View source for Luzon

{{Short description|Island in the Philippines}}
{{About|the Philippine island}}
{{Use Philippine English|date=July 2022}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2025}}
{{Infobox islands
| name                            = Luzon
| image_name                      = Northern_Philippines_(Luzon).jpg
| image_caption                   = Luzon satellite image by NASA in 2005
| native_name                     = 
| native_name_link                = 
| location                        = [[Southeast Asia]]
| coordinates                     = {{coord|region:PH_type:island|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| archipelago                     = Philippines
| waterbody                       = {{Plainlist|
* [[Babuyan Channel]]
* [[Burias Pass]]
* [[Philippine Sea]]
* [[Polillo Strait]]
* [[Samar Sea]]
* [[San Bernardino Strait]]
* [[Sibuyan Sea]]
* [[South China Sea]]
* [[Ticao Pass]]
* [[Verde Island Passage]]}}
| major_islands                   = {{Plainlist |
* Luzon
* [[Mindoro Island|Mindoro]]
* [[Palawan (island)|Palawan]]
* [[Masbate Island|Masbate]]
* [[Catanduanes]]
* [[Busuanga Island|Busuanga]]
* [[Marinduque]]
* [[Romblon (island)|Romblon]]
* [[Polillo Island|Polillo]]
* [[Burias (island)|Burias]]
* [[Ticao Island|Ticao]]
* [[Alabat Island|Alabat]]
* [[Sibuyan Island|Sibuyan]]
* [[Tablas Island|Tablas]]
* [[Culion]]
* [[Balabac Island|Balabac]]
* [[Bugsuk]]
* [[Dumaran Island|Dumaran]]}}
| area_km2                        = 109965
| area_footnotes                  = <ref name=unep/>
| rank                            = 15th
| coastline_km                    = 3249.6
| coastline_footnotes             = <ref name=unep/>
| highest_mount                   = [[Mount Pulag]]
| elevation_m                     = 2,928
| country                         = Philippines
| country_admin_divisions_title   = Regions
| country_admin_divisions         = {{Collapsible list
 |1= [[Ilocos Region|Region 1 – Ilocos Region]]
 |2= [[Cagayan Valley|Region 2 – Cagayan Valley]]
 |3= [[Central Luzon|Region 3 – Central Luzon]]
 |4= [[Calabarzon|Region 4A – Calabarzon]]
 |5= [[Mimaropa|Region 4B – Mimaropa]]
 |6= [[Bicol Region|Region 5 – Bicol Region]]
 |7= [[Cordillera Administrative Region|CAR – Cordillera Administrative Region]]
 |8= [[Metro Manila|NCR – National Capital Region]] 
}}
| country_admin_divisions_title_1 = Provinces
| country_admin_divisions_1       = {{Collapsible list
 |1= [[Abra (province)|Abra]]
 |2= [[Albay]]
 |3= [[Apayao]]
 |4= [[Aurora (province)|Aurora]]
 |5= [[Bataan]]
 |6= [[Batangas]]
 |7= [[Benguet]]
 |8= [[Bulacan]]
 |9= [[Cagayan]]
 |10= [[Camarines Norte]]
 |11= [[Camarines Sur]]
 |12= [[Cavite]]
 |13= [[Ifugao]]
 |14= [[Ilocos Norte]]
 |15= [[Ilocos Sur]]
 |16= [[Isabela (province)|Isabela]]
 |17= [[Kalinga (province)|Kalinga]]
 |18= [[La Union]]
 |19= [[Laguna (province)|Laguna]]
 |20= [[Mountain Province]]
 |21= [[Nueva Ecija]]
 |22= [[Nueva Vizcaya]]
 |23= [[Pampanga]]
 |24= [[Pangasinan]]
 |25= [[Quezon]]
 |26= [[Quirino]]
 |27= [[Rizal (province)|Rizal]]
 |28= [[Sorsogon]]
 |29= [[Tarlac]]
 |30= [[Zambales]]
 |31= ''Outlying island provinces:''
 |32= [[Batanes]]
 |33= [[Catanduanes]]
 |34= [[Marinduque]]
 |35= [[Masbate]]
 |36= [[Occidental Mindoro]]
 |37= [[Oriental Mindoro]]
 |38= [[Palawan]]
 |39= [[Romblon]] }}
| country_largest_city            = [[Quezon City]]
| country_largest_city_population = 3,084,270 {{PH census|2024|d}}
| population                      = 64,301,558 (2024) (census)
| population_footnotes            = 
| density_km2                     = {{sigfig|53336134/109965|2}}
| demonym                         = Luzonian (modern)<br />Luzonense (occasional)<br />[[luzones|Luções/Luzones]] (archaic)
| ethnic_groups                   = {{bulleted list 
| [[Aeta]]
| [[Bicolano people|Bicolano]]
| [[Bolinao]]
| [[Gaddang people|Gaddang]]
| [[Ibanag people|Ibanag]]
| [[Igorot people|Igorot]]
  {{hlist
|  [[Bontoc people|Bontoc]]
|  [[Ibaloi people|Ibaloi]]
|  [[Ifugao people|Ifugao]]
|  [[Isnag people|Isneg]]
|  [[itneg people|Itneg]]
|  [[Kalinga people|Kalinga]]
|  [[Kankanaey people|Kankanaey]]
|  [[Kalanguya people|Kalanguya]] }}
| [[Ilokano people|Ilokano]]
| [[Ilongot people|Ilongot]]
| [[Itawes]]
| [[Ivatan people|Ivatan]]
| [[Kapampangan people|Kapampangan]]
| [[Pangasinan people|Pangasinan]]
| [[Sambal people|Sambal]]
| [[Tagalog people|Tagalog]]}}
| additional_info                 = 
}}
{{Contains special characters|Baybayin}}

'''Luzon''' ({{IPAc-en|l|uː|ˈ|z|ɒ|n}} {{respell|loo|ZON}}, {{IPA|tl|luˈson|lang}}) is the largest and most populous [[List of islands in the Philippines|island]] in the [[Philippines]]. Located in the northern portion of the [[List of islands of the Philippines|Philippine archipelago]], it is the economic and political center of the nation, being home to the country's capital city, [[Manila]], as well as [[Quezon City]], the country's most populous city. With a population of 64.3 million {{As of|2024|lc=y}},{{PH census|2024|d}} it contains 55% of the country's total population and is the [[List of islands by population|4th most populous island]] in the world.<ref name="ThePHArchipelago">{{cite book| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=90C4DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA16| page=16| title=The Philippine Archipelago| first=Yves| last=Boquet| publisher=Springer| year=2017| isbn=9783319519265| access-date=December 22, 2018| archive-date=March 26, 2023| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195753/https://books.google.com/books?id=90C4DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA16| url-status=live}}</ref> It is the [[List of islands by area|15th largest island]] in the world by [[land area]].

''Luzon'' may also refer to one of the three primary [[Island groups of the Philippines|island groups in the country]]. In this usage, it includes the Luzon [[Mainland]], the [[Batanes]] and [[Babuyan Islands|Babuyan]] groups of islands to the north, [[Polillo Islands]] to the east, and the outlying islands of [[Catanduanes]], [[Marinduque]] and [[Mindoro]], among others, to the south.<ref name="unique">{{cite book | last=Zaide | first=Sonia M. | title=The Philippines, a Unique Nation | page=50 }}</ref> The islands and provinces of [[Masbate]], [[Palawan]] and [[Romblon]] are also included, although these three are sometimes grouped with another of the island groups, the [[Visayas]].

{{TOC limit|3}}

==Etymology==
The name ''Luzon'' is thought to derive from {{lang|tl|ᜎᜓᜐᜓᜅ᜔}} ''lusong'', a [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] word referring to a particular kind of large wooden [[mortar and pestle|mortar]] used in dehusking [[Rice production in the Philippines|rice]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Ooi |first=Keat Gin |author-link=Keat Gin Ooi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA798 |title=Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-57607-770-2 |page=798 |access-date=September 15, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195754/https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA798 |archive-date=March 26, 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Roberts1">{{cite book|last=Roberts|first=Edmund|title=Embassy to the Eastern Courts of Cochin-China, Siam, and Muscat|year=1837|publisher=Harper & Brothers|location=New York|page=59|url=http://www.wdl.org/en/item/7317/view/1/59/|access-date=October 15, 2013|archive-date=October 15, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131015163349/http://www.wdl.org/en/item/7317/view/1/59/|url-status=live}}</ref> A 2008 research paper by Eulito Bautista and Evelyn Javier provides an image of a lusong, explaining:

{{blockquote|Traditional milling was accomplished in the 1900s by pounding the palay with a wooden pestle in a stone or wooden mortar called lusong. The first pounding takes off the hull and further pounding removes the bran but also breaks most grains. Further winnowing with a bamboo tray (bilao) separates the hull from the rice grains. This traditional hand-pounding chore, although very laborious and resulted in a lot of broken rice, required two to three skilled men and women to work harmoniously and was actually a form of socializing among young folks in the villages.<ref name="EulitoandJavier2008">{{Cite journal|last1=Bautista|first1=Eulito U.|last2=Javier|first2=Evelyn F.|date=2008|title=Rice Production Practices: PIDS Research Paper Series 2008-02|url=http://dirp4.pids.gov.ph/ris/rps/pidsrp0802.pdf|journal=Philippine Institute of Development Studies Research Papers Series|publisher=Philippine Institute of Development Studies|pages=44|access-date=May 29, 2019|archive-date=August 15, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170815175858/https://dirp4.pids.gov.ph/ris/rps/pidsrp0802.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>}}

