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{{short description|Medicine and public health supported by mobile devices}}
{{lowercase title}}
{{rewrite|date=May 2025}}
[[File:Nurse in Ghana using mobile phone.png|right|thumb|Nurse using a mobile phone in Accra, Ghana]]
'''mHealth''' (also written as '''m-health''' or '''mhealth''') is an abbreviation for '''mobile health''', a term used for the practice of medicine and public health supported by mobile devices.<ref name=mmhealthroadmapbook>{{cite book
| editor-last   = Adibi
| editor-first  = Sasan
| title         = Mobile Health: A Technology Road Map
| date          = February 19, 2015
| page          = 1
| publisher     = Springer
| isbn          = 978-3-319-12817-7
| url           = https://www.springer.com/engineering/biomedical+engineering/book/978-3-319-12816-0
| series  = Springer Series in Bio-/Neuroinformatics
| volume = 5
| doi = 10.1007/978-3-319-12817-7
}}
</ref> The term is most commonly used in reference to using mobile communication devices, such as [[mobile phones]], tablet computers and [[personal digital assistants]] (PDAs), and wearable devices such as smart watches, for [[health services]], information, and data collection.<ref name="Cipresso 23–30">{{cite journal |last=Cipresso |first=P. |author2=Serino S. |author3=Villani D. |author4=Repetto C. |author5=Selitti L. |author6=Albani G. |author7=Mauro A. |author8=Gaggioli A. |author9=Riva G.   |title=Is your phone so smart to affect your states? An exploratory study based on psychophysiological measures |journal=Neurocomputing |year=2012 |volume=84 |pages=23–30 |doi=10.1016/j.neucom.2011.12.027}}</ref> The mHealth field has emerged as a sub-segment of [[eHealth]] and [[digital health]], the use of information and communication technology ([[Information and communication technologies|ICT]]), such as [[computers]], mobile phones, [[communications satellite]], [[patient monitors]], etc., for health services and information.<ref>{{cite web|last=Walker|first=Mark|date=2024|title=What is digital health?|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/378547929}}</ref> mHealth applications include the use of mobile devices in collecting community and clinical health data, delivery/sharing of healthcare information for practitioners, researchers and patients, real-time monitoring of patient [[vital signs]], the direct provision of care (via mobile [[Telehealth|telemedicine]]) as well as training and collaboration of health workers.<ref name="Pimmer">{{cite journal |last1=Pimmer|first1=Christoph |last2=Tulenko |first2=Kate |date=2016|title=The convergence of mobile and social media: Affordances and constraints of mobile networked communication for health workers in low- and middle-income countries |journal=Mobile Media & Communication |volume=4|issue=2 |pages=252–269 |doi=10.1177/2050157915622657|s2cid=167748382 }}</ref><ref name="mobileagents">{{cite conference |vauthors=Germanakos P, Mourlas C, Samaras G |url=http://www.media.uoa.gr/~pgerman/publications/published_papers/A_Mobile_Agent_Approach_for_Ubiquitous_and_Personalized_eHealth_Information_Systems.pdf |title=A Mobile Agent Approach for Ubiquitous and Personalized eHealth Information Systems |book-title=Proceedings of the Workshop on 'Personalization for e-Health' of the 10th International Conference on User Modeling (UM'05). Edinburgh, July 29, 2005 |pages=67–70 }}</ref>

In 2019, the global market for mHealth apps was estimated at US$17.92 billion, with a compound annual growth rate of 45% predicted from 2020 to 2027.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Alhur |first1=Mohammad Salem |last2=Alshamari |first2=Shaher |last3=Oláh |first3=Judit |last4=Aldreabi |first4=Hanadi |date=2022-01-01 |title=Unsupervised Machine Learning to Identify Positive and Negative Themes in Jordanian mHealth Apps |url=https://www.igi-global.com/article/unsupervised-machine-learning-to-identify-positive-and-negative-themes-in-jordanian-mhealth-apps/www.igi-global.com/article/unsupervised-machine-learning-to-identify-positive-and-negative-themes-in-jordanian-mhealth-apps/313950 |journal=International Journal of E-Services and Mobile Applications |language=en |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=1–21 |doi=10.4018/IJESMA.313950 |issn=1941-627X|doi-access=free }}</ref> While mHealth has application for [[industrialized nations]], the field has emerged in recent years as largely an application for [[developing countries]], stemming from the rapid rise of mobile phone penetration in low-income nations. The field, then, largely emerges as a means of providing greater access to larger segments of a population in developing countries, as well as improving the capacity of health systems in such countries to provide quality healthcare.<ref name=mhealthverticalsbook>{{cite book
| editor-last   = Adibi
| editor-first  = Sasan
| title= mHealth Multidisciplinary Verticals
| date= November 24, 2014
| page          = 259
| publisher     = CRC Press (Taylor & Francis Group)
| isbn          = 978-1-482-21480-2
| url= http://www.crcpress.com/product/isbn/9781482214802
}}
</ref>
Within the mHealth space, projects operate with a variety of objectives, including increased access to healthcare and health-related information (particularly for hard-to-reach populations); improved ability to [[diagnose]] and track diseases; timelier, more actionable [[public health]] information; and expanded access to ongoing medical education and training for health workers.<ref name=v>{{cite book|author=Vital Wave Consulting|date=February 2009|title=mHealth for Development: The Opportunity of Mobile Technology for Healthcare in the Developing World|publisher=[[United Nations Foundation]], Vodafone Foundation|page=9|url=http://www.vitalwaveconsulting.com/pdf/2011/mHealth.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121203014521/http://vitalwaveconsulting.com/pdf/2011/mHealth.pdf|archive-date=2012-12-03}}</ref><ref name="CFP">{{cite journal|last1=Masson|first1=M|title=Benefits of TED Talks|journal=Canadian Family Physician|date=December 2014|volume=60|issue=12|pages=1080|pmid=25500595|pmc=4264800}}</ref>

==Definitions==
[[File:Saving Lives with SMS for Life.jpg|right|thumb|Malaria Clinic in Tanzania helped by [[Extreme Blue#Projects|SMS for Life]] program that uses cell phones to efficiently deliver [[malaria vaccine]]]]
mHealth broadly encompasses the use of [[mobile telecommunication]] and multimedia technologies in health and medical care. The field broadly encompasses the use of mobile telecommunication and multimedia technologies in health care delivery. The term mHealth was coined by Robert Istepanian as use of "emerging mobile communications and network technologies for healthcare".<ref name=mhealthbook>{{cite book |editor1-last=Istepanian |editor1-first=Robert S.H. |editor1-link=Robert Istepanian |editor2-last=Laxminarayan |editor2-first=Swamy |editor3-last=Pattichis |editor3-first=Constantinos S. |year=2006 |title=M-Health: Emerging Mobile Health Systems |series=Topics in Biomedical Engineering |publisher=Springer |location=Boston, MA |isbn=978-0-387-26558-2 |oclc=836533004 |doi=10.1007/b137697 |bibcode=2006mhem.book.....I }}</ref>{{Page needed|date=October 2017}}
A definition used at the 2010 mHealth Summit of the Foundation for the [[National Institutes of Health]] (FNIH) was "the delivery of healthcare services via mobile communication devices".<ref name="caroltorgan1">
{{cite web
| url        = http://www.caroltorgan.com/mhealth-summit/
| title      = The mHealth Summit: Local & Global Converge
| first      = Carol
| last       = Torgan
| date       = November 6, 2009
| work       = caroltorgan.com
| access-date = July 29, 2011
}}
</ref> The GSM Association representing the worldwide mobile communications industry published a report on mHealth in 2010 describing a new vision for healthcare and identified ways in which mobile technology might play a role in innovating healthcare delivery systems and healthcare system cost management.<ref>{{Cite web|title=mHealth: a new vision for healthcare|url=https://www.gsma.com/iot/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/gsmamckinseymhealthreport.pdf}}</ref>

While there are some projects that are considered solely within the field of mHealth, the linkage between mHealth and [[eHealth]] is unquestionable. For example, an mHealth project that uses mobile phones to access data on [[HIV/AIDS]] rates would require an eHealth system in order to manage, store, and assess the data. Thus, eHealth projects many times operate as the backbone of mHealth projects.<ref name=v/>

In a similar vein, while not clearly bifurcated by such a definition, eHealth can largely be viewed as technology that supports the functions and delivery of healthcare, while mHealth rests largely on providing healthcare access.<ref name="caroltorgan1"/> Because mHealth is by definition based on mobile technology such as smartphones, healthcare, through information and delivery, can better reach areas, people, and/or healthcare practitioners with previously limited exposure to certain aspects of healthcare. The [[National Institute for Health and Care Research]] (NIHR) has published a review of research on how mHealth and digital health technologies can help manage health conditions.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=What is digital health technology and what can it do for me? |url=https://evidence.nihr.ac.uk/collection/what-is-digital-health-technology/ |website=NIHR Evidence|year=2022 |doi=10.3310/nihrevidence_53447 |s2cid=252584020 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

== Medical uses ==
mHealth apps are designed to support diagnostic procedures, to aid physician decision-making for treatments, and to advance disease-related education for physicians and people under treatment.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Rowland SP, Fitzgerald JE, Holme T, Powell J, McGregor A|year=2020|title=What is the clinical value of mHealth for patients?|journal=npj Digital Medicine|volume=3|page=4|doi=10.1038/s41746-019-0206-x|pmc=6957674|pmid=31970289}}</ref> Mobile health has much potential in medicine and, if used in conjunction with human factors may improve access to care, the scope, and quality of health care services that can be provided. Some applications of mobile health may also improve the ability to improve accountability in healthcare and improve continuum of care by connecting interdisciplinary team members.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Odendaal|first1=Willem A.|last2=Anstey Watkins|first2=Jocelyn|last3=Leon|first3=Natalie|last4=Goudge|first4=Jane|last5=Griffiths|first5=Frances|last6=Tomlinson|first6=Mark|last7=Daniels|first7=Karen|date=March 2020|title=Health workers' perceptions and experiences of using mHealth technologies to deliver primary healthcare services: a qualitative evidence synthesis|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=3|issue=3 |pages=CD011942|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD011942.pub2|issn=1469-493X|pmc=7098082|pmid=32216074}}</ref> A dissemination strategy is required to drive potential users discover, download and use mHealth apps. mHealth apps can be disseminated via paid and unpaid marketing strategies using various communication channels. These channels include among others social media, e-mail, posters/flyers, radio and TV broadcasting.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Moungui |first1=Henri Claude |last2=Nana-Djeunga |first2=Hugues Clotaire |last3=Anyiang |first3=Che Frankline |last4=Cano |first4=Mireia |last5=Postigo |first5=Jose Antonio Ruiz |last6=Carrion |first6=Carme |date=2024-01-05 |title=Dissemination Strategies for mHealth Apps: Systematic Review |journal=JMIR mHealth and uHealth |language=EN |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=e50293 |doi=10.2196/50293|doi-access=free |pmid=38180796 |pmc=10799285 }}</ref>

mHealth is one aspect of eHealth that is pushing the limits of how to acquire, transport, store, process, and secure the raw and processed data to deliver meaningful results. mHealth offers the ability of remote individuals to participate in the health care value matrix, which may not have been possible in the past. Participation does not imply just consumption of health care services. In many cases remote users are valuable contributors to gather data regarding disease and public health concerns such as outdoor pollution, drugs and violence.

