View source for Maghrebi Arabic

{{Short description|Family of Arabic dialects spoken in the Maghreb}}
{{for|the people|Maghrebi Arabs|Maghrebis}}
{{redirect|Darja|the village in Iran|Darreh Ja|the Romanian village of Dârja|Panticeu}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Maghrebi Arabic
| altname          = Darija, Western Arabic<br />North African Arabic
| region           = [[Maghreb]]
| speakers         = {{sigfig|88.243900|2}} million
| date             = 2020–2022
| ref              = e27
| familycolor      = Afro-Asiatic
| fam2             = [[Semitic languages|Semitic]]
| fam3             = [[West Semitic languages|West Semitic]]
| fam4             = [[Central Semitic languages|Central Semitic]]
| fam5             = [[Arabic]]
| dia1             = [[Algerian Arabic]]
| dia2             = [[Moroccan Arabic]]
| dia3             = [[Libyan Arabic]]
| dia4             = [[Tunisian Arabic]]
| dia5             = [[Hassaniya Arabic]]
| dia6             = [[Algerian Saharan Arabic|Saharan Arabic]]
| dia7             = [[Siculo-Arabic]] {{Extinct}} (survives as [[Maltese language|Maltese]])
| dia8             = [[Andalusi Arabic]] {{Extinct}}
| script           = [[Arabic alphabet]], [[Latin alphabet]]
| lc1              = arq
| ld1              = [[Algerian Arabic]]
| lc2              = xaa
| ld2              = [[Andalusi Arabic]]
| lc3              = mey
| ld3              = [[Hassaniya Arabic]]
| lc4              = ayl
| ld4              = [[Libyan Arabic]]
| lc5              = mlt
| ld5              = [[Maltese language|Maltese]]
| lc6              = ary
| ld6              = [[Moroccan Arabic]]
| lc7              = aao
| ld7              = [[Saharan Arabic]]
| lc8              = sqr
| ld8              = [[Siculo-Arabic]]
| lc9              = aeb
| ld9              = [[Tunisian Arabic]]
| map           = Árabe magrebí.png
| glotto           = nort3191
| glottorefname    = North African Arabic
| nativename       = {{lang|ar|اللهجات المغاربية}}
| ethnicity        = [[Maghrebi Arabs]], also used as a [[second language]] by other ethnic groups in the Maghreb
| dia9             = '''Dialectal continuums:'''
| dia10             = [[Hilalian dialects]]
| dia11             = [[Pre-Hilalian Arabic dialects|Pre-Hilalian dialects]]
}}
'''Maghrebi Arabic''',{{efn|{{Langx|ar|اللَّهْجَة الْمَغارِبِيَّة|al-lahja l-maghāribiyya|Western Arabic}} as opposed to [[Mashriqi Arabic|Eastern or Mashriqi Arabic]]}} often known as '''''ad-Dārija'''''{{Efn|''Darja'', ''Derdja'', ''Derja'', ''Derija'' or ''Darija'', depending on the region's dialect.}}{{efn|{{langx|ar|الدارجة|links=no}}, meaning 'common/everyday [dialect]'}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wehr|first1=Hans|title=A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic: (Arab.-Engl.)|date=1979|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=3447020024|page=319|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WTak55pG-_IC&pg=PA319|access-date=30 September 2017}}</ref> to differentiate it from [[Modern Standard Arabic|Literary Arabic]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Harrell|first1=Richard Slade|title=A Dictionary of Moroccan Arabic: Moroccan-English|date=2004|publisher=Georgetown University Press|isbn=1589011031|page=18|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uQD2Qd-dhy0C&pg=PA18|access-date=30 September 2017}}</ref> is a [[vernacular]] [[Arabic]] [[Varieties of Arabic|dialect continuum]] spoken in the [[Maghreb]]. It includes the [[Moroccan Arabic|Moroccan]], [[Algerian Arabic|Algerian]], [[Tunisian Arabic|Tunisian]], [[Libyan Arabic|Libyan]], [[Hassaniya Arabic|Hassaniya]] and [[Algerian Saharan Arabic|Saharan]] Arabic dialects.