In old Latin, Italian, and Portuguese maps, the island is often called ''Luçonia'' or ''Luconia''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.raremaps.com/gallery/detail/41470/Exacta_and_Accurata_Delineatio_cum_Orarum_Maritimarum_tum_etjam_locorum/Van%20Linschoten.html|title=Exacta & Accurata Delineatio cum Orarum Maritimarum tum etjam locorum terrestrium quae in Regionibus China, Cauchinchina, Camboja sive Champa, Syao, Malacca, Arracan & Pegu.|last=Van Linschoten|first=Jan Huygen|date=1596|website=Barry Lawrence Ruderman Antique Maps Inc.|access-date=June 16, 2021|archive-date=September 1, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190901175658/https://www.raremaps.com/gallery/detail/41470/Exacta_and_Accurata_Delineatio_cum_Orarum_Maritimarum_tum_etjam_locorum%2FVan%2520Linschoten.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.raremaps.com/gallery/detail/3540/Asia_Partiu_Orbis_Maxima_MDXCVIII/Quad-Bussemachaer.html|title=Asia Partiu Orbis Maxima MDXCVIII|last1=Quad|first1=Matthias|last2=Bussemachaer|first2=Johann|date=1598|website=Barry Lawrence Ruderman Antique Maps Inc.|access-date=June 16, 2021|archive-date=September 1, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190901175659/https://www.raremaps.com/gallery/detail/3540/Asia_Partiu_Orbis_Maxima_MDXCVIII%2FQuad-Bussemachaer.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.raremaps.com/gallery/detail/25974/India_Orientalis/Hondius.html|title=India Orientalis|last=Hondius|first=Jodocus|date=1606|website=Barry Lawrence Ruderman Antique Maps Inc.|access-date=June 16, 2021|archive-date=June 24, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624200020/https://www.raremaps.com/gallery/detail/25974/India_Orientalis/Hondius.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.raremaps.com/gallery/detail/45716/Indiae_Orientalis_Nova_Descriptio/Jansson.html|title=Indiae Orientalis Nova Descriptio|last=Jansson|first=Jan|date=1630|website=Barry Lawrence Ruderman Antique Maps Inc.|access-date=June 16, 2021|archive-date=June 24, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624200939/https://www.raremaps.com/gallery/detail/45716/Indiae_Orientalis_Nova_Descriptio/Jansson.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.raremaps.com/gallery/detail/23789/India_quae_Orientalis_dicitur_et_Insulae_Adiacentes/Blaeu.html|title=India quae Orientalis dicitur et Insulae Adiacentes|last=Blaeu|first=Willem Janszoon|date=1642|website=Barry Lawrence Ruderman Antique Maps Inc.|access-date=June 16, 2021|archive-date=June 24, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624195847/https://www.raremaps.com/gallery/detail/23789/India_quae_Orientalis_dicitur_et_Insulae_Adiacentes/Blaeu.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.raremaps.com/gallery/detail/43458/Asia_Noviter_Delineata/Blaeu.html|title=Asia Noviter Delineata|last=Blaeu|first=Willem Janszoon|date=1635|website=Barry Lawrence Ruderman Antique Maps Inc.|access-date=June 16, 2021|archive-date=June 24, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624201427/https://www.raremaps.com/gallery/detail/43458/Asia_Noviter_Delineata/Blaeu.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.raremaps.com/gallery/detail/42967/India_quae_Orientalis_dicitur_et_Insulae_Adiacentes/Hondius.html|title=India quae Orientalis dicitur et Insulae Adiacentes|last=Hondius|first=Henricus|date=1636|website=Barry Lawrence Ruderman Antique Maps Inc.|access-date=June 16, 2021|archive-date=June 24, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624200149/https://www.raremaps.com/gallery/detail/42967/India_quae_Orientalis_dicitur_et_Insulae_Adiacentes/Hondius.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.raremaps.com/gallery/detail/30701/Carte_Generale_%20Des_Indes_Orientales_et_des_Isles_Adiacentes/Mariette.html|title=Carte Generale Des Indes Orientales et des Isles Adiacentes|last=Mariette|first=Pierre|date=1650|website=Barry Lawrence Ruderman Antique Maps Inc.|access-date=June 16, 2021|archive-date=June 24, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624200036/https://www.raremaps.com/gallery/detail/30701/Carte_Generale_%20Des_Indes_Orientales_et_des_Isles_Adiacentes/Mariette.html|url-status=live}}</ref>{{refbomb|date=September 2024}}

''Luções,'' {{IPA|pt|luˈsõjʃ|}} (also ''[[Luzones]]'' in [[Spanish language in the Philippines|Spanish]]) was a [[demonym]]<ref name="Alfonso2016">{{Cite book |last=Alfonso  |first=Ian Christopher B. |title=The Nameless Hero: Revisiting the Sources on the First Filipino Leader to Die for Freedom |publisher=Holy Angel University Press |year=2016 |isbn=9789710546527 |location=Angeles}}</ref> used by [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] sailors in Malaysia<ref name="Scott1994">{{cite book
  | last = Scott
  | first = William Henry
  | author-link = William Henry Scott (historian) 
  | title = Barangay: Sixteenth Century Philippine Culture and Society
  | publisher = Ateneo de Manila University Press
  | date = 1994
  | location = Quezon City
  | isbn = 971-550-135-4 }}</ref> during the early 1500s, referring to the [[Kapampangan people|Kapampangan]] and [[Tagalog people]] who lived in [[Manila Bay]], which was then called ''[[History of Luzon#History of Luzon during the Classical Period|Lusong]]'' ([[kapampangan language|Kapampangan]]: ''Lusung'', {{langx|pt|Luçon}}), from which Luzon was also derived.<ref name="Pires">{{Cite book |last=Pires |first=Tomé |title=A suma oriental de Tomé Pires e o livro de Francisco Rodriguez: Leitura e notas de Armando Cortesão [1512 – 1515] |publisher=Hakluyt Society |year=1944 |location=Cambridge |language=pt |translator-last=Cortesão |translator-first=Armando |trans-title=The Summa Oriental of Tomé Pires and the book by Francisco Rodriguez: Reading and notes by Armando Cortesão [1512 – 1515] |author-link=Tomé Pires}}</ref><ref name="Lach" /><ref name="Reid" /><ref name="Scott1994" /> The term was also used for Tagalog settlers in [[Southern Tagalog]] region, where they created intensive contact with the Kapampangans.<ref name="Zorc">{{cite book |last=Zorc |first=David |year=1993 |chapter=The Prehistory and Origin of the Tagalog People |editor=Øyvind Dahl |title=Language - a doorway between human cultures : tributes to Dr. Otto Chr. Dahl on his ninetieth birthday |location=Oslo |publisher=Novus |pages=201–211 |url=https://zorc.net/RDZorc/publications/081=Prehistory&OriginOfTagalog[DahlFestschrif].pdf}}</ref> Eventually, the term "''Luzones''" would refer to the settlers of Luzon island, and later on, would be exclusive to the peoples of [[Central Luzon]].

==History==
=== Before European colonization ===
{{Further|History of Luzon|Tondo (historical polity)|Cainta (historical polity)|Namayan|Maynila (historical polity)|Ma-i|Pangasinan (historical polity)}}
''[[Homo luzonensis]]'' fossils, found in [[Callao Cave]] on Luzon, represent a newly identified extinct archaic human species from at least 50,000 to 67,000 years ago.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last1=Greshko |first1=Michael |last2=Wei-Haas |first2=Maya |date=April 10, 2019 |title=New species of ancient human discovered in the Philippines |work=[[National Geographic]] |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2019/04/new-species-ancient-human-discovered-luzon-philippines-homo-luzonensis/ |access-date=October 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410173110/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2019/04/new-species-ancient-human-discovered-luzon-philippines-homo-luzonensis/ |archive-date=April 10, 2019}}</ref>

Before 1000 CE, the [[Tagalog people|Tagalog]], [[Kapampangan people|Kapampangan]], and [[Pangasinan people|Pangasinan]] peoples of south and central Luzon had established several major coastal [[polity|polities]], notably [[Rajahnate of Maynila|Maynila]], [[Tondo (historical polity)|Tondo]] and [[Namayan]]. The oldest known Philippine document, written in 900, is the [[Laguna Copperplate Inscription]], which names places in and around [[Manila Bay]] and also mentions [[Medan]], a place in Indonesia.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Morrow |first=Paul |title=Laguna Copperplate Inscription |url=http://www.mts.net/~pmorrow/lcieng.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080205031106/http://www.mts.net/~pmorrow/lcieng.htm |archive-date=February 5, 2008 |access-date=December 19, 2010 |website=Mts.net |language=en}}</ref> These coastal Philippine kingdoms were [[Thalassocracy|thalassocracies]], based on trade with neighboring Asian political entities and structured by leases between chiefs or lords (''[[Datu]]'') and paramount lords (''[[Lakan]]'') or [[Rajah]]s, by whom tributes were extracted and taxes were levied. These kingdoms were under the competing influence of Hinduism, Animism, or Islam. Before that, from 2500 - 2000 BCE, Kapampangans along with [[Sambal people]] and [[Hatang Kayi language|Hatang Kayi]] settled south Luzon; subsequently, from 1200 - 1000 BCE, the migrating Tagalog settlers from [[eastern Visayas]] or [[Caraga|northeast Mindanao]] stayed in south Luzon and they made contact with the Kapampangans, Sambal people and the Hatang Kayi, of which contact with the Kapampangans was most intensive;<ref name="Zorc"/> after this, the original settlers moved northward: Kapampangans moved to modern Tondo, Navotas, and Central Luzon (modern Bulacan, Nueva Ecija, Aurora, Pampanga, south Tarlac, and east Bataan),<ref name="Tantingco: The Kapampangan in Us">{{Cite web |url=https://www.sunstar.com.ph/more-articles/tantingco-the-kapampangan-in-us |title=Tantingco: The Kapampangan in Us |website=[[SunStar]] |access-date=January 23, 2024 |archive-date=January 23, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240123034705/https://www.sunstar.com.ph/more-articles/tantingco-the-kapampangan-in-us |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="What is the Kapampangan Region">[http://marcnepo.blogspot.com/2013/06/what-is-kapampangan-region.html?m=1  What is the Kapampangan Region?]</ref><ref name="language-and-society_Ariel-49-61">[https://www.language-and-society.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/Ariel-49-61.pdf  The Language Shift from the Middle and Upper Middle-Class Families in the Kapampangan Speaking Region]</ref><ref name="mega-Pampanga">[https://www.facebook.com/share/1BGhCnJdPK/?mibextid=WC7FNe Pampanga used to be a coast-to-coast mega-province: What happened?] on [[Facebook]]</ref> and Sambals to the modern province of Zambales,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ncca.gov.ph/about_cultarts/ebook_subcont.php?subcont_Id=33 |title=Sambal |website=National Commission for Culture and the Arts |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080121084810/http://www.ncca.gov.ph/about_cultarts/ebook_subcont.php?subcont_Id=33 |archive-date=January 21, 2008 }}</ref> in turn, displacing the Aetas.