While others exist, the 2009 UN Foundation and Vodafone Foundation<ref name="v" /> report presents seven application categories within the mHealth field:<ref name="mhealthverticalsbook" />
* Education and awareness
* Helpline
* Diagnostic and treatment support
* Communication and training for healthcare workers
* Disease and epidemic outbreak tracking
* Remote monitoring
* Remote data collection

===Education and awareness===
Education and awareness programs within the mHealth field are largely about the spreading of mass information from source to recipient through short message services (SMS). In education and awareness applications, SMS messages are sent directly to users' phones to offer information about various subjects, including testing and treatment methods, availability of health services, and disease management. SMSs provide an advantage of being relatively unobtrusive, offering patients confidentiality in environments where disease (especially HIV/AIDS) is often taboo. Additionally, SMSs provide an avenue to reach far-reaching areas—such as rural areas—which may have limited access to public health information and education, health clinics, and a deficit of healthcare workers.<ref name=v/><ref name="CFP"/>

===Helpline===
Helpline typically consists of a specific phone number that any individual is able to call to gain access to a range of medical services. These include phone consultations, counseling, service complaints, and information on facilities, drugs, equipment, and/or available mobile health clinics.<ref name=v/>

===Diagnostic support, treatment support, communication and training for healthcare workers===
Diagnostic and treatment support systems are typically designed to provide healthcare workers in remote areas advice about diagnosis and treatment of patients. While some projects may provide mobile phone applications—such as a step-by-step medical decision tree systems—to help healthcare workers diagnose, other projects provide direct diagnosis to patients themselves. In such cases, known as [[telemedicine]], patients might take a photograph of a wound or illness and allow a remote physician to diagnose to help treat the medical problem. Both diagnosis and treatment support projects attempt to mitigate the cost and time of travel for patients located in remote areas.<ref name=v/>

mHealth projects within the communication and training for healthcare workers subset involve connecting healthcare workers to sources of information through their mobile phone. This involves connecting healthcare workers to other healthcare workers, medical institutions, ministries of health, or other houses of medical information. Such projects additionally involve using mobile phones to better organize and target in-person training. Improved communication projects attempt to increase knowledge transfer amongst healthcare workers and improve patient outcomes through such programs as patient referral processes.<ref name=v/> For example, the systematic use of mobile instant messaging for the training and empowerment of health professionals has resulted in higher levels of clinical knowledge and fewer feelings of professional isolation.<ref name="Pimmer2">{{cite journal|vauthors=Pimmer, C, Brühlmann, F, Odetola TD, Dipeolu O, Oluwasola, DO, Ajuwon, AJ|date=2008|title=Facilitating Professional Mobile Learning Communities with Instant Messaging|journal=Computers & Education|volume=128|pages=102–11|doi=10.1016/j.compedu.2018.09.005|s2cid=53744443}}</ref>

===Disease surveillance, remote data collection, and epidemic outbreak tracking===
Projects within this area operate to utilize mobile phones' ability to collect and transmit data quickly, cheaply, and relatively efficiently. Data concerning the location and levels of specific diseases (such as [[malaria]], [[HIV/AIDS]], [[tuberculosis|TB]], [[Avian Flu]]) can help medical systems or ministries of health or other organizations identify outbreaks and better target medical resources to areas of greatest need. Such projects can be particularly useful during emergencies, in order to identify where the greatest medical needs are within a country<ref name=v/>

Policymakers and health providers at the national, district, and community level need accurate data in order to gauge the effectiveness of existing policies and programs and shape new ones. In the developing world, collecting field information is particularly difficult since many segments of the population are rarely able to visit a hospital, even in the case of severe illness. A lack of patient data creates an arduous environment in which policy makers can decide where and how to spend their (sometimes limited) resources. While some software within this area is specific to a particular content or area, other software can be adapted to any data collection purpose.

===Treatment support and medication adherence for patients===
Remote monitoring and treatment support allows for greater involvement in the continued care of patients. Recent studies seem to show also the efficacy of inducing positive and negative affective states, using smart phones.<ref name="Cipresso 23–30"/> Within environments of limited resources and beds—and subsequently an 'outpatient' culture—remote monitoring allows healthcare workers to better track patient conditions, [[Adherence (medicine)|medication regimen adherence]], and follow-up scheduling. Such projects can operate through either one- or two-way communications systems. Remote monitoring has been used particularly in the area of medication adherence for AIDS,<ref name="Devi 257–265">{{Cite journal|last1=Devi|first1=Balla Rama|last2=Syed-Abdul|first2=Shabbir|last3=Kumar|first3=Arun|last4=Iqbal|first4=Usman|last5=Nguyen|first5=Phung-Anh|last6=Li|first6=Yu-Chuan Jack|last7=Jian|first7=Wen-Shan|date=2015-11-01|title=mHealth: An updated systematic review with a focus on HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis long term management using mobile phones|journal=Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine|volume=122|issue=2|pages=257–265|doi=10.1016/j.cmpb.2015.08.003|issn=1872-7565|pmid=26304621}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Murray|first1=Melanie Caroline Margaret|last2=Lester|first2=Richard T.|last3=Money|first3=Deborah M.|last4=Kestler|first4=Mary H.|last5=Alimenti|first5=Ariane|last6=Pick|first6=Neora|last7=Albert|first7=Arianne YK|last8=Maan|first8=Evelyn J.|last9=Qiu|first9=Annie Q.|date=2017|title=Mobile Text Messaging to Improve Medication Adherence and Viral Load in a Vulnerable Canadian Population Living With Human Immunodeficiency Virus: A Repeated Measures Study|journal=Journal of Medical Internet Research|volume=19|issue=6|pages=e190|doi=10.2196/jmir.6631|pmc=5472843|pmid=28572079 |doi-access=free }}</ref> cardiovascular disease,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Maddison|first1=Ralph|last2=Rolleston|first2=Anna|last3=Stewart|first3=Ralph|last4=Jiang|first4=Yannan|last5=Whittaker|first5=Robyn|last6=Dale|first6=Leila Pfaeffli|date=2015|title=Text Message and Internet Support for Coronary Heart Disease Self-Management: Results From the Text4Heart Randomized Controlled Trial|journal=Journal of Medical Internet Research|volume=17|issue=10|pages=e237|doi=10.2196/jmir.4944|pmc=4642389|pmid=26490012 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Hamine|first1=Saee|last2=Gerth-Guyette|first2=Emily|last3=Faulx|first3=Dunia|last4=Green|first4=Beverly B.|last5=Ginsburg|first5=Amy Sarah|date=2015-02-24|title=Impact of mHealth chronic disease management on treatment adherence and patient outcomes: a systematic review|journal=Journal of Medical Internet Research|volume=17|issue=2|pages=e52|doi=10.2196/jmir.3951|issn=1438-8871|pmc=4376208|pmid=25803266 |doi-access=free }}</ref> chronic lung disease,<ref name=":0" /> [[diabetes]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Belt|first1=Tom H. van de|last2=Gelder|first2=Marleen MHJ van|last3=Massari|first3=Daniele De|last4=Zimmerman|first4=Lisa|last5=Hendriks|first5=Sandra|last6=Engelen|first6=Lucien JLPG|last7=Heeren|first7=Barend|last8=Lancee|first8=Gerardus J.|last9=Tack|first9=Cornelis J.|date=2018|title=Glucose Control, Disease Burden, and Educational Gaps in People With Type 1 Diabetes: Exploratory Study of an Integrated Mobile Diabetes App|journal=JMIR Diabetes|volume=3|issue=4|pages=e17|doi=10.2196/diabetes.9531|pmc=6286423|pmid=30470680 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=v/><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Chomutare|first1=Taridzo|last2=Fernandez-Luque|first2=Luis|last3=Årsand|first3=Eirik|last4=Hartvigsen|first4=Gunnar|date=2011-01-01|title=Features of Mobile Diabetes Applications: Review of the Literature and Analysis of Current Applications Compared Against Evidence-Based Guidelines|journal=Journal of Medical Internet Research|volume=13|issue=3|pages=e65|doi=10.2196/jmir.1874|pmc=3222161|pmid=21979293 |doi-access=free }}</ref> antenatal mental health,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Nair|first1=Uthara|last2=Armfield|first2=Nigel R.|last3=Chatfield|first3=Mark D.|last4=Edirippulige|first4=Sisira|date=December 2018|title=The effectiveness of telemedicine interventions to address maternal depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=Journal of Telemedicine and Telecare|volume=24|issue=10|pages=639–650|doi=10.1177/1357633X18794332|issn=1758-1109|pmid=30343660|doi-access=free}}</ref> mild anxiety,<ref name="Farb 2019 e10844">{{Cite journal|last1=Farb|first1=Norman AS|last2=Saab|first2=Bechara J.|last3=Walsh|first3=Kathleen Marie|date=2019|title=Effects of a Mindfulness Meditation App on Subjective Well-Being: Active Randomized Controlled Trial and Experience Sampling Study|journal=JMIR Mental Health|volume=6|issue=1|pages=e10844|doi=10.2196/10844|pmc=6329416|pmid=30622094 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and tuberculosis.<ref name="Devi 257–265"/> Technical process evaluations have confirmed the feasibility of deploying dynamically tailored, SMS-based interventions designed to provide ongoing behavioral reinforcement for persons living with HIV.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Furberg RD, Uhrig JD, Bann CM, Lewis MA, Harris JL, Williams P, Coomes C, Martin N, Kuhns L|year=2012|title=Technical Implementation of a Multi-Component, Text Message–Based Intervention for Persons Living with HIV|journal=JMIR Res Protoc|volume=1|issue=2|doi=10.2196/resprot.2017|pmc=3626151|pmid=23612237|page=e17 |doi-access=free }}</ref> among others. Specific mobile applications might also support adherence to taking medications.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2020-06-02 |title=Apps to help patients take medication on time need to be evaluated in a consistent way |url=https://evidence.nihr.ac.uk/alert/apps-to-help-patients-take-medication-on-time-need-to-be-evaluated-in-a-consistent-way/ |journal=NIHR Evidence |type=Plain English summary |language=en |publisher=National Institute for Health and Care Research |doi=10.3310/alert_40365|s2cid=240805696 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Armitage |first1=Laura Catherine |last2=Kassavou |first2=Aikaterini |last3=Sutton |first3=Stephen |date=30 January 2020 |title=Do mobile device apps designed to support medication adherence demonstrate efficacy? A systematic review of randomised controlled trials, with meta-analysis |journal=BMJ Open |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=e032045 |doi=10.1136/bmjopen-2019-032045 |issn=2044-6055 |pmc=7045248 |pmid=32005778}}</ref>