Maghrebi Arabic has a predominantly [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] and [[Arabic]] vocabulary,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Harrat |first=Salima |date=18 September 2018 |title=Maghrebi Arabic dialect processing: an overview |url=https://hal.science/hal-01873779/document |journal=Journal of International Science and General Applications}}</ref><ref name="Abdou Elimam">{{cite book |last1=Elimam |first1=Abdou |url=http://gerflint.fr/Base/Tunisie1/elimam.pdf |title=Du Punique au Maghribi :Trajectoires d'une langue sémito-méditerranéenne |publisher=Synergies Tunisie |year=2009}}</ref> although it contains a significant number of [[Berber languages|Berber]] loanwords, which represent 2–3% of the vocabulary of Libyan Arabic, 8–9% of Algerian and Tunisian Arabic, and 10–15% of Moroccan Arabic.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Wexler |first=Paul |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YJpdiPiG2g4C&pg=PA174 |title=The Non-Jewish Origins of the Sephardic Jews |date=2012-02-01 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-1-4384-2393-7 |language=en}}</ref> Maghrebi Arabic was formerly spoken in [[Al-Andalus]] and [[Emirate of Sicily|Sicily]] until the 17th and 13th centuries, respectively, in the extinct forms of [[Andalusi Arabic]] and [[Siculo-Arabic]]. The [[Maltese language]] is believed to have its source in a language spoken in Muslim [[Sicily]] that ultimately originates from Tunisia, as it contains some typical Maghrebi Arabic areal characteristics.<ref>{{Cite Q |Q117189264 |last1=Borg |first1=Albert |last2=Azzopardi-Alexander |first2=Marie |title=Maltese |date=2013 |isbn=978-1136855283|page=xiii|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=80S7B0sAKFIC&pg=PR13 |access-date=17 March 2023}}</ref>

==Proto-Maghrebi Arabic==

===Phonology===
The common ancestor of Maghrebi Arabic had the same phonology as [[Modern Standard Arabic]], with a few key differences.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Proto-Maghrebi Arabic vowels
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Short
! colspan="2" |Long
|-
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA link|i}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA link|u}}
| {{IPA link|iː}}
| {{IPA link|uː}}
|-
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]
|({{IPA link|eː}})*
|({{IPA link|oː}})*
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|a}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|aː}}
|}

''Notes: *'' The Arabic diphthongs {{IPA|/aj/}} and {{IPA|/aw/}} have mostly collapsed into {{IPA|/iː/}} and {{IPA|/uː/}} in most Maghrebi dialects west of Libya, unlike the phonemes {{IPA|/eː/}} and {{IPA|/oː/}} in [[Mashriqi Arabic|Mashriqi dialects]]. e.g. لون ('color') {{IPA|/lawn/}} and عين ('eye') {{IPA|/ʕajn/}} in Standard Arabic are pronounced {{IPA|/luːn/}} and {{IPA|/ʕiːn/}} in Maghrebi dialects (Algerian, Moroccan, and Tunisian), and pronounced {{IPA|/loːn/}} and {{IPA|/ʕeːn/}} in Libyan and Mashriqi dialects.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Proto-Maghrebi Arabic consonants
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" | [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Dental consonant|Dental]]
! colspan="2" | [[Denti-alveolar consonant|Denti-alveolar]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Pharyngeal consonant|Pharyngeal]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|- style="font-size: 80%;"
! plain
! [[Emphatic consonant|emphatic]]
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|m}} {{angbr|{{lang|ar|م}}}}
|
| {{IPA link|n}} {{angbr|{{lang|ar|ن}}}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Stop consonant|Stop]]
! style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;" | [[voiceless]]
|
|
| {{IPA link|t̪|t}} {{angbr|{{lang|ar|ت}}}}
| {{IPA link|tˤ}} {{angbr|{{lang|ar|ط}}}}
|
| {{IPA link|k}} {{angbr|{{lang|ar|ك}}}}
| {{IPA link|q}} {{angbr|{{lang|ar|ق}}}}
|
| {{IPA link|ʔ}} {{angbr|{{lang|ar|ء}}}}
|-
! style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;" | [[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]
| {{IPA link|b}} {{angbr|{{lang|ar|ب}}}}
|
| {{IPA link|d̪|d}} {{angbr|{{lang|ar|د}}}}
| 
| {{IPA link|d͡ʒ}} {{angbr|{{lang|ar|ج}}}}
|
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Fricative]]
! style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;" | [[voiceless]]
| {{IPA link|f}} {{angbr|{{lang|ar|ف}}}}
| {{IPA link|θ}} {{angbr|{{lang|ar|ث}}}}
| {{IPA link|s̪|s}} {{angbr|{{lang|ar|س}}}}
| {{IPA link|sˤ}} {{angbr|{{lang|ar|ص}}}}
| {{IPA link|ʃ}} {{angbr|{{lang|ar|ش}}}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|x}} ~ {{IPA link|χ}} {{angbr|{{lang|ar|خ}}}}
| {{IPA link|ħ}} {{angbr|{{lang|ar|ح}}}}
| {{IPA link|h}} {{angbr|{{lang|ar|ه}}}}
|-
! style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;" | [[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]
|
| {{IPA link|ð}} {{angbr|{{lang|ar|ذ}}}}
| {{IPA link|z̪|z}} {{angbr|{{lang|ar|ز}}}}
| {{IPA link|ðˤ}} {{angbr|{{lang|ar|ظ}}}}, {{angbr|{{lang|ar|ض}}}}*
|
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|ɣ}} ~ {{IPA link|ʁ}} {{angbr|{{lang|ar|غ}}}}
| {{IPA link|ʕ}} {{angbr|{{lang|ar|ع}}}}
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Trill consonant|Trill]]
|
|
| {{IPA link|r}} {{angbr|{{lang|ar|ر}}}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Approximant]]
|
|
| {{IPA link|l}} {{angbr|{{lang|ar|ل}}}}
| 
| {{IPA link|j}} {{angbr|{{lang|ar|ي}}}}
| {{IPA link|w}} {{angbr|{{lang|ar|و}}}}
|
|
|
|}