There was also a Buddhist polity known as [[Ma-i]] or Maidh, described in Chinese and Bruneian records in the 10th century, although its location is still unknown and scholars are divided on whether it is in modern-day [[Bay, Laguna]] or [[Bulalacao]], [[Mindoro]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Go |first=Bon Juan |date=2005 |title=Ma'I in Chinese Records – Mindoro or Bai? An Examination of a Historical Puzzle |url=http://www.philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/download/216/223 |url-status=live |journal=Philippine Studies |language=en |volume=53 |issue=1 |pages=119–138 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021221348/http://www.philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/download/216/223 |archive-date=October 21, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book| title = Prehispanic Source Materials for the Study of Philippine History| last1 = Scott| first1 = William Henry| publisher = New Day Publishers| date = 1989| location = Quezon City| isbn = 978-9711002268| chapter = Societies in Prehispanic Philippines}}</ref>

According to sources at the time, the trade in large native [[List of Japanese tea ceremony equipment#Shimamono|''Ruson-tsukuri'']] (literally ''Luzon-made'', Japanese:[[wikt:呂|呂]] [[wikt:宋|宋]] [[wikt:製|製]]) clay jars used for storing [[green tea]] and [[rice wine]] with Japan flourished in the 12th century, and local [[Tagalog people|Tagalog]], [[Kapampangan people|Kapampangan]] and [[Pangasinan people|Pangasinan]] potters had marked each jar with [[Baybayin]] letters denoting the particular urn used and the kiln the jars were manufactured in. Certain [[kiln]]s were renowned over others; prices depended on the reputation of the kiln.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Manansala |first=Paul Kekai |date=September 5, 2006 |title=Quests of the Dragon and Bird Clan: Luzon Jars (Glossary) |url=http://sambali.blogspot.com/2006/09/luzon-jars-glossary.html |access-date=December 19, 2010 |website=Quests of the Dragon and Bird Clan |language=en |archive-date=September 4, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070904183539/http://sambali.blogspot.com/2006/09/luzon-jars-glossary.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>[http://www.seapots.com/home/index.php/production-centers-pottery-groups/philippines South East Asia Pottery – Philippines]. Seapots.com. Retrieved on December 19, 2010. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019011022/http://www.seapots.com/home/index.php/production-centers-pottery-groups/philippines |date=October 19, 2014 }}</ref> Of this flourishing trade, the ''Burnay'' jars of [[Ilocos]] are the only large clay jar manufactured in Luzon today with origins from this time.

In the early 1300s the Chinese annals, ''Nanhai zhi'', reported that Hindu Brunei invaded or administered [[Sarawak]] and [[Sabah]] as well as the Philippine kingdoms of [[Rajahnate of Butuan|Butuan]], [[Sultanate of Sulu|Sulu]], and in Luzon: [[Ma-i]] (Mindoro) and Malilu 麻裏蘆 (present-day [[Manila]]); [[Sanmalan|Shahuchong]] 沙胡重 (present-day Siocon or [[Zamboanga City|Zamboanga]]), Yachen 啞陳 [[Oton]] (Part of the [[Madja-as]] Kedatuan), and 文杜陵 Wenduling (present-day [[Sultanate of Maguindanao|Mindanao]]),<ref>[https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/228735802.pdf Reading Song-Ming Records on the Pre-colonial History of the Philippines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213131445/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/228735802.pdf |date=February 13, 2023 }} By Wang Zhenping Page 256.</ref> which would regain their independence at a later date.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20072046 | jstor=20072046 | title=From Quanzhou to the Sulu Zone and beyond: Questions Related to the Early Fourteenth Century | last1=Ptak | first1=Roderich | journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies | date=1998 | volume=29 | issue=2 | pages=280 | doi=10.1017/S002246340000744X | s2cid=162707729 | url-access=subscription }}</ref>

In 1405, the [[Yongle Emperor]] appointed a Chinese governor of Luzon, Ko Ch'a-lao, during [[Zheng He]]'s [[Treasure voyages|voyages]].{{sfn|Ho|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=EwnzBiM0LmAC&pg=PA33 33]}}{{sfn|Karnow|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VbwogbQ3l8UC&pg=PT84 84]}} China also had vassals among the leaders in the archipelago.<ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume 9 |others=Contributor: Walter Yust |year=1954 |publisher=EncyclopÆdia Britannica |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9KfnAAAAMAAJ&q=vassals |access-date=June 21, 2019 |page=75 |archive-date=March 26, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195747/https://books.google.com/books?id=9KfnAAAAMAAJ&q=vassals |url-status=live }}</ref> China attained ascendancy in trade with the area in Yongle's reign.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=uWzjAAAAMAAJ "Philippine Almanac & Handbook of Facts" 1977], p. 59.</ref>[[File:Bangkajf.JPG|thumb|left|upright|''Bangkang pinawa'', an ancient Philippine [[mortar and pestle]]]]Afterwards, some parts of Luzon were [[Islamization|Islamized]] when the former Majapahit province of Poni broke free, converted to [[Islam]], and imported [[Sharif Ali]], a prince from [[Sharifate of Mecca|Mecca]] who became the Sultan of [[Bruneian Empire|Brunei]], a nation that then expanded its realms from Borneo to the Philippines and set up the [[Kingdom of Maynila]] as its puppet-state.<ref>{{cite book|author=Frans Welman|title=Borneo Trilogy Brunei: Vol 1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kb7OXcSH7ScC&pg=PA8|date=August 1, 2013|publisher=Booksmango|isbn=978-616-222-235-1|pages=8–}}</ref> The invasion of Brunei spread Chinese royal descent like [[Ong Sum Ping]]'s kin and Arab dynasties too into the Philippines like the clan of Sultan [[Sharif Ali]]. However, other Luzon kingdoms resisted Islam, like [[Pangasinan (historical polity)|Pangasinan]]. It had remained a tributary state of China and was a largely [[Sinicization|Sinified]] kingdom, which maintained trade with Japan.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Scott |first=William Henry |date=1989 |title=Filipinos in China in 1500 |url=http://www.asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-21-1983/scott.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Asian Studies |language=en |volume=21 |page=8 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150724123829/http://www.asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-21-1983/scott.pdf |archive-date=July 24, 2015 |access-date=June 10, 2015}}</ref> The [[Cainta (historical polity)|Polity of Cainta]] also existed as a fortified city-state, armed with walls and cannons. As written in the book of Dong-Xiyang kao 東西洋考, the Chinese [[Ming dynasty]] recorded that there was a "Kingdom of Luzon" that existed over the current island of Luzon.<ref name="MingDynasty">[https://www.jstor.org/stable/41933619?read-now=1&seq=13#page_scan_tab_contents The Taiwan Strait between the Twelfth and Sixteenth Centuries and the Maritime Route to Luzon by Liu Yingsheng, 刘迎胜, (Vol. 46, No. 2 (2012), pp. 179 )]</ref>

=== Interactions with the Portuguese ===
The [[Portugal|Portuguese]] were the first European explorers who recorded it in their charts as ''Luçonia'' or ''Luçon'', calling the inhabitants ''[[Luções]]''.<ref>Pires, Tomé, A suma oriental de Tomé Pires e o livro de Francisco Rodriguez: Leitura e notas de Armando Cortesão [1512–1515], translated and edited by Armando Cortesao, Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, 1944.</ref> [[Edmund Roberts (diplomat)|Edmund Roberts]], who visited Luzon in the early 19th century, wrote that Luzon was "discovered" in 1521.<ref name="Roberts1" />

Portuguese and Spanish accounts from the early<ref name="Pigafetta1524b">{{Cite book|title=Relazione del primo viaggio intorno al mondo|last=Pigafetta|first=Antonio|year=1524}}</ref> to mid 1500s state that the [[Kingdom of Maynila]] was the same as the Kingdom of Luzon<ref name=pttoponymy>p. 12: https://ec.europa.eu/translation/portuguese/magazine/documents/folha61_pt.pdf</ref> that was mentioned in Ming Dynasty Records<ref name="MingDynasty" /> (from the Tagalog or Malay name ''Lusong'' and Kapampangan name ''Lusung''), and whose citizens had been called "''Luções''".<ref name="Pigafetta1524b"/>

Many people from Luzon were employed within Portuguese Malacca. For example, the [[Spice trade|spice magnate]] [[Regimo de Raja]], based in Malacca, was highly influential and was appointed as ''Temenggong'' (Sea Lord)—a governor and chief general responsible for overseeing of maritime trade—by the Portuguese. As ''Temenggong'', de Raja was also the head of an [[Navy|armada]] which traded and protected commerce in the [[Indian Ocean]], the [[Strait of Malacca]], the [[South China Sea]],<ref>Antony, Robert J. Elusive Pirates, Pervasive Smugglers: Violence and Clandestine Trade in the Greater China Seas. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2010. Print, 76.</ref> and the [[History of the Philippines (900–1521)|medieval maritime principalities of the Philippines]].<ref>Junker, Laura L. Raiding, Trading, and Feasting: The Political Economy of Philippine Chiefdoms. Honolulu: University of Hawaiì Press, 1999.</ref><ref>Wilkinson, R J. An Abridged Malay-English Dictionary (romanised). London: Macmillan and Co, 1948. Print, 291.</ref> His father and wife carried on his maritime trading business after his death. Another important Malacca trader was Curia de Raja who also hailed from Luzon. The "surname" of "de Raja" or "diraja" could indicate that Regimo and Curia, and their families, were of noble or royal descent as the term is an abbreviation of Sanskrit ''adiraja''.<ref>Junker, 400. http://sambali.blogspot.com/2014/12/the-borneo-route.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150803052749/http://sambali.blogspot.com/2014/12/the-borneo-route.html |date=August 3, 2015 }}</ref>

[[Fernão Mendes Pinto]] noted that a number of Luções in the Islamic fleets went to battle with the Portuguese in the Philippines during the 16th century. The Sultan of Aceh gave one of them (Sapetu Diraja) the task of holding Aru (northeast Sumatra) in 1540. Pinto also says one was named leader of the Malays remaining in the Moluccas Islands after the Portuguese conquest in 1511.<ref name="Pinto">{{Cite book |last=Pinto |first=Fernão Mendes |url=https://archive.org/details/travelsofmendesp0000pint |title=The Travels of Mendes Pinto. |date=1989 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |isbn=9780226669519 |language=en |translator-last=Catz |translator-first=Rebecca D. |author-link=Fernão Mendes Pinto |orig-year=1578 |url-access=registration}}</ref> [[Antonio Pigafetta]] notes that one of them was in command of the Brunei fleet in 1521.<ref name="Pigafetta">{{Cite book
  | url = https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/009797644
  | last = Pigafetta
  | first = Antonio
  | author-link = Antonio Pigafetta
  | title = First voyage round the world
  | series = Primo viaggio intorno al globo terraqueo.English.
  | language = en
  | translator = J.A. Robertson
  | year = 1969
  | place = Manila
  | publisher = Filipiniana Book Guild
  | orig-year = 1524
  | access-date = June 22, 2019
| archive-date = June 22, 2019
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190622040115/https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/009797644
  | url-status = live
  }}</ref> However, the Luções did not only fight on the side of the Muslims. Pinto says they were also apparently among the natives of the Philippines who fought the Muslims in 1538.<ref name="Pinto" />