In conclusion, the use of mobile phone technology (in combination with a web-based interface) in health care results in an increase in convenience and efficiency of data collection, transfer, storage and analysis management of data as compared with paper-based systems. Formal studies and preliminary project assessments demonstrate this improvement of efficiency of healthcare delivery by mobile technology.<ref>{{cite web|title=mHealth. New horizons for health through mobile technologies|url=https://www.who.int/goe/publications/goe_mhealth_web.pdf|access-date=May 22, 2014|publisher=World Health Organization}}</ref> Nevertheless, mHealth should not be considered as a [[panacea]] for healthcare.<ref>{{Cite conference|last=Baum|first=Peter|date=September 18–21, 2012|title=A new track for technology: Can ICT take care for healthier lifestyles?|hdl=10419/52185|conference=22nd European Regional Conference of the International Telecommunications Society}}</ref> Possible organizational issues include the ensuring of appropriate use and proper care of the handset, lost or stolen phones, and the important consideration of costs related to the purchase of equipment. There is therefore a difficulty in comparison in weighing up mHealth interventions against other priority and evidence-based interventions.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mahmud|first=N|author2=Rodriguez, Nesbit|date=2010|title=A text message-based intervention to bridge the healthcare communication gap in the rural developing world|journal=Technol Health Care|volume=18|issue=2|pages=137–144|doi=10.3233/THC-2010-0576|pmid=20495253}}</ref>

==Criticism and concerns==
The extensive practice of mhealth research has sparked criticism, for example on the proliferation of fragmented [[Pilot experiment|pilot studies]] in [[Low and middle income countries|low- and middle-income countries]], which is also referred to as "pilotitis."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bloomfield|first1=Gerald S|last2=Vedanthan|first2=Rajesh|last3=Vasudevan|first3=Lavanya|last4=Kithei|first4=Anne|last5=Were|first5=Martin|last6=Velazquez|first6=Eric J|date=2014|title=Mobile health for non-communicable diseases in Sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review of the literature and strategic framework for research|journal=Globalization and Health|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=49|doi=10.1186/1744-8603-10-49|issn=1744-8603|pmc=4064106|pmid=24927745 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The extent of un-coordinated pilot studies prompted for instance the [[Uganda]]n Director General Health Services Dr [[Jane Ruth Aceng]] in 2012 to issue a notice that, "in order to jointly ensure that all eHealth efforts are harmonized and coordinated, I am directing that ALL eHealth projects/Initiatives be put to halt."<ref>Republic of Uganda. (2012). Coordination and harmonisation of eHealth initiatives [circular ADM 45/273/01].  Kampala: Uganda Ministry of Health.</ref> The assumptions that justify mhealth initiatives have also been challenged in recent [[Sociology|sociological]] research. For example, mobile phones have been argued to be less widely accessible and usable than is often portrayed in mhealth-related publications;<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Helsper|first1=Ellen J|last2=Reisdorf|first2=Bianca C|date=2017|title=The emergence of a "digital underclass" in Great Britain and Sweden: Changing reasons for digital exclusion|url=http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/65804/|journal=New Media & Society|language=en|volume=19|issue=8|pages=1253–1270|doi=10.1177/1461444816634676|s2cid=30116698|issn=1461-4448}}</ref> people integrate mobile phones into their health behavior without external intervention;<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hampshire|first1=Kate|last2=Porter|first2=Gina|last3=Owusu|first3=Samuel Asiedu|last4=Mariwah|first4=Simon|last5=Abane|first5=Albert|last6=Robson|first6=Elsbeth|last7=Munthali|first7=Alister|last8=DeLannoy|first8=Ariane|last9=Bango|first9=Andisiwe|date=2015|title=Informal m-health: How are young people using mobile phones to bridge healthcare gaps in Sub-Saharan Africa?|journal=Social Science & Medicine|language=en|volume=142|pages=90–99|doi=10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.07.033|pmid=26298645|doi-access=free}}</ref> and the spread of mobile phones in low- and middle-income countries itself can create new forms of digital and healthcare exclusion, which mhealth interventions (using mobile phones as a platform) cannot overcome and potentially accentuate.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haenssgen|first=Marco J.|date=2018|title=The struggle for digital inclusion: Phones, healthcare, and marginalisation in rural India|url=http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/110830/7/WRAP-struggle-digital-inclusion-phones-marginalisation-Haenssgen-2018.pdf|journal=World Development|language=en|volume=104|pages=358–374|doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2017.12.023|s2cid=158390248 }}</ref> Mhealth has also been argued to alter the practice of healthcare and patient-physician relationships as well as how bodies and health are being represented.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lupton|first=Deborah|date=2013|title=Quantifying the body: monitoring and measuring health in the age of mHealth technologies|journal=Critical Public Health|language=en|volume=23|issue=4|pages=393–403|doi=10.1080/09581596.2013.794931|s2cid=53492891|issn=0958-1596}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Lupton|first=Deborah|date=2014|title=Critical Perspectives on Digital Health Technologies: Digital Health Technologies|journal=Sociology Compass|language=en|volume=8|issue=12|pages=1344–1359|doi=10.1111/soc4.12226}}</ref> Another widespread concern relates to privacy and data protection, for example in the context of [[electronic health record]]s.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Haas|first1=Sebastian|last2=Wohlgemuth|first2=Sven|last3=Echizen|first3=Isao|last4=Sonehara|first4=Noboru|last5=Müller|first5=Günter|date=2011|title=Aspects of privacy for electronic health records|journal=International Journal of Medical Informatics|language=en|volume=80|issue=2|pages=e26–e31|doi=10.1016/j.ijmedinf.2010.10.001|pmid=21041113}}</ref>

Studies looking into the perceptions and experiences of primary healthcare professionals using mheath have found that most health care professionals appreciated being connected to their colleagues, however some prefer face to face communication.<ref name=":2" /> Some healthcare workers also felt that while reporting was improved and team members who require help or training could be more easily identified, some healthcare professionals did not feel comfortable being monitored continuously.<ref name=":2" /> A proportion of healthcare professionals prefer paper reporting.<ref name=":2" /> The use of mobile apps may sometimes lead to healthcare professionals spending more time performing additional tasks such as filling out electronic forms and may generate more workload in some cases.<ref name=":2" /> Some healthcare professionals also do not feel comfortable with work-related contact from patients/clients outside of business hours (however some professionals did find this useful for emergencies).<ref name=":2" />

Communicating with clients/patients while using a mobile device may need to be considered.<ref name=":2" /> A decrease in eye contact and the potential to miss non-verbal cues due to concentrating on a screen while speaking with patients is a potential consideration.<ref name=":2" />

== Society and culture ==

=== Healthcare in low- and middle-income countries ===

[[File:All Causes world map - DALY - WHO2004.svg|thumb|[[Disability-adjusted life year]] for all causes per 100,000&nbsp;inhabitants in 2004.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/estimates_country/en/index.html |title=WHO Disease and injury country estimates |year=2009 |work=World Health Organization |access-date=Nov 11, 2009}}</ref>{{refbegin}}
{{legend|#b3b3b3|no data}}
{{legend|#ffff65|less than 9,250}}
{{legend|#fff200|9,250–16,000}}
{{legend|#ffdc00|16,000–22,750}}
{{legend|#ffc600|22,750–29,500}}
{{legend|#ffb000|29,500–36,250}}
{{legend|#ff9a00|36,250–43,000}}
{{legend|#ff8400|43,000–49,750}}
{{legend|#ff6e00|49,750–56,500}}
{{legend|#ff5800|56,500–63,250}}
{{legend|#ff4200|63,250–70,000}}
{{legend|#ff2c00|70,000–80,000}}
{{legend|#cb0000|more than 80,000}}
{{refend}}]]
Middle income and especially low-income countries face a plethora of constraints in their healthcare systems.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Larsson|first1=Emma|last2=Mawkin|first2=Mala|last3=Taylor-Robinson|first3=Simon D|last4=Harrington|first4=Peter|last5=Gondwe|first5=Hastings|last6=Watson|first6=Chris|last7=Gallagher|first7=Joseph|last8=Ledwidge|first8=Mark|last9=Chirambo|first9=Griphin Baxter|last10=O'Donoghue|first10=John|date=December 2020|title=Implementing Innovative Approaches to Healthcare in a Lower-Middle Income Country: Perspectives from Malawi|journal=International Journal of General Medicine|language=en|volume= 13|pages=1723–1730|doi=10.2147/IJGM.S285130|issn=1178-7074|pmc=7783193|pmid=33414644 |doi-access=free }}</ref> These countries face a severe lack of human and physical resources, as well as some of the largest burdens of disease, [[extreme poverty]], and large [[population growth]] rates. Additionally, healthcare access to all reaches of society is generally low in these countries.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Peters|first1=David H.|last2=Garg|first2=Anu|last3=Bloom|first3=Gerry|last4=Walker|first4=Damian G.|last5=Brieger|first5=William R.|last6=Hafizur Rahman|first6=M.|date=2008|title=Poverty and Access to Health Care in Developing Countries|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=1136|issue=1|pages=161–171|doi=10.1196/annals.1425.011|pmid=17954679|bibcode=2008NYASA1136..161P|s2cid=24649523|doi-access=free}}</ref>

According to a [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) report from June 2011, higher-income countries show more mHealth activity than do lower-income countries (as consistent with eHealth trends in general). Countries in the European Region are currently the most active and those in the African Region the least active. The WHO report findings also included that mHealth is most easily incorporated into processes and services that historically use voice communication through conventional telephone networks. The report<ref>{{cite book |title=mHealth: New horizons for health through mobile technologies |series=Global Observatory for eHealth series |volume=3 |publisher=World Health Organization |date=7 June 2011 |isbn=978-92-4-156425-0 |url=https://www.who.int/goe/publications/ehealth_series_vol3/en/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130129102838/http://www.who.int/goe/publications/ehealth_series_vol3/en/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 29, 2013 }}</ref> was the result of a mHealth survey module designed by researchers at the Earth Institute's Center for Global Health and Economic Development,<ref>{{cite web |title=Center for Global Health and Economic Development |url=http://cghed.ei.columbia.edu/ |archive-date=27 February 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090227050138/http://cghed.ei.columbia.edu/ }}</ref> Columbia University.