''*'' Classical Arabic {{IPA|/dˤ/}} and {{IPA|/ðˤ/}} merged with each other in all varieties of Arabic.

===Vocabulary===
Maghrebi regionalisms are mostly reduced forms of Arabic phrases.

''*''ذَرْوَكْت (*ḏarwakt) < ذَا اَلوَقْت (ḏā al-waqt)

''*''أشكون (*ʔaškōn) < أَيُّ شَيْء كَوْن (*ʔēš *kōn < ʔayy šayʔ kawn)

===Grammar===
Proto-Maghrebi had already lost all [[nunation]] and most of the [[case endings|i'rāb]], with the exception of the adverbial accusative, which was unproductive.

An n- prefix is added to the first person singular in some verb forms, which distinguishes maghrebi Arabic from all other varieties of Arabic.

==Name==
''Darija'', ''Derija'' or ''Delja'' ({{langx|ar|[[wikt:الدارجة|الدارجة]]}}) means "everyday/colloquial dialect";<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wehr |first=Hans |title=A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic |date=2011}}; {{Cite book |last=Harrell |first=Richard S. |title=Dictionary of Moroccan Arabic |date=1966}}</ref> it is also rendered as ''{{Transliteration|aeb|ed-dārija}}'', ''derija'' or ''darja''. It refers to any of the varieties of colloquial Maghrebi Arabic. Although it is also common in [[Algeria]] and [[Tunisia]] to refer to the Maghrebi Arabic varieties directly as languages, similarly it is also common in [[Egypt]] and [[Lebanon]] to refer to the Mashriqi Arabic varieties directly as languages. For instance, Algerian Arabic would be referred as ''Dzayri'' (Algerian) and Tunisian Arabic as ''Tounsi'' (Tunisian), and Egyptian Arabic would be referred as ''Masri'' (Egyptian) and Lebanese Arabic as ''Lubnani'' (Lebanese).

In contrast, the colloquial dialects of more eastern Arab countries, such as Egypt, Jordan and Sudan, are usually known as ''{{Transliteration|aeb|al-‘āmmīya}}'' ({{lang|ar|العامية}}), though Egyptians may also refer to their dialects as ''el-logha d-darga''.

== History and origin ==
{{Main|Arab migrations to the Maghreb}}
Maghrebi Arabic can be divided into two lineages in North Africa. One originates from the urban [[Arabs]] and dates back to the [[Muslim conquest of the Maghreb|Arab Muslim conquest of the Maghreb]] in the 7th and 8th centuries, referred to as [[Pre-Hilalian Arabic dialects|Pre-Hilalian Arabic]]. The other stems from the [[Bedouin Arabic]] varieties brought in by the [[Bedouin]] Arab tribes of [[Banu Hilal]], [[Banu Sulaym]] and [[Maqil|Ma'qil]] in the 11th and 12th centuries, termed as [[Hilalian dialects|Hilalian Arabic]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Duri |first=A. A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=32sBxqIgcZMC&pg=PA73 |title=The Historical Formation of the Arab Nation (RLE: the Arab Nation) |date=2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-62286-8 |pages=73 |language=en}}</ref> The Pre-Hilalian varieties were largely bedouinized by the Hilalian migrations in the 11th century, producing hybrid varieties that combined both pre-Hilalian and Hilalian features.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Heath |first=Jeffrey |year=2020 |title=Moroccan Arabic |url=https://langsci-press.org/catalog/view/235/1812/1838-1 |journal=Language Science Press |location=Berlin |publisher=University of Michigan |pages=213–223}}</ref> This led to the choice of Banu Hilal's Arabic as the [[lingua franca]] of the Maghreb.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Ennaji |first=Moha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MRJgAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA46 |title=Multiculturalism and Democracy in North Africa: Aftermath of the Arab Spring |date=2014-04-16 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-81362-0 |pages=46 |language=en}}</ref> This variety, with influences from [[Berber languages]] and [[Punic language|Punic]], gave rise to the modern Arabic varieties in the Maghreb spoken by the vast majority of Maghrebis.<ref name=":4" />