On [[Mainland Southeast Asia]], Lusung/Luções warriors aided the Burmese king in his invasion of Siam in 1547. At the same time, Lusong warriors fought alongside the Siamese king and faced the same elephant army of the Burmese king in the defence of the Siamese capital at Ayutthaya.{{sfn|Pigafetta|1969|p=195}} The Luções were so successful in [[Ayutthaya Kingdom|Siam]] that the Thai king rewarded them by having them [[ennobled]] and granted them land.<ref>Diogo do Couto, Décadas da Ásia (Lisbon, 1778) Vol. 5, pp. 95–100 (Década VIII, Livro II, cap. V) Siam (1547)</ref> Luções military and trade activity reached as far as [[Sri Lanka]] in [[South Asia]] where Lungshanoid pottery made in Luzon were discovered in burials.<ref>"Quest of the Dragon and Bird Clan; The Golden Age (Volume III)" -Lungshanoid (Glossary)- By Paul Kekai Manansala</ref> Meanwhile in the nearby [[Sultanate of Aceh]] the Luções fighting men so impressed the Sultan, that they were assigned to become the Sultan's royal guard <ref>Fernão Mendes Pinto, Peregrinação (C. R. Boxer, ed., The Travels of Mendes Pinto, vol. 1, Hakluyt Society, 1956) pp. 256–261 (Book II, ch. XLIX) Aceh (1539)</ref> and to be assigned as the Sultan's royal guard, is proof of Luçoes men's physical strength, martial prowess, and [[Masculine beauty ideal|masculine attractiveness]]; as during that time period, among medieval kingdoms, that office was delegated only to the most strong, intelligent, handsome, attractive, virile, aristocratic, and combat-worthy, of warriors.<ref>Skaff, Jonathan Karam, Sui-Tang China and Its Turko-Mongol Neighbors: Culture, Power, and Connections, 580-800</ref><ref>[https://warfare.x10host.com/Ottoman/Suleymanname/Janissary_Recruitment_in_the_Balkans.htm The Janissaries by David Nicolle and Christa Hook (p.12, ELI - 58)]"The boys are registered by the devşirme officer and alotted a certian amount of money for travel expenses. On their backs, the boys carry small packs filled with their possessions for the long journey to the capital. Once they arrive, they will be circumcised and commence training for different administrative and military posts. They are dressed in red in order to be easily identified should they escape. As the accompanying text indicates, boys could only be taken from families with more than one son. The boys were chosen on the basis of their intelligence and physical appearance and beauty, with ugly boys and orphans being deemed unfit for state service."</ref>
 
Scholars have thus suggested that they could be mercenaries valued by all sides.<ref name="Pires"/><ref name="Lach">{{cite book
  |last=Lach
  |first=Donald Frederick
  |author-link= Donald Lach
  |title= Asia in the Making of Europe
  |year=1994
  |publisher=University of Chicago Press
  |location=Chicago
  |chapter= Chapter 8: The Philippine Islands
  |isbn = 0-226-46732-5}}</ref><ref name="Reid">{{cite book
  |last=Reid
  |first=Anthony
  |author-link=Anthony Reid (academic)
  |editor=Peter Bellwood
  |editor2=James J. Fox
  |editor3=[[Darrell Tryon]]
  |title=The Austronesians: Historical and comparative perspectives
  |year=1995
  |publisher=Department of Anthropology, The Australian National University
  |location=Canberra
  |chapter=Continuity and Change in the Austronesian Transition to Islam and Christianity
  |doi=10.22459/A.09.2006
 |doi-access=free
 |isbn=978-0-7315-2132-6
 |chapter-url=http://epress.anu.edu.au/austronesians/austronesians/mobile_devices/ch16.html
  |access-date=August 30, 2015
|archive-date=September 2, 2007
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070902152346/http://epress.anu.edu.au/austronesians/austronesians/mobile_devices/ch16.html
  |url-status=live
  }}</ref>

=== Spanish Colonial Era ===
{{Main article|History of the Philippines (1565–1898)}}
[[File:Ruson_people.webp|thumb|170x170px|Japanese depiction of Luzones in 1671.]] [[File:万国来朝图 Philippines Luzon island (吕宋国) delegates in Peking in 1761.jpg|thumb|200x200px|Luzon island (吕宋国) delegates in [[Beijing]], [[China]], in [[Ten Thousand Nations Coming to Pay Tribute|''Wànguó láicháo tú'', 1761]]|left]]
In 1569, a Spanish expedition dispatched by [[Miguel López de Legazpi|Miguel Lopez de Legazpi]] led by Luis Enriquez de Guzman and Augustinian friar Alonso Jimenez first set foot in Albay. They arrived on the coastal settlement called [[Ibalon]] in present-day [[Magallanes, Sorsogon]] after exploring the islands of [[Masbate Island|Masbate]], [[Ticao Island|Ticao]] and [[Burias (island)|Burias]] and proceeded inland as far as present-day [[Camalig, Albay]].<ref name="Newson">{{Cite book |last=Newson |first=Linda A. |author-link=Linda Newson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LF_UgEGu0dEC |title=Conquest and Pestilence in the Early Spanish Philippines |date=January 1, 2009 |publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press|University of Hawai'i Press]] |isbn=9780824832728}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=History |url=http://albay.gov.ph/about/albayhistory/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151125173326/http://albay.gov.ph/about/albayhistory/ |archive-date=November 25, 2015 |access-date=October 18, 2015 |website=Province of Albay}}</ref> The [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] arrival in the 16th century saw the incorporation of the Luções people and the breaking up of their kingdoms and the establishment of the [[Spanish East Indies|''Las Islas Filipinas'']] with its capital [[Cebu]], which was moved to [[Manila]] following the defeat of the local [[Rajah Sulayman]] in 1570. [[Martín de Goiti]], having been dispatched by Legazpi to Luzon, conquered [[Maynila (historical polity)|Maynila]]. Legazpi followed with a larger fleet comprising both Spanish and a majority [[Visayans|Visayan]] force,<ref name="halili2004">{{cite book |last=Halili |first=Maria Christine N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUt5v8ET4QYC |title=Philippine History |publisher=Rex Bookstore, Inc. |year=2004 |isbn=978-971-23-3934-9 |location=Manila}}</ref>{{rp|1=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gUt5v8ET4QYC&pg=PA79 79-80]}} taking a month to bring these forces to bear due to slow speed of local ships.<ref>{{Harvnb|Newson|2009|p=20}}.</ref> This large force caused the surrender of neighboring [[Tondo (historical polity)|Tondo]]. An attempt by some local leaders, known as the [[Tondo Conspiracy]], to defeat the Spanish was repelled.  [[File:Huang Qing Zhigong Tu - 041.jpg|thumb|345x345px|Depiction of the Luzon people in 1700s from the Chinese book [[Huang Qing Zhigong Tu]]. The Chinese called them Lu Song whom they recognized as a prosperous and powerful "kingdom" under the Spanish Empire.]]Legazpi renamed Maynila ''Nueva Castilla'', and declared it the capital of the Philippines,<ref name="halili2004" />{{rp|1=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gUt5v8ET4QYC&pg=PA80 80]}} and thus of the rest of the [[Spanish East Indies]],<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Fernando A. Santiago Jr. |year=2006 |title=Isang Maikling Kasaysayan ng Pandacan, Maynila 1589–1898 |url=https://ejournals.ph/article.php?id=7887 |journal=Malay |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=70–87 |access-date=July 18, 2008}}</ref> which also encompassed Spanish territories in [[Asia]] and the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Manuel L. Quezon III |date=June 12, 2017 |title=The Philippines Isn't What It Used to Be |url=http://www.spot.ph/newsfeatures/the-latest-news-features/70433/philippine-map-palau-a1507-20170612-lfrm3 |access-date=October 24, 2020 |website=SPOT.PH}}</ref><ref name="Andrade">{{cite book |last=Andrade |first=Tonio |author1-link=Tonio Andrade |url=http://www.gutenberg-e.org/andrade/ |title=How Taiwan Became Chinese: Dutch, Spanish and Han colonialization in the Seventeenth Century |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2005 |chapter=La Isla Hermosa: The Rise of the Spanish Colony in Northern Taiwan |chapter-url=http://www.gutenberg-e.org/andrade/andrade04.html}}</ref> Legazpi became the country's first governor-general. Under Spain, Luzon also came to be known as the '''''Nueva Castilla''''' or the '''New Castile'''. The population of Luzon at the time of the first Spanish missions is estimated as between 1 and 1.5 million, overall density being low.<ref>{{Harvnb|Newson|2009|p=4}}.</ref> Moros from western Mindanao and the [[Sulu Archipelago]] also raided the coastal Christian areas of Luzon and the Visayas. Settlers had to fight off the [[Han Chinese|Chinese]] pirates (who lay siege to Manila, the most famous of which was [[Limahong]] in 1573).[[File:Man of the Island of Luzon 1820 by John Crawfurd.jpg|thumb|292x292px|Man of the Island of Luzon 1820 by John Crawfurd]]After the successful expedition and the exploration of the North, Juan de Salcedo founded "Villa Fernandina de Vigan" in honor of King Philip II's son, Prince Ferdinand, who died at the age of four. From Vigan, Salcedo rounded the tip of Luzón and proceeded to pacify [[Camarines]], [[Albay]], and [[Catanduanes]]. As a reward for his services to the [[King of Spain]], Salcedo was awarded the [[Ilocos|old province of Ilocos]], which consisted of the modern provinces of [[Ilocos Norte]], Ilocos Sur, [[Abra (province)|Abra]], [[La Union]] and part of [[Mountain Province]] as his [[hacienda]] (estate), and was accorded the title of ''Justicia Mayor de esta Provincia de Ylocos'' (Province Mayor of Ilocos).<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=COSEDwAAQBAJ |title=LEAGUE Magazine, September-October 2017 Issue: The Local Government Unit Magazine |date=September 1, 2017 |publisher=The League Publishing Company, Inc. |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6BpwAAAAMAAJ&q=Province+Mayor+of+Ilocos+juan+salcedo |title=Centennial Commemorative Lectures, 1998 |date=1998 |publisher=The Committee |language=en}}</ref>

In Spanish times, Luzon became the focal point for trade between the Americas and Asia. The [[Manila Galleons]] constructed in the [[Bicol region]] brought [[silver]] mined from [[Viceroyalty of Peru|Peru]] and [[New Spain|Mexico]] to Manila. The silver was used to purchase Asian commercial goods like Chinese [[silk]], Indian [[gems]] and Indonesian [[spices]], which were then exported back to the Americas. The Chinese valued Luzon so much, in that when talking about Spain and the Spanish-Americas, they preferred to call it as "Dao Lusong" (Greater Luzon) while the original Luzon was referred to as "Xiao (Small) Lusong" to refer to not only Luzon but the whole Philippines.<ref>Chinese in Mexico by Chao Romero, pages 203 to 205</ref>

[[File:La Independencia staff.jpg|thumb|328x328px|La Independencia staff from [[Manila (province)|Manila]]]]

