfn|Branch|1988|p=876}} All regularly scheduled planes, trains, and buses were also filled to capacity.<ref name="Federal Highway Administration"/>

Although Randolph and Rustin had originally planned to fill the streets of Washington, D.C., the final route of the March covered only half of the National Mall.<ref name=Barber151 /> The march began at the [[Washington Monument]] and was scheduled to progress to the [[Lincoln Memorial]]. Demonstrators were met at the monument by the speakers and musicians. Women leaders were asked to march down Independence Avenue, while the male leaders marched on Pennsylvania Avenue with the media.<ref name="wwno.org">{{cite web |url=http://wwno.org/post/women-were-second-class-citizens-63-march |title=Women Were 'Second Class Citizens At '63 March' |date=28 August 2013}}</ref>

The start of the March was delayed because its leaders were meeting with members of [[United States Congress|Congress]]. To the leaders' surprise, the assembled group began to march from the [[Washington Monument]] to the [[Lincoln Memorial]] without them. The leaders met the March at Constitution Avenue, where they linked arms at the head of a crowd in order to be photographed 'leading the march'.<ref>Barber, ''Marching on Washington'' (2002), p. 165. "In the midst of one of these meetings, the leaders were disturbed to learn the marchers had begun their spontaneous march. Breaking off their meeting, they rushed to Constitution Avenue, already filled with marchers. There, anxious aides cleared a space so the ten leaders could link arms as though they were at the head of the crowd. Then the photographers and filmmakers shot pictures of the leaders 'leading the march' (fig. 25)."</ref>

Marchers were not supposed to create their own signs, though this rule was not completely enforced by marshals. Most of the demonstrators did carry pre-made signs, available in piles at the Washington Monument.<ref>Barber, ''Marching on Washington'' (2002), p. 164. {{ISBN?}}</ref> The UAW provided thousands of signs that, among other things, read: "There Is No Halfway House on the Road to Freedom,"<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.colorlines.com/articles/1963-march-washington-photos |title=The 1963 March on Washington in Photos |last=cl_admin |date=2013-08-23 |work=Colorlines |access-date=2018-03-19 |language=en}}</ref> "Equal Rights and Jobs NOW,"<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://newrepublic.com/article/114408/march-washington-50th-anniversary-walter-reuthers-speech |title=The White Man Whose 'March on Washington' Speech You Should Remember Too |magazine=[[The New Republic]] |access-date=2018-03-19 |language=en-US}}</ref> "UAW Supports Freedom March,"<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://americanhistory.si.edu/changing-america-emancipation-proclamation-1863-and-march-washington-1963/1963/march-washington |title=March on Washington |website=National Museum of American History |date=17 December 2012 |language=en |access-date=2018-03-19}}</ref> "in Freedom we are Born, in Freedom we must Live,"<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.msnbc.com/melissa-harris-perry/how-womens-voices-were-excluded-the |title=How women's voices were excluded from the March |work=[[MSNBC]] |access-date=2018-03-19}}</ref> and "Before we'll be a Slave, we'll be Buried in our Grave."<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1021080.pdf |title=The Move to Unity, Labor's Role in the March on Washington |page=39}}</ref>

About 50 members of the [[American Nazi Party]] staged a counter-protest and were quickly dispersed by police.<ref>Barber, ''Marching on Washington'' (2002), p. 162.</ref>{{sfn|Euchner|2010|p=136}} One member, the second in command [[Karl Allen]], was arrested after attempting to give a speech.{{sfn|Euchner|2010|pp=136–137}} The rest of Washington was quiet during the March. Most non-participating workers stayed home. Jailers allowed inmates to watch the March on TV.<ref>Euchner, ''Nobody Turn Me Around'' (2010), pp. 130–131.</ref> 

== Speakers ==
{{External media | width = 210px | float = right | audio1 = [http://openvault.wgbh.org/collections/march_on_washington/ern-coverage March on Washington, 15 hours of radio coverage], 8/28/1963, Educational Radio Network<ref name="ern">{{cite web |title=Special Collections, March on Washington, Parts 1-17 |work=Open Vault |publisher=at [[WGBH Educational Foundation|WGBH]] |date=August 28, 1963 |url=http://openvault.wgbh.org/collections/march_on_washington/ern-coverage |access-date=September 15, 2016}}</ref>
|audio2=[http://openvault.wgbh.org/catalog/A_76C3B93B557D4976A032C27C72ACED18#at_89.00_s Dr. King's speech begins at 1:30], 8/28/1963, Educational Radio Network<ref name="ern2">{{cite web |title=Special Collections, March on Washington, Part 17 |work=Open Vault |publisher=at [[WGBH Educational Foundation|WGBH]] |date=August 28, 1963 |url=http://openvault.wgbh.org/catalog/A_76C3B93B557D4976A032C27C72ACED18#at_90.041_s |access-date=September 15, 2016}}</ref>
 }}
Representatives from each of the sponsoring organizations addressed the crowd from the podium at the Lincoln Memorial. Speakers (dubbed "The Big Ten") included The Big Six; three religious leaders (Catholic, Protestant, and Jewish); and labor leader [[Walter Reuther]]. None of the official speeches was by a woman. Dancer and actress [[Josephine Baker]] gave a speech during the preliminary offerings, but women were limited in the official program to a "tribute" led by [[Bayard Rustin]], at which [[Daisy Bates (civil rights activist)|Daisy Bates]] also spoke briefly (see "excluded speakers" below.)

[[Floyd McKissick]] read [[James Farmer]]'s speech because Farmer had been arrested during a protest in [[Louisiana]]; Farmer wrote that the protests would not stop "until the dogs stop biting us in the [[Southern United States|South]] and the rats stop biting us in the [[Northern United States|North]]."<ref>{{Cite book |title=Current biography yearbook |year=1965 |publisher=H. W. Wilson Company |page=121}}</ref>

The order of the speakers was as follows:
*1. [[A. Philip Randolph]] – March Director
*2. [[Daisy Bates (activist)|Daisy Bates]] – Little Rock, Arkansas
*3. Dr. [[Eugene Carson Blake]] – United Presbyterian Church and the National Council of Churches
*4. [[John Lewis]] – Chair, [[Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee|SNCC]]
*5. [[Walter Reuther]] – [[United Automobile Workers|UAW]], [[AFL–CIO]]
*6. [[Floyd McKissick]] – CORE
*7. Rabbi Uri Miller -- President of the Synagogue Council of America
*8. [[Whitney Young]] – National Urban League
*9. [[Mathew Ahmann]] - NCCIJ{{Citation needed|reason=Ahmann was on the program, but doesn't show up in the recording or transcript from the Educational Radio Network, posted on the WBGH archive at https://openvault.wgbh.org/catalog/A_CB387942466C46F6BAE6528BAFD53055|date=January 2024}}
*10. [[Roy Wilkins]] – NAACP
*11. Rabbi [[Joachim Prinz]] – American Jewish Congress
*12. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. – SCLC. His "I Have a Dream" speech has become celebrated for its vision and eloquence.
Closing remarks were made by A. Philip Randolph and Bayard Rustin, March Organizers, leading with The Pledge and a list of demands.<ref>{{cite web |author=William P. Jones |url=https://archive.org/details/CSPAN2_20160219_070600_Book_Discussion_on_The_March_on_Washington/start/2305/end/2365?q=ethan+lewis |publisher=[[C-SPAN 2]] |date=February 19, 2016 |title=Book Discussion on The March on Washington |access-date=July 31, 2020}}</ref>