The WHO notes an extreme deficit within the [[Health Human Resources|global healthcare workforce]]. The WHO notes critical healthcare workforce shortages in 57 countries—most of which are characterized as developing countries—and a global deficit of 2.4 million doctors, nurses, and midwives.<ref>{{cite report |author=World Health Organization |title=The World Health Report 2006: Working Together for Health |date=2006 |publisher=WHO |location=Geneva |url=https://www.who.int/whr/2006/en/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060410043541/http://www.who.int/whr/2006/en/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=April 10, 2006 }}</ref> The WHO, in a study of the healthcare workforce in 12 countries of Africa, finds an average density of physicians, nurses and midwives per 1000 population of 0.64.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Kinfu, Y.|author2=Dal Poz, M.|author3= Mercer, H.|author4=Evans, D.B.|url=https://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/87/3/08-051599-table-T3.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091012121959/http://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/87/3/08-051599-table-T3.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=October 12, 2009|title=Table 3. Current density of physicians, nurses and midwives and required rate of workforce growth according to population growth rates in 12 African countries|journal=Bulletin of the World Health Organization|volume=87|issue=3|pages=225–230|date= March 2009|doi=10.2471/blt.08.051599|pmid=19377719|pmc=2654639}}</ref> The density of the same metric is four times as high in the United States, at 2.6.<ref>{{cite web |author=UNData |title=Statistics Physicians density (per 10 000 population) |website=WHO Data |url=http://data.un.org/Data.aspx?d=WHO&f=inID%3AHSR02 |archive-date=15 February 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090215033156/http://data.un.org/Data.aspx?d=WHO&f=inID%3AHSR02 }}</ref>

The burden of disease is additionally much higher in low- and middle-income countries than [[World Bank high-income economy|high-income countries]]. The burden of disease, measured in [[disability-adjusted life year]] (DALY), which can be thought of as a measurement of the gap between current health status and an ideal situation where everyone lives into old age, free of disease and disability, is about five times higher in Africa than in high-income countries.<ref name="WHO2004GBD">{{cite report |date=2008 |title=The Global Burden of Disease: 2004 Update |publisher=World Health Organization |url=https://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/2004_report_update/en/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090324043636/http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/2004_report_update/en/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=March 24, 2009 }}</ref>{{Page needed|date=October 2017}} In addition, low- and middle-income countries are forced to face the burdens of both extreme poverty and the growing incidence of chronic diseases, such as diabetes and heart disease, an effect of new-found (relative) affluence.<ref name="v" />

Considering poor infrastructure and low human resources, the WHO notes that the healthcare workforce in sub-Saharan Africa would need to be scaled up by as much as 140% to attain international health development targets such as those in the [[Millennium Declaration]].<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite journal|author1=Kinfu, Y.|author2=Dal Poz, M.|author3= Mercer, H.|author4=Evans, D.B.|url=https://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/87/3/08-051599/en/index.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090316090026/http://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/87/3/08-051599/en/index.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=March 16, 2009|title= The health worker shortage in Africa: are enough physicians and nurses being trained?|journal=Bulletin of the World Health Organization|volume=87|issue=3|pages=225–230|date= March 2009|doi=10.2471/blt.08.051599|pmid=19377719|pmc=2654639}}</ref>

The WHO, in reference to the healthcare condition in sub-Saharan Africa, states:
<blockquote>
The problem is so serious that in many instances there is simply not enough human capacity even to absorb, deploy and efficiently use the substantial additional funds that are considered necessary to improve health in these countries.<ref name="autogenerated1" />
</blockquote>

Mobile technology has made a recent and rapid appearance into low- and middle-income nations.<ref>{{cite news|title=The power of mobile money|newspaper=The Economist|date= September 24, 2009|url=http://www.economist.com/node/14505519}}</ref> While, in the mHealth field, mobile technology usually refers to mobile phone technology, the entrance of other technologies into these nations to facilitate healthcare are also discussed here.

==== Health and development ====
The link between health and development can be found in three of the [[Millennium Development Goals]] (MDGs), as set forth by the United Nations Millennium Declaration in 2000. The MDGs that specifically address health include reducing child mortality; improving maternal health; combating HIV and AIDS, malaria, and other diseases; and increasing access to safe drinking water.<ref>{{UN document |docid=A/res/55/2 |body=General Assembly |session=55 |type=Resolution |resolution_number=55/2 |title=United Nations Millennium Declaration |date=18 September 2000 }}</ref> A progress report published in 2006 indicates that childhood immunization and deliveries by skilled birth attendants are on the rise, while many regions continue to struggle to achieve reductions in the prevalence of the [[diseases of poverty]] including malaria, HIV and AIDS and tuberculosis.<ref>{{cite report |author=United Nations |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report |date=2006 |publisher=United Nations |location=New York |url=http://www.undp.org/publications/MDGReport2006.pdf |access-date=2017-10-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614073351/http://www.undp.org/publications/MDGReport2006.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-14 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Healthcare in developed countries ===
In [[developed countries]], healthcare systems have different policies and goals in relation to the personal and population health care goals.

In the US and EU many patients and consumers use their cell phones and tablets to access health information and look for healthcare services. In parallel the number of mHealth applications grew significantly in the last years.

Clinicians use mobile devices to access patient information and other databases and resources. 

Physicians also use mobile devices as an streamlined tool for exchanging patient information, for educational purposes, and as a tool for decision support. <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kraushaar |first1=Judith |last2=Bohnet-Joschko |first2=Sabine |date=2023-04-01 |title=Prevalence and patterns of mobile device usage among physicians in clinical practice: A systematic review |journal=Health Informatics Journal |language=en |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=14604582231169296 |doi=10.1177/14604582231169296 |issn=1460-4582|doi-access=free |pmid=37063054 }}</ref>

== Technology and market ==

Basic [[SMS]] functions and real-time voice communication serve as the backbone and the current most common use of mobile phone technology. The broad range of potential benefits to the health sector that the simple functions of mobile phones can provide should not be understated.<ref name="Mechael_2006">{{cite thesis |last=Mechael |first=Patricia N. |date=December 2006 |title=Exploring Health-related Uses of Mobile Phones: An Egyptian Case Study |type=PhD |location=London |publisher=London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine |page=264 |url=https://wiki.ihris.org/mediawiki/upload/PatriciaMechaelThesisFinalDecember2006.pdf |via=iHRIS Wiki }}</ref>

The appeal of mobile communication technologies is that they enable communication in motion, allowing individuals to contact each other irrespective of time and place.<ref>Agar, J. (2003). ''Constant Touch: A Global History of the Mobile Phone'' Cambridge: Icon Books Ltd.</ref><ref>Ling, R. (2004). ''The mobile connection: The cell phone's impact on society'' London: Morgan Kaufmann</ref> This is particularly beneficial for work in remote areas where the mobile phone, and now increasingly [[wireless infrastructure]], is able to reach more people, faster. As a result of such technological advances, the capacity for improved access to information and two-way communication becomes more available at the point of need.

=== Mobile phones ===

[[File:Mobile phone subscribers per 100 inhabitants 1997-2007 ITU.png|thumb|250px|Mobile phone subscribers per 100 inhabitants 1997–2007]]
With the global [[mobile phone penetration rate]] drastically increasing over the last decade, mobile phones have made a recent and rapid entrance into many parts of the low- and middle-income world. Improvements in [[telecommunications]] technology infrastructure, reduced costs of mobile handsets, and a general increase in non-food [[expenditure]] have influenced this trend. Low- and middle-income countries are utilizing mobile phones as "leapfrog technology" (see [[leapfrogging]]). That is, mobile phones have allowed many developing countries, even those with relatively poor infrastructure, to bypass 20th century [[fixed-line]] technology and jump to modern mobile technology.<ref>{{cite news|title= Leaders: The limits of leapfrogging; Technology and development|newspaper=The Economist|url=http://www.economist.com/node/10650775|date=February 7, 2008}}</ref>

The number of global mobile phone [[subscribers]] in 2007 was estimated at 3.1 billion of an estimated [[global population]] of 6.6 billion (47%).<ref name="Cellular-news">{{cite web|date=March 9, 2008|title=Global Mobile Phone Subscribers to Reach 4.5 Billion by 2012|url=http://www.cellular-news.com/story/29824.php|access-date=2010-04-01|website=Cellular News}}</ref> These figures are expected to grow to 4.5 billion by 2012, or a 64.7% mobile penetration rate. The greatest growth is expected in [[Asia]], the [[Middle East]], and [[Africa]]. In many countries, the number of mobile phone subscribers has bypassed the number of fixed-line telephones; this is particularly true in developing countries.<ref>{{cite web|author=ITU|year=2003|title=Mobile overtakes fixed: Implications for policy and regulation|location=Geneva|publisher=International Telecommunication Union|url=https://www.itu.int/osg/spu/ni/mobileovertakes/Resources/Mobileovertakes_Paper.pdf}}</ref> Globally, there were 4.1 billion mobile phones in use in December 2008. See [[List of countries by number of mobile phones in use]].

While mobile phone penetration rates are on the rise, globally, the growth within countries is not generally evenly distributed. In [[India]], for example, while mobile penetration rates have increased markedly, by far the greatest growth rates are found in [[urban areas]]. Mobile penetration, in September 2008, was 66% in urban areas, while only 9.4% in [[rural areas]]. The all India average was 28.2% at the same time.<ref>Kathuria, R, Uppal M., Mamta (2009). An [[econometric analysis]] of the impact of mobile. Case paper in India: The impact of mobile phones. Vodafone Group Plc. The Policy Paper Series. November 2009</ref> So, while mobile phones may have the potential to provide greater healthcare access to a larger portion of a population, there are certainly within-country equity issues to consider.

