View source for Machine perfusion

{{multiple issues|{{technical|date=February 2014}}
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'''Machine perfusion''' (MP) is an artificial [[perfusion]] technique often used for organ preservation to help facilitate [[organ transplantation]]. MP works by continuously pumping a specialized solution through [[Organ donation|donor organs]], mimicking the body's natural [[Hemodynamics|blood flow]] while actively controlling [[Thermoregulation|temperature]], [[Oxygen saturation|oxygen levels]], [[Composition of the human body|chemical composition]], and mechanical stress within the organ. By maintaining organ viability outside the body for extended periods, machine perfusion addresses critical challenges in organ transplantation, such as limited preservation times.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Fujiyoshi |first1=Masato |title=Chapter 2 - Machine perfusion for donor organ repair: from vision to everyday clinical practice |date=2021-01-01 |work=Organ Repair and Regeneration |pages=43–73 |editor-last=Orlando |editor-first=Giuseppe |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128194515000068 |access-date=2024-07-31 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-819451-5 |last2=de Meijer |first2=Vincent E. |last3=Porte |first3=Robert J. |editor2-last=Keshavjee |editor2-first=Shaf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jing |first1=Lei |last2=Yao |first2=Leeann |last3=Zhao |first3=Michael |last4=Peng |first4=Li-ping |last5=Liu |first5=Mingyao |date=2018 |title=Organ preservation: from the past to the future |journal=Acta Pharmacologica Sinica |language=en |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=845–857 |doi=10.1038/aps.2017.182 |pmid=29565040 |issn=1745-7254|pmc=5943901 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Qin |first1=Guangqi |last2=Jernryd |first2=Victoria |last3=Sjöberg |first3=Trygve |last4=Steen |first4=Stig |last5=Nilsson |first5=Johan |date=2022-03-21 |title=Machine Perfusion for Human Heart Preservation: A Systematic Review |journal=Transplant International |volume=35 |pages=10258 |doi=10.3389/ti.2022.10258 |doi-access=free |issn=0934-0874 |pmc=8983812 |pmid=35401041}}</ref>

Machine perfusion has various forms and can be categorised according to the temperature of the perfusate: cold (4&nbsp;°C) and warm (37&nbsp;°C).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kay|first1=Mark D.|last2=Hosgood|first2=Sarah A.|last3=Harper|first3=Simon J.F.|last4=Bagul|first4=Atul|last5=Waller|first5=Helen L.|last6=Nicholson|first6=Michael L.|date=November 2011|title=Normothermic Versus Hypothermic Ex Vivo Flush Using a Novel Phosphate-Free Preservation Solution (AQIX) in Porcine Kidneys|url=|journal=Journal of Surgical Research|language=en|volume=171|issue=1|pages=275–282|doi=10.1016/j.jss.2010.01.018|pmid=20421110}}</ref> Machine perfusion has been applied to [[kidney transplantation|renal transplantation]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Yong|first1=Cissy|last2=Hosgood|first2=Sarah A.|last3=Nicholson|first3=Michael L.|date=June 2016|title=Ex-vivo normothermic perfusion in renal transplantation: past, present and future|url=|journal=Current Opinion in Organ Transplantation |language=en|volume=21|issue=3|pages=301–307|doi=10.1097/MOT.0000000000000316|pmid=27145197|s2cid=22627245|issn=1087-2418}}</ref> [[liver transplantation]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ceresa|first1=Carlo D. L.|last2=Nasralla|first2=David|last3=Coussios|first3=Constantin C.|last4=Friend|first4=Peter J.|date=February 2018|title=The case for normothermic machine perfusion in liver transplantation: Ceresa et al.|url=https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:a610fe61-47ca-40d5-ae55-f05d6c533691/files/m667f87a793cf6dc43bbb11497943824a|journal=Liver Transplantation|language=en|volume=24|issue=2|pages=269–275|doi=10.1002/lt.25000|pmid=29272051|doi-access=free}}</ref> and [[lung transplantation]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cypel|first1=Marcelo|last2=Yeung|first2=Jonathan C.|last3=Liu|first3=Mingyao|last4=Anraku|first4=Masaki|last5=Chen|first5=Fengshi|last6=Karolak|first6=Wojtek|last7=Sato|first7=Masaaki|last8=Laratta|first8=Jane|last9=Azad|first9=Sassan|last10=Madonik|first10=Mindy|last11=Chow|first11=Chung-Wai|date=2011-04-14|title=Normothermic Ex Vivo Lung Perfusion in Clinical Lung Transplantation|url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/c35f/182c80add0ab4f83e6150dc72b9209292b9a.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222175835/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/c35f/182c80add0ab4f83e6150dc72b9209292b9a.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2020-02-22|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|language=en|volume=364|issue=15|pages=1431–1440|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1014597|pmid=21488765|s2cid=10576812|issn=0028-4793}}</ref> It is an alternative to static [[Refrigeration|cold storage]] (SCS).

==Research and development==
A record-long of human transplant organ [[Organ procurement#Preservation and transport|preservation]] with machine perfusion of a [[liver transplantation|liver]] for 3 days rather than usually <12 hours was reported in 2022. It could possibly be extended to 10 days and prevent substantial cell damage by low temperature preservation methods.<ref>{{cite news |title=Transplant success: Liver survives out of body for days |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/health-61631042 |access-date=24 June 2022 |work=BBC News |date=31 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clavien |first1=Pierre-Alain |last2=Dutkowski |first2=Philipp |last3=Mueller |first3=Matteo |last4=Eshmuminov |first4=Dilmurodjon |last5=Bautista Borrego |first5=Lucia |last6=Weber |first6=Achim |last7=Muellhaupt |first7=Beat |last8=Sousa Da Silva |first8=Richard X. |last9=Burg |first9=Brian R. |last10=Rudolf von Rohr |first10=Philipp |last11=Schuler |first11=Martin J. |last12=Becker |first12=Dustin |last13=Hefti |first13=Max |last14=Tibbitt |first14=Mark W. |title=Transplantation of a human liver following 3 days of ex situ normothermic preservation |journal=Nature Biotechnology |date=31 May 2022 |volume=40 |issue=11 |pages=1610–1616 |doi=10.1038/s41587-022-01354-7 |pmid=35641829 |s2cid=249234907 |language=en |issn=1546-1696}}</ref> Alternative approaches include novel [[cryoprotectant]] solvents.<ref>{{cite news |title=New cryoprotectant chemicals could preserve organs without ice damage |url=https://newatlas.com/medical/organ-preservation-cryoprotectant-no-ice-damage/ |access-date=24 June 2022 |work=New Atlas |date=22 June 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bryant |first1=Saffron J. |last2=Awad |first2=Miyah N. |last3=Elbourne |first3=Aaron |last4=Christofferson |first4=Andrew J. |last5=Martin |first5=Andrew V. |last6=Meftahi |first6=Nastaran |last7=Drummond |first7=Calum J. |last8=Greaves |first8=Tamar L. |last9=Bryant |first9=Gary |title=Deep eutectic solvents as cryoprotective agents for mammalian cells |journal=Journal of Materials Chemistry B |date=22 June 2022 |volume=10 |issue=24 |pages=4546–4560 |doi=10.1039/D2TB00573E |pmid=35670530 |language=en |issn=2050-7518}}</ref>

There is a novel organ perfusion system under development that can restore, i.e. on the cellular level, multiple vital (pig) organs one hour after death (during which the body had a prolonged warm [[ischaemia]]),<ref name="bbc62406350">{{cite news |title=Pig organs partially revived hour after death |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/health-62406350 |access-date=15 September 2022 |work=BBC News |date=3 August 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Andrijevic |first1=David |last2=Vrselja |first2=Zvonimir |last3=Lysyy |first3=Taras |last4=Zhang |first4=Shupei |last5=Skarica |first5=Mario |last6=Spajic |first6=Ana |last7=Dellal |first7=David |last8=Thorn |first8=Stephanie L. |last9=Duckrow |first9=Robert B. |last10=Ma |first10=Shaojie |last11=Duy |first11=Phan Q. |last12=Isiktas |first12=Atagun U. |last13=Liang |first13=Dan |last14=Li |first14=Mingfeng |last15=Kim |first15=Suel-Kee |last16=Daniele |first16=Stefano G. |last17=Banu |first17=Khadija |last18=Perincheri |first18=Sudhir |last19=Menon |first19=Madhav C. |last20=Huttner |first20=Anita |last21=Sheth |first21=Kevin N. |last22=Gobeske |first22=Kevin T. |last23=Tietjen |first23=Gregory T. |last24=Zaveri |first24=Hitten P. |last25=Latham |first25=Stephen R. |last26=Sinusas |first26=Albert J. |last27=Sestan |first27=Nenad |title=Cellular recovery after prolonged warm ischaemia of the whole body |journal=Nature |date=August 2022 |volume=608 |issue=7922 |pages=405–412 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-05016-1 |pmid=35922506 |pmc=9518831 |bibcode=2022Natur.608..405A |s2cid=251316299 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/362458029 |language=en |issn=1476-4687|url-access=subscription}}</ref> and a similar method/system for reviving (pig) brains hours after death.<ref name="bbc62406350"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vrselja |first1=Zvonimir |last2=Daniele |first2=Stefano G. |last3=Silbereis |first3=John |last4=Talpo |first4=Francesca |last5=Morozov |first5=Yury M. |last6=Sousa |first6=André M. M. |last7=Tanaka |first7=Brian S. |last8=Skarica |first8=Mario |last9=Pletikos |first9=Mihovil |last10=Kaur |first10=Navjot |last11=Zhuang |first11=Zhen W. |last12=Liu |first12=Zhao |last13=Alkawadri |first13=Rafeed |last14=Sinusas |first14=Albert J. |last15=Latham |first15=Stephen R. |last16=Waxman |first16=Stephen G. |last17=Sestan |first17=Nenad |title=Restoration of brain circulation and cellular functions hours post-mortem |journal=Nature |date=April 2019 |volume=568 |issue=7752 |pages=336–343 |doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1099-1 |pmid=30996318 |pmc=6844189 |bibcode=2019Natur.568..336V |language=en |issn=1476-4687}}</ref> The system for cellular recovery could be used to preserve [[donor organ]]s or for [[Resuscitation|revival]]-treatments in medical emergencies.<ref name="bbc62406350"/>