=== Official program ===
[[File:March-on-washington-jobs-freedom-program.jpg|thumb|March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom program]]
The actual order of events differed slightly from the official printed program.<ref>{{Cite web |title=March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom; Part 6 of 17|url=https://openvault.wgbh.org/catalog/A_CB387942466C46F6BAE6528BAFD53055 |website=WGBH.org |access-date=2024-01-15}}</ref> Noted singer [[Marian Anderson]] was scheduled to lead the [[national anthem]] but was unable to arrive on time; [[Camilla Williams]] performed in her place. [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Washington|Washington's Roman Catholic Archbishop]] [[Patrick O'Boyle (American bishop)|Patrick O'Boyle]] delivered the invocation.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Matthews |first=David |date=August 28, 2013 |title=Kennedy White House had jitters ahead of 1963 March on Washington |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2013/08/28/politics/march-on-washington-kennedy-jitters/index.html |website=CNN.com |access-date=2020-07-29}}</ref>

The opening remarks were given by march director [[A. Philip Randolph]], followed by a tribute to "Negro Women Fighters for Freedom", in which [[Daisy Bates (civil rights activist)|Daisy Bates]] spoke briefly in place of [[Myrlie Evers]], who had missed her flight.<ref name="alternet.org">{{cite web |url=https://www.alternet.org/activism/civil-rights-leader-gloria-richardson-reflects-1963-march-washington |title=Civil Rights Leader Gloria Richardson Reflects on the 1963 March on Washington |first=Amy |last=Goodman |date=28 August 2013 |via=AlterNet}}</ref><ref name="motherjones.com">{{cite web |url=https://www.motherjones.com/slideshows/2013/08/50th-anniversary-march-washington/protestors-march-washington-1 |title=Photos: The Women of the March on Washington}}</ref><ref name="cnn.com">{{cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/08/28/us/mlk-i-have-a-dream-9-things/index.html |publisher=[[CNN]] |title=9 things about Martin Luther King Jr.'s speech, March on Washington |date=August 28, 2013}}</ref> The tribute introduced [[Daisy Bates (civil rights activist)|Daisy Bates]], [[Diane Nash]], [[Prince E. Lee]], [[Rosa Parks]], and [[Gloria Richardson]].

Following that, speakers were Presbyterian Church leader [[Eugene Carson Blake]], SNCC chairman [[John Lewis]], labor leader [[Walter Reuther]], and CORE chairman [[Floyd McKissick]] (substituting for arrested CORE director [[James Farmer]]). The Eva Jessye Choir sang, and Rabbi Uri Miller (president of the Synagogue Council of America) offered a prayer. He was followed by National Urban League director [[Whitney Young]], NCCIJ director [[Mathew Ahmann]],{{Citation needed|reason=Ahmann was on the program, but doesn't show up in the recording or transcript from the Educational Radio Network, posted on the WBGH archive at https://openvault.wgbh.org/catalog/A_CB387942466C46F6BAE6528BAFD53055|date=January 2024}} and NAACP leader [[Roy Wilkins]]. After a performance by singer [[Mahalia Jackson]], American Jewish Congress president [[Joachim Prinz]] spoke, followed by SCLC president Dr. [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] Rustin read the March's official demands for the crowd's approval, and Randolph led the crowd in a pledge to continue working for the March's goals. The program was closed with a benediction by Morehouse College president [[Benjamin Mays]].

Although one of the officially stated purposes of the march was to support the civil rights bill introduced by the Kennedy Administration, several of the speakers criticized the proposed law as insufficient. Two government agents stood by in a position to cut power to the microphone if necessary.<ref>Garrow, ''Bearing the Cross'' (1986), p. 283. "Two Kennedy aides stood ready to 'pull the plug' on the public address system in case anything went amiss."</ref>

=== Roy Wilkins ===
Roy Wilkins announced that sociologist and activist [[W. E. B. Du Bois]] had died in [[Ghana]] the previous night, where he had been living in exile; the crowd observed a moment of silence in his memory.<ref>Bass, ''Like a Mighty Stream'' (2002), p. 122.</ref> Wilkins had initially refused to announce the news because he despised Du Bois for becoming a Communist—but insisted on making the announcement when he realized that Randolph would make it if he did not.<ref>Euchner, ''Nobody Turn Me Around'' (2010), pp. 180–181.</ref> Wilkins said: "Regardless of the fact that in his later years Dr. Du Bois chose another path, it is incontrovertible that at the dawn of the twentieth century his was the voice that was calling you to gather here today in this cause. If you want to read something that applies to 1963 go back and get a volume of ''[[The Souls of Black Folk]]'' by Du Bois, published in 1903."<ref>Euchner, ''Nobody Turn Me Around'' (2010), p. 183.</ref>

=== John Lewis ===
[[John Lewis]] of SNCC was the youngest speaker at the event.<ref name="Doak2007">{{cite book |last=Doak |first=Robin Santos |title=The March on Washington: Uniting Against Racism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u21qOtAdIWQC&pg=PA69 |access-date=20 May 2013 |year=2007 |publisher=Capstone |isbn=978-0-7565-3339-7 |page=69}}</ref> He planned to criticize the [[Kennedy Administration]] for the inadequacies of the Civil Rights Act of 1963. Other leaders insisted that the speech be changed to be less antagonistic to the government. [[James Forman]] and other SNCC activists contributed to the revision. It still complained that the Administration had not done enough to protect southern black people and civil rights workers from physical violence by whites in the Deep South.{{sfn|Branch|1988|p=874}}<ref>[http://www.crmvet.org/info/mowjl2.htm Full Text of John Lewis' Speech] ~ Civil Rights Movement Archive</ref> Deleted from his original speech at the insistence of more conservative and pro-Kennedy leaders<ref name="Veterans" /><ref>{{Cite book |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |isbn=0-15-600708-8 |last=Lewis |first=John |author2=Michael D'Orso |title=Walking With the Wind: A Memoir of the Movement |year=1998 |url=https://archive.org/details/walkingwithwinda00lewi}}</ref> were phrases such as:[[File:John Lewis looking up while speaking in the Great Hall of the Libary of Congress on the 50th anniversary of the March on Washington 2013.jpg|200px|thumb|right|John Lewis speaking in the [[Thomas Jefferson Building|Great Hall]] of the [[Library of Congress]] on the 50th anniversary, August 28, 2013]]
{{Blockquote|In good conscience, we cannot support wholeheartedly the administration's civil rights bill, for it is too little and too late. ...

I want to know, which side is the federal government on? ...

The revolution is a serious one. Mr. Kennedy is trying to take the revolution out of the streets and put it into the courts. Listen, Mr. Kennedy. Listen, Mr. Congressman. Listen, fellow citizens. The black masses are on the march for jobs and freedom, and we must say to the politicians that there won't be a "cooling-off" period.