Luzon also became a focal point for global migration. The walled city of [[Intramuros]] was initially founded by 1200 Spanish families.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Barrows |first=David P. |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/38269/38269-h/38269-h.htm#pb139 |title=A History of the Philippines |date=1905 |publisher=American Book Company |location=New York |page=179 |quote=Within the walls, there were some six hundred houses of a private nature, most of them built of stone and tile, and an equal number outside in the suburbs, or "arrabales," all occupied by Spaniards ("todos son vivienda y poblacion de los Españoles"). This gives some twelve hundred Spanish families or establishments, exclusive of the religious, who in Manila numbered at least one hundred and fifty, the garrison, at certain times, about four hundred trained Spanish soldiers who had seen service in Holland and the Low Countries, and the official classes. |via=Guttenburg |access-date=October 12, 2018 |archive-date=February 8, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190208005625/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/38269/38269-h/38269-h.htm#pb139 |url-status=live }}</ref> The nearby district of [[Binondo]] became the center of business and transformed into the world's oldest [[Chinatown]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=See |first=Stanley Baldwin O. |date=November 17, 2014 |title=Binondo: New Discoveries in the World's Oldest Chinatown |language=en |work=GMA News Online |url=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/388446/lifestyle/food/binondo-new-discoveries-in-the-world-s-oldest-chinatown |access-date=October 12, 2018 |archive-date=August 18, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818010657/https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/lifestyle/food/388446/binondo-new-discoveries-in-the-world-s-oldest-chinatown/story/ |url-status=live }}</ref> There was also a smaller district [[Japanese diaspora|reserved for Japanese migrants]] in [[Dilao]]. [[Cavite City]] also served as the main port for Luzon and [[Emigration from Mexico|many Mexican]] soldiers and sailors were stationed in the naval garrisons there.<ref>Galaup "Travel Accounts" page 375.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mehl |first=Eva Maria |title=Forced Migration in the Spanish Pacific World: From Mexico to the Philippines, 1765–1811 |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-48012-0 |location=Cambridge |page=235 |language=en |doi=10.1017/cbo9781316480120}}</ref> When the Spanish evacuated from [[Sultanate of Ternate|Ternate]], Indonesia; they settled the [[Papuan languages|Papuan]] refugees in [[Ternate, Cavite]] which was named after their evacuated homeland. After the short [[British Occupation of Manila]], the Indian [[Sepoy]] soldiers that mutinied against their British commanders and joined the Spanish, then settled in [[Cainta, Rizal]].

Newcomers who were impoverished Mexicans and peninsulares were accused of undermining the submission of the natives. In 1774, authorities from Bulacan, Tondo, Laguna Bay, and other areas surrounding Manila reported with consternation that discharged soldiers and deserters (from Mexico, Spain and Peru) were providing Indios military training for the weapons that had been disseminated all over the territory during the British war.<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/36911506/Eva_Maria_Mehl_Forced_migration_in_the_Spanish_pacific_world_From_Mexico_to_the_Philippines_1765-1811?auto=download "Eva Maria Mehl: Forced migration in the Spanish pacific world: From Mexico to the Philippines, 1765–1811" Page 100.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516010924/https://www.academia.edu/36911506/Eva_Maria_Mehl_Forced_migration_in_the_Spanish_pacific_world_From_Mexico_to_the_Philippines_1765-1811?auto=download |date=May 16, 2022 }} From the original Spanish language source in the archives of Mexico: "CSIC ser. Consultas riel 208 leg.14 (1774)"</ref> There was also continuous immigration of [[Tamils]] and [[Bengalis]] into the rural areas of Luzon: Spanish administrators, native nobles, and Chinese businessmen imported them as [[Slavery in Asia|slave labor]] during this period.<ref>[https://repository.arizona.edu/bitstream/handle/10150/333213/azu_etd_13473_sip1_m.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y&title=repository.arizona.edu Peasants, Servants, and Sojourners: Itinerant Asians in Colonial New Spain, 1571–1720 By Furlong, Matthew J.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220429034134/https://repository.arizona.edu/bitstream/handle/10150/333213/azu_etd_13473_sip1_m.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y&title=repository.arizona.edu |date=April 29, 2022 }} "Slaves purchased by the indigenous elites, Spanish and Hokkiens of the colony seemed drawn most often from South Asia, particularly Bengal and South India, and less so, from other sources, such as East Africa, Brunei, Makassar, and Java..." Chapter 2 "Rural Ethnic Diversity" Page 164 Translated from: "Inmaculada Alva Rodríguez, Vida municipal en Manila (siglos xvi–xvii) (Córdoba: Universidad de Córdoba, 1997), 31, 35–36."</ref>

In the 1600s, Fr. Joaqin Martinez de Zuñiga, conducted a census of the Archdiocese of Manila which held most of Luzon under its spiritual care, and it had the following number of tributes, with each tribute representing a family of 6–7, and he reported 90,243 native Filipino tributes;<ref name="Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}} 10,512 Chinese (Sangley) and mixed Chinese Filipino mestizo tributes;<ref name="Estadismo1">{{Cite web |url=http://www.xeniaeditrice.it/zu%C3%B1igaIocrpdf.pdf |title=ESTADISMO DE LAS ISLAS FILIPINAS TOMO PRIMERO By Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga (Original Spanish) |access-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-date=March 9, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309030040/http://www.xeniaeditrice.it/zu%C3%B1igaIocrpdf.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|537}} and 10,517 mixed [[Spanish Filipinos|Spanish Filipino]] mestizo tributes.<ref name="Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}} Pure Spaniards are not counted as they are exempt from tribute. Out of these, Fr. Joaqin Martinez de Zuñiga estimated a total population count exceeding half a million souls.<ref name="Estadismo1" />{{rp|537}}

People from the Philippines, primarily from Luzon, were recruited by [[French colonial empire|France]] (then in alliance with [[Spain]]), first to defend Indo-Chinese [[Conversion to Christianity|converts]] to [[Christianity in Asia|Christianity]] being persecuted by their native governments. Eventually, Filipino mercenaries helped the French [[French Indochina|conquer]] Vietnam and Laos and to re-establish Cambodia as a French Protectorate. This process culminated in the establishment of [[French Cochinchina]], centered in [[Saigon]].<ref name="nigelgooding.co.uk">{{Citation
|url=http://www.nigelgooding.co.uk/Spanish/Cochinchina/cochinchina.htm
|title=Filipino Involvement in the French-Spanish Campaign in Indochina
|author=Nigel Gooding
|access-date=July 4, 2008
|archive-date=August 3, 2020
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803120742/http://www.nigelgooding.co.uk/Spanish/Cochinchina/cochinchina.htm
|url-status=live
}}</ref>

A great number of infrastructure projects were undertaken during the 19th century that put the Philippine economy and standard of living ahead of most of its Asian neighbors and even many European countries at that time. Among them were a [[Philippine National Railways|railway system]] for Luzon, a tramcar network for Manila, and Asia's first steel suspension bridge Puente Claveria, later called [[Puente Colgante (Manila)|Puente Colgante]].<ref name="Borja">{{cite book |author=De Borja |first=Marciano R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xXpiujH2uOwC&pg=PA132 |title=Basques in the Philippines |publisher=University of Nevada Press |year=2005 |isbn=9780874175905 |location=Reno |page=132}}</ref> In the meantime, Luzonians and Filipinos living abroad; were active in the [[Philippine military activities in the Americas|Mexican War of Independence, Argentine War of Independence, and the War of 1812 between the United States and the British Empire]], at the Americas, while at the same time had fought in the [[Frederick Townsend Ward|Taiping Rebellion]] in China.

=== After Spanish colonization ===
After many years of Spanish occupation and resistance to reform, the [[Andres Novales]] uprising occurred and it was inspired by the [[Latin American Wars of Independence]]. Novales' uprising was primarily supported by Mexicans living in the Philippines<ref>Garcia de los Arcos has noted that the Regiment of the King, which had absorbed a large percentage of Mexican recruits and deportees between the 1770s and 1811, became the bastion of discontent supporting the Novales mutiny. ~Garcia de los Arcos, "Criollismo y conflictividad en Filipinas a principios del siglo XIX," in El lejano Oriente espanol: Filipinas ( ˜ Siglo XIX). Actas, ed. Paulino Castaneda ˜ Delgado and Antonio Garcia-Abasolo Gonzalez (Seville: Catedra General Casta ´ nos, ˜
1997), 586.</ref> as well as immigrant Latinos from the now independent nations of [[Colombia]], [[Venezuela]], [[Peru]], [[Chile]], [[Argentina]] and [[Costa Rica]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://filipinokastila.tripod.com/FilMex.html|title=Filipino-Mexican-South American Connection|website=filipinokastila.tripod.com|access-date=February 17, 2021|archive-date=February 25, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225193056/https://filipinokastila.tripod.com/FilMex.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Although the uprising failed it inspired the [[Cavite Mutiny]], the suppression of which, lead to the martyrdoms of Priests, [[Gomburza]] and the subsequent execution of the reformist and hero, [[Jose Rizal]]. Reeling against this, the [[Philippine Revolution]] against Spain erupted in Cavite and spread all throughout Luzon and the Philippines. Consequently, the [[First Philippine Republic]] was established in [[Malolos, Bulacan]]. In the meantime, [[Spain]] sold the Philippines to the United States and the First Philippine Republic resisted the [[United States]] in the [[Philippine–American War]] which the Republic's forces lost due to its diplomatic isolation (no foreign nation recognized the First Republic) as well as due to the numerical superiority of the [[United States Armed Forces|American military]].<ref>{{cite magazine | url=https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1981/12/17/death-in-the-philippines-3/ | title=Death in the Philippines &#124; David Nielsen | last1=Vidal | first1=Gore | last2=Nielsen | first2=David | access-date=October 23, 2022 | archive-date=October 23, 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221023191903/https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1981/12/17/death-in-the-philippines-3/ | url-status=live |magazine=The New York Review of Books}}</ref> The Americans then set up the cool mountain city of [[Baguio]] as a summer retreat for its officials. The Americans also rebuilt the capital, Manila, and established American military bases in [[Olongapo]] and [[Angeles City|Angeles]] cities mainly [[Clark Airbase]] and [[Subic Naval Base]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.clarkab.org/history/index.htm |title=Clark Air Base History |publisher=Clarkab.org |access-date=July 14, 2009 |archive-date=January 3, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190103192305/http://www.clarkab.org/history/index.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