==History of kidney preservation techniques==
{{Hard to navigate|date=November 2022}}
[[File:Diagram of normothermic regional perfusion of abdominal organs prior in preparation for transplantation.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of normothermic regional perfusion of abdominal organs preparation for transplantation]]

An essential preliminary to the development of kidney storage and transplantation was the work of [[Alexis Carrel]] in developing methods for [[Vascular anastomosis]].<ref>{{cite journal | author = Carrel A | year = 1902 | title = La technique operatoire des anastomoses vasculaires et la transplantation des visceres | url = | journal = Lyon Med | volume = 98 | issue = | pages = 859–864 }}</ref> Carrel went on to describe the first kidney transplants, which were performed in dogs in 1902; Ullman<ref>{{cite journal | author = Ullman E | year = 1902 | title = Experimentalle Nierentransplantation | url = | journal = Wein Klin Wochschr | volume = 15 | issue = | pages = 281–282 }}</ref> independently described similar experiments in the same year. In these experiments kidneys were transplanted without there being any attempt at storage.

The crucial step in making in vitro storage of kidneys possible, was the demonstration by Fuhrman in 1943,<ref> {{cite journal | author = Fuhrman FA, Field J | year = 1943 | title = The reversibility of the inhibition of rat brain and kidney metabolism by cold | url = | journal = Am J Physiol | volume = 139 | issue = 2| pages = 193–196 | doi=10.1152/ajplegacy.1943.139.2.193| doi-access =  }}</ref> of a reversible effect of [[hypothermia]] on the metabolic processes of isolated tissues. Prior to this, kidneys had been stored at normal body temperatures using blood or diluted blood perfusates,<ref>{{cite journal | author = Carrel A, Lindbergh CA | year = 1935 | title = The culture of whole organs | journal = Science | volume = 81 | issue = 2112| pages = 621–623 | doi=10.1126/science.81.2112.621| pmid = 17733174 | bibcode = 1935Sci....81..621C | s2cid = 19034161 | url = http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/59bd/6e2c0fffc0ceae4aa6d21f40bf51229da21d.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Bainbridge FA, Evans CL | year = 1914 | title = The heart, lung, kidney preparation | url = | journal = J Physiol | volume = 48 | issue = 4| pages = 278–286 | doi=10.1113/jphysiol.1914.sp001661| pmid = 16993254 | pmc = 1420524 }}</ref> but no successful reimplantations had been made. Fuhrman showed that slices of [[rat]] kidney cortex and brain withstood cooling to 0.2&nbsp;°C for one hour at which temperature their oxygen consumption was minimal. When the slices were rewarmed to 37&nbsp;°C their oxygen consumption recovered to normal.

The beneficial effect of hypothermia on [[Ischemia|ischaemic]] intact kidneys was demonstrated by Owens in 1955<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Owens|first=J. Cuthbert|title=Prolonged Experimental Occlusion of Thoracic Aorta During Hypothermia|date=1955-01-01|url=|journal=Archives of Surgery|language=en|volume=70|issue=1|pages=95–7|doi=10.1001/archsurg.1955.01270070097016|pmid=13217608|issn=0004-0010}}</ref> when he showed that, if dogs were cooled to 23-26&nbsp;°C, and their [[thoracic aorta]]s were [[Vascular occlusion|occluded]] for 2 hours, their kidneys showed no apparent damage when the dogs were rewarmed. This protective effect of hypothermia on renal ischaemic damage was confirmed by Bogardus<ref>{{cite journal | author = Bogardus GM, Schlosser RJ | year = 1956 | title = The influence of temperature upon ischaemic renal damage | url = | journal = Surgery | volume = 39 | issue = 6| pages = 970–974 | pmid = 13324611 }}</ref> who showed a protective effect from surface cooling of dog kidneys whose renal pedicles were clamped in situ for 2 hours. Moyer<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Moyer|first1=John H.|last2=Morris|first2=George|last3=DeBakey|first3=Michael E.|date=January 1957|title=Hypothermia: I. Effect on Renal Hemodynamics and on Excretion of Water and Electrolytes in Dog and Man|url=|journal=Annals of Surgery|language=en|volume=145|issue=1|pages=26–40|doi=10.1097/00000658-195701000-00003|issn=0003-4932|pmc=1465379|pmid=13395281}}</ref> demonstrated the applicability of these dog experiments to the human, by showing the same effect on dog and human kidney function from the same periods of hypothermic ischaemia.

It was not until 1958 that it was shown that intact dog kidneys would survive ischaemia even better if they were cooled to lower temperatures. Stueber<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stueber|first1=P.|last2=Kovacs|first2=S.|last3=Koletsky|first3=S.|last4=Persky|first4=L.|date=July 1958|title=Regional renal hypothermia|url=|journal=Surgery|volume=44|issue=1|pages=77–83|issn=0039-6060|pmid=13556447}}</ref> showed that kidneys would survive in situ clamping of the renal pedicle for 6 hours if the kidneys were cooled to 0-5&nbsp;°C by being placed in a cooling jacket, and Schloerb<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Schloerb|first1=P. R.|last2=Waldorf|first2=R. D.|last3=Welsh|first3=J. S.|date=November 1959|title=The protective effect of kidney hypothermia on total renal ischemia|url=|journal=Surgery, Gynecology & Obstetrics|volume=109|pages=561–565|issn=0039-6087|pmid=14442912}}</ref> showed that a similar technique with cooling of heparinised [[dog]] kidneys to 2-4&nbsp;°C gave protection for 8 hours but not 12 hours. Schloerb also attempted in vitro storage and auto-transplantation of cooled kidneys, and had one long term survivor after 4 hours kidney storage followed by reimplantation and immediate contralateral [[nephrectomy]]. He also had a near survivor, after 24-hour kidney storage and delayed contralateral nephrectomy, in a dog that developed a late [[arterial thrombosis]] in the kidney.

These methods of surface cooling were improved by the introduction of techniques in which the kidney's vascular system was flushed out with cold fluid prior to storage. This had the effect of increasing the speed of cooling of the kidney and removed red cells from the vascular system. Kiser<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kiser|first1=J. C.|last2=Farley|first2=H. H.|last3=Mueller|first3=G. F.|last4=Strobel|first4=C. J.|last5=Hitchcock|first5=C. R.|date=1960|title=Successful renal autografts in the dog after seven hour selective kidney refrigeration|journal=Surgical Forum|volume=11|pages=26–28|issn=0071-8041|pmid=13756355}}</ref> used this technique to achieve successful 7 hours in vitro storage of a dog kidney, when the kidney had been flushed at 5&nbsp;°C with a mixture of dextran and diluted blood prior to storage. In 1960 Lapchinsky<ref>{{cite journal | author = Lapchinsky AG | year = 1960 | title = Recent results of experimental transplantation of preserved limbs and kidneys and possible use of this technique in clinical practice | url = | journal = Ann N Y Acad Sci | volume = 87 | issue = 1| pages = 539–569 | doi = 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1960.tb23220.x | pmid = 14414086 | bibcode = 1960NYASA..87..539L | s2cid = 41367748 }}</ref> confirmed that similar storage periods were possible, when he reported eight dogs surviving after their kidneys had been stored at 2-4&nbsp;°C for 28 hours, followed by auto-transplantation and delayed contralateral nephrectomy. Although Lapchinsky gave no details in his paper, Humphries<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal|author=Humphries AL|last2=Russell R|last3=Ostafin J|last4=Goodrich SM|last5=Moretz WH|year=1962|title=Successful reimplantation of Dog kidney after 24-hour storage|url=|journal=Surgical Forum|volume=13|issue=|pages=380–382|pmid=13955710}}</ref> reported that these experiments had involved cooling the kidneys for 1 hour with cold blood, and then storage at 2-4&nbsp;°C, followed by rewarming of the kidneys over 1 hour with warm blood at the time of reimplantation. The contralateral nephrectomies were delayed for two months.