Mobile phones are spreading because the cost of mobile technology deployment is dropping and people are, on average, getting wealthier in low- and middle-income nations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/EXTDECPROSPECTS/GEPEXT/EXTGEP2007/0,,menuPK:3016160~pagePK:64167702~piPK:64167676~theSitePK:3016125,00.html |title=Global Economic Prospects 2007: Managing the Next Wave of Globalization |publisher=World Bank report |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061221223828/http://econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/EXTDECPROSPECTS/GEPEXT/EXTGEP2007/0%2C%2CmenuPK%3A3016160~pagePK%3A64167702~piPK%3A64167676~theSitePK%3A3016125%2C00.html |archive-date=2006-12-21 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Vendors, such as [[Nokia]], are developing cheaper infrastructure technologies (CDMA) and cheaper phones (sub $50–100, such as Sun's Java phone). Non-food consumption expenditure is increasing in many parts of the developing world, as [[disposable income]] rises, causing a rapid increase in spending on new technology, such as mobile phones. In India, for example, consumers have become and continue to become wealthier. Consumers are shifting their expenditure from necessity to discretionary. For example, on average, 56% of Indian consumers' consumption went towards food in 1995, compared to 42% in 2005. The number is expected to drop to 34% by 2015. That being said, although total share of consumption has declined, total consumption of food and beverages increased 82% from 1985 to 2005, while per-capita consumption of food and beverages increased 24%. Indian consumers are getting wealthier and they are spending more and more, with a greater ability to spend on new technologies.<ref>{{citation|publisher=McKinsey Global Institute|date=May 2007|title=The 'bird of gold': the rise of India's consumer market|url=http://www.mckinsey.com/global-themes/asia-pacific/the-bird-of-gold|author1=Jonathan Ablett|author2= Aadarsh Baijal|author3= Eric Beinhocker|author4=Anupam Bose|author5=Diana Farrell|author6= Ulrich Gersch|author7=Ezra Greenberg |author8= Shishir Gupta|author9= Sumit Gupta}}</ref>

=== Smartphones ===
From the first quarter of 2015 through the first quarter of 2021, 107,033 mHealth apps in the health and fitness category were available via the Apple Store and Google Play, an increase of 11.37% from the previous quarter.<ref name=":3" /> More advanced mobile phone technologies are enabling the potential for further healthcare delivery. [[Smartphone]] technologies are now in the hands of a large number of physicians and other healthcare workers in low- and middle-income countries. Although far from ubiquitous, the spread of smartphone technologies opens up doors for mHealth projects such as technology-based diagnosis support, [[remote diagnostics]] and [[telemedicine]], preprogrammed daily self-assessment prompts, video or audio clips,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ben-Zeev|first1=Dror|last2=Brian|first2=Rachel M.|last3=Jonathan|first3=Geneva|last4=Razzano|first4=Lisa|last5=Pashka|first5=Nicole|last6=Carpenter-Song|first6=Elizabeth|last7=Drake|first7=Robert E.|last8=Scherer|first8=Emily A.|date=2018|title=Mobile Health (mHealth) Versus Clinic-Based Group Intervention for People With Serious Mental Illness: A Randomized Controlled Trial|journal=Psychiatric Services|language=en|volume=69|issue=9|pages=978–985|doi=10.1176/appi.ps.201800063|pmid=29793397|issn=1075-2730|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[web browsing]], [[GPS]] navigation, access to web-based patient information, post-visit patient surveillance, and decentralized [[health management information system]]s (HMIS).

While uptake of smartphone technology by the medical field has grown in low- and middle-income countries, it is worth noting that the capabilities of mobile phones in low- and middle-income countries has not reached the sophistication of those in high-income countries. The infrastructure that enables web browsing, GPS navigation, and email through smartphones is not as well developed in much of the low- and middle-income countries.<ref name="Mechael_2006" /> Increased availability and efficiency in both voice and data-transfer systems in addition to rapid deployment of wireless infrastructure will likely accelerate the deployment of mobile-enabled health systems and services throughout the world.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Istepanian |first1=R.S.H. |last2=Jovanov |first2=E. |last3=Zhang |first3=Y.T. |date=December 2004 |title=Introduction to the Special Section on M-Health: Beyond Seamless Mobility and Global Wireless Health-care Connectivity|journal=IEEE Transactions on Information Technology in Biomedicine |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=405–414 |pmid=15615031 |doi=10.1109/titb.2004.840019 |s2cid=71150 |url=http://eprints.kingston.ac.uk/1587/1/Istepanian-RSH-1587.pdf }}</ref>

=== Other technologies ===

Beyond mobile phones, wireless-enabled [[laptops]] and specialized health-related software applications are currently being developed, tested, and marketed for use in the mHealth field. Many of these technologies, while having some application to low- and middle-income nations, are developing primarily in high-income countries. However, with broad advocacy campaigns for [[free and open source software]] (FOSS), applications are beginning to be tailored for and make inroads in low- and middle-income countries.<ref name="mhealthverticalsbook" />

Some other mHealth technologies include:<ref name="mmhealthroadmapbook" />
* Patient monitoring devices
* Mobile [[telemedicine]]/telecare devices
* [[Microcomputers]]
* Data collection software
* Mobile Operating System Technology
* Mobile applications (e.g., gamified/social wellness solutions)
* [[Chatterbots]]

====Mobile device operating system technology====

Technologies relate to the [[operating system]]s that orchestrate mobile device hardware while maintaining confidentiality, integrity and availability are required to build trust. This may foster greater adoption of mHealth technologies and services, by exploiting lower cost multi purpose mobile devices such as tablets, PCs, and smartphones. Operating systems that control these emerging classes of devices include Google's Android, Apple's iPhone OS, Microsoft's Windows Mobile, and RIM's BlackBerry OS.

Operating systems must be agile and evolve to effectively balance and deliver the desired level of service to an application and end user, while managing display real estate, power consumption and security posture. With advances in capabilities such as integrating voice, video and Web 2.0 collaboration tools into mobile devices, significant benefits can be achieved in the delivery of health care services. New sensor technologies<ref>{{cite book | title = New sensor technologies | citeseerx = 10.1.1.141.6348 | year = 2008 }}</ref> such as HD video and audio capabilities, accelerometers, GPS, ambient light detectors, barometers and gyroscopes<ref name="Lane 140–150">{{cite journal|last=Lane|first=Nicholas |author2=Miluzzo, Emiliano |author3=Lu, Hong |author4=Peebles, Daniel |author5=Choudhury, Tanzeem |author6=Campbell, Andrew|title=A survey of mobile phone sensing|journal=IEEE Communications Magazine|volume=48|issue=9|pages=140–150|doi=10.1109/MCOM.2010.5560598|year=2010 |citeseerx=10.1.1.186.9844 |s2cid=356450 }}</ref> can enhance the methods of describing and studying cases, close to the patient or consumer of the health care service. This could include diagnosis, education, treatment and monitoring.

====Air quality sensing technologies====

Environmental conditions have a significant impact on public health. Per the World Health Organization, outdoor air pollution accounts for about 1.4% of total mortality.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ostro|first=Bart|title=Outdoor air pollution: assessing the environmental burden of disease at national and local levels|year=2004|publisher=World Health Organization, Protection of the Human Environment|location=Geneva|isbn=978-92-4-159146-1|edition=null}}</ref> Utilizing Participatory sensing technologies in mobile telephone, public health research can exploit the wide penetration of mobile devices to collect air measurements,<ref name="Lane 140–150" /> which can be utilized to assess the impact of pollution. Projects such as the Urban Atmospheres are utilizing embedded technologies in mobile phones to acquire real time conditions from millions of users mobile phones. By aggregating this data, public health policy shall be able to craft initiatives to mitigate the risk associated with outdoor air pollution.

===Data===
[[Data]] has become an especially important aspect of mHealth. Data collection requires both the collection device (mobile phones, computer, or portable device) and the software that houses the information. Data is primarily focused on visualizing static text but can also extend to interactive decision support algorithms, other visual image information, and also communication capabilities through the integration of e-mail and SMS features. Integrating use of [[GIS]] and [[GPS]] with mobile technologies adds a geographical mapping component that is able to "tag" voice and data communication to a particular location or series of locations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Larocca |first1=Alberto |last2=Moro Visconti |first2=Roberto |last3=Marconi |first3=Michele |date=2016-10-24 |title=Malaria diagnosis and mapping with m-Health and geographic information systems (GIS): evidence from Uganda |journal=Malaria Journal |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=520 |doi=10.1186/s12936-016-1546-5 |issn=1475-2875 |pmc=5075756 |pmid=27776516 |doi-access=free }}</ref> These combined capabilities have been used for emergency health services as well as for disease surveillance, health facilities and services mapping, and other health-related data collection.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nhavoto |first1=José António |last2=Grönlund |first2=Åke |date=2014-05-08 |title=Mobile Technologies and Geographic Information Systems to Improve Health Care Systems: A Literature Review |url=https://mhealth.jmir.org/2014/2/e21 |journal=JMIR mHealth and uHealth |language=EN |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=e3216 |doi=10.2196/mhealth.3216|pmid=25099368 |pmc=4114429 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wirth |first1=Felix Nikolaus |last2=Johns |first2=Marco |last3=Meurers |first3=Thierry |last4=Prasser |first4=Fabian |date=2020-11-10 |title=Citizen-Centered Mobile Health Apps Collecting Individual-Level Spatial Data for Infectious Disease Management: Scoping Review |url=https://mhealth.jmir.org/2020/11/e22594 |journal=JMIR mHealth and uHealth |language=EN |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=e22594 |doi=10.2196/22594|pmid=33074833 |pmc=7674146 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Boonchieng |first1=Ekkarat |last2=Boonchieng |first2=Waraporn |last3=Senaratana |first3=Wilawan |last4=Singkaew |first4=Jaras |title=2014 International Computer Science and Engineering Conference (ICSEC) |chapter=Development of mHealth for public health information collection, with GIS, using private cloud: A case study of Saraphi district, Chiang Mai, Thailand |date=2014 |chapter-url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6978221 |pages=350–353 |doi=10.1109/ICSEC.2014.6978221|isbn=978-1-4799-4963-2 |s2cid=1637426 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Huang |first1=Lanlan |last2=Xu |first2=Yubin |last3=Chen |first3=Xiuwan |last4=Li |first4=Huaiyu |last5=Wu |first5=Yuhang |title=2012 Fourth International Conference on Computational and Information Sciences |chapter=Design and Implementation of Location Based Mobile Health System |date=2012 |chapter-url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6300545 |pages=919–922 |doi=10.1109/ICCIS.2012.118|isbn=978-1-4673-2406-9 |s2cid=17391991 }}</ref>

== History ==
The motivation behind the development of the mHealth field arises from two factors. The first factor concerns the myriad constraints felt by healthcare systems of developing nations. These constraints include high [[population growth]], a high [[burden of disease]] prevalence,<ref name="WHO2004GBD" /> low health care workforce, large numbers of rural inhabitants, and limited financial resources to support healthcare infrastructure and [[health information systems]]. The second factor is the recent rapid rise in mobile phone penetration in developing countries to large segments of the healthcare workforce, as well as the population of a country as a whole.<ref name="Cellular-news" /> With greater access to mobile phones to all segments of a country, including rural areas, the potential of lowering information and transaction costs in order to deliver healthcare improves.