During the [[Pacific War]], the Philippines were considered to be of great strategic importance because their capture by Japan would pose a significant threat to the U.S. General McArthur made a successful surprise attack at Lingayen Gulf on January 9, 1945, and captured the island.<ref>The War Illustrated (periodical) February 2, 1945</ref> As a result, 135,000 troops and 227 aircraft were stationed in the Philippines by October 1941. Luzon was captured by [[Imperial Japanese Army|Imperial Japanese forces]] in 1942 during their [[Philippines campaign (1941–1942)|campaign to capture the Philippines]]. [[General (United States)|General]] [[Douglas MacArthur]]—who was in charge of the defense of the Philippines at the time—was ordered to Australia, and the remaining U.S. forces retreated to the [[Bataan Peninsula]].<ref name="2ww">{{cite web|url=http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/2WWphilippines.htm |title=The Philippines |access-date=December 6, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090222190510/http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/2WWphilippines.htm |archive-date=February 22, 2009 }}</ref>

A few months after this, MacArthur expressed his belief that an attempt to recapture the Philippines was necessary. The U.S. Pacific Commander [[Admiral]] [[Chester Nimitz]] and [[Chief of Naval Operations]] Admiral [[Ernest King]] both opposed this idea, arguing that it must wait until victory was certain. MacArthur had to wait two years for his wish; it was 1944 before a [[Philippines Campaign (1944–45)|campaign]] to recapture the Philippines was launched. The island of [[Leyte]] was the first objective of the campaign, which was [[Battle of Leyte|captured]] by the end of December 1944. This was followed by the [[Battle of Mindoro|attack on Mindoro]] and later, Luzon.<ref name="2ww" />

{{Further|Battle of Luzon}}

[[File:US ships under attack in Lingayen Gulf January 1945.jpg|thumb|U.S. Navy ships under attack while entering [[Lingayen Gulf]], January 1945]]

The end of the World War necessitated [[decolonization]] due to rising nationalist movements across the world's many colonies. Subsequently, the Philippines gained independence from the United States. Luzon then arose to become the most developed island in the Philippines. However, the lingering poverty and inequality caused by the long dictatorship of US-supported dictator, [[Ferdinand Marcos]], gave rise to the Philippine diaspora and many people from Luzon have migrated elsewhere and had established large overseas communities; mainly in the United States, Hong Kong, Singapore and [[Saudi Arabia]]. Eventually, the [[People Power Revolution]] led by [[Corazon Aquino]] and [[Jaime Sin|Cardinal Jaime Sin]], removed Marcos and his cronies from power and they fled to [[Hawaii]] where the US granted them asylum. The following administrations are subsequently managing the political and economic recovery of the Philippines with the particular aim of spreading development outside of Luzon and into the more isolated provinces of the [[Visayas]] and [[Mindanao]]. During the administration of Ferdinand Marcos' son, [[Bongbong Marcos]], Luzon became a destination of American and Japanese investments, it being the location of the Luzon Economic Corridor.<ref>[https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1224043 Luzon Economic Corridor project draws foreign investments – Marcos By Filane Mikee Cervantes]</ref>

==Geography==
{{Further|Geography of the Philippines#Luzon|l1=Geography of Luzon|}}
[[File:Northern Philippines (Luzon).jpg|thumb|{{center|Satellite image of Luzon}}]]

Luzon island alone has an area of {{convert|109964.9|km2}},<ref name=unep>{{cite web |title=Islands of Philippines |url=http://islands.unep.ch/IHE.htm#898 |work=Island Directory Tables |publisher=United Nations Environment Programme |access-date=April 18, 2016 |archive-date=April 28, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428003606/http://islands.unep.ch/IHE.htm#898 |url-status=dead }}</ref> making it the [[List of islands by area|world's 15th largest island]]. It is bordered on the west by the [[South China Sea]] (''Luzon Sea'' in Philippine territorial waters), on the east by the [[Philippine Sea]], and on the north by the [[Luzon Strait]] containing the [[Babuyan Islands|Babuyan]] Channel and [[Balintang Channel]]. The [[mainland]] is roughly rectangular in shape and has the long [[Bicol Peninsula]] protruding to the southeast.

Luzon is roughly divided into four sections; Northern Luzon, Central Luzon, Southern Luzon, and Southeastern Luzon.

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%;background-color:#FDFDFD;"
|-
! scope="col" | Regions
! scope="col" | Six divisions
! scope="col" | Four divisions
! scope="col" | Three divisions
! scope="col" | Two divisions
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
! scope="row" style="text-align:left;" | [[Ilocos Region]]
| rowspan=2 | [[Ilocandia]]
| rowspan=3 | Northern Luzon<ref name=North_Central_Luzon>The provinces of the north areas of Central Luzon are sometimes considered part of North Luzon, most particularly Aurora, Nueva Ecija, Tarlac, and Zambales; sometimes Pampanga is included. Since Central Luzon is usually grouped with North Luzon, North Central Luzon is mostly simplified as North Luzon.</ref>
| rowspan=4 | North and Central Luzon/North Central Luzon<ref name=North_Central_Luzon/>
| rowspan=4 | North and Central Luzon/North Central Luzon<ref name=North_Central_Luzon/>
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
! scope="row" style="text-align:left;" | [[Cagayan Valley]]
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
! scope="row" style="text-align:left;" | [[Cordillera Administrative Region]]
| Cordilleras
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
! scope="row" style="text-align:left;" | [[Central Luzon]]
| colspan=2 style="text-align:center;" | Central Luzon<ref name=North_Central_Luzon/>
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
! scope="row" style="text-align:left;" | [[Metro Manila|National Capital Region]]
| colspan=3 style="text-align:center;" | Metro Manila
| rowspan=4 | Southern Luzon
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
! scope="row" style="text-align:left;" | [[Calabarzon]]
| rowspan=2 | [[Southern Tagalog]]
| rowspan=3 | Southern Luzon
| rowspan=3 | Southern Luzon
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
! scope="row" style="text-align:left;" | [[Mimaropa]]
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
! scope="row" style="text-align:left;" | [[Bicol Region]]
| [[Bicolandia]]
|}

===Physical===
==== Northern Luzon ====
[[file:Northern_luzon_en.png|thumb|{{center|Northern Luzon.}}]]
Northern Luzon consists of 3 clusters in three regions, the Ilocos Region, the Cordillera Administrative Region and the Cagayan Valley.

The northwestern portion of the island, which encompasses most of the [[Ilocos Region]], is characterized by a flat terrain extending east from the [[coast]]line toward the [[Cordillera Central, Luzon|Cordillera Central mountains]].

The Cordillera mountain range, which feature the island's north-central section, is covered in a mixture of [[Luzon tropical pine forests|tropical pine forests]] and [[Luzon rainforest|montane rainforests]], and is the site of the island's highest mountain, [[Mount Pulag]], rising at 2,922 metres. The range provides the upland headwaters of the [[Agno River]], which stretches from the slopes of [[Mount Data]], and meanders along the southern Cordillera mountains before reaching the plains of [[Pangasinan]].

The northeastern section of Luzon is generally mountainous, with the [[Sierra Madre (Philippines)|Sierra Madre]], the longest mountain range in the country, abruptly rising a few miles from the coastline. Located in between the Sierra Madre and the Cordillera Central mountain ranges is the large [[Cagayan Valley]]. This region, which is known for being the second largest producer of rice and the country's top corn-producer, serves as the [[Drainage basin|basin]] for the [[Cagayan River]], the longest in the Philippines.

Along the southern limits of the Cordillera Central lies the lesser-known [[Caraballo Mountains]]. These mountains form a link between the Cordillera Central and the Sierra Madre mountain ranges, separating the Cagayan Valley from the [[Central Luzon]] plains.<ref name=TriumphPhil>{{cite book|last1=Smith|first1=Robert Ross|title=Triumph in the Philippines|date=1993|publisher=University Press of the Pacific|location=Honolulu, HI|isbn=1410224953|page=450|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-P-Triumph/USA-P-Triumph-24.html|access-date=December 25, 2014|format=Transcribed and formatted by Jerry Holden for the HyperWar Foundation|archive-date=January 25, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150125082009/http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-P-Triumph/USA-P-Triumph-24.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

===== Image gallery =====
<gallery widths="200" heights="150">
View of the north coast of Luzon - ZooKeys-266-001-g002.jpg|North coast of Luzon along the [[Cagayan]]-[[Ilocos Norte]] boundary
Mount Pulag, Kabayan, Philippines (Unsplash).jpg|Summit of [[Mount Pulag]], Luzon's highest mountain
FvfSanJuanLaUnion8559 10.JPG|West coast of Luzon at [[San Juan, La Union|San Juan]] overlooking the [[South China Sea]]
View of the Sierra Madre from the west - ZooKeys-266-001-g004.jpg|The Cagayan Valley at [[Cabagan, Isabela|Cabagan]] with the [[Sierra Madre (Philippines)|Sierra Madre]] mountains in the background
Quirino 1.jpg|Canoes along upstream [[Cagayan River]] at [[Quirino]] province
</gallery>

==== Central Luzon ====
[[File:Arayat44jf.JPG|thumb|The [[Central Luzon]] plain with [[Mount Arayat]] in the background]]
The central section of Luzon is characterized by a flat terrain, known as the Central Luzon [[plain]], the largest in the island in terms of land area. The plain, approximately {{convert|11,000|km2}} in size, is the country's largest producer of rice, and is irrigated by two major rivers; the [[Cagayan River|Cagayan]] to the north, and the [[Pampanga River|Pampanga]] to the south. In the middle of the plain rises the solitary [[Mount Arayat]].

The western coasts of Central Luzon are typically flat extending east from the coastline to the [[Zambales Mountains]], the site of [[Mount Pinatubo]], made famous because of its enormous [[1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo|1991 eruption]]. These mountains extend to the sea in the north, forming [[Lingayen Gulf]], and to the south, forming the [[Bataan Peninsula]]. The peninsula encloses [[Manila Bay]], a natural [[harbor]] considered to be one of the best natural ports in East Asia, due to its size and strategic geographical location.

The [[Sierra Madre (Philippines)|Sierra Madre]] mountain range continues to stretch across the western section of Central Luzon, snaking southwards into the [[Bicol Peninsula]].

Central Luzon is located between the regions of Northern Luzon, Southern Luzon and Metro Manila. These are the provinces of: Aurora, Bataan, Bulacan, Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, Tarlac and Zambales. The province of Aurora in the middle of the year 2002 was included in the Southern Tagalog Region. The regional center of Central Luzon is [[San Fernando, Pampanga]].