Humphries<ref name="ReferenceA"/> developed this storage technique by continuously perfusing the kidney throughout the period of storage. He used diluted plasma or serum as the perfusate and pointed out the necessity for low perfusate pressures to prevent kidney swelling, but admitted that the optimum values for such variables as perfusate temperature, Po<sub>2</sub>, and flow, remained unknown. His best results, at this time, were 2 dogs that survived after having their kidneys stored for 24 hours at 4-10&nbsp;°C followed by auto-transplantation and delayed contralateral nephrectomy a few weeks later.

Calne<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Calne|first1=R. Y.|last2=Pegg|first2=D. E.|last3=Pryse-Davies|first3=J.|last4=Brown|first4=F. L.|date=1963-09-14|title=Renal Preservation by Ice-cooling|journal=BMJ|language=en|volume=2|issue=5358|pages=640–655|doi=10.1136/bmj.2.5358.640-a|pmid=14046169|pmc=1872740|issn=0959-8138}}</ref> challenged the necessity of using continuous perfusion methods by demonstrating that successful 12-hour preservation could be achieved using much simpler techniques. Calne had one kidney supporting life even when the contralateral nephrectomy was performed at the same time as the reimplantation operation. Calne merely heparinised dog kidneys and then stored them in iced solution at 4&nbsp;°C. Although 17-hour preservation was shown to be possible in one experiment when nephrectomy was delayed, no success was achieved with 24-hour storage.

The next advance was made by Humphries<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Humphries|first1=A. L.|last2=Moretz|first2=W. H.|last3=Peirce|first3=E. C.|title=Twenty-Four Hour Kidney Storage with Report of a Successful Canine Autotransplant After Total Nephrectomy|date=April 1964|url=|journal=Surgery|volume=55|pages=524–530|issn=0039-6060|pmid=14138017}}</ref> in 1964, when he modified the perfusate used in his original continuous perfusion system, and had a dog kidney able to support life after 24-hour storage, even when an immediate contralateral nephrectomy was performed at the same time as the reimplantation. In these experiments autogenous blood, diluted 50% with [[Tis-U-Sol solution]] at 10&nbsp;°C, was used as the perfusate. The perfusate pressure was 40&nbsp;mm Hg and perfusate pH 7.11-7.35 (at 37&nbsp;°C). A membrane lung was used for oxygenation to avoid damaging the blood.

In attempting to improve on these results Manax<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Manax|first=William G.|date=1965-05-31|title=Hypothermia and Hyperbaria: Simple Method for Whole Organ Preservation|url=|journal=JAMA|language=en|volume=192|issue=9|pages=755–9|doi=10.1001/jama.1965.03080220019004|pmid=14285707|issn=0098-7484}}</ref> investigated the effect of [[hyperbaric oxygen]], and found that successful 48-hour storage of dog kidneys was possible at 2&nbsp;°C without using continuous perfusion, when the kidneys were flushed with a [[dextran]]/Tis-U-Sol solution before storage at 7.9 atmospheres pressure, and if the contralateral nephrectomy was delayed till 2 to 4 weeks after reimplantation. Manax postulated that hyperbaric oxygen might work either by inhibiting [[metabolism]] or by aiding diffusion of oxygen into the kidney cells, but he reported no control experiments to determine whether other aspects of his model were more important than hyperbaria.

A marked improvement in storage times was achieved by Belzer in 1967<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Belzer|first1=Folkert O.|last2=Ashby|first2=B.Sterry|last3=Dunphy|first3=J.Englebert|title=24-Hour and 72-Hour Preservation of Canine Kidneys|date=September 1967|url=|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=290|issue=7515|pages=536–539|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(67)90498-9|pmid=4166894}}</ref> when he reported successful 72-hour kidney storage after returning to the use of continuous perfusion using a canine plasma based perfusate at 8-12&nbsp;°C. Belzer<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Belzer|first1=Folkert O.|last2=Ashby|first2=B. Sterry|last3=Huang|first3=Josephine S.|last4=Dunphy|first4=J. Englebert|date=September 1968|title=Etiology of Rising Perfusion Pressure in Isolated Organ Perfusion|url=|journal=Annals of Surgery|language=en|volume=168|issue=3|pages=382–391|doi=10.1097/00000658-196809000-00008|issn=0003-4932|pmc=1387342|pmid=4877588}}</ref> found that the crucial factor in permitting uncomplicated 72-hour perfusion was [[cryoprecipitation]] of the plasma used in the perfusate to reduce the amount of unstable lipo-proteins which otherwise precipitated out of solution and progressively obstructed the kidney's vascular system. A [[membrane oxygenator]] was also used in the system in a further attempt to prevent [[Denaturation (biochemistry)|denaturation]] of the [[Lipoprotein|lipo-proteins]] because only 35% of the lipo-proteins were removed by cryo-precipitation. The perfusate comprised 1 litre of canine plasma, 4 mEq of [[magnesium sulphate]], 250 mL of [[dextrose]], 80 units of [[insulin]], 200,000 units of [[penicillin]] and 100&nbsp;mg of [[hydrocortisone]]. Besides being [[Cryoprecipitate|cryo-precipitated]], the perfusate was pre-filtered through a 0.22 micron filter immediately prior to use. Belzer used a perfusate pH of 7.4-7.5, a Po<sub>2</sub> of 150–190&nbsp;mm Hg, and a perfusate pressure of 50–80&nbsp;mm Hg systolic, in a machine that produced a pulsatile perfusate flow. Using this system Belzer had 6 dogs surviving after their kidneys had been stored for 72 hours and then reimplanted, with immediate contralateral nephrectomies being performed at the reimplantation operations.

Belzer's use of [[hydrocortisone]] as an adjuvant to preservation had been suggested by Lotke's work with dog kidney slices,<ref>{{cite journal | author = Lotke PA | year = 1966 | title = Lysosome stabilising agents for hypothermic kidney preservation | url = | journal = Nature | volume = 212 | issue = 5061| pages = 512–513 | doi=10.1038/212512a0| pmid = 5339142 | bibcode = 1966Natur.212..512L | doi-access =  }}</ref> in which hydrocortisone improved the ability of slices to excrete PAH and oxygen after 30 hour storage at 2-4&nbsp;°C; Lotke suggested that hydrocortisone might be acting as a lysosomal membrane stabiliser in these experiments. The other components of Belzer's model were arrived at empirically. The insulin and magnesium were used partially in an attempt to induce artificial [[hibernation]], as Suomalainen<ref>{{cite journal | author = Suomalainen P | year = 1938 | title = Production of artificial hibernation | url = | journal = Nature | volume = 142 | issue = 3609| page = 1157 | doi=10.1038/1421157a0| bibcode = 1938Natur.142.1157S | s2cid = 4087215 | doi-access = free }}</ref> found this regime to be effective in inducing hibernation in natural hibernators. The magnesium was also provided as a metabolic inhibitor following Kamiyama's demonstration<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kamiyama|first=Teiko M.|date=1970-05-01|title=Preservation of the Anoxic Heart With a Metabolic Inhibitor and Hypothermia|url=|journal=Archives of Surgery|language=en|volume=100|issue=5|pages=596–9|doi=10.1001/archsurg.1970.01340230062016|pmid=4908950|issn=0004-0010}}</ref> that it was an effective agent in dog heart preservation. A further justification for the magnesium was that it was needed to replace calcium which had been bound by citrate in the [[Blood plasma|plasma]].

Belzer<ref>{{cite journal | author = Belzer FO, Kountz SL | year = 1970 | title = Preservation and transplantation of human cadaver kidneys: a two year experience | url = | journal = Ann Surg | volume = 172 | issue = 3| pages = 394–404 | doi = 10.1097/00000658-197009000-00009 | pmid = 4918001 | pmc = 1397323 }}</ref> demonstrated the applicability of his dog experiments to human kidney storage when he reported his experiences in human renal transplantation using the same storage techniques as he had used for dog kidneys. He was able to store kidneys for up to 50 hours with only 8% of patients requiring post operative dialysis when the donor had been well prepared.

In 1968 Humphries<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Humphries|first1=A. L.|last2=Russell|first2=R.|last3=Stoddard|first3=L. D.|last4=Moretz|first4=W. H.|date=May 1968|title=Successful five-day kidney preservation. Perfusion with hypothermic, diluted plasma|url=|journal=Investigative Urology|volume=5|issue=6|pages=609–618|issn=0021-0005|pmid=4914852}}</ref> reported 1 survivor out of 14 dogs following 5 day storage of their kidneys in a perfusion machine at 10&nbsp;°C, using a diluted plasma medium containing extra fatty acids. However, delayed contralateral nephrectomy 4 weeks after reimplantation was necessary in these experiments to achieve success, and this indicated that the kidneys were severely injured during storage.