... We will march through the South, through the heart of Dixie, the way [[William Tecumseh Sherman|Sherman]] did. We shall pursue our own [[scorched earth]] policy and burn Jim Crow to the ground—nonviolently ...}}

Lewis' speech was distributed to fellow organizers the evening before the march; Reuther, O'Boyle, and others thought it was too divisive and militant.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/march-washington-jobs-and-freedom |title=March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom |website=kinginstitute.stanford.edu |date=6 July 2017 |access-date=2019-12-03}}</ref> O'Boyle objected most strenuously to a part of the speech that called for immediate action and disavowed "patience." The government and moderate organizers could not countenance Lewis's explicit opposition to Kennedy's civil rights bill. That night, O'Boyle and other members of the Catholic delegation began preparing a statement announcing their withdrawal from the March. Reuther convinced them to wait and called Rustin; Rustin informed Lewis at 2 A.M. on the day of the march that his speech was unacceptable to key coalition members. (Rustin also reportedly contacted [[Tom Kahn]], who had edited the speech and inserted the line about [[Sherman's March to the Sea]]. Rustin asked, "How could you do this? Do you know what Sherman ''did''?) But Lewis did not want to change the speech. Other members of SNCC, including [[Stokely Carmichael]], were also adamant that the speech not be censored.<ref>Euchner, ''Nobody Turn Me Around'' (2010), pp. 45–49.</ref> The dispute continued until minutes before the speeches were scheduled to begin. Under threat of public denouncement by the religious leaders, and under pressure from the rest of his coalition, Lewis agreed to omit the 'inflammatory' passages.<ref>Garrow, ''Bearing the Cross'' (1986), pp. 282–283. "With the program only minutes away, the leadership arrived at the Lincoln Memorial with the controversy over Lewis's text still unresolved. Rustin promised O'Boyle that the necessary changes would be made, and the cardinal agreed to appear on the platform and deliver the invocation, so long as he was handed a copy of the revised Lewis text at least ten minutes before the SNCC chairman's appearance. O'Boyle told Rustin that if it were unsatisfactory, or if Lewis delivered the original draft, he and other religious leaders would get up and leave."</ref> Many activists from SNCC, CORE, and SCLC were angry at what they considered censorship of Lewis's speech.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Carson |first=Clayborne |title=In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s |url=https://archive.org/details/instrugglesnccbl00cars_1 |url-access=registration |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1981 |isbn=978-0-674-44726-4}}</ref> In the end, Lewis added a qualified endorsement of Kennedy's civil rights legislation, saying: "It is true that we support the administration's Civil Rights Bill. We support it with great reservation, however."<ref name="JonesDissent" /> Even after toning down his speech, Lewis called for activists to "get in and stay in the streets of every city, every village and hamlet of this nation until true freedom comes".<ref>Barber, ''Marching on Washington'' (2002), pp. 169–170.</ref>
[[File:Martin Luther King Jr National Historic Site (36233249121).jpg|thumb|[[Martin Luther King Jr.]] waving his hand to the crowd after delivering his "[[I Have a Dream]]" speech]]

=== Martin Luther King Jr. ===
{{Main|I Have a Dream}}
The speech given by SCLC president King, who spoke last, became known as the "[[I Have a Dream]]" speech, which was carried live by TV stations and subsequently considered the most impressive moment of the march.<ref>Hansen, D. ''The Dream: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Speech that Inspired a Nation'' (2003) p. 177</ref> In it, King called for an end to legalized [[racism in the United States]]. It invoked the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]], the [[Emancipation Proclamation]], and the [[United States Constitution]]. At the end of the speech, [[Mahalia Jackson]] shouted from the crowd, "Tell them about the dream, Martin!", and King departed from his prepared text for a partly improvised [[peroration]] on the theme of "I have a dream".<ref name="tolerance.org">{{cite web |url=http://www.tolerance.org/blog/ten-things-know-about-march-Washington |title=Ten Things to Know About the March on Washington |date=28 August 2012}}</ref><ref>See Taylor Branch, Parting the Waters: ''[[America in the King Years]] 1954–1963''.</ref> Over time it has been hailed as a masterpiece of rhetoric, added to the [[National Recording Registry]] and memorialized by the [[National Park Service]] with an inscription on the spot where King stood to deliver the speech.

=== Randolph and Rustin ===
A. Philip Randolph spoke first, promising: "we shall return again and again to Washington in ever growing numbers until total freedom is ours."<ref>Bass, ''Like a Mighty Stream'' (2002), p. 126.</ref> Randolph also closed the event along with Bayard Rustin. Rustin followed King's speech by slowly reading the list of demands.<ref>Garrow, ''Bearing the Cross'' (1986), p. 284.</ref> The two concluded by urging attendees to take various actions in support of the struggle.<ref>Barber, ''Marching on Washington'' (2002), p. 171.</ref>

=== Walter Reuther ===
Walter Reuther urged Americans to pressure their politicians to act to address racial injustices. He said,
<blockquote>American democracy is on trial in the eyes of the world ... We cannot successfully preach democracy in the world unless we first practice democracy at home. American democracy will lack the moral credentials and be both unequal to and unworthy of leading the forces of freedom against the forces of tyranny unless we take bold, affirmative, adequate steps to bridge the moral gap between American democracy's noble promises and its ugly practices in the field of civil rights.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://billmoyers.com/content/meet-the-march-organizers/9/ |title=Meet the 1963 March on Washington Organizers {{!}} BillMoyers.com |work=BillMoyers.com |access-date=2018-03-17 |language=en-US}}</ref></blockquote>

According to [[Irving Bluestone]], who was standing near the platform while Reuther delivered his remarks, he overheard two black women talking. One asked, "Who is that white man?" The other replied, "Don't you know him? That's the white Martin Luther King."<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1021080.pdf |title=Key Figures behind the March: Reuther, the Labor Ally |last=Euchner |first=Charles |date=Fall 2013 |work=[[American Educator]] |pages=34–35 |access-date=March 22, 2018}}</ref>

=== Excluded speakers ===
Author [[James Baldwin]] was prevented from speaking at the March because his comments would be too inflammatory.<ref>Talia Whyte, "[http://www.baystate-banner.com/issues/2008/02/14/news/blackhistory02140890.htm Baldwin: A literary standard]"; ''Baystate Banner'' 43(27), 14 February 2008.</ref> Baldwin later commented on the irony of the "terrifying and profound" requests that he prevent the March from happening:<ref>Herb Boyd, ''Baldwin's Harlem: A Biography of James Baldwin''; New York: Atria, 2008; p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=HVWEFPMdtygC&pg=PA70 70].</ref>
<blockquote>In my view, by that time, there was, on the one hand, nothing to prevent—the March had already been co-opted—and, on the other, no way of stopping the people from descending on Washington. What struck me most horribly was that virtually no one in power (including some blacks or Negroes who were somewhere next door to power) was able, even remotely, to accept the depth, the dimension, the passion, and the faith of the people.</blockquote>

[[File:Civil Rights March on Washington, D.C. (Actor Lena Horne, a close-up view.) - NARA - 542057.tif|thumb|right|Actress/singer [[Lena Horne]] was present but excluded from speaking.]]
Despite the protests of organizer [[Anna Arnold Hedgeman]], no women gave a speech at the March. Male organizers attributed this omission to the "difficulty of finding a single woman to speak without causing serious problems vis-à-vis other women and women's groups".<ref>Barber, ''Marching on Washington'' (2002), p. 158.</ref> Hedgeman read a statement at an August 16 meeting, charging:
<blockquote>In light of the role of Negro women in the struggle for freedom and especially in light of the extra burden they have carried because of the castration of our Negro men in this culture, it is incredible that no woman should appear as a speaker at the historic March on Washington Meeting at the Lincoln Memorial.</blockquote>