=====4 Divisions=====
{| class = "wikitable" style = "font-size: 100%;"
|-
! style=background-color:gold;" | Region !! style=background-color:gold;" | Regional Center !! style=background-color:gold;" | Division 
|-
| '''[[Ilocos Region|Ilocos Region, 1]]''' || [[San Fernando, La Union]] || Northwestern Luzon
|-
| '''[[Cordillera Administrative Region|Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR)]]''' || [[Baguio]] || Northcentral Luzon
|-
| '''[[Cagayan Valley|Cagayan Valley, 2]] ''' || [[Tuguegarao]] || Northeastern Luzon
|-
| '''[[Central Luzon|Central Luzon, 3]]''' || [[San Fernando, Pampanga]] || Central Luzon
|}

==== Southern Luzon ====
{{redirect|Southern Luzon|the historical region|Southern Tagalog|the current regions|Calabarzon|and|Mimaropa}}
{{overlay|float = right
|image        = STS045-152-274 Manila and Taal Volcano.jpg
|width        = 280
|height       = 350
|columns      = 2
|overlay1     = [[Manila Bay]]
|overlay1top  = 132
|overlay1left = 50
|overlay2     = [[Laguna de Bay]]
|overlay2top  = 94
|overlay2left = 165
|overlay3     = [[Taal Volcano]] / {{nowrap|[[Taal Lake]]}}
|overlay3top  = 171
|overlay3left = 193
|overlay4     = [[Bataan Peninsula]]
|overlay4top  = 176
|overlay4left = 17
|overlay5     = [[Balayan Bay]]
|overlay5top  = 231
|overlay5left = 198
|overlay6     = [[Batangas Bay]]
|overlay6top  = 220
|overlay6left = 250
|overlay7     = [[South China Sea]]
|overlay7top  = 286
|overlay7left = 55
|overlay8     = [[Mindoro Island]]
|overlay8top  = 325
|overlay8left = 264
|overlay9     = [[Lamon Bay]]
|overlay9top  = 11
|overlay9left = 209
}}
Southern Luzon is dominated by [[Laguna de Bay]] ([[Old Spanish]], "''Lake of [[Bay, Laguna|Bay]] town''"), the largest [[lake]] in the country. The {{convert|949|km2|adj=on}} lake is drained into [[Manila Bay]] by the [[Pasig River]], one of the most important rivers in the country due to its historical significance and because it runs through the center of [[Metro Manila]].

Located {{convert|20|km}} southwest of Laguna de Bay is [[Taal Lake]], a [[Volcanic crater lake|crater lake]] containing the [[Taal Volcano]], the smallest in the country. The environs of the lake form the [[highland|upland]] [[Tagaytay Ridge]], which was once part of a massive prehistoric volcano that covered the southern portion of the province of [[Cavite]] and the whole of [[Batangas]] province.

South of Laguna Lake are two [[Topographic prominence|solitary]] mountains, [[Mount Makiling]] in [[Laguna (province)|Laguna]] and Batangas provinces, and [[Mount Banahaw]], the highest in the region of [[Calabarzon]].

Mainland Southern Tagalog is the current region of Calabarzon which consists of Cavite, Laguna, Batangas, Rizal and Quezon, and Mimaropa is Region IV-B which is considered the Southwestern Tagalog Region is in the outland. 

Metro Manila is the urban center or capital of the Philippines. It consists of 16 cities and 1 town. Its regional center is Manila, the capital of the Philippines. Metro Manila was formerly a province or province that included the name Tondo. In 1898, it included the districts and barangays of each city area as well as some towns in the province of Rizal.

==== Southeastern Luzon ====
The southeastern portion of Luzon is dominated by the [[Bicol Peninsula]], a mountainous and narrow region extending approximately {{convert|150|km}} southeast from the [[Tayabas Isthmus]] in [[Quezon (province)|Quezon]] province to the [[San Bernardino Strait]] along the coasts of [[Sorsogon (province)|Sorsogon]]. The area is home to several [[volcano]]es, the most famous of which is the {{convert|2,460|m|adj=on}} high symmetrically shaped [[Mayon Volcano]] in [[Albay]] province. The [[Sierra Madre (Philippines)|Sierra Madre]] range has its southern limits at Quezon province. [[Topographic prominence|Ultra-prominent]] mountains dot the landscape, which include [[Mount Isarog]] and [[Mount Iriga]] in [[Camarines Sur]], and [[Mount Bulusan]] in [[Sorsogon]].

The [[peninsula]]'s coastline features several smaller peninsulas, [[List of gulfs|gulf]]s and [[bay]]s, which include [[Lamon Bay]], [[San Miguel Bay]], [[Lagonoy Gulf]], [[Ragay Gulf]], and [[Sorsogon Bay]].

{{wide image|Legazpi City at Night.jpg|800px|The conical [[Mayon Volcano]] and the city of [[Legazpi, Albay|Legazpi]] in [[Albay]] province|alt=Panorama of city of Legazpi with Mayon Volcano in the background}}

It consists of Bicolandia or Region 5 which is the last region on the island of Luzon.

=====4 Divisions=====
{| class = "wikitable" style = "font-size: 100%;"
|-
! style=background-color:gold;" | Region !! style=background-color:gold;" | Regional Center !! style=background-color:gold;" | Division 
|-
| '''''[[Metro Manila|Metro Manila, NCR]]''''' || '''[[Manila]]''' || Metro Manila
|-
| '''[[Calabarzon|Calabarzon, 4-A]]''' || [[Calamba, Laguna|Calamba]] || Southern Luzon
|-
| '''[[Mimaropa|Mimaropa, 4-B]]''' || [[Calapan]] || Southwestern Luzon
|-
| '''[[Bicol Region|Bicol Region, 5]]''' || [[Legazpi, Albay|Legazpi]] || Southeastern Luzon
|}

==== Outlying islands ====
Several outlying islands near mainland Luzon are considered part of the [[Island groups of the Philippines|Luzon island group]].
The largest include [[Palawan (island)|Palawan]], [[Mindoro]], [[Masbate Island|Masbate]], [[Catanduanes]], [[Marinduque]], [[Romblon Island|Romblon]] and [[Polillo Island|Polillo]].

{{further|Island groups of the Philippines}}

===Administrative divisions===
The island is covered by 8 [[Regions of the Philippines|administrative regions]], 30 [[Provinces of the Philippines|provinces]] and, {{As of|2014|lc=y}}, 68 [[Cities of the Philippines|cities]] (8 regions, 38 provinces and 71 cities if [[Island groups of the Philippines|associated islands]] are included).

{{toptextcells}}
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! scope="col" | Region<br />{{small|(designation)}}
! scope="col" style="width:8em;" | Location
! scope="col" data-sort-type="number" | {{abbr|Population|Population and national share}}<br />(2020){{PH census|2020|d}}
! scope="col" | Area{{efn-lr|name=Area}}<ref name="PSA-NSCB-ProvinceList">{{cite web|title=PSGC Interactive; List of Provinces |url=http://www.nscb.gov.ph/activestats/psgc/listprov.asp |website=[[Philippine Statistics Authority]] |access-date=April 3, 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130111015112/http://www.nscb.gov.ph/activestats/psgc/listprov.asp |archive-date=January 11, 2013 }}</ref><ref name="PSA-CitiesList">{{cite web|title=PSGC Interactive; List of Cities |url=http://www.nscb.gov.ph/activestats/psgc/listcity.asp |website=Philippine Statistics Authority |access-date=April 7, 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429190752/http://www.nscb.gov.ph/activestats/psgc/listcity.asp |archive-date=April 29, 2011 }}</ref>
! scope="col" | Density
! scope="col" | Regional<br />center
|-
! scope="row" | [[Ilocos Region]]<br />{{small|(Region I)}}
| data-sort-value="1" | [[File:Ph fil ilocos.png|frameless|upright=0.5|alt=Map of the Philippines highlighting the Ilocos Region]]
| 5,301,139<br />(''{{percentage|5301139|109033245|pad=1}}'')
| {{convert|13,012.60|km2|abbr=on|sortable=on|disp=br()}}
| {{convert|{{sigfig|5301139/13012.60|2}}|PD/km2|abbr=on|sortable=on|disp=br()}}
| [[San Fernando City, La Union|San Fernando<br />{{small|(La Union)}}]]
|-
! scope="row" | [[Cagayan Valley]]{{efn-lr|name=Islands}}<br />{{small|(Region II)}}
| data-sort-value="3" | [[File:Ph fil cagayan valley.png|frameless|upright=0.5|alt=Map of the Philippines highlighting Cagayan Valley]]
| 3,685,744<br />(''{{percentage|3685744|109033245|pad=1}}'')
| {{convert|28,228.83|km2|abbr=on|sortable=on|disp=br()}}
| {{convert|{{sigfig|3685744/28228.83|2}}|PD/km2|abbr=on|sortable=on|disp=br()}}
| [[Tuguegarao]]
|-
! scope="row" | [[Central Luzon]]<br />{{small|(Region III)}}
| data-sort-value="4" | [[File:Ph fil central luzon.png|frameless|upright=0.5|alt=Map of the Philippines highlighting Central Luzon]]
| 12,422,172<br />(''{{percentage|12422172|109033245|pad=1}}'')
| {{convert|22,014.63|km2|abbr=on|sortable=on|disp=br()}}
| {{convert|{{sigfig|12422172/22014.63|2}}|PD/km2|abbr=on|sortable=on|disp=br()}}
| [[San Fernando City, Pampanga|San Fernando<br />{{small|(Pampanga)}}]]
|-
! scope="row" | [[Calabarzon]]<br />{{small|(Region IV-A)}}
| data-sort-value="6" | [[File:Ph fil calabarzon.png|frameless|upright=0.5|alt=Map of the Philippines highlighting Calabarzon]]
| 16,195,042<br />(''{{percentage|16195042|109033245|pad=1}}'')
| {{convert|16,873.31|km2|abbr=on|sortable=on|disp=br()}}
| {{convert|{{sigfig|16195042/16873.31|2}}|PD/km2|abbr=on|sortable=on|disp=br()}}
| [[Calamba, Laguna|Calamba]]
|-
! scope="row" | [[Mimaropa|Southwestern Tagalog Region]]{{efn-lr|name=Islands}}<br />{{small|(Mimaropa)}}
| data-sort-value="8" | [[File:Ph fil mimaropa.png|frameless|upright=0.5|alt=Map of the Philippines highlighting MIMAROPA]]
| 3,228,558<br />(''{{percentage|3228558|109033245|pad=1}}'')
| {{convert|29,620.90|km2|abbr=on|sortable=on|disp=br()}}
| {{convert|{{sigfig|3228558/29620.90|2}}|PD/km2|abbr=on|sortable=on|disp=br()}}
| [[Calapan]]
|-
! scope="row" | [[Bicol Region]]{{efn-lr|name=Islands}}<br />{{small|(Region V)}}
| data-sort-value="7" | [[File:Ph fil bicol.png|frameless|upright=0.5|alt=Map of the Philippines highlighting the Bicol Region]]
| 6,082,165<br />(''{{percentage|6082165|109033245|pad=1}}'')
| {{convert|18,155.82|km2|abbr=on|sortable=on|disp=br()}}
| {{convert|{{sigfig|6082165/18155.82|2}}|PD/km2|abbr=on|sortable=on|disp=br()}}
| [[Legazpi, Albay|Legazpi]]
|-
! scope="row" | [[Cordillera Administrative Region|Cordillera<br />Administrative<br />Region]]<br />{{small|(CAR)}}
| data-sort-value="2" | [[File:Ph fil car.png|frameless|upright=0.5|alt=Map of the Philippines highlighting Cordillera Administrative Region]]
| 1,797,660<br />(''{{percentage|1797660|109033245|pad=1}}'')
| {{convert|19,422.03|km2|abbr=on|sortable=on|disp=br()}}
| {{convert|{{sigfig|1797660/19422.03|2}}|PD/km2|abbr=on|sortable=on|disp=br()}}
| [[Baguio]]
|-
! scope="row" | [[Metro Manila|National&nbsp;Capital<br />Region]]<br />{{small|(NCR)}}
| data-sort-value="5" | [[File:Ph fil ncr.png|frameless|upright=0.5|alt=Map of the Philippines highlighting the National Capital Region]]
| 13,484,462<br />(''{{percentage|13484462|109033245|pad=1}}'')
| {{convert|611.39|km2|abbr=on|sortable=on|disp=br()}}
| {{convert|{{sigfig|13484462/611.39|2}}|PD/km2|abbr=on|sortable=on|disp=br()}}
| '''[[Manila]]'''
|}