In 1969 Collins<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Collins|first1=G.M.|last2=Bravo-Shugarman|first2=Maria|last3=Terasaki|first3=P.I.|title=Kidney Preservation for Transportation|date=December 1969|url=|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=294|issue=7632|pages=1219–1222|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(69)90753-3|pmid=4187813}}</ref> reported an improvement in the results that could be achieved with simple non perfusion methods of hypothermic kidney storage. He based his technique on the observation by Keller<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Keeler|first1=R.|last2=Swinney|first2=J.|last3=Taylor|first3=R. M. R.|last4=Uldall|first4=P. R.|title=The Problem of Renal Preservation1|date=December 1966|url=|journal=British Journal of Urology|language=en|volume=38|issue=6|pages=653–656|doi=10.1111/j.1464-410X.1966.tb09773.x|pmid=5335118}}</ref> that the loss of electrolytes from a kidney during storage could be prevented by the use of a storage fluid containing cations in quantities approaching those normally present in cells. In Collins' model, the dogs were well hydrated prior to nephrectomy, and were also given [[mannitol]] to induce a [[diuresis]]. Phenoxybenzamine, a vasodilator and lysozomal enzyme stabiliser,<ref>{{cite journal | author = Duff RS, Ginsberg J | year = 1957 | title = Some peripheral vascular effects of intra-arterial dibenyline in man | url = | journal = Clin Sci | volume = 16 | issue = 1| pages = 187–196 | pmid = 13414151 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Rangel DM, Bruckner WL, Byfield JE, Dinbar JE, Yakeishi Y, Stevens GH, Fonkalsrud EW | year = 1969 | title = Enzymatic evaluation of hepatic preservation using cell-stabilising drugs | url = | journal = Surg Gynecol Obstet | volume = 129 | issue = | pages = 963–972 }}</ref> was injected into the renal artery before nephrectomy. The kidneys were immersed in saline immediately after removal, and perfused through the renal artery with 100-150 mL of a cold electrolyte solution from a height of 100&nbsp;cm. The kidneys remained in iced saline for the rest of the storage period. The solution used for these successful cold perfusions imitated the electrolyte composition of intracellular fluids by containing large amounts of potassium and magnesium. The solution also contained glucose, heparin, procaine and phenoxybenzamine. The solution's pH was 7.0 at 25&nbsp;°C. Collins was able to achieve successful 24-hour storage of 6 kidneys, and 30 hour storage of 3 kidneys, with the kidneys functioning immediately after reimplantation, despite immediate contralateral nephrectomies. Collins emphasised the poor results obtained with a Ringer's solution flush, in finding similar results with this management when compared with kidneys treated by surface cooling alone. Liu<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Wen-Pen|last2=Humphries|first2=ArthurL.|last3=Stoddard|first3=LelandD.|last4=Moretz|first4=WilliamH.|title=48-Hour Kidney Storage|date=August 1970|url=|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=296|issue=7669|pages=423|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(70)90041-3|pmid=4194732}}</ref> reported that Collins' solution could give successful 48-hour storage when the solution was modified by the inclusion of amino acids and vitamins. However, Liu performed no control experiments to show that these modifications were crucial.

Difficulty was found by other workers in repeating Belzer's successful 72-hour perfusion storage experiments. Woods<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Woods|first=John E.|date=1970-11-01|title=Problems in 48- to 72-Hour Preservation of Canine Kidneys|url=|journal=Archives of Surgery|language=en|volume=101|issue=5|pages=605–9|doi=10.1001/archsurg.1970.01340290061013|pmid=5479705|issn=0004-0010}}</ref> was able to achieve successful 48-hour storage of 3 out of 6 kidneys when he used the Belzer additives with cryoprecipitated plasma as the perfusate in a hypothermic perfusion system, but he was unable to extend the storage time to 72 hours as Belzer had done. However, Woods<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite journal | author = Woods JE | year = 1971 | title = Successful three- to seven-day preservation of canine kidneys | url = | journal = Arch Surg | volume = 102 | issue = 6| pages = 614–616 | doi=10.1001/archsurg.1971.01350060078024| pmid = 4930759 }}</ref> later achieved successful 3 and 7 days storage of dog kidneys. Woods had modified Belzer's perfusate by the addition of 250&nbsp;mg of methyl prednisolone, increased the magnesium sulphate content to 16.2 mEq and the insulin to 320 units. Six of 6 kidneys produced life sustaining function when they were reimplanted after 72 hours storage despite immediate contralateral nephrectomies; 1 of 2 kidneys produced life sustaining function after 96 hours storage, 1 of 2 after 120 hours storage, and 1 of 2 after 168 hours storage. Perfusate pressure was 60&nbsp;mm Hg with a perfusate pump rate of 70 beats per minute, and perfusate pH was automatically maintained at 7.4 by a CO<sub>2</sub> titrator. Woods stressed the importance of hydration of the donor and recipient animals. Without the methyl prednisolone, Woods found vessel fragility to be a problem when storage times were longer than 48 hours.

A major simplification to the techniques of hypothermic perfusion storage was made by Johnson<ref name="ReferenceC">{{Cite journal|last1=Johnson|first1=R. W. G.|last2=Anderson|first2=Marilyn|last3=Flear|first3=C. T. G.|last4=Murray|first4=Sheila G. H.|last5=Taylor|first5=R. M. R.|last6=Swinney|first6=John|title=Evaluation of a New Perfusion Solution for Kidney Preservation|date=March 1972|url=|journal=Transplantation|language=en|volume=13|issue=3|pages=270–275|doi=10.1097/00007890-197203000-00012|pmid=4553729|s2cid=35755493|issn=0041-1337|doi-access=free}}</ref> and Claes in 1972<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Claes|first1=G.|last2=Aurell|first2=M.|last3=Blohmé|first3=I.|last4=Pettersson|first4=S.|date=1972|title=Experimental and clinical results of continuous hypothermic albumin perfusion|journal=Proceedings of the European Dialysis and Transplant Association. European Dialysis and Transplant Association|volume=9|pages=484–490|issn=0071-2736|pmid=4589766}}</ref> with the introduction of an albumin based perfusate. This perfusate eliminated the need for the manufacture of the cryoprecipitated and millipore filtered plasma used by Belzer. The preparation of this perfusate had been laborious and time-consuming, and there was the potential risk from hepatitis virus and cytotoxic antibodies. The absence of lipo-proteins from the perfusate meant that the membrane oxygenator could be eliminated from the perfusion circuit, as there was no need to avoid a perfusate/air interface to prevent precipitation of lipo-proteins. Both workers used the same additives as recommended by Belzer.

The solution that Johnson used was prepared by the Blood Products Laboratory (Elstree: England) by extracting heat labile fibrinogen and gamma globulins from plasma to give a plasma protein fraction (PPF) solution. The solution was incubated at 60&nbsp;°C for 10 hours to inactivate the agent of serum hepatitis.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Murray R, Diefenbach WCL | year = 1953 | title = Effect of heat on the agent of homologous serum hepatitis | url = | journal = Proc Soc Exp Biol Med | volume = 84 | issue = 1| pages = 230–231 | doi=10.3181/00379727-84-20599| pmid = 13120994 | s2cid = 29635377 }}</ref> The result was a 45 g/L human albumin solution containing small amounts of gamma and beta globulins which was stable between 0&nbsp;°C and 30&nbsp;°C for 5 years.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hink|first1=J. H.|last2=Pappenhagen|first2=.A. R.|last3=Lundblad|first3=J.|last4=Johnson|first4=F. F.|date=June 1970|title=Plasma Protein Fraction (Human)|journal=Vox Sanguinis|language=en|volume=18|issue=6|pages=527–541|doi=10.1111/j.1423-0410.1970.tb02185.x|pmid=4104308|s2cid=71936479}}</ref> PPF contained 2.2&nbsp;mmol/L of free fatty acids.<ref name="auto2">{{cite journal | author = Horsburgh T | year = 1973 | title = Possible role of free fatty acids in kidney preservation media | url = | journal = Nature New Biology| volume = 242 | issue = 117| pages = 122–123 | doi=10.1038/newbio242122a0| pmid = 4513414 }}</ref>

Johnson's<ref name="ReferenceC"/> experiments were mainly concerned with the storage of kidneys that had been damaged by prolonged warm injury. However, in a control group of non-warm injured dog kidneys, Johnson showed that 24-hour preservation was easily achieved when using a PPF perfusate, and he described elsewhere<ref>Johnson RWG. Studies in renal preservation. Newcastle, England: University of Newcastle, 1973. 94pp. M. S. Thesis.</ref> a survivor after 72 hours perfusion and reimplantation with immediate contralateral nephrectomy. With warm injured kidneys, PPF perfusion gave better results than Collins' method, with 6 out of 6 dogs surviving after 40 minutes warm injury and 24-hour storage followed by reimplantation of the kidneys and immediate contralateral nephrectomy. Potassium, magnesium, insulin, glucose, hydrocortisone and ampicillin were added to the PPF solution to provide an energy source and to prevent leakage of intracellular potassium. Perfusate temperature was 6&nbsp;°C, pressure 40–80&nbsp;mm Hg, and Po<sub>2</sub> 200–400&nbsp;mm Hg. The pH was maintained between 7.2 and 7.4.

Claes<ref name=":0" /> used a perfusate based on human albumin (Kabi: Sweden) diluted with saline to a concentration of 45 g/L. Claes preserved 4 out of 5 dog kidneys for 96 hours with the kidneys functioning immediately after reimplantation despite immediate contralateral nephrectomies. Claes also compared this perfusate with Belzer's cryoprecipitated plasma in a control group and found no significant difference between the function of the reimplanted kidneys in the two groups.

The only other group besides Woods' to report successful seven-day storage of kidneys was Liu and Humphries<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=W. P.|last2=Humphries|first2=A. L.|last3=Russell|first3=R.|last4=Stoddard|first4=L. D.|last5=Garcia|first5=L. A.|last6=Serkes|first6=K. D.|date=1973|title=Three- and seven-day perfusion of dog kidney with human plasma protein fraction IV-4|url=|journal=Surgical Forum|volume=24|pages=316–318|issn=0071-8041|pmid=4806016}}</ref> in 1973. They had three out of seven dogs surviving, after their kidneys had been stored for seven days followed by reimplantation and immediate contralateral nephrectomy. Their best dog had a peak post reimplantation creatinine of 50&nbsp;mg/L (0.44&nbsp;mmol/L). Liu used well hydrated dogs undergoing a mannitol diuresis and stored the kidneys at 9&nbsp;°C – 10&nbsp;°C using a perfusate derived from human PPF. The PPF was further fractionated by using a highly water-soluble polymer (Pluronic F-38), and sodium acetyl tryptophanate and sodium caprylate were added to the PPF as stabilisers to permit pasteurisation. To this solution were added human albumin, heparin, mannitol, glucose, magnesium sulphate, potassium chloride, insulin, methyl prednisolone, carbenicillin, and water to adjust the osmolality to 300-310&nbsp;[[Osmole (unit)|mosmol]]/kg. The perfusate was exchanged after 3.5 days storage. Perfusate pressure was 60&nbsp;mm Hg or less, at a pump rate of 60 per minute. Perfusate pH was 7.12–7.32 (at 37&nbsp;°C), Pco2 27–47&nbsp;mm Hg, and Po<sub>2</sub> 173–219&nbsp;mm Hg. In a further report on this study Humphries<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Humphries|first1=A. L.|last2=Garcia|first2=L. A.|last3=Serkes|first3=K. D.|date=September 1974|title=Perfusates for long-term preservation by continuous perfusion|journal=Transplantation Proceedings|volume=6|issue=3|pages=249–253|issn=0041-1345|pmid=4606897}}</ref> found that when the experiments were repeated with a new batch of PPF no survivors were obtained, and histology of the survivors from the original experiment showed glomerular hypercellularity which he attributed to a possible toxic effect of the Pluronic polymer.

Joyce and Proctor<ref>{{cite journal | author = Joyce M, Proctor E | year = 1974 | title = Hypothermic perfusion-preservation of dog kidneys for 48-72 hours without plasma derivatives or membrane oxygenation | url = | journal = Transplantation | volume = 18 | issue = 6| pages = 548–550 | doi=10.1097/00007890-197412000-00014| pmid = 4612890 | doi-access = free }}</ref> reported the successful use of a simple dextran based perfusate for 72-hour storage of dog kidneys. 10 out of 17 kidneys were viable after reimplantation and immediate contralateral nephrectomy. Joyce used non pulsatile perfusion at 4&nbsp;°C with a perfusate containing Dextran 70 (Pharmacia) 2.1%, with additional electrolytes, glucose (19.5&nbsp;g/L), procaine and hydrocortisone. The perfusate contained no plasma or plasma components. Perfusate pressure was only 30&nbsp;cm H<sub>2</sub>O, pH 7.34-7.40 and Po<sub>2</sub> 250–400&nbsp;mm Hg. This work showed that, for 72-hour storage, no nutrients other than glucose were needed, and low perfusate pressures and flows were adequate.

In 1973 Sacks<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sacks|first1=Stephen A.|last2=Petritsch|first2=Peter H.|last3=Kaufman|first3=Joseph J.|title=Canine Kidney Preservation Using a New Perfusate|date=May 1973|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=301|issue=7811|pages=1024–1028|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(73)90665-X|pmid=4122110}}</ref> showed that simple ice storage could be successfully used for 72-hour storage when a new flushing solution was used for the initial cooling and flush out of the kidney. Sacks removed kidneys from well hydrated dogs that were diuresing after a mannitol infusion, and flushed the kidneys with 200&nbsp;mL of solution from a height of 100&nbsp;cm. The kidneys were then simply kept at 2&nbsp;°C for 72 hours without further perfusion. Reimplantation was followed by immediate contralateral nephrectomies. The flush solution was designed to imitate intracellular fluid composition and contained mannitol as an impermeable ion to further prevent cell swelling. The osmolality of the solution was 430&nbsp;mosmol/kg and its pH was 7.0 at 2&nbsp;°C. The additives that had been used by Collins (dextrose, phenoxybenzamine, procaine and heparin) were omitted by Sacks.

These results have been equalled by Ross<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ross|first1=H.|last2=Marshall|first2=Vernon C.|last3=Escott|first3=Margaret L.|title=72-Hr Canine Kidney Preservation Without Continuous Perfusion|date=June 1976|journal=Transplantation|language=en|volume=21|issue=6|pages=498–501|doi=10.1097/00007890-197606000-00009|pmid=936278|s2cid=29098639|issn=0041-1337|doi-access=free}}</ref> who also achieved successful 72-hour storage without using continuous perfusion, although he was unable to reproduce Collins' or Sacks' results using the original Collins' or Sacks' solutions. Ross's successful solution was similar in electrolyte composition to intracellular fluid with the addition of hypertonic citrate and mannitol. No phosphate, bicarbonate, chloride or glucose were present in the solution; the osmolality was 400&nbsp;mosmol/kg and the pH 7.1. Five of 8 dogs survived reimplantation of their kidneys and immediate contralateral nephrectomy, when the kidneys had been stored for 72 hours after having been flushed with Ross's solution; but Ross was unable to achieve 7 day storage with this technique even when delayed contralateral nephrectomy was used.

The requirements for successful 72-hour hypothermic perfusion storage have been further defined by Collins who showed that pulsatile perfusion was not needed if a perfusate pressure of 49&nbsp;mm Hg was used, and that 7&nbsp;°C was a better temperature for storage than 2&nbsp;°C or 12&nbsp;°C.<ref name="auto">{{cite journal | author = Collins GM, Halasz NA | year = 1974 | title = Simplified 72-hr kidney storage | url = | journal = Surgical Forum | volume = 25 | issue = | pages = 275–277 | pmid = 4612775 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Collins GM, Halasz NA | year = 1973 | title = The role of pulsatile flow in kidney preservation | url = | journal = Transplantation | volume = 16 | issue = 4| pages = 378–379 | doi = 10.1097/00007890-197310000-00018 | pmid = 4583153 | doi-access = free }}</ref> He also compared various perfusate compositions and found that a phosphate buffered perfusate could be used successfully, so eliminating the need for a carbon dioxide supply.<ref name="auto"/> Grundmann<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Grundmann|first1=R.|last2=Raab|first2=M.|last3=Meusel|first3=E.|last4=Kirchhoff|first4=R.|last5=Pichlmaier|first5=H.|date=March 1975|title=Analysis of the optimal perfusion pressure and flow rate of the renal vascular resistance and oxygen consumption in the hypothermic perfused kidney|journal=Surgery|volume=77|issue=3|pages=451–461|issn=0039-6060|pmid=1092016}}</ref> has also shown that low perfusate pressure is adequate. He used a mean pulsatile pressure of 20&nbsp;mm Hg in 72-hour perfusions and found that this gave better results than mean pressures of 15, 40, 50 or 60&nbsp;mm Hg.

Successful storage up to 8 days was reported by Cohen<ref name=8day>{{cite thesis|degree=Ch.M|publisher=University of Liverpool|title=8 day kidney preservation|first= Geoffrey Leonard|last=Cohen|date=1982|url=http://copac.jisc.ac.uk/id/16255404?style=html|id={{EThOS|uk.bl.ethos.535952}}|website=copac.jisc.ac.uk|oclc=757144327|url-access=<!--WP:URLACCESS-->}} {{registration required}}</ref> using various types of perfusate – with the best result being obtained when using a phosphate buffered perfusate at 8&nbsp;°C. Inability to repeat these successful experiments was thought to be due to changes that had been made in the way that the PPF was manufactured with higher octanoic acid content being detrimental. Octanoic acid was shown to be able to stimulate metabolic activity during hypothermic perfusion<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cohen|first1=G.L.|last2=Burdett|first2=K.|last3=Johnson|first3=R.W.G.|date=December 1985|title=Stimulation of oxygen consumption by oleic and octanoic acid during hypothermic kidney preservation|journal=Cryobiology|language=en|volume=22|issue=6|pages=615–616|doi=10.1016/0011-2240(85)90078-1}}</ref> and this might be detrimental.

==Nature of kidney preservation injury==

===Structural injury===
The structural changes that occur during 72-hour hypothermic storage of previously uninjured kidneys have been described by Mackay<ref> Mackay B, Moloney PJ, Rix DB. "The use of electron microscopy in renal preservation and perfusion." In: Norman JC, ed. Organ perfusion and preservation. New York: Appleton Century Crofts,1968:697-714.</ref> who showed how there was progressive [[vacuolation]] of the [[cytoplasm]] of the cells which particularly affected the [[proximal tubule]]s. On electron microscopy the [[Mitochondrion|mitochondria]] were seen to become swollen with early separation of the internal cristal membranes and later loss of all internal structure. [[Lysosome|Lysosomal]] integrity was well preserved until late, and the destruction of the cell did not appear to be caused by lytic enzymes because there was no more injury immediately adjacent to the lysosomes than in the rest of the cell.{{cn|date=February 2022}}

Woods<ref name="ReferenceB"/><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Woods|first1=J. E.|last2=Fleisher|first2=G. A.|last3=Hirsche|first3=B. L.|date=September 1974|title=Five-day perfusion of canine kidneys: a postulated effect of steroids|journal=Transplantation Proceedings|volume=6|issue=3|pages=255–260|issn=0041-1345|pmid=4153357}}</ref> and Liu<ref name=":1" /> – when describing successful 5 and 7 day kidney storage - described the light microscopic changes seen at the end of perfusion and at post mortem, but found few gross abnormalities apart from some infiltration with lymphocytes and occasional tubular atrophy.

The changes during short perfusions of human kidneys prior to reimplantation have been described by Hill<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Hill|first1=G. S.|last2=Light|first2=J. A.|last3=Perloff|first3=L. J.|date=April 1976|title=Perfusion-related injury in renal transplantation|journal=Surgery|volume=79|issue=4|pages=440–447|issn=0039-6060|pmid=769223}}</ref> who also performed biopsies 1 hour after reimplantation. On electron microscopy Hill found endothelial damage which correlated with the severity of the fibrin deposition after reimplantation. The changes that Hill saw in the glomeruli on light microscopy were occasional fibrin thrombi and infiltration with polymorphs. Hill suspected that these changes were an immunologically induced lesion, but found that there was no correlation between the severity of the histological lesion and the presence or absence of immunoglobulin deposits.{{cn|date=February 2022}}

There are several reports of the analysis of urine produced by kidneys during perfusion storage. Kastagir<ref>{{cite journal | author = Kastagir BK, Kabb K, Leonards JR | year = 1969 | title = Ultrastructure in the canine kidney preserved for 24 hours | url = | journal = Trans Am Soc Artif Intern Organs | volume = 15 | issue = | pages = 214–218 | pmid = 4893029 }}</ref> analysed urine produced during 24-hour perfusion and found it to be an ultrafiltrate of the perfusate, Scott<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Scott|first1=D. F.|last2=Morley|first2=A. R.|last3=Swinney|first3=J.|date=September 1969|title=Canine renal preservation following hypothermic perfusion and subsequent function|journal=British Journal of Surgery|language=en|volume=56|issue=9|pages=688–691|doi=10.1002/bjs.1800560913|pmid=4897217|s2cid=44273808}}</ref> found a trace of protein in the urine during 24-hour storage, and Pederson<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pedersen|first1=F. B.|last2=Hrynczuk|first2=J. R.|last3=Scheibel|first3=J. H.|last4=Sørensen|first4=B L|date=January 1973|title=Urine Production and Metabolism of Glucose and Lactic Acid in the Kidney During 36 Hours of Cooling and Perfusion with Diluted Plasma|journal=Scandinavian Journal of Urology and Nephrology|language=en|volume=7|issue=1|pages=68–73|doi=10.3109/00365597309133675|pmid=4701659|issn=0036-5599}}</ref> found only a trace of protein after 36 hours perfusion storage. Pederson mentioned that he had found heavy proteinuria during earlier experiments. Woods<ref name=":2" /> noted protein casts in the tubules of viable kidneys after 5 day storage, but he did not analyse the urine produced during perfusion. In Cohen's study<ref name=8day/> there was a progressive increase in urinary protein concentration during 8 day preservation until the protein content of the urine equalled that of the perfusate. This may have been related to the swelling of the glomerular basement membranes and the progressive fusion of epithelial cell foot processes that was also observed during the same period of perfusion storage.

===Mechanisms of injury===
The mechanisms that damage kidneys during hypothermic storage can be sub-divided as follows:

# Injury to the metabolic processes of the cell caused by:
## Cold
## Anoxia when the kidney is warm both before and after the period of hypothermic storage.
## Failure to supply the correct nutrients.
## Toxin accumulation in the perfusate.
## Toxic damage from the storage fluid.
## Washout of essential substrates from the kidney cells.
# Injury to nuclear DNA.
# Mechanical injury to the vascular system of the kidney during hypothermic perfusion.
# Post reimplantation injury.

====Metabolic injury====

=====Cold=====

At normal temperatures pumping mechanisms in cell walls retain intracellular potassium at high levels and extrude sodium. If these pumps fail sodium is taken up by the cell and potassium lost. Water follows the sodium passively and results in swelling of the cells. The importance of this control of cell swelling was demonstrated by McLoughlin<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=McLoughlin|first1=Gerard A.|last2=Sells|first2=Robert A.|last3=Tyrrell|first3=Irene|date=May 1974|title=An evaluation of kidney preservation techniques|journal=British Journal of Surgery|language=en|volume=61|issue=5|pages=406–409|doi=10.1002/bjs.1800610520|pmid=4598857|s2cid=3249755}}</ref> who found a significant correlation between canine renal cortical water content and the ability of kidneys to support life after 36-hour storage. The pumping mechanism is driven by the enzyme system known as Na+K+- activated ATPase<ref>{{cite journal | author = Glynn IM | year = 1968 | title = Membrane adenosine triphosphatase and cation transport | url = | journal = Br Med Bull | volume = 24 | issue = 2| pages = 165–169 | doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.bmb.a070620| pmid = 4231272 }}</ref> and is inhibited by cold. Levy<ref>{{cite journal | author = Levy MN | year = 1959 | title = Oxygen consumption and blood flow in the hypothermic, perfused kidney | url = | journal = Am J Physiol | volume = 197 | issue = 5| pages = 1111–1114 | doi=10.1152/ajplegacy.1959.197.5.1111| pmid = 14416432 | doi-access =  }}</ref> found that metabolic activity at 10&nbsp;°C, as indicated by oxygen consumption measurements, was reduced to about 5% of normal and, because all enzyme systems are affected in a similar way by hypothermia, ATPase activity is markedly reduced at 10&nbsp;°C.

There are, however, tissue and species differences in the cold sensitivity of this ATPase which may account for the differences in the ability of tissues to withstand hypothermia. Martin<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Martin|first1=David R.|last2=Scott|first2=David F.|last3=Downes|first3=Glenn L.|last4=Belzer|first4=Folkert O.|date=January 1972|title=Primary Cause of Unsuccessful Liver and Heart Preservation: Cold Sensitivity of the ATPase System|journal=Annals of Surgery|language=en|volume=175|issue=1|pages=111–117|doi=10.1097/00000658-197201000-00017|issn=0003-4932|pmc=1355165|pmid=4258534}}</ref> has shown that in dog kidney cortical cells some ATPase activity is still present at 10&nbsp;°C but not at 0&nbsp;°C. In liver and heart cells activity was completely inhibited at 10&nbsp;°C and this difference in the cold sensitivity of ATPase correlated with the greater difficulty in controlling cell swelling during hypothermic storage of liver and heart cells. A distinct ATPase is found in vessel walls, and this was shown by Belzer<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Belzer|first1=Folkert O.|last2=Hoffman|first2=Robert|last3=Huang|first3=Josephine|last4=Downes|first4=Glenn|date=October 1972|title=Endothelial damage in perfused dog kidney and cold sensitivity of vascular NaK-ATPase|journal=Cryobiology|language=en|volume=9|issue=5|pages=457–460|doi=10.1016/0011-2240(72)90163-0|pmid=4265432}}</ref> to be completely inhibited at 10&nbsp;°C, when at this temperature kidney cortical cells ATPase is still active. These experiments were performed on aortic endothelium, but if the vascular endothelium of the kidney has the same properties, then vascular injury may be the limiting factor in prolonged kidney storage.

Willis<ref>{{cite journal | author = Willis JS | year = 1966 | title = Characteristics of ion transport in kidney cortex of mammalian hibernators | url = | journal = J Gen Physiol | volume = 49 | issue = 6| pages = 1221–1239 | doi=10.1085/jgp.0491221| pmid = 5924109 | pmc = 3328324 }}</ref> has shown how hibernators derive some of their ability to survive low temperatures by having a Na+K+-ATPase which is able to transport sodium and potassium actively across their cell membranes, at 5&nbsp;°C, about six times faster than in non-hibernators; this transport rate is sufficient to prevent cell swelling.

The rate of cooling of a tissue may also be significant in the production of injury to enzyme systems. Francavilla<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Francavilla|first1=Antonio|last2=Brown|first2=Theodore H.|last3=Fiore|first3=Rosa|last4=Cascardo|first4=Sergio|last5=Taylor|first5=Paul|last6=Groth|first6=Carl G.|date=1973|title=Preservation of Organs for Transplantation Evidence of Detrimental Effect of Rapid Cooling|url=|journal=European Surgical Research|language=en|volume=5|issue=5|pages=384–389|doi=10.1159/000127678|pmid=4595412|issn=1421-9921}}</ref> showed that when liver slices were rapidly cooled (immediate cooling to 12&nbsp;°C in 6 minutes) anaerobic glycolysis, as measured on rewarming to 37&nbsp;°C, was inhibited by about 67% of the activity that was demonstrated in slices that had been subjected to delayed cooling. However, dog kidney slices were less severely affected by the rapid cooling than were the liver slices.