The combination of these two factors has motivated much discussion of how greater access to mobile phone technology can be leveraged to mitigate the numerous pressures faced by developing countries' healthcare systems.

mHealth has a rich research history starting in the early 2000s and has since transformed healthcare delivery and patient engagement. The evolution of mHealth can be traced through significant milestones and initiatives:

===Timeline of key events===
{{Advert section|date=December 2023}}

====Early 2000s – Emergence of mHealth research====
* Research initiatives exploring the potential of mobile devices in healthcare and medical settings began to surface. Academic institutions and technology companies started investigating the feasibility of using mobile phones for health-related purposes.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Proceedings of the 25th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (IEEE Cat. No.03CH37439) |chapter-url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1279581 |access-date=2023-12-05 |doi=10.1109/IEMBS.2003.1279581 |s2cid=15038909 |chapter=Emerging mobile communication technologies for health: Some imperative notes on m-health |date=2003 |last1=Istepanian |first1=R.S.H. |last2=Lacal |first2=J.C. |pages=1414–1416 |isbn=0-7803-7789-3 }}</ref>

----'''2006 – The Genes, Environment, and Health Initiative (GEI)'''
* The GEI program was launched, emphasizing prospective cohort studies. This program laid the groundwork for understanding the interplay between genetics, the environment, and health outcomes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Manolio |first1=Teri A. |last2=Bailey-Wilson |first2=Joan E. |last3=Collins |first3=Francis S. |date=October 2006 |title=Genes, environment and the value of prospective cohort studies |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16983377/ |journal=Nature Reviews. Genetics |volume=7 |issue=10 |pages=812–820 |doi=10.1038/nrg1919 |issn=1471-0056 |pmid=16983377|s2cid=20773705 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Genes, Environment and Health Initiative (GEI) |url=https://www.genome.gov/19518663/genes-and-environment-initiative-gei |access-date=2023-12-05 |website=Genome.gov |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-10-14 |title=Genes, Environment and Health Initiative Invests In Genetic Studies, Environmental Monitoring Technologies |url=https://www.nih.gov/news-events/news-releases/genes-environment-health-initiative-invests-genetic-studies-environmental-monitoring-technologies |access-date=2023-12-05 |website=National Institutes of Health (NIH) |language=EN}}</ref>

----'''2007 – Technological advancements'''
* A critical year with the introduction of the first iPhone, marking the beginning of the smartphone era that would significantly impact mHealth.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Apple Reinvents the Phone with iPhone |url=https://www.apple.com/newsroom/2007/01/09Apple-Reinvents-the-Phone-with-iPhone/ |access-date=2023-12-05 |website=Apple Newsroom |language=en-US}}</ref>

----'''2008 – WHO mHealth Summit'''
* The World Health Organization (WHO) organized a summit that recognized the potential of mobile technology in improving global healthcare access, marking a significant milestone in mHealth advocacy.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sixty-first World Health Assembly, Geneva, 19–24 May 2008 |url=https://www.who.int/publications-detail-redirect/sixty-first-world-health-assembly-geneva-19-24-may-2008 |access-date=2023-12-05 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}</ref>

----'''2009 – Launch of mHealth Alliance'''
* The United Nations Foundation established the mHealth Alliance, focusing on leveraging mobile technology to improve health outcomes, especially in developing countries.<ref>{{Cite web |title=2009 |url=https://unfoundation.org/media/ |access-date=2023-12-05 |website=unfoundation.org |language=en-US}}</ref>

----'''2010 – Pioneering mHealth projects'''
* Several groundbreaking mHealth projects were initiated worldwide, including programs for remote patient monitoring, disease management, health education via SMS, and mobile apps for healthcare professionals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Catherine Arnott |last2=Hetzel |first2=Scott |last3=Dalrymple |first3=Prudence |last4=Keselman |first4=Alla |date=2011-12-02 |title=Beyond Readability: Investigating Coherence of Clinical Text for Consumers |journal=Journal of Medical Internet Research |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=e104 |doi=10.2196/jmir.1842 |issn=1438-8871 |pmc=3278090 |pmid=22138127 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

'''mHealth Training Institute (mHTI)'''
* The first NIH mHealth Training Institute was held at UCLA to serve as an incubator for developing transdisciplinary scientists capable of co-creating mHealth solutions for complex healthcare problems. The week-long workshop is grounded in a team science model that emphasizes both information transaction and relationship development in the advancement of transdisciplinary mHealth teams capable of impactful healthcare solutions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=mHealth Training Institute – About |url=https://mhti.md2k.org/index.php/about-us |access-date=2023-12-05 |website=mhti.md2k.org}}</ref>

----'''2011 – The mHealth Evidence Workshop'''
* A collaborative effort involving NSF, NIH, RWJF, and McKesson Foundation, explored mobile health technology evaluation to outline an approach to evidence generation in the field of mHealth that would ensure research is conducted on a rigorous empirical and theoretic foundation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=Santosh |last2=Nilsen |first2=Wendy J. |last3=Abernethy |first3=Amy |last4=Atienza |first4=Audie |last5=Patrick |first5=Kevin |last6=Pavel |first6=Misha |last7=Riley |first7=William T. |last8=Shar |first8=Albert |last9=Spring |first9=Bonnie |last10=Spruijt-Metz |first10=Donna |last11=Hedeker |first11=Donald |last12=Honavar |first12=Vasant |last13=Kravitz |first13=Richard |last14=Lefebvre |first14=R. Craig |last15=Mohr |first15=David C. |date=August 2013 |title=Mobile health technology evaluation: the mHealth evidence workshop |journal=American Journal of Preventive Medicine |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=228–236 |doi=10.1016/j.amepre.2013.03.017 |issn=1873-2607 |pmc=3803146 |pmid=23867031}}</ref>

==== Open mHealth ====
* Open mHealth architecture was introduced, fostering innovation in healthcare through facilitating access and harmonization of digital health data from disparate sources using a global community of developers and health tech decision-makers to make sense of that digital health data through an open interoperability standard.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Estrin |first1=Deborah |last2=Sim |first2=Ida |date=2010-11-05 |title=Health care delivery. Open mHealth architecture: an engine for health care innovation |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21051617/ |journal=Science |volume=330 |issue=6005 |pages=759–760 |doi=10.1126/science.1196187 |issn=1095-9203 |pmid=21051617|s2cid=206529278 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=About Us |url=https://www.openmhealth.org/organization/about/ |access-date=2023-12-05 |website=Open mHealth |language=en-US}}</ref>

----'''2012 – mHealth app revolution'''
* The proliferation of smartphone apps dedicated to health and fitness catalyzed the mHealth revolution, allowing users to track fitness, monitor vitals, access medical information, and engage in telemedicine.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/1762473 |access-date=2023-12-05 |journal=JAMA|doi=10.1001/jama.2013.281078 |title=Can Mobile Health Technologies Transform Health Care? |date=2013 |last1=Steinhubl |first1=Steven R. |last2=Muse |first2=Evan D. |last3=Topol |first3=Eric J. |volume=310 |issue=22 |pages=2395–2396 |pmid=24158428 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

'''Smart Health and Wellbeing (SHB)'''
* As a follow-up to the mHealth Evidence Workshop, NSF launched the Smart Health and Wellbeing program to address fundamental technical and scientific issues that would support the much-needed transformation of healthcare from reactive and hospital-centered to preventive, proactive, evidence-based, person-centered, and focused on wellbeing rather than disease.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Smart Health and Wellbeing (SHB)(nsf12512) |url=https://www.nsf.gov/pubs/2012/nsf12512/nsf12512.htm |access-date=2023-12-05 |website=www.nsf.gov}}</ref>

'''ASSIST Engineering Research Center (ERC)'''
* NSF and NIH initiated a joint research program specifically focusing on mHealth, following up on the insights gained from the mHealth Evidence Workshop. The Engineering Research Center ASSIST ERC at NC State University was established to further mHealth research by developing leading-edge systems for high-value applications such as healthcare and IoT by integrating fundamental advances in energy harvesting, low-power electronics, and sensors with a focus on usability and actionable data.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About ASSIST |url=https://assistcenter.org/about/ |access-date=2023-12-05 |website=Center for Advanced Self-Powered Systems of Integrated Sensors and Technologies (ASSIST) |language=en-US}}</ref>

----'''2013 – Wearable technology'''
* Around this time, Fitbit (originally Healthy Metrics Research, Inc.) also emerged, pioneering wearable health technology.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bell |first=Karissa |date=2014-06-26 |title=Fitbit Updates App With Exercise and Run-Tracking Features |url=https://mashable.com/archive/fitbit-ios-update |access-date=2023-12-05 |website=Mashable |language=en}}</ref>

----'''2014 – The Big Data To Knowledge (BD2K) Initiative'''
* The NIH BD2K Centers of Excellence program provided a significant boost to mHealth research, leading to 12 research centers, like the Mobile Data To Knowledge (MD2K)<ref>{{Cite web |title=About Us – MD2K |url=https://md2k.org/about-us/ |access-date=2023-12-05 |language=en-US}}</ref> headquartered at the University of Memphis and Stanford's Center for Mobility Data Integration to Insight (Mobilize),<ref>{{Cite web |title=ABOUT – Mobilize Center |url=https://mobilize.stanford.edu/about/ |access-date=2023-12-05 |language=en}}</ref> to facilitate studies and innovation in the field.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Big Data to Knowledge Resources {{!}} NIH Common Fund |url=https://commonfund.nih.gov/bd2k/resources |access-date=2023-12-05 |website=commonfund.nih.gov}}</ref>