Table note(s):

{{notelist-lr|refs=
{{efn-lr|name=Islands|The list includes the [[Island groups of the Philippines|associated islands]] of Luzon (provinces of [[Marinduque]], [[Occidental Mindoro]], [[Oriental Mindoro]], [[Palawan]], [[Romblon]], [[Batanes]], [[Catanduanes]] and [[Masbate]]).}}
{{efn-lr|name=Area|Land area figures are the sum of each region's component provinces (and/or independent cities), derived from the National Statistical Coordination Board ([[Philippine Statistics Authority]]) official website.}}
}}

===Tectonics===
{{Main|Philippine Mobile Belt}}
[[File:Lake Pinatubo in January, 2009.jpg|thumb|[[Lake Pinatubo]] in [[Zambales]]]]
Luzon is part of the [[Philippine Mobile Belt]], a fast deforming plate boundary zone (Gervasio, 1967) hemmed in between two opposing subduction zones, the west-dipping [[Philippine Trench]]-[[East Luzon Trench]] subduction zone, and the east-dipping north–south trending [[Manila Trench]]-[[Negros (island)|Negros]] Trench-[[Cotabato Trench]].<ref>Hashimoto, M, ed., ''Accretion Tectonics in the Circum-Pacific Regions'', {{ISBN|90-277-1561-0}} p299</ref> The [[Philippine Sea Plate]] subducts under eastern Luzon along the East Luzon Trench and the Philippine Trench, while the [[South China Sea]] basin, part of the [[Eurasian Plate]], subducts under western Luzon along the Manila Trench.

The North-Southeastern trending braided left-lateral strike-slip [[Philippine Fault System]] traverses Luzon, from [[Quezon City|Quezon province]] and [[Bicol Region|Bicol]] to the northwestern part of the island. This fault system takes up part of the motion due to the subducting plates and produces large earthquakes. Southwest of Luzon is a collision zone where the Palawan micro-block collides with SW Luzon, producing a highly seismic zone near [[Mindoro]] island. Southwest Luzon is characterized by a highly volcanic zone, called the Macolod Corridor, a region of crustal thinning and spreading.

Using geologic and structural data, seven principal blocks were identified in Luzon in 1989: the Sierra Madre Oriental, Angat, [[Zambales]], [[Central Cordillera of Luzon]], Bicol, and [[Catanduanes Island]] blocks.<ref>Rangin and Pubellier in ''Tectonics of Circum-Pacific Continental Margins'' {{ISBN|90-6764-132-4}} p148 fig 4</ref> Using seismic and geodetic data, Luzon was modeled by Galgana et al. (2007) as a series of six micro blocks or micro plates (separated by subduction zones and intra-arc faults), all translating and rotating in different directions, with maximum velocities ~100&nbsp;mm/yr NW with respect to Sundaland/Eurasia.

==Demographics==
{{Philippine Census
| title= Population census of Luzon
| 1903= 4101516
| 1918= 5397401
| 1939= 8165778
| 1948= 9876263
| 1960= 14061448
| 1970= 19688100
| 1975= 22790274
| 1980= 26080694
| 1990= 33357887
| 1995= 38249776
| 2000= 42822686
| 2007= 49799956
| 2010= 52362999
| 2015= 57470097
| 2020= 62196942
| 2024= 64301558
| footnote= Source: National Statistics Office{{PH census|2015|d}}{{PH census|2010|d}}{{efn|name=popnote}}
}}
As of the 2024 census, the population of Luzon Island itself is 59,865,193 people,{{PH census|2015|d}}{{efn|name=popnote}} making it the [[List of islands by population|4th most populated island in the world]].

===Cities===
[[File:North EDSA - Trinoma, QC CBD, SM North (view from SMDC Grass) (Diliman, Quezon City)(2017-09-07) cropped.jpg|thumb|A view of Quezon City in September 2017, the largest city in Luzon island]]
[[Metro Manila]] is the most populous of the [[List of metropolitan areas in the Philippines|3 defined metropolitan areas]] in the Philippines and the [[List of metropolitan areas by population|11th most populous]] in the world. {{As of|2007|lc=y}}, census data showed it had a population of 11,553,427, comprising 13% of the national population.<ref name="phcensus">{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov.ph/data/census2007/index.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120716233046/http://www.census.gov.ph/data/census2007/index.html|archive-date=July 16, 2012|title=Total Population and Annual Population Growth Rates by Region: Population Censuses 1995, 2000, and 2007|author=Philippine Statistics Authority |date=April 2008 |access-date=April 4, 2010}}</ref> Including suburbs in the adjacent provinces ([[Bulacan]], [[Cavite]], [[Laguna (province)|Laguna]], and [[Rizal (province)|Rizal]]) of [[Greater Manila Area|Greater Manila]], the population is around 21 million.<ref name="phcensus" /><ref name="demographia">Demographia. (July 2010). [http://www.demographia.com/db-worldua.pdf ''Demographia World Urban Areas (World Agglomerations) Population & Projections''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180503021711/http://www.demographia.com/db-worldua.pdf |date=May 3, 2018 }} (Edition 6.1). Retrieved March 29, 2011.</ref>

{{Largest Cities and Municipalities in Luzon|class=info}}
{{Largest cities and municipalities in Luzon location map}}

===Ethnic groups===
{{Further|Ethnic groups of the Philippines}}
[[File:Ifugao headhunter.jpg|thumb|upright|An [[Igorot people|Ifugao]] warrior with some of his trophies, Cordillera Mountains, {{Circa|1912}}]]

Seven major [[Filipinos|Philippine]] [[Ethnolinguistics|ethnolinguistic]] groups predominate Luzon. [[Ilocano people|Ilocanos]] and [[Pangasinan people|Pangasinenses]] dominate northern Luzon, particularly in the [[Ilocos Region]] to parts of the [[Cagayan Valley]], while [[Kapampangan people|Kapampangans]], [[Tagalog people|Tagalogs]], Ilocanos, Pangasinans and [[Sambal people|Sambals]] populate [[Central Luzon]]. [[Tagalog people|Tagalog]]s dominate the [[Metro Manila|National Capital Region]], [[Calabarzon]] and the island provinces of [[Marinduque]], [[Mindoro]] and extending to parts of [[Palawan]] and northern [[Bicol Peninsula]], while [[Bicolano people|Bicolanos]] populate the [[Bicol Region|Bicol peninsula]]. [[Visayans]], such as [[Masbateño people|Masbateños]], [[Romblomanon people|Romblomanons]], [[Waray people|Waray]] [[Southern Sorsogon language|Sorsogonons]], [[Cuyunon people|Cuyunons]], mainly populate in the southern [[Bicol Region|Bicol peninsula]] and island provinces of [[Masbate]], [[Romblon]], and [[Palawan]].

Other ethnic groups lesser in population include the [[Aeta]]s of [[Zambales]] and [[Bataan]], the [[Ibanag people|Ibanags]] of [[Cagayan province|Cagayan]] and [[Isabela province|Isabela]], the [[Gaddang people|Gaddang]] of [[Nueva Vizcaya]], the [[Igorot]] of the [[Cordillera Central (Luzon)|Cordilleras]], the [[bugkalot people|Bugkalots]] of Nueva Vizcaya, [[Quirino]], [[Nueva Ecija]] and [[aurora (province)|Aurora]], [[umiray Dumaget language|Umiray]] and Tagabulós of Aurora and [[Quezon]], [[Hatang Kayi language|Remontado]] of Quezon, and the [[Mangyan|Mangyans]] of [[Mindoro]].

Due to historical centuries-old migrations, populations of ethnic [[Chinese Filipino]]s, [[Spanish Filipino]]s, [[Japanese in the Philippines|Japanese Filipinos]], [[Indian Filipino]]s, and Muslim [[Moro people|Moros]] from [[Mindanao]] have also been present in urban areas. Historical [[Filipino mestizo|mixed mestizo]] populations, particularly [[Sangley|Chinese mestizos (''mestizo de Sangley'')]] and [[Spanish Filipino|Spanish mestizos]], and more recent mixed mestizos of [[Filipinos of American descent|Americans]], [[Filipinos of Japanese descent|Japanese]], [[Koreans in the Philippines|Koreans]], [[Filipinos of Indian descent|Indians]] (mostly [[Punjabi people|Punjabis]]),<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/punjabi-community-money-lending-philippines-president-rodrigo-duterte-2806212/ |title=Indian Express (2016) |date=May 18, 2016 |access-date=February 4, 2023 |archive-date=March 3, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200303135949/https://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/punjabi-community-money-lending-philippines-president-rodrigo-duterte-2806212/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Arabs]] are also occasionally present. The historical [[Sangley|Sangley Chinese]] and their [[Chinese Filipino|pure]] and [[Sangley|mixed-mestizo descendants]] are spread all across Luzon of several generations across the centuries. According to old Spanish censuses, around 1/3rd of the population of Luzon are [[Filipino Mestizos|mestizo]] admixed with either or both [[Han Chinese|Southern Han]] [[Chinese Filipino|Chinese]] (mostly from [[Metro Manila|Manila]] to [[Pampanga]]) and/or [[Hispanic]] ([[Spanish Filipino|Spanish]] or [[Mexicans in the Philippines|Latino]]) descent (Mostly in Cavite and Manila).<ref>Jagor, Fëdor, et al. (