=====Anoxia=====
All cells require ATP as an energy source for their metabolic activity. The kidney is damaged by anoxia when kidney cortical cells are unable to generate sufficient ATP under anaerobic conditions to meet the needs of the cells. When excising a kidney some anoxia is inevitable in the interval between dividing the renal artery and cooling the kidney. It has been shown by Bergstrom<ref>{{cite journal | author = Bergstrom J, Collste H, Groth C, Hultman E, Melin B | year = 1971 | title = Water, electrolyte and metabolic content in cortical tissue from dog kidneys preserved by hypothermia | url = | journal = Proc Eur Dialysis Transplant Ass | volume = 8 | issue = | pages = 313–320 }}</ref> that 50% of a dog's kidney's cortical cells ATP content is lost within 1 minute of clamping the renal artery, and similar results were found by Warnick<ref name="auto1">{{cite journal | author = Warnick CT, Lazarus HM | year = 1979 | title = The maintenance of adenine nucleotide levels during kidney storage in intracellular solutions | url = | journal = Proc Soc Exp Biol Med | volume = 160 | issue = 4| pages = 453–457 | doi=10.3181/00379727-160-40469| pmid = 450910 | s2cid = 29011354 }}</ref> in whole mice kidneys, with a fall in cellular ATP by 50% after about 30 seconds of warm anoxia. Warnick and Bergstrom also showed that cooling the kidney immediately after removal markedly reduced any further ATP loss. When these non warm-injured kidneys were perfused with oxygenated hypothermic plasma, ATP levels were reduced by 50% after 24-hour storage and, after 48 hours, mean tissue ATP levels were a little higher than this indicating that synthesis of ATP had occurred. Pegg<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pegg|first1=D. E|last2=Wusteman|first2=M. C.|last3=Foreman|first3=J.|title=Metabolism of Normal and Ischemically Injured Rabbit Kidneys During Perfusion for 48 Hours at 10 C|date=November 1981|journal=Transplantation|language=en|volume=32|issue=5|pages=437–443|doi=10.1097/00007890-198111000-00020|pmid=7330963|issn=0041-1337|doi-access=free}}</ref> has shown that rabbit kidneys can resynthesize ATP after a period of perfusion storage following warm injury, but no resynthesis occurred in non warm-injured kidneys.

Warm anoxia can also occur during reimplantation of the kidney after storage. Lannon<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lannon|first1=S. G.|last2=Tukaram|first2=K. T.|last3=Oliver|first3=J. A.|last4=MacKinnon|first4=K. J.|last5=Dossetor|first5=J. B.|date=May 1967|title=Preservation of kidneys assessed by a biochemical parameter|journal=Surgery, Gynecology & Obstetrics|volume=124|issue=5|pages=999–1004|issn=0039-6087|pmid=5336874}}</ref> showed, by measurements of succinate metabolism, how the kidney was more sensitive to a period of warm hypoxia occurring after storage than to the same period of warm hypoxia occurring immediately prior to storage.

=====Lack of essential nutrients=====

Active metabolism of glucose with production of bicarbonate has been demonstrated by Pettersson<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last1=Pettersson|first1=Silas|last2=Claes|first2=Göran|last3=Scherstén|first3=Tore|date=1974|title=Fatty Acid and Glucose Utilization During Continuous Hypothermic Perfusion of Dog Kidney|journal=European Surgical Research|language=en|volume=6|issue=2|pages=79–94|doi=10.1159/000127708|pmid=4425410|issn=1421-9921}}</ref> and Cohen.<ref name=8day/>

Pettersson studies<ref name=":4" /> were on the metabolism of glucose and fatty acids by kidneys during 6 day hypothermic perfusion storage and he found that the kidneys consumed glucose at 4.4 μmol/g/day and fatty acids at 5.8 μmol/g/day. In Cohen's study<ref name=8day/> the best 8 day stored kidneys consumed glucose at the rate of 2.3 μmol/g/day and 4.9 μmol/g/day respectively which made it likely that they were using fatty acids at similar rates to Pettersson's dogs' kidneys. The constancy of both the glucose consumption rate and the rate of bicarbonate production implied that no injury was affecting the glycolytic enzyme or carbonic anhydrase enzyme systems.

Lee<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=James B.|last2=Vance|first2=Vernon K.|last3=Cahill|first3=George F.|date=1962-07-01|title=Metabolism of C 14 -labeled substrates by rabbit kidney cortex and medulla|url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/742d/f7d7cc18b4e126bf7d6203be52b15c658f83.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190226163928/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/742d/f7d7cc18b4e126bf7d6203be52b15c658f83.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2019-02-26|journal=American Journal of Physiology. Legacy Content|language=en|volume=203|issue=1|pages=27–36|doi=10.1152/ajplegacy.1962.203.1.27|pmid=14463505|s2cid=33890310|issn=0002-9513}}</ref> showed that fatty acids were the preferred substrate of the rabbit's kidney cortex at normothermic temperatures, and glucose the preferred substrate for the medullary cells which normally metabolise anaerobically. Abodeely<ref>{{cite journal | author = Abodeely DA, Lee JB | year = 1971 | title = Fuel of respiration of renal medulla | url = | journal = Am J Physiol | volume = 220 | issue = 6| pages = 1693–1700 | doi=10.1152/ajplegacy.1971.220.6.1693| pmid = 4253387 }}</ref> showed that both fatty acids and glucose could be utilised by the outer medulla of the rabbit's kidney but that glucose was used preferentially. At hypothermia the metabolic needs of the kidney are much reduced but measurable consumption of glucose, fatty acids and ketone bodies occurs. Horsburgh<ref name="auto2"/> showed that lipid is utilised by hypothermic kidneys, with palmitate consumption being 0-15% of normal in the rat kidney cortex at 15&nbsp;°C. Pettersson<ref name=":4" /> showed that, on a molar basis, glucose and fatty acids were metabolised by hypothermically perfused kidneys at about the same rates. The cortex of the hypothermic dog kidney was shown by Huang<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Huang|first1=J. S.|last2=Downes|first2=G. L.|last3=Belzer|first3=F. O.|date=September 1971|title=Utilization of fatty acids in perfused hypothermic dog kidney|url=|journal=Journal of Lipid Research|volume=12|issue=5|pages=622–627|doi=10.1016/S0022-2275(20)39482-7|issn=0022-2275|pmid=5098398|doi-access=free}}</ref> to lose lipid (35% loss of total lipid after 24 hours) unless oleate was added to the kidney perfusate. Huang commented that this loss could affect the structure of the cell and that the loss also suggested that the kidney was utilising fatty acid. In a later publication Huang<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Huang|first1=Josephine S.|last2=Downes|first2=Glenn L.|last3=Childress|first3=Gwendolyn L.|last4=Felts|first4=James M.|last5=Belzer|first5=Folkert O.|date=October 1974|title=Oxidation of 14C-labeled substrates by dog kidney cortex at 10 and 38 °C|url=|journal=Cryobiology|language=en|volume=11|issue=5|pages=387–394|doi=10.1016/0011-2240(74)90105-9|pmid=4452273}}</ref> showed that dog kidney cortex slices metabolised fatty acids, but not glucose, at 10&nbsp;°C.

Even if the correct nutrients are provided, they may be lost by absorption into the tubing of the preservation system. Lee<ref>{{cite journal | author = Lee KY | year = 1971 | title = Loss of lipid to plastic tubing | url = | journal = J Lipid Res | volume = 12 | issue = 5| pages = 635–636 | doi = 10.1016/S0022-2275(20)39484-0 | pmid = 5098400 | doi-access = free }}</ref> demonstrated that silicone rubber (a material used extensively in kidney preservation systems) absorbed 46% of a perfusate's oleic acid after 4 hours of perfusion.

=====Toxin accumulation=====
Abouna<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Abouna|first1=G. M.|last2=Lim|first2=F.|last3=Cook|first3=J. S.|last4=Grubb|first4=W.|last5=Craig|first5=S. S.|last6=Seibel|first6=H. R.|last7=Hume|first7=D. M.|date=March 1972|title=Three-day canine kidney preservation|journal=Surgery|volume=71|issue=3|pages=436–444|issn=0039-6060|pmid=4551562}}</ref> showed that ammonia was released into the perfusate during 3 day kidney storage, and suggested that this might be toxic to the kidney cells unless removed by frequent replacement of the perfusate. Some support for the use of perfusate exchange during long perfusions was provided by Liu<ref name=":1" /> who used perfusate exchange in his successful 7 day storage experiments. Grundmann<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Grundmann|first1=R|last2=Berr|first2=F|last3=Pitschi|first3=H|last4=Kirchhoff|first4=R|last5=Pichlmaier|first5=H|title=Ninety-Six-Hour Preservation of Canine Kidneys|date=March 1974|journal=Transplantation|language=en|volume=17|issue=3|pages=299–305|doi=10.1097/00007890-197403000-00010|pmid=4592185|s2cid=37365155|issn=0041-1337|doi-access=free}}</ref> also found that 96-hour preservation quality was improved by the use of a double volume of perfusate or by perfusate exchange. However, Grundmann's conclusions were based on comparisons with a control group of only 3 dogs. Cohen<ref name=8day/> was unable to demonstrate any production of ammonia during 8 days of perfusion and no benefit from perfusate exchange; the progressive alkalinity that occurred during perfusion was shown to be due to bicarbonate production.