The assembled group agreed that [[Myrlie Evers]], the new widow of Medgar Evers, could speak during the "Tribute to Women". However, Evers was unavailable,<ref>Bass, ''Like a Mighty Stream'' (2002), pp. 109, 111.</ref><ref>Bass, ''Like a Mighty Stream'' (2002), p. 108.</ref> having missed her flight, and [[Daisy Bates (civil rights activist)|Daisy Bates]] spoke briefly (less than 200 words) in place of her.<ref name="alternet.org" /><ref name="motherjones.com" /><ref name="cnn.com" /><ref name="tolerance.org" /> Earlier, [[Josephine Baker]] had addressed the crowd before the official program began.<ref name="cnn.com" /><ref name="tolerance.org" /> Although [[Gloria Richardson]] was on the program and had been asked to give a two-minute speech, when she arrived at the stage her chair with her name on it had been removed, and the event marshal took her microphone away after she said "hello".<ref name="wwno.org" /> Richardson, along with [[Rosa Parks]] and [[Lena Horne]], was escorted away from the podium before Martin Luther King Jr. spoke.<ref name="wwno.org" />

Early plans for the March would have included an "Unemployed Worker" as one of the speakers. This position was eliminated, furthering criticism of the March's middle-class bias.<ref>Euchner, ''Nobody Turn Me Around'' (2010), p. 159.</ref>

==Singers==
Gospel legend [[Mahalia Jackson]] sang, "I've been 'buked, and I've been scorned", and "[[How I Got Over (song)|How I Got Over]]". [[Marian Anderson]] sang "[[He's Got the Whole World in His Hands]]". This was not Marian Anderson's first appearance at the Lincoln Memorial. In 1939, the [[Daughters of the American Revolution]] refused permission for Anderson to sing to an integrated audience in [[Constitution Hall]]. With the aid of First Lady [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] and her husband [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], Anderson performed a critically acclaimed open-air concert on [[Easter]] Sunday, 1939, on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial.

[[File:Joan Baez Bob Dylan.jpg|thumb|left|[[Joan Baez]] and [[Bob Dylan]] performing at the March on Washington]]
[[Joan Baez]] led the crowds in several verses of "[[We Shall Overcome]]" and "[[Oh Freedom]]". Musician [[Bob Dylan]] performed "[[When the Ship Comes In]]", for which he was joined by Baez. Dylan also performed "[[Only a Pawn in Their Game]]", a provocative and not completely popular choice because it asserted that [[Byron De La Beckwith]], as a poor white man, was not personally or primarily to blame for the murder of Medgar Evers.<ref>Jones, ''March on Washington'' (2013), p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bek1pIITiokC&pg=PT37 online].</ref>

[[Peter, Paul and Mary]] sang "[[If I Had a Hammer]]" and Dylan's "[[Blowin' in the Wind]]". [[Odetta]] sang "[[Odetta Sings Ballads and Blues|I'm On My Way]]".<ref name="Federal Highway Administration"/>

Some participants, including [[Dick Gregory]], criticized the choice of mostly white performers and the lack of group participation in the singing.<ref>Euchner, ''Nobody Turn Me Around'' (2010), p. 109.</ref> Dylan himself said he felt uncomfortable as a white man serving as a public image for the Civil Rights Movement. After the March on Washington, he performed at few other immediately politicized events.<ref>[[David Hajdu]] (2001), ''Positively 4th Street: The Lives and Times of Joan Baez, Bob Dylan, Mimi Baez Farina and Richard Farina''; New York: Picador; {{ISBN|978-1429961769}}; p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=t4I1CQyVFkEC&pg=PA201 201]</ref>

==Celebrities==
The event featured many prominent celebrities in addition to singers on the program. [[Josephine Baker]], [[Harry Belafonte]], [[Sidney Poitier]], [[James Baldwin]], [[Jackie Robinson]], [[Sammy Davis Jr.]], [[Dick Gregory]], [[Eartha Kitt]], [[Ossie Davis]], [[Ruby Dee]], [[Diahann Carroll]], and [[Lena Horne]] were among the black celebrities attending. There were also quite a few white and Latino celebrities who attended or helped fund the March in support of the cause: [[Tony Curtis]], [[James Garner]], [[Robert Ryan]], [[Charlton Heston]], [[Paul Newman]], [[Joanne Woodward]], [[Rita Moreno]], [[Marlon Brando]], [[Bobby Darin]] and [[Burt Lancaster]], among others. [[Judy Garland]] was part of the planning committee and was also scheduled to perform but had to drop out at the last minute due to commitments to her TV variety series.<ref name = "post1">{{cite web |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/celebrities-who-joined-the-march-on-washington/2013/08/19/ed761f1a-005a-11e3-9711-3708310f6f4d_gallery.html |title=Celebrities Who Joined the March on Washington |website=washingtonpost.com |access-date=2018-07-22}}</ref><ref name = "realclear">{{cite web |url=https://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2013/08/29/hollywood_whos_who_marched_with_king_in_63__119762.html |title=Hollywood Who's Who Marched with King in '63 |website=realclearpolitics.com |access-date=2018-07-22}}</ref>

== Meeting with President Kennedy ==
[[File:JFK meets with leaders of March on Washington 8-28-63.JPG|thumb|Kennedy meets with march leaders. Left to Right – Willard Wirtz, Matthew Ahmann, Martin Luther King Jr., John Lewis, Rabbi Joachin Prinz, Eugene Carson Blake, A. Philip Randolph, President John F. Kennedy, Vice President Lyndon Johnson, Walter Reuther, Whitney Young, Floyd McKissick, Roy Wilkins (not in order)]]

After the March, the speakers travelled to the White House for a brief discussion of proposed civil rights legislation with President Kennedy.<ref>Barber, ''Marching on Washington'' (2002), p. 172.</ref> As the leaders approached The White House, the media reported that Reuther said to King, "Everything was perfect, just perfect."<ref>{{Citation |title=August 28, 1963: March on Washington – www.NBCUniversalArchives.com |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MXa_dopI3VQ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/MXa_dopI3VQ |archive-date=2021-12-12 |url-status=live |language=en |access-date=2020-05-13}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Kennedy had watched King's speech on TV and was very impressed. According to biographer [[Thomas C. Reeves]], Kennedy "felt that he would be booed at the March, and also didn't want to meet with organizers before the March because he didn't want a list of demands. He arranged a 5 p.m. meeting at the White House with the 10 leaders on the 28th."<ref>Bass, ''Like a Mighty Stream'' (2002), p. 94.</ref>

In full, these participants were [[Mathew Ahmann]] of the National Catholic Conference for Interracial Justice; [[Whitney Young]] of the [[National Urban League]]; Rev. Dr. [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] (SCLC); [[John Lewis]] of the [[Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee|SNCC]]; Rabbi [[Joachim Prinz]] of the [[American Jewish Congress]]; Reverend [[Eugene Carson Blake]] of the United Presbyterian Church; [[A. Philip Randolph]]; labor leader [[Walter Reuther]]; [[Roy Wilkins]] of the NAACP and (not visible shown in the image to the right) Secretary of Labor [[W. Willard Wirtz|Willard Wirtz]] and [[Floyd McKissick]] of [[Congress of Racial Equality|CORE]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Leffler |first=Warren K. |date=1963 |title=[Civil rights leaders meet with President John F. Kennedy in the oval office of the White House after the March on Washington, D.C.] |url=https://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2013648834/ |access-date=2024-07-31 |website=www.loc.gov |language=en}}</ref>