The Arabic language was spread across North Africa throughout the [[Rashidun Caliphate|Rashidun]] and [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries, during which about 150,000 Arabs settled in the Maghreb.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bateson |first=Mary Catherine |title=Arabic Language Handbook |date=1967 |publisher=Georgetown University Press |isbn=978-0-87840-386-8 |pages=106 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Spickard |first=Paul R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vMG_YgPCi74C&pg=PA135 |title=Race and Nation: Ethnic Systems in the Modern World |date=2005 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-95002-2 |pages=135 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Mountjoy |first1=Alan B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZZjiEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT136 |title=Africa: A Geographical Study |last2=Embleton |first2=Clifford |date=2023-12-01 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-003-83813-5 |language=en}}</ref> As Arab-led forces established settlements in a triangle encompassing Roman towns and cities such as [[Tangier]], [[Salé]] and [[Volubilis|Walili]], [[Moroccan Arabic]] began to take form.<ref name=":3" /> [[Arabization]] was widespread in cities where both Arabs and Berbers lived, as well as Arab centers and surrounding rural areas. Nevertheless, the Arabization process in the countryside remained gradual until the Hilalian invasions of the 11th century.<ref name=":1" />

Maghrebi Arabic originates from the [[Bedouin Arabic]] varieties that were introduced to the Maghreb in the 11th century by [[Banu Hilal]] and [[Banu Sulaym]], who effectively accelerated the [[Arabization]] of a great part of the [[Berbers]].<ref name=":4" /> Sources estimate that around 1 million Arabs migrated to the Maghreb in the 11th century.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last1=Hareir |first1=Idris El |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qVYT4Kraym0C |title=The Spread of Islam Throughout the World |last2=Mbaye |first2=Ravane |date=2011-01-01 |publisher=UNESCO |isbn=978-92-3-104153-2 |pages=409 |language=en}}</ref> Their impact was profound and reshaped the demographic situation and living conditions across the Maghreb. They played a major role in spreading Bedouin Arabic to rural areas such as the countryside and steppes, and as far as the southern areas near the [[Sahara]].<ref name=":1" />

==Characteristics==
The varieties of Maghrebi Arabic form a [[dialect continuum]]. The degree of mutual intelligibility is high between geographically adjacent dialects (such as local dialects spoken in Eastern Morocco and Western Algeria or Eastern Algeria and North Tunisia or South Tunisia and Western Libya), but lower between dialects that are further apart, e.g. between Moroccan and Tunisian Darija. Conversely, Moroccan Darija and particularly Algerian Derja cannot be easily understood by Eastern Arabic speakers (from Egypt, Sudan, Levant, Iraq, and Arabian peninsula) in general.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zaidan |first1=Omar F. |last2=Callison-Burch |first2=Chris |date=2014 |title=Arabic Dialect Identification |url=https://direct.mit.edu/coli/article/40/1/171-202/1458 |journal=Computational Linguistics |language=en |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=171–202 |doi=10.1162/COLI_a_00169 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Maghrebi Arabic continues to evolve by integrating new French or English words, notably in technical fields, or by replacing old French and Italian/Spanish ones with Modern Standard Arabic words within some circles; more educated and upper-class people who code-switch between Maghrebi Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic have more French and Italian/Spanish loanwords, especially the latter came from the time of [[al-Andalus]]. Maghrebi dialects all use ''n-'' as the [[grammatical person|first-person]] [[grammatical number|singular]] [[prefix (linguistics)|prefix]] on [[verb]]s, distinguishing them from [[Levantine Arabic|Levantine dialects]] and Modern Standard Arabic.