----'''2015 – Advancements in wearable technology'''
* Wearable devices, such as smartwatches and fitness trackers, have become more sophisticated, enabling continuous health monitoring, activity tracking, and integration with mobile health apps.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kang |first1=Harjeevan Singh |last2=Exworthy |first2=Mark |date=2022-07-13 |title=Wearing the Future—Wearables to Empower Users to Take Greater Responsibility for Their Health and Care: Scoping Review |journal=JMIR mHealth and uHealth |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=e35684 |doi=10.2196/35684 |issn=2291-5222 |pmc=9330198 |pmid=35830222 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Wu |first1=Min |last2=PhD |last3=Luo |first3=Jake |date=2019-11-25 |title=Wearable Technology Applications in Healthcare: A Literature Review {{!}} HIMSS |url=https://www.himss.org/resources/wearable-technology-applications-healthcare-literature-review |access-date=2023-12-05 |website=www.himss.org |language=en}}</ref>

'''All of Us'''
* mHealth gained prominence in the All of Us program, a precision medicine initiative aiming to collect health data from diverse populations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Collins |first1=Francis S. |last2=Varmus |first2=Harold |date=2015-02-26 |title=A new initiative on precision medicine |journal=The New England Journal of Medicine |volume=372 |issue=9 |pages=793–795 |doi=10.1056/NEJMp1500523 |issn=1533-4406 |pmc=5101938 |pmid=25635347}}</ref> The launch of smartwatches, particularly the Apple Watch,<ref>{{Citation |title=Apple Watch |date=2023-12-02 |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apple_Watch&oldid=1188005572 |work=Wikipedia |access-date=2023-12-05 |language=en}}</ref> further emphasized the integration of wearables and health tracking.

''''mHealthHUB'''
* The mHealthHUB is launched as a virtual forum where technologists, researchers, and clinicians connect, learn, share, and innovate on mHealth tools to transform healthcare. Focused on creating an innovation ecosystem that fosters the collaborative team science essential for mHealth and data science innovations, the site becomes a collaboratory "watering hole" for the mHealth research community.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About - mHealthHUB.org |url=https://mhealth.md2k.org/about/ |access-date=December 5, 2023 |website=mHealthHUB.org}}</ref>

----'''2017 – NSF Center for Underserved Populations'''
* The NSF established the Engineering Research Center for Precise Advanced Technologies and Health Systems for Underserved Populations, emphasizing the integration of engineering research and education with technological innovation to transform national prosperity, health, and security.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Overview |url=https://pathsup.org/overview/ |access-date=2023-12-05 |website=pathsup.org}}</ref>

==== Research and development expansion ====
* Pharmaceutical companies, tech giants, and healthcare institutions increased their investment in mHealth R&D, exploring AI-driven health apps, remote diagnostics, and personalized medicine.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dang |first1=Amit |last2=Arora |first2=Dimple |last3=Rane |first3=Pawan |date=2020-05-31 |title=Role of digital therapeutics and the changing future of healthcare |journal=Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=2207–2213 |doi=10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_105_20 |issn=2249-4863 |pmc=7380804 |pmid=32754475 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bohr |first1=Adam |last2=Memarzadeh |first2=Kaveh |date=2020 |title=The rise of artificial intelligence in healthcare applications |journal=Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare |pages=25–60 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-818438-7.00002-2 |pmc=7325854|isbn=9780128184387 }}</ref>

----'''2020 – Biomedical Technology Resource Centers (BTRCs)'''
* Novel mHealth research centers funded by NIH spring from the remnants of the BD2K initiative. mHealth-focused P41 awards for new centers, like the mHealth Center for Discovery, Optimization, and Translation of Temporally-Precise Interventions (mDOT Center)<ref>{{Cite web |title=RePORT ⟩ RePORTER |url=https://reporter.nih.gov/project-details/10541801 |access-date=2023-12-05 |website=reporter.nih.gov}}</ref> headquartered at the University of Memphis and Stanford's Mobilize Center,<ref>{{Cite web |title=RePORT ⟩ RePORTER |url=https://reporter.nih.gov/project-details/10581468 |access-date=2023-12-05 |website=reporter.nih.gov}}</ref> were established to focus on innovative biomedical technologies for healthcare.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NIBIB-supported Centers for Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering {{!}} National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering |url=https://www.nibib.nih.gov/research-funding/featured-programs/ncbib/supported-centers |access-date=2023-12-05 |website=www.nibib.nih.gov}}</ref>

====During the COVID-19 pandemic====
* The COVID-19 pandemic accelerated the adoption of mHealth solutions for remote consultations, contact tracing apps, telehealth services, and remote patient monitoring to maintain healthcare access during lockdowns.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Taha |first1=Abdul Rahman |last2=Shehadeh |first2=Mustafa |last3=Alshehhi |first3=Ali |last4=Altamimi |first4=Tariq |last5=Housser |first5=Emma |last6=Simsekler |first6=Mecit Can Emre |last7=Alfalasi |first7=Buthaina |last8=Al Memari |first8=Shammah |last9=Al Hosani |first9=Farida |last10=Al Zaabi |first10=Yousif |last11=Almazroui |first11=Shereena |last12=Alhashemi |first12=Hamed |last13=Alhajri |first13=Noora |date=2022-02-24 |title=The integration of mHealth technologies in telemedicine during the COVID-19 era: A cross-sectional study |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=e0264436 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0264436 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=8870491 |pmid=35202424 |bibcode=2022PLoSO..1764436T |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ling |first1=Hua |last2=Egolum |first2=Ugochukwu |date=2021-05-11 |title=Evaluation of Daily Activity Duration in Patients with Heart Failure During the Covid-19 Pandemic |journal=Journal of the American College of Cardiology |volume=77 |issue=18 |pages=809 |doi=10.1016/S0735-1097(21)02168-9 |issn=0735-1097 |pmc=8091250}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Memphis |first=MD2K Center of Excellence at The University of |title=mContain |url=https://mcontain.md2k.org/ |access-date=2023-12-05 |website=mcontain.md2k.org}}</ref>

----'''Present – Ongoing research and integration'''
* Current research focuses on AI-driven diagnostics, blockchain for secure health data management, machine learning for [[predictive analytics]], and the integration of mHealth into mainstream healthcare systems.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yeung |first1=Andy Wai Kan |last2=Torkamani |first2=Ali |last3=Butte |first3=Atul J. |last4=Glicksberg |first4=Benjamin S. |last5=Schuller |first5=Björn |last6=Rodriguez |first6=Blanca |author-link6=Blanca Rodriguez (scientist) |last7=Ting |first7=Daniel S. W. |last8=Bates |first8=David |last9=Schaden |first9=Eva |last10=Peng |first10=Hanchuan |last11=Willschke |first11=Harald |last12=van der Laak |first12=Jeroen |last13=Car |first13=Josip |last14=Rahimi |first14=Kazem |last15=Celi |first15=Leo Anthony |date=2023-09-26 |title=The promise of digital healthcare technologies |journal=Frontiers in Public Health |volume=11 |pages=1196596 |doi=10.3389/fpubh.2023.1196596 |issn=2296-2565 |pmc=10562722 |pmid=37822534 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2023FrPH...1196596Y }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=Ritik |last2=Arjunaditya |last3=Singh |first3=Divyangi |last4=Srinivasan |first4=Kathiravan |last5=Hu |first5=Yuh-Chung |date=2022-12-27 |title=AI-Powered Blockchain Technology for Public Health: A Contemporary Review, Open Challenges, and Future Research Directions |journal=Healthcare |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=81 |doi=10.3390/healthcare11010081 |issn=2227-9032 |pmc=9819078 |pmid=36611541 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Research==
Emerging trends and areas of interest:
* Emergency response systems (e.g., road traffic accidents, emergency obstetric care).
* Human resources coordination, management, and supervision.
* Mobile synchronous (voice) and asynchronous (SMS) telemedicine diagnostic and decision support to remote clinicians.<ref name="Mechael, P 2007">{{cite report |last=Mechael |first=P. |title=WHO mHealth Review: Towards the Development of an mHealth Strategy |date=August 2007 }}</ref>
* Clinician-focused, evidence-based formulary, database and decision support information available at the point of care.<ref name="Mechael, P 2007" />
* Pharmaceutical supply chain integrity and patient safety systems (e.g. [[Sproxil]] and [[Mpedigree|mPedigree]]).<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bennett |first1=Simeon  |others=Modified for length by Richard Akuoko |agency=Bloomberg |url=http://news.myjoyonline.com/features/201005/46200.asp|title=Ghana News: West African Innovation Hits Global Stage |website=Joy Online |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516144324/http://news.myjoyonline.com/features/201005/46200.asp|archive-date=2010-05-16|date=14 May 2010 |access-date=2010-08-14  }}</ref>
* Clinical care and remote patient monitoring{{cn|date=March 2024}}
* Health extension services.
* Inpatient monitoring.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dobkin|first1=Bruce H.|last2=Dorsch|first2=Andrew|date=2011|title=The Promise of mHealth: Daily Activity Monitoring and Outcome Assessments by Wearable Sensors|journal=Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair|language=en|volume=25|issue=9|pages=788–798|doi=10.1177/1545968311425908|pmid=21989632|pmc=4098920|issn=1545-9683}}</ref>
* Health services monitoring and reporting.
* Health-related [[mLearning]] for the general public.
* Public health services, for example, tobacco cessation<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fradkin |first1=Nick |last2=Zbikowski |first2=Susan M |last3=Christensen |first3=Trevor |date=2022-03-09 |title=Analysis of Demographic Characteristics of Users of a Free Tobacco Cessation Smartphone App: Observational Study |journal=JMIR Public Health and Surveillance |language=en |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=e32499 |doi=10.2196/32499 |pmid=35262491 |pmc=8943539 |issn=2369-2960 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
* Mental health promotion<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Adkins|first1=Elizabeth C.|last2=O'Loughlin|first2=Kristen|last3=Neary|first3=Martha|last4=Schueller|first4=Stephen M.|date=2018|title=Discovery of and Interest in Health Apps Among Those With Mental Health Needs: Survey and Focus Group Study|journal=Journal of Medical Internet Research|volume=20|issue=6|pages=e10141|doi=10.2196/10141|pmid=29891468|pmc=6018235 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Farb 2019 e10844" /> and illness prevention<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Deady|first1=Mark|last2= GLozier|first2= N.|last3=Calvo|first3=R.A.|last4=Johnston|first4=D M.|date=2020|title=Preventing depression using a smartphone app: a randomized controlled trial|journal=Psychological Medicine|volume=2020|issue=3 |pages=457–466 |doi= 10.1017/S0033291720002081 |pmid=32624013 |hdl=10044/1/80590 |s2cid=220372098 |hdl-access=free}}</ref>
* Training and continuing professional development for health care workers.<ref name="TechChange mHealth training">{{cite web |last=Martin |first=Nick |date=22 July 2013 |title=Charting the Future of Capacity Building for mHealth |website=[[TechChange]] |url=http://techchange.org/2013/07/22/charting-the-future-of-capacity-building-for-mhealth/ |access-date=August 4, 2013}}</ref>
* Health promotion and community mobilization.
* Support of long-term conditions, for example medication reminders and diabetes self-management.<ref>{{cite web |last=Elliott |first=Jane |date=16 January 2010 |title=Text reminder to take epilepsy tablets |website=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/8436092.stm }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Chomutare T, Fernandez-Luque L, Arsand E, Hartvigsen G |date=22 September 2011 | title = Features of mobile diabetes applications | journal = Journal of Medical Internet Research | volume = 13 | issue = 3| page = e65 | doi = 10.2196/jmir.1874 | pmid = 21979293 | pmc=3222161 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
* Peer-to-peer personal health management for telemedicine.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mhealthnews.com/video/deborah-jeffries-md-talks-about-collaborative-video-and-emerging-telemedicine-trends|title=Deborah Jeffries, MD, talks about collaborative video and emerging telemedicine trends|date=August 15, 2013 |first=Eric |last=Bailey |website=mHealthNews |publisher=HIMSS Media |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130825044857/http://www.mhealthnews.com/video/deborah-jeffries-md-talks-about-collaborative-video-and-emerging-telemedicine-trends|archive-date=2013-08-25}}</ref>
* Patient participation and social mobilisation for infectious disease prevention (e.g. [[Participatient]]).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bentvelsen |first1=R.G. |last2=Laan |first2=B.J. |last3=Bonten |first3=T. |last4=van der Vaart |first4=R. |last5=Hetem |first5=D.J. |last6=Soetekouw |first6=R. |last7=Geerlings |first7=S.E. |last8=Chavannes |first8=N.H. |last9=Veldkamp |first9=K.E. |date=May 2024 |title=Patient engagement to counter catheter-associated urinary tract infections with an app (PECCA): a multicentre, prospective, interrupted time-series and before-and-after study |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S019567012300378X |journal=Journal of Hospital Infection |language=en |volume=147 |pages=98–106 |doi=10.1016/j.jhin.2023.11.005|pmid=38040039 |hdl=1887/3754891 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Abbott|first1=Patricia|last2=Barbosa|first2=Sayonara |date=2015 |title=Using Information Technology and Social Mobilization to Combat Disease|url=http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&pid=S0103-21002015000100001&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en |format=PDF |journal=Acta Paulista de Enfermagem |volume=28 |issue=1 |issn=0103-2100 |access-date=5 April 2015}}</ref>
* Surgical follow-up, such as for major joint arthroplasty patients.<ref>{{cite journal  |vauthors=Koutras C, Bitsaki M, Koutras G, Nikolaou C, Heep H |title=Socioeconomic impact of e-Health services in major joint replacement: A scoping review |journal=Technol Health Care |date=17 August 2015 |pmid=26409523 |doi=10.3233/THC-151036 |volume=23 |issue=6 |pages=809–17}}</ref>
* Mobile social media for global health personnel;<ref name="Pimmer" /> for example, the capacity to facilitate professional connectedness, and to empower health workforce.<ref>{{cite journal  |vauthors= Abdul SS, Lin CW, Scholl J, Fernandez-Luque L, Jian WS, Hsu MH, Li YC |title= Facebook use leads to health-care reform in Taiwan |date=2011 |journal=The Lancet | doi= 10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60919-7 |volume= 377|issue= 9783 |pages= 2083–2084 |pmid=21684378|s2cid= 32789692 |doi-access= free }}</ref>