During the meeting, Reuther described to Kennedy how he was framing the civil rights issue to business leaders in Detroit, saying, "Look, you can't escape the problem. And there are two ways of resolving it; either by reason or riots."<ref name="Hill 262">{{Cite book |last=Hill |first=Lance |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8H9Me8LZ488C&q=%22reuther%22+%22nonviolence%22&pg=PA262 |title=The Deacons for Defense: Armed Resistance and the Civil Rights Movement |year=2006 |publisher=Univ of North Carolina Press |isbn=978-0-8078-5702-1 |pages=262 |language=en}}</ref> Reuther continued, "Now the civil war that this is gonna trigger is not gonna be fought at Gettysburg. It's gonna to be fought in your backyard, in your plant, where your kids are growing up."<ref name="Hill 262"/> The March was considered a "triumph of managed protest" and Kennedy felt it was a victory for him as well—bolstering the chances for his [[Civil Rights Act of 1964|civil rights bill]].<ref>Reeves, Richard, ''President Kennedy: Profile of Power'' (1993) pp. 580–584</ref>

Allowing civil rights leaders to engage in conversation with Kennedy may be considered an example of [[speaking truth to power]].

==Media coverage==
[[File:Civil rights leaders talk with reporters after meeting with President John F. Kennedy after the March on Washington, D.C.jpg|thumb|Leaders of the March on Washington speak to the news media after meeting with President Kennedy at the White House.]]
[[File:The March (1964 film).webm|thumb|''[[The March (1964 film)|The March]]'', a documentary film produced by the [[United States Information Agency]]. King's speech has been redacted from this video because of the [[I Have a Dream#Copyright dispute|copyright held by King's estate]].]]
Media attention gave the march national exposure, carrying the organizers' speeches and offering their own commentary. In his section ''The March on Washington and Television News'', William Thomas notes: "Over five hundred cameramen, technicians, and correspondents from the major networks were set to cover the event. More cameras would be set up than had filmed the last Presidential inauguration. One camera was positioned high in the Washington Monument, to give dramatic vistas of the marchers".<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://southernspaces.org/2004/television-news-and-civil-rights-struggle-views-virginia-and-mississippi#section6 |journal=[[Southern Spaces]] |title=Television News and the Civil Rights Struggle: The Views in Virginia and Mississippi |first=Thomas, William |last=G |date=28 August 2018 |volume=2004}}</ref> The major networks broadcast some of the March live, though they interspersed footage of interviews with politicians. Subsequent broadcasts focused heavily on the "I have a dream" portion of King's speech.<ref>Barber, ''Marching on Washington'' (2002), p. 175.</ref>

The [[Voice of America]] translated the speeches and rebroadcast them in 36 languages. The [[United Information Agency]] organized a press conference for the benefit of foreign journalists, and also created a documentary film of the event for distribution to embassies abroad.<ref name=Barber151 /> Commented Michael Thelwell of SNCC: "So it happened that Negro students from the South, some of whom still had unhealed bruises from the electric cattle prods which Southern police used to break up demonstrations, were recorded for the screens of the world portraying 'American Democracy at Work.'"<ref>Euchner, ''Nobody Turn Me Around'' (2010), p. 70.</ref>

Some media figures, especially conservative ones, criticized the march. Syndicated columnist [[David Lawrence (publisher)|David Lawrence]] called it a "public disgrace" and "the mess in Washington."<ref>{{Cite news |last=Humanities |first=National Endowment for the |date=1963-09-02 |title=The chronicle. (Pascagoula, Miss.) 1961-1966, September 02, 1963, Image 4 |url=https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn87065526/1963-09-02/ed-1/seq-4/ |access-date=2024-04-11 |issn=2766-1229}}</ref>

==Responses and memories==

=== Organizers ===
Although the mass media generally declared the March successful because of its high turnout, organizers were not confident that it would create change. Randolph and Rustin abandoned their belief in the effectiveness of marching on Washington. King maintained faith that action in Washington could work, but determined that future marchers would need to call greater attention to economic injustice. In 1967–1968, he organized a [[Poor People's Campaign]] to occupy the National Mall with a shantytown.<ref name=Barber167>Barber, ''Marching on Washington'' (2002), pp. 176–178.</ref>

===Critics===
[[Black nationalism|Black nationalist]] [[Malcolm X]], in his [[Message to the Grass Roots]] speech, criticized the march, describing it as "a picnic" and "a circus". He said the civil rights leaders had diluted the original purpose of the march, which had been to show the strength and anger of black people, by allowing white people and organizations to help plan and participate in the march.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Malcolm X |author-link=Malcolm X |editor=George Breitman |title=Malcolm X Speaks |orig-year=1965 |year=1990 |publisher=Grove Weidenfeld |location=New York |isbn=0-8021-3213-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/malcolmxspeaksse00xmal/page/14 14–17] |url=https://archive.org/details/malcolmxspeaksse00xmal/page/14}}</ref> One SNCC staffer commented during the march, "He's denouncing us as clowns, but he's right there with the clown show."<ref>Euchner, ''Nobody Turn Me Around'' (2010), p. 16.</ref> But the membership of SNCC, increasingly frustrated with the tactics of the NAACP and other moderate groups, gradually embraced Malcolm X's position.<ref name=Barber167 />

Segregationists including [[William Jennings Bryan Dorn]] criticized the government for cooperating with the civil rights activists.<ref>Barber, ''Marching on Washington'' (2002), p. 153. "Segregationists and black nationalists launched scathing criticisms of the Kennedy administration for its support. For rabid segregationist Representative W.J. Bryan Dorn, a Democrat from South Carolina, the absurdity was that 'for the first time in the history of our Nation ... the Federal government has itself encouraged a "march on Washington."'"</ref> Senator [[Olin D. Johnston]] rejected an invitation to attend, writing: "You are committing the worst possible mistake in promoting this March. You should know that criminal, fanatical, and communistic elements, as well as crackpots, will move in to take every advantage of this mob. You certainly will have no influence on any member of Congress, including myself."<ref>Bass, ''Like a Mighty Stream'' (2002), p. 95.</ref>

=== Participants ===
[[File:Civil Rights March on Washington, D.C. (Leaders of the march leading marchers down the street.) - NARA - 542003.tif|thumb|Leaders of the march leading marchers down the street]]
Many participants said they felt the March was a historic and life-changing experience. Nan Grogan Orrock, a student at Mary Washington College, said: "You couldn't help but get swept up in the feeling of the March. It was an incredible experience of this mass of humanity with one mind moving down the street. It was like being part of a glacier. You could feel the sense of collective will and effort in the air."<ref>Bass, ''Like a Mighty Stream'' (2002), p. 142.</ref> SNCC organizer [[Bob Zellner]] reported that the event "provided dramatic proof that the sometimes quiet and always dangerous work we did in the Deep South had had a profound national impact. The spectacle of a quarter of a million supporters and activists gave me an assurance that the work I was in the process of dedicating my life to was worth doing."<ref>Bass, ''Like a Mighty Stream'' (2002), p. 38.</ref>