===Relationship with Modern Standard Arabic and Berber languages===
[[Modern Standard Arabic]] ({{langx |ar|الفصحى |al-fuṣḥá |translit-std=ALA}}) is the primary language used in the government, legislation and judiciary of countries in the Maghreb. Maghrebi Arabic is mainly a [[spoken language|spoken]] and [[Vernacular|vernacular dialect]], although it occasionally appears in entertainment and advertising in urban areas of Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia. In Algeria, where Maghrebi Arabic was taught as a separate subject under French colonization, some textbooks in the dialect exist but they are no longer officially endorsed by the Algerian authorities. Maghrebi Arabic has a mostly [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] [[Arabic]] vocabulary.<ref name="Abdou Elimam" /> It contains [[Berber languages|Berber]] loanwords, which represent 2–3% of the vocabulary of Libyan Arabic, 8–9% of Algerian and Tunisian Arabic, and 10–15% of Moroccan Arabic.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="Mohand">{{Cite journal |last=Tilmatine |first=Mohand |date=1999 |title=Substrat et convergences: Le berbère et l'arabe nord-africain |url=https://www.uco.es/ucopress/ojs/index.php/edna/article/view/7273 |journal=Estudios de dialectología norteafricana y andalusí |language=fr |volume=4 |pages=99–119}}</ref> The dialect may also possess a [[Substrata (linguistics)|substratum]] of [[Punic language|Punic]].<ref name="maghribi">{{Cite journal |last=Benramdane |first=Farid |date=1998 |title=''Le maghribi, langue trois fois millénaire'' de Elimam, Abdou (Éd. ANEP, Alger 1997) |url=http://insaniyat.revues.org/12102 |journal=Insaniyat |issue=6 |pages=129–130 |doi=10.4000/insaniyat.12102 |s2cid=161182954 |access-date=12 February 2015|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

===Latin substratum===
Additionally, Maghrebi Arabic has a [[Latin]] substratum, which may have been derived from the [[African Romance]] that was used as an urban lingua franca during the [[Byzantine Empire]] period.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sayahi|first1=Lotfi|title=Diglossia and Language Contact: Language Variation and Change in North Africa|date=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521119368|page=26|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9R5GAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA26|access-date=13 December 2017}}</ref>
in morphology, this substratum is considered the origin of the plural noun morphemes ''-əsh''/''-osh'' that are common in northern Moroccan dialects,<ref>{{Cite Q |Q117189070 |last=Aguadé |first=Jorge |p=34}}</ref> and probably the loss of gender in the second person singular of personal pronouns verbs, for example in Andalusian Arabic.<ref>{{Cite Q |Q117189169 |last=Corriente |first=Federico |pp=142–143}}</ref>
The lexicon contains many loanwords from Latin, e.g. Moroccan/Algerian/Tunisian {{langx |ary|شَاقُور |shāqūr |translit-std=ALA |lit=hatchet |label=none}} from {{wikt-lang|la|secūris}} (this could also be borrowed from Spanish {{wikt-lang|es|segur}});<ref>cf. {{Cite Q |Q117189196 |last=Singer |first=Hans R. |p=129}}</ref> {{langx |ary|rtl=no |{{wikt-lang|ary|ببوش}} | |translit-std=babbūsh |lit=snail |label=none}} from {{wikt-lang|la|babōsus}} and {{langx |ary|rtl=no |{{wikt-lang|ary|فلوس}} | |translit-std=falus |lit=chick |label=none}} from {{wikt-lang|la|pullus}} through Berber {{Lang|ber-Latn|afullus}}.<ref>{{Cite Q |Q117189070 |last=Aguadé |first=Jorge |p=35}}</ref>

===Relationship with other languages===
Maghrebi Arabic speakers frequently borrow words from French (in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia), Spanish (in northern Morocco and northwestern Algeria) and Italian (in Libya and Tunisia) and [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugate]] them according to the rules of their dialects with some exceptions (like passive voice for example). As it is not always written, there is no standard and it is free to change quickly and to pick up new vocabulary from neighboring languages. This is comparable to the evolution of [[Middle English]] after the [[Norman Conquest]].{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}}

== See also ==
* [[Maghrebi Arabs]]
* [[Varieties of Arabic]]
* [[Moroccan Arabic]]
* [[Languages of Africa]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
<references />

==Further reading==
* Singer, Hans-Rudolf (1980) “Das Westarabische oder Maghribinische” in Wolfdietrich Fischer and Otto Jastrow (eds.) ''Handbuch der arabischen Dialekte''. Otto Harrassowitz: Wiesbaden. 249–76.

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