=====Toxic damage from the perfusate=====
Certain perfusates have been shown to have toxic effects on kidneys as a result of the inadvertent inclusion of particular chemicals in their formulation. Collins<ref>{{cite journal | author = Collins GM, Halasz NA | year = 1976 | title = Forty-eight hour ice storage of kidneys. Importance of cation content | url = | journal = Surgery | volume = 79 | issue = 4| pages = 432–435 | pmid = 769222 }}</ref> showed that the procaine included in the formulation of his flush fluids could be toxic, and Pegg<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pegg|first1=D. E.|last2=Fuller|first2=B. J.|last3=Foreman|first3=J.|last4=Green|first4=C. J.|date=December 1972|title=The choice of plastic tubing for organ perfusion experiments|journal=Cryobiology|volume=9|issue=6|pages=569–571|doi=10.1016/0011-2240(72)90182-4|issn=0011-2240|pmid=4658019}}</ref> has commented how toxic materials, such as PVC plasticizers, may be washed out of perfusion circuit tubing. Dvorak<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dvorak|first1=Kenneth J.|last2=Braun|first2=William E.|last3=Magnusson|first3=Magnus O.|last4=Stowe|first4=Nicholas T.|last5=Banowsky|first5=Lynn H. W.|title=Effect of High Doses of Methylprednisolone on the Isolated, Perfused Canine Kidney|date=February 1976|journal=Transplantation|language=en|volume=21|issue=2|pages=149–157|doi=10.1097/00007890-197602000-00010|pmid=1251463|s2cid=29825354|issn=0041-1337|doi-access=free}}</ref> showed that the methyl-prednisolone addition to the perfusate that was thought to be essential by Woods<ref name=":2" /> might in some circumstances be harmful. He showed that with over &nbsp;g of methyl-prednisolone in 650&nbsp;mL of perfusate (compared with 250&nbsp;mg in 1 litre used by Woods) irreversible haemodynamic and structural changes were produced in the kidney after 20 hours of perfusion. There was necrosis of capillary loops, occlusion of Bowman's spaces, basement membrane thickening and endothelial cell damage.

=====Washout of essential substrates=====
The level of nucleotides remaining in the cell after storage was thought by Warnick<ref name="auto1"/> to be important in determining whether the cell would be able to re-synthesize ATP and recover after rewarming. Frequent changing of the perfusate or the use of a large volume of perfusate has the theoretical disadvantage that broken down adenine nucleotides may be washed out of the cells and so not be available for re-synthesis into ATP when the kidney is rewarmed.

====Injury to nuclear DNA====
Nuclear DNA is injured during cold storage of kidneys. Lazarus<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lazarus|first1=Harrison M.|last2=Warnick|first2=C.Terry|last3=Hopfenbeck|first3=Arlene|date=April 1982|title=DNA strand breakage after kidney storage|journal=Cryobiology|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=129–135|doi=10.1016/0011-2240(82)90133-X|pmid=7083879}}</ref> showed that single stranded DNA breaks occurred within 16 hours in hypothermically stored mice kidneys, with the injury being inhibited a little by storage in Collins' or Sacks' solutions. This nuclear injury differed from that seen in warm injury when double stranded DNA breaks occurred.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Lazarus HM, Hopfenbeck A | year = 1974 | title = DNA degradation during storage | url = | journal = Experientia | volume = 30 | issue = 12| pages = 1410–1411 | doi=10.1007/bf01919664| pmid = 4442530 | s2cid = 5240888 }}</ref>

====Mechanical injury to the vascular system====
Perfusion storage methods can mechanically injury the vascular endothelium of the kidney, which leads to arterial thrombosis or fibrin deposition after reimplantation. Hill<ref name=":3" /> noted that, in human kidneys, fibrin deposition in the glomerulus after reimplantation and postoperative function, correlated with the length of perfusion storage. He had taken biopsies at revascularisation from human kidneys preserved by perfusion or ice storage, and showed by electron microscopy that endothelial disruption only occurred in those kidneys that had been perfused. Biopsies taken one hour after revascularisation showed platelets and fibrin adherent to any areas of denuded vascular basement membrane. A different type of vascular damage was described by Sheil<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sheil|first1=A. G. Ross|last2=Drummond|first2=J. Malcolm|last3=Boulas|first3=John|title=Vascular Thrombosis in Machine-Perfused Renal Allografts|date=August 1975|journal=Transplantation|language=en|volume=20|issue=2|pages=178–9|doi=10.1097/00007890-197508000-00016|pmid=1101485|issn=0041-1337|doi-access=free}}</ref> who showed how a jet lesion could be produced distal to the cannula tied into the renal artery, leading to arterial thrombosis approximately 1&nbsp;cm distal to the cannula site.

====Post reimplantation injury====
There is evidence that immunological mechanisms may injure hypothermically perfused kidneys after reimplantation if the perfusate contained specific antibody. Cross<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cross|first1=Donald E.|last2=Whittier|first2=Frederick C.|last3=Cuppage|first3=Francis E.|last4=Crouch|first4=Thomas|last5=Manuel|first5=Eugene L.|last6=Grantham|first6=Jared J.|title=Hyperacute Rejection of Renal Allografts Following Pulsatile Perfusion with a Perfusate Containing Specific Antibody|date=June 1974|url=|journal=Transplantation|language=en|volume=17|issue=6|pages=626–628|doi=10.1097/00007890-197406000-00013|pmid=4597928|issn=0041-1337|doi-access=free}}</ref> described two pairs of human cadaver kidneys that were perfused simultaneously with cryoprecipitated plasma containing type specific HLA antibody to one of the pairs. Both these kidneys suffered early arterial thrombosis. Light<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Light|first1=Jimmy A.|last2=Annable|first2=Charles|last3=Perloff|first3=Leonard J.|last4=Sulkin|first4=Michael D.|last5=Hill|first5=Gary S.|last6=Etheredge|first6=Edward E.|last7=Spees|first7=Everett K.|title=Immune Injury from Organ Preservation|date=June 1975|url=|journal=Transplantation|language=en|volume=19|issue=6|pages=511–516|doi=10.1097/00007890-197506000-00010|s2cid=45211253|issn=0041-1337|doi-access=free}}</ref> described similar hyperacute rejection following perfusion storage and showed that the cryoprecipitated plasma used contained cytotoxic IgM antibody. This potential danger of using cryoprecipitated plasma was demonstrated experimentally by Filo<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Filo|first1=R. S.|last2=Dickson|first2=L. G.|last3=Suba|first3=E. A.|last4=Sell|first4=K. W.|date=July 1974|title=Immunologic injury induced by ex vivo perfusion of canine renal autografts|journal=Surgery|volume=76|issue=1|pages=88–100|issn=0039-6060|pmid=4601595}}</ref> who perfused dog kidneys for 24 hours with specifically sensitised cryoprecipitated dog plasma and found that he could induce glomerular and vascular lesions with capillary engorgement, endothelial swelling, infiltration by polymorphonuclear leucocytes and arterial thrombosis. Immunofluorescent microscopy demonstrated specific binding of IgG along endothelial surfaces, in glomeruli, and also in vessels. After reimplantation, complement fixation and tissue damage occurred in a similar pattern. There was some correlation between the severity of the histological damage and subsequent function of the kidneys.

Many workers have attempted to prevent kidneys rewarming during reimplantation but only Cohen has described using a system of active cooling.<ref name=8day/> Measurements of lysosomal enzyme release from kidneys subjected to sham anastomoses, when either in or out of the cooling system, demonstrated how sensitive kidneys were to rewarming after a period of cold storage, and confirmed the effectiveness of the cooling system in preventing enzyme release. A further factor in minimising injury at the reimplantation operations may have been that the kidneys were kept at 7&nbsp;°C within the cooling coil, which was within a degree of the temperature used during perfusion storage, so that the kidneys were not subjected to the greater changes in temperature that would have occurred if ice cooling had been used.

Dempster<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dempster|first1=W. J.|last2=Kountz|first2=S. L.|last3=Jovanovic|first3=M.|date=1964-02-15|title=Simple Kidney-storage Technique|url=|journal=BMJ|language=en|volume=1|issue=5380|pages=407–410|doi=10.1136/bmj.1.5380.407|issn=0959-8138|pmc=1813389|pmid=14085969}}</ref> described using slow release of the vascular clamps at the end of kidney reimplantation operations to avoid injuring the kidney, but other workers have not mentioned whether or not they used this manoeuvre. After Cohen found vascular injury with intra renal bleeding after 3 days of perfusion storage,<ref name=8day/> a technique of slow revascularisation was used for all subsequent experiments, with the aim of giving the intra- renal vessels time to recover their tone sufficiently to prevent full systolic pressure being applied to the fragile glomerular vessels. The absence of gross vascular injury in his later perfusions may be attributable to the use of this manoeuvre.

==See also==
* [[Artificial organ]]
* [[Cryopreservation]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

{{Organ transplantation}}

[[Category:Cryobiology]]
[[Category:Medical technology]]
[[Category:Transplantation medicine]]