Richard Brown, then a white graduate student at Harvard University, recalls that the March fostered direct actions for economic progress: "Henry Armstrong and I compared notes. I realized the Congress of Racial Equality might help black employment in Boston by urging businesses to hire contractors like Armstrong. He agreed to help start a list of reliable contractors that CORE could promote. It was a modest effort—but it moved in the right direction."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Brown |first1=Richard D. |title=March On Washington Was Day To Remember – And Relive; The Bus, Henry Armstrong – And The Work Left Undone |url=https://www.courant.com/2013/08/16/march-on-washington-was-day-to-remember-and-relive-2/ |access-date=14 May 2023 |work=[[Hartford Courant]] |date=August 16, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151203062313/http://articles.courant.com/2013-08-16/news/hc-op-march-on-washington-50-years-ago-20130816_1_washington-monument-henry-armstrong-congress |url-status=deviated |archive-date=2015-12-03}}</ref>

Other participants, more sympathetic to Malcolm X and the black nationalists, expressed ambivalence. One marcher from New York explained:<ref>Euchner, ''Nobody Turn Me Around'' (2010), pp. 24–25.</ref>
<blockquote>It's like [[St Patrick's Day]]. I came out of respect for what my people are doing, not because I believe it will do any good. I thought it would do some good in the beginning. But when the march started to get all the official approval from ''Mastah'' Kennedy, ''Mastah'' Wagner, ''Mastah'' Spellman, and they started setting limits on how we had to march peacefully, I knew that the march was going to be a mockery, that ''they'' were giving ''us'' something again.</blockquote>

Marcher Beverly Alston thought that the day had its greatest impact within the movement: "Culturally, there has been tremendous progress over the past forty years. Black awareness and self-determination has soared. Politically, I just don't think we've made enough progress."<ref>Bass, ''Like a Mighty Stream'' (2002), p. 72.</ref> Fifteen-year-old Ericka Jenkins from Washington said:<ref>Euchner, ''Nobody Turn Me Around'' (2010), pp. 81–82.</ref>
<blockquote>I saw people laughing and listening and standing very close to one another, almost in an embrace. Children of every size, pregnant women, elderly people who seemed tired but happy to be there, clothing that made me know that they struggled to make it day to day, made me know they worked in farms or offices or even nearby for the government. I didn't see teenagers alone; I saw groups of teenagers with teachers. <br />
White people [were] standing in wonder. Their eyes were open, they were ''listening''. Openness and nothing on guard—I saw that in everybody. I was so happy to see that in the white people that they could listen and take in and respect and believe in the words of a black person. I had never seen anything like that.</blockquote>

Some people discussed racism becoming less explicit after the March. Reverend Abraham Woods of Birmingham commented: "Everything has changed. And when you look at it, nothing has changed. Racism is under the surface, and an incident that could scratch it, can bring it out."<ref>Bass, ''Like a Mighty Stream'' (2002), p. 101.</ref>

== Effects and legacy ==
The symbolism of the March has been contested since before it even took place. In the years following the March, movement radicals increasingly subscribed to Malcolm X's narrative of the March as a co-optation by the white establishment. However, some black nationalist intellectuals did not see that the liberal reforms of the [[Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson|Johnson administration]] would assure "full integration" based upon the existing power structures and persisting racist culture of daily life in America. Former [[Communist Party of the United States|Communist Party]] member [[Harold Cruse]] posited that full integration was "not possible within the present framework of the American system". [[Black Panther Party]] member and lawyer [[Kathleen Cleaver]] held radical views that only revolution could transform American society to bring about the [[redistribution of wealth]] and power that was needed to end the historical facts of exclusion and inequality.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Cedric |title=Revolutionaries to Race Leaders: Black Power and the Making of African American Politics |date=2007 |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |location=Minneapolis |isbn=978-0816644773 |page=xxiv}}</ref>

Liberals and conservatives tended to embrace the March, but focused mostly on King's "I Have a Dream" speech and the legislative successes of 1964 and 1965.<ref name=JonesDissent>William P. Jones, "[http://www.dissentmagazine.org/article/the-forgotten-radical-history-of-the-march-on-washington The Forgotten Radical History of the March on Washington]"; ''Dissent'', Spring 2013.</ref> The mass media identified King's speech as a highlight of the event and focused on this oration to the exclusion of other aspects. For several decades, King took center stage in narratives about the March. More recently, historians and commentators have acknowledged the role played by Bayard Rustin in organizing the event.<ref name=Wickham>DeWayne Wickham, "[https://archive.today/20130817164951/http://www.guampdn.com/article/20130815/OPINION02/308150017/Rustin-finally-getting-due-recognition Rustin finally getting due recognition]"; ''Pacific Daily News'', 15 August 2013.</ref>

The March was an early example of social movements conducting mass rallies in Washington, D.C., and was followed by [[List of rallies and protest marches in Washington, D.C.|several other marches in the capital]], many of which used similar names.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}

For the 50th Anniversary of the March, the [[United States Postal Service]] released a [[forever stamp]] that commemorated it.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sims-Wood |first1=Janet |title=LibGuides: March on Washington – 50th Anniversary (1963–2013): 50th Anniversary Stamp |url=https://pgcc.libguides.com/c.php?g=60067&p=386048 |website=Guides By Subject – LibGuides at Prince George's Community College |access-date=18 January 2021 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Political effects ===
Soon after the speakers ended their meetings with Congress to go join the March, both houses passed legislation to create a dispute arbitration board for striking railroad workers.<ref>Euchner, ''Nobody Turn Me Around'' (2010), p. 89</ref>

The March is credited with propelling the U.S. government into action on civil rights, creating political momentum for the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] and the [[Voting Rights Act]] of 1965.<ref name=Bartlett>Bruce Bartlett, "[http://www.thefiscaltimes.com/Columns/2013/08/09/The-1963-March-on-Washington-Changed-Politics-Forever.aspx#page1 The 1963 March on Washington Changed Politics Forever]"; ''The Fiscal Times'', 9 August 2013.</ref>

The cooperation of a Democratic administration with the issue of civil rights marked a pivotal moment in voter alignment within the U.S. The [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] gave up the [[Solid South]]—its undivided support since Reconstruction among the segregated Southern states—and went on to capture a high proportion of votes from Black people from the Republicans.<ref name=Bartlett /><ref>Bruce Bartlett, "[http://www.thefiscaltimes.com/Columns/2013/08/16/How-the-March-on-Washington-Flipped-the-Southern-Vote.aspx#page1 How the March on Washington Flipped the Southern Vote]"; ''Fiscal Times'', 16 August 1963.</ref>

=== Anniversary marches ===
[[File:Walking in to the march 2 - 50th Anniversary of the Civil Rights March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom.jpg|thumb|right|175px|50th Anniversary of the Civil Rights March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom]]

The 1963 March also spurred anniversary marches that occur every five years, with the 20th and 25th being some of the most well known. The 20th Anniversary theme was "We Still have a Dream ... Jobs*Peace*Freedom."<ref>Barber, ''Marching on Washington'' (2002), pp. 173–174.</ref>

At the 50th anniversary march in 2013, President [[Barack Obama]] conferred a posthumous [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]] on Bayard Rustin and 15 others.<ref name=JonesDissent /><ref name=Wickham />

==== 2020 Virtual March on Washington ====
On July 20, 2020, the [[NAACP]], one of the original organizers of the 1963 march, announced that it would commemorate it by organizing another rally on the steps of the [[Lincoln Memorial]], in which King's oldest son, [[Martin Luther King III]], would join civil rights leaders and the families of black men and women who died as a result of [[Police brutality in the United States|police brutality]].<ref name=WashPost7.20.20>{{cite news |author=Lang, Marissa J. |title=Civil rights leaders plan August demonstration on steps of Lincoln Memorial |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/al-sharpton-washington-dc-protest/2020/07/20/ce57c908-c853-11ea-8ffe-372be8d82298_story.html |date=July 20, 2020 |access-date=July 20, 2020 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]}}</ref> An online tie-in event was also planned, called the 2020 Virtual March on Washington. It was held August 27 and 28, the latter being the anniversary of the iconic "[[I Have a Dream]]" speech, and the day after President Trump was scheduled to [[2020 Republican National Convention#President Donald Trump|accept his party's nomination]] for president at the [[2020 Republican National Convention|Republican National Convention]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Feldman |first1=Kate |title=NAACP plans virtual march on Washington on anniversary of Martin Luther King Jr.'s 'I Have a Dream' speech |url=https://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/ny-naacp-virtual-march-mlk-20200720-ogrnlzvvjvdtvir7goljz55z6a-story.html |access-date=20 July 2020 |website=[[New York Daily News|Daily News]]|date=20 July 2020 }}</ref> Addressing the ongoing [[COVID-19 pandemic in the United States|COVID-19 pandemic]], the organizers explained that the virtual component of the rally was organized to enable participation by people unable to travel to Washington D.C. or safely participate in the in-person event.<ref name=WashPost7.20.20/> The [[NAACP]]'s Virtual March featured performances from [[Macy Gray]], [[Burna Boy]], and speeches from [[Stacey Abrams]], [[Nancy Pelosi]], [[Cory Booker]], and [[Mahershala Ali]], among many others. It was a two-night event broadcast on [[ABC News Live]], [[Bounce TV]], [[TV One (American TV channel)|TV One]] and on online platforms.<ref>{{cite news |last1=ABC News Radio |title=Tens of thousands march on Washington in 'Get Your Knee Off Our Necks' protest |url=http://abcnewsradioonline.com/music-news/2020/8/28/tens-of-thousands-march-on-washington-in-get-your-knee-off-o.html |access-date=3 September 2020 |publisher=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Media Advisory: 2020 Virtual March on Washington |url=https://naacp.org/latest/media-advisory-2020-virtual-march-washington/ |website=NAACP.org |access-date=3 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Everything To Know About The Commitment March On Washington: Speakers, Schedule, Route Map And More |url=https://newsone.com/4003734/stacey-abrams-mahershala-ali-virtual-march-on-washington/ |website=News One |date=28 August 2020 |publisher=newsone.com |access-date=3 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=CNN |url=https://twitter.com/DerrickNAACP/status/1298340067975540736 |website=Twitter.com |publisher=[[CNN]] |access-date=3 September 2020}}</ref>

====2021 Voting Rights and D.C. Statehood March====
On August 28, 2021, a march calling for voting rights and statehood for Washington D.C. was held in Washington D.C on the 58th anniversary of the March on Washington.<ref name=march58th>{{cite news |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/march-on-for-voting-rights-rally-washington-watch-live-stream-today-2021-08-28/ |title='We are not going to stop': Thousands gather for annual March on for Voting Rights |first=Allison Elyse |last=Gualtieri |publisher=[[CBS News]] |date=28 August 2021 |access-date=28 August 2021}}</ref> Though the numbers in the march permit revealed that 100,000 people were expected to attend, it was estimated that only 50,000 people attended.<ref name=march58th /><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.wusa9.com/article/news/local/dc/national-mall-rallies-planned-what-to-know/65-96ed6612-448a-4748-b9a5-b42ef3023b6b |title=Thousands expected for protests, rallies on the National Mall |publisher=[[WUSA (TV)|WUSA]] |date=28 August 2021 |access-date=28 August 2021}}</ref> However, the smaller crowd size did match the [[National Action Network]]'s earlier estimate.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://wjla.com/news/local/thousands-expected-to-march-on-for-washington-and-voting-rights-saturday-august-26-2021-58th-anniversary |title=Thousands expected to March On For Washington and Voting Rights this Saturday |first=John |last=Gonzalez |publisher=7 News |date=28 August 2021 |access-date=28 August 2021}}</ref> Among the speakers were Martin Luther King III, his wife and [[Drum Major Institute]] president Arndrea Waters King, daughter Yolanda, [[National Action Network]] leader Rev. [[Al Sharpton]] and Washington D.C. Mayor [[Muriel Bowser]].<ref name=march58th /> Other speakers at the event included Democratic U.S. Representatives [[Joyce Beatty]], of Ohio, [[Terri Sewell]], of Alabama, [[Sheila Jackson Lee]] and [[Al Green (politician)|Al Green]], both of Texas, and [[Mondaire Jones]], of New York; NAACP president [[Derrick Johnson]]; and [[Philonise Floyd]], activist and brother of George Floyd.<ref name=march58th />

==== 2023 60th Anniversary March ====
On August 26, 2023, a march was held in Washington D.C on the 60th anniversary of the March on Washington. Organizers include Martin Luther King III, his wife and Drum Major Institute president Arndrea Waters King, daughter Yolanda and National Action Network leader Rev. [[Al Sharpton]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Silverman |first=Ellie |date=May 15, 2023 |title=King Family Returning for March on Washington's 60th Anniversary |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/dc-md-va/2023/05/15/march-on-washington-60th-anniversary-martin-luther-king-jr-family/ |access-date=July 23, 2023}}</ref> Tens of thousands of people gathered for a five-hour program that featured dozens of speakers.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Olson |first=Emily |date=August 26, 2023 |title=Thousands march to mark the 60th anniversary of MLK's 'I Have a Dream' speech |publisher=[[NPR]] |url=https://www.npr.org/2023/08/26/1196190910/march-on-washington-mlk-dream-speech-anniversary |access-date=August 29, 2023}}</ref>

==Analysis==
In 2013, the [[Economic Policy Institute]] launched a series of reports around the theme of "The Unfinished March". These reports analyze the goals of the original march and assess how much progress has been made.<ref>"King's unfinished work", ''Philadelphia Inquirer'', 16 August 2013.</ref><ref>Freddie Allen, "Upcoming Washington March should again focus on jobs", ''Madison Times'' (NNPA), 14 August 2013.</ref> They echo the message of Randolph and Rustin that civil rights cannot transform people's quality of life unless accompanied by economic justice. They contend that many of the March's primary goals—including housing, integrated education, and widespread employment at living wages—have not been accomplished. They further argued that although legal advances were made, black people still live in concentrated areas of poverty ("ghettoes"), where they receive inferior education and suffer from widespread unemployment.<ref>Algernon Austin, "[http://www.epi.org/publication/unfinished-march-overview/ The Unfinished March: An Overview]"; [[Economic Policy Institute]] Report, 18 June 2013.</ref>

Dedrick Muhammad of the NAACP writes that racial inequality of income and homeownership have increased since 1963 and worsened during the recent [[Great Recession]].<ref>Dedrick Muhammad, "[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/dedrick-muhammad/50-years-after-the-march-_1_b_3749897.html 50 Years After the March On Washington: The Economic Impacts on Education]"; ''Huffington Post'', 13 August 2013.</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" mode="packed">
File:Poitier Belafonte Heston Civil Rights March 1963.jpg|[[Sidney Poitier]], [[Harry Belafonte]] and [[Charlton Heston]]
File:Civil Rights March on Washington, D.C. (Actor Ossie Davis.) - NARA - 542018.jpg|Actor [[Ossie Davis]]
File:Civil Rights March on Washington, D.C. (Dr. Ralph Bunche.) - NARA - 542031.tif|Dr. [[Ralph Bunche]]
File:Civil Rights March on Washington, D.C. (Former National Baseball League player, Jackie Robinson with his son.) - NARA - 542024.tif|Major League Baseball player, [[Jackie Robinson]]
File:Civil Rights March on Washington, D.C. (Leaders of the march) - NARA - 542056.jpg|Leaders gather for a portrait
File:Civil Rights March on Washington, D.C. (Four young marchers singing.) - NARA - 542025.tif|Four young marchers singing
File:Heston Baldwin Brando Civil Rights March 1963.jpg|Charlton Heston, [[James Baldwin]], [[Marlon Brando]], and [[Harry Belafonte]]
File:Civil Rights March on Washington, D.C. (Food service crew.) - NARA - 541999.tif|Food service crew
File:Civil Rights March on Washington, D.C. (Sammy Davis, Jr., actor and performer, with Roy Wilkins, Executive Secretary... - NARA - 542005.tif|[[Sammy Davis Jr.]], with [[Roy Wilkins]], Executive Secretary of [[NAACP]]
File:Civil Rights March on Washington, D.C. (Entertainment, Vocalists Peter, Paul, and Mary.) - NARA - 542019.jpg|Vocalists Peter, Paul, and Mary
File:Civil Rights March on Washington, D.C. (Former National Basketball Association player, Bill Russell.) - NARA - 542073.tif|National Basketball Association player, [[Bill Russell]]
</gallery>

==See also==
{{Portal|United States|Civil rights movement}}
* [[List of protest marches on Washington, D.C.]]
* ''[[Eyes on the Prize]]'', the award-winning documentary about the [[Civil Rights Movement]],
* [[Prathia Hall]] – an American leader and activist during the Civil Rights Movement
{{Clear}}

==References==
'''Notes'''
{{Reflist|30em}}

'''Bibliography'''
{{Refbegin|30em}}
*Bass, Patrick Henry. ''Like a Mighty Stream: The March on Washington, August 28, 1963''. Philadelphia: Running Press, 2002. {{ISBN|0-7624-1292-5}}
*Barber, Lucy G. ''Marching on Washington: The Forging of an American Political Tradition'' University of California Press, 2002. {{ISBN|0-520-22713-1}}
*{{Cite book |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-0671687427 |last=Branch |first=Taylor |author-link=Taylor Branch |title=Parting the Waters: America in the King Years 1954–63 |location=New York; London |year=1988 |url=https://archive.org/details/partingwatersame00bran_0}}
*Leonard Freed, ''This Is the Day: The March on Washington'', Los Angeles: Getty Publications, 2013; {{ISBN|978-1-60606-121-3}}.
*{{Cite book |publisher=Phaidon Press |isbn=978-0714845173 |last=Marable |first=Manning |author2=Leith Mullings |title=Freedom: A Photographic History of the African American Struggle |year=2002}}
*Euchner, Charles. ''Nobody Turn Me Around: A People's History of the March on Washington''. Boston: Beacon Press, 2010. {{ISBN|978-0-8070-0059-5}}
*[[David Garrow|Garrow, David]]. ''Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference.'' William Morrow and Company, 1986. {{ISBN|0-688-04794-7}}
*{{Cite encyclopedia |publisher=Basic Civitas Books |isbn=978-0465000715 |editor1=Kwame Anthony Appiah |editor2=Henry Louis Gates |last=Tuttle |first=Kate |title=March on Washington, 1963 |encyclopedia=Africana: the Encyclopedia of the African and African American experience |year=1999 |url=https://archive.org/details/africanaencyclop00appi}}
*Jones, William P. ''The March on Washington: Jobs, Freedom, and the Forgotten History of Civil Rights''. Norton, 2013. {{ISBN|978-0393240580}}
*{{Cite book |publisher=Viking |isbn=978-0245546686 |last=Williams |first=Juan |title=Eyes on the prize: America's civil rights years, 1954–1965 |location=New York |year=1987}}
{{Refend}}

'''Further reading'''
{{Refbegin}}
*Jones, William P. ''The March on Washington: Jobs, Freedom, and the Forgotten History of Civil Rights'' (W.W. Norton; 2013) 296 pages;
*[[Doris E. Saunders|Saunders, Doris E.]] ''The Day They Marched'' (Johnson Publishing Company; 1963)
*{{cite book |last1=Lyon |first1=Danny |title=Memories of the Southern Civil Rights Movement |date=1992 |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |location=Chapel Hill |isbn=978-0807843864}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category multi|March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom|50th Anniversary of the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom}}
*[http://www.stanford.edu/group/King/about_king/encyclopedia/march_washington.html March on Washington] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090321034623/http://www.stanford.edu/group/King/about_king/encyclopedia/march_washington.html |date=2009-03-21 }} – ''King Encyclopedia'', [[Stanford University]]
*[http://www.crmvet.org/info/mowhome.htm March on Washington August 28, 1963] – Civil Rights Movement Archive
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090511150144/http://www.wdashistory.org/3.html March on Washington], WDAS History
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20100527194226/http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/23101/the-1963-march-on-washington The 1963 March on Washington] – slideshow by ''[[Life magazine]]''
*[http://www.footnote.com/viewer.php?image=4346713 Original Program for the March on Washington] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110815205931/http://www.footnote.com/viewer.php?image=4346713 |date=2011-08-15 }}
*[http://www.metacafe.com/watch/1469668/martin_luther_king_i_have_a_dream Martin Luther King Jr.'s speech at the March] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222051218/http://www.metacafe.com/watch/1469668/martin_luther_king_i_have_a_dream |date=2017-12-22 }}
*[http://www.historyisaweapon.com/defcon1/lewis.html Annotated text of John Lewis's original speech with changes]
*[http://digdc.dclibrary.org/cdm/landingpage/collection/p16808coll4 March on Washington 50th Anniversary Oral History Project], [[District of Columbia Public Library]]
*[https://edition.cnn.com/2013/08/23/us/gallery/color-march-on-washington/index.html Color photos from 1963 March on Washington], Collection by [[CNN]]

'''Video'''
*[http://vimeo.com/70657416 John Lewis's speech]
*{{Internet Archive short film|id=gov.archives.arc.49737|name="The March on Washington (1963)"}}
*[https://www.youtube.com/user/usnationalarchives#play/user/D8E050A3A9576A28 The March, 1963, from the National Archives YouTube Channel]
*{{Citation |title=Eyes on the Prize March on Washington video page |publisher=PBS |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/eyesontheprize/story/08_washington.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061103063204/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/eyesontheprize/story/08_washington.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=November 3, 2006 |access-date=2010-09-19}}

{{Civil rights movement}}
{{Martin Luther King Jr.|state=collapsed}}
{{African American topics}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1963 in Washington, D.C.]]
[[Category:1963 protests]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:August 1963 in the United States]]
[[Category:Civil rights movement protests]]
[[Category:History of African-American civil rights]]
[[Category:Martin Luther King Jr.]]
[[Category:Protest marches in Washington, D.C.]]
[[Category:John Lewis]]