According to the Vodafone Group Foundation on February 13, 2008,{{full citation needed|date=October 2017}} a partnership for emergency communications was created between the group and United Nations Foundation. Such partnership will increase the effectiveness of the information and communications technology response to major emergencies and disasters around the world.

==See also==
{{Portal|Medicine|Technology|Telecommunication}}
* [[Health informatics]]
* [[Health 2.0]]
* [[List of open-source health software#Mobile devices|Open source software packages for mHealth]]
* [[Telehealth]]
* [[HRHIS|Healthcare workforce information systems]]
* [[Telemedicine service providers]]
{{clear}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite conference |last1=Asangansi |first1=Ime |last2=Braa |first2=Kristin |date=2010 |title=The emergence of mobile-supported national health information systems in developing countries |pages=540–544 |pmid=20841745 |doi=10.3233/978-1-60750-588-4-540 |doi-access=free |url=http://ebooks.iospress.nl/publication/13494 |editor1-last=Safran |editor1-first=C. |editor2-last=Reti |editor2-first=S. |editor3-last=Marin |editor3-first=H.F. |conference=MEDINFO 2010 |series=Studies in health technology and informatics |volume=160 |publisher=IOS Press |isbn=978-1-60750-588-4 |conference-url=http://ebooks.iospress.nl/volume/medinfo-2010 |url-access=subscription }} {{open access}}
* {{cite news |last=Brown |first=David |date=30 November 2007 |title=Globally, Deaths From Measles Drop Sharply |department=World |newspaper=The Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/11/29/AR2007112902021.html |access-date=2010-08-14}} Describes role of EpiSurveyor mobile data collection software in contributing to the highly successful fight against measles mortality.
* {{cite magazine |title=The doctor in your pocket |date=15 September 2005 |magazine=The Economist |url=http://www.economist.com/node/4368140 |url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite report |last1=Giuffrida |first1=Antonio |last2=El-Wahab |first2=Shireen |last3=Anta |first3=Rafael |date=February 2009 |title=Mobile Health: The potential of mobile telephony to bring health care to the majority |publisher=Inter-American Development Bank |url=https://publications.iadb.org/handle/11319/3310 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Huang |first1=Anpeng |last2=Chen |first2=Chao |last3=Bian |first3=Kaigui |last4=Duan |first4=Xiaohui |last5=Chen |first5=Min |last6=Gao |first6=Hongqiao |last7=Meng |first7=Chao |last8=Zheng |first8=Qian |last9=Zhang |first9=Yingrui |last10=Jiao |first10=Bingli |last11=Xie |first11=Linzhen |display-authors=3 |date=March 2014 |title=WE-CARE: An Intelligent Mobile Telecardiology System to Enable mHealth Applications |journal=IEEE Journal of Biomedical and Health Informatics |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=693–702 |doi=10.1109/jbhi.2013.2279136 |pmid=24608067 |s2cid=14856105 }}
* {{cite web |last=Huang |first=Anpeng |title=Worldwide Gallery for Mobile Health |url=http://www.healthonline.me/mhealth.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141020084331/http://www.healthonline.me/mhealth.html |archive-date=2014-10-20 }}
* {{cite journal |title=''JMIR mHealth and uHealth'' |journal=JMIR mHealth and uHealth |publisher=JMIR Publications |issn=2291-5222 |url=http://mhealth.jmir.org/ }} {{open access}} Peer-reviewed journal on mHealth and uHealth (ubiquitous health)
* {{cite journal |last=Kaplan |first=Warren A. |date=23 May 2006 |title=Can the ubiquitous power of mobile phones be used to improve health outcomes in developing countries? |journal=Globalization and Health |volume=2 |page=9 |doi=10.1186/1744-8603-2-9 |pmid=16719925 |pmc=1524730 |doi-access=free }} {{open access}}
* {{cite journal|last=Mechael |first=Patricia N. |date=Winter 2009 |title=The Case for mHealth in Developing Countries |journal=Innovations: Technology, Governance, Globalization |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=103–118 |doi=10.1162/itgg.2009.4.1.103 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite report |last1=Mechael |first1=Patricia N. |last2=Sloninsky |first2=Daniela |date=August 2008 |title=Towards the Development of an mHealth Strategy: A Literature Review |location=New York |publisher=Earth Institute at Columbia University |type=Working Document |url=https://www.who.int/goe/mobile_health/mHealthReview_Aug09.pdf }}
* {{cite web |title=Mobile Medical Applications |website=U.S. Food and Drug Administration |url=https://www.fda.gov/MedicalDevices/ProductsandMedicalProcedures/ConnectedHealth/MobileMedicalApplications/default.htm |archive-date=2 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502045050/https://www.fda.gov/MedicalDevices/ProductsandMedicalProcedures/ConnectedHealth/MobileMedicalApplications/default.htm }}
* {{cite book|last=Olmeda |first=Christopher J. |year=2000 |title=Information Technology in Systems of Care |publisher=Delfin Press |isbn=978-0-9821442-0-6 }}
* {{cite web |last=Saran |first=Cliff |date=3 April 2008 |title=Technology plays crucial role in vaccination distribution |website=Computer Weekly |publisher=TechTarget |url=http://www.computerweekly.com/Articles/2008/04/03/230128/technology-plays-crucial-role-in-vaccination-distribution.htm |access-date=2010-08-14 }} Discusses use of handheld electronic data collection in managing public health data and activities.
* {{cite report |last=Shackleton |first=Sally-Jean |others=Implemented by Women'sNet |date=May 2007 |title=Rapid Assessment of Cell Phones for Development |publisher=UNICEF South Africa |url=https://www.unicef.org/southafrica/resources_7987.htm }}
* {{cite journal |editor1-last=Tal |editor1-first=Amir |editor2-last=Torous |editor2-first=John |date=September 2017 |title=Special Issue: Digital and Mobile Mental Health |journal=Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal |volume=40 |issue=3 |isbn=978-1-4338-9119-9 |url=http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/special/6104007.aspx |url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite report |author=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Division for Public Administration and Development Management |date=2007 |title=Mobile Applications on Health and Learning |series=Compendium of ICT Applications on Electronic Government |volume=1 |docket=ST/ESA/PAD/SER.E/113 |publisher=United Nations |url=http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/UN/UNPAN030003.pdf }}
* {{cite book|last=Reitebuch |first=Lukas |year=2022 |title=Mobile Health Applications |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-662-66253-3 }}
* {{cite magazine |date=10 April 2008 |title=A world of witnesses |magazine=The Economist |url=http://www.economist.com/node/10950499 |access-date=2017-10-26 }} Discusses use of EpiSurveyor software in public health monitoring in Africa.
{{refend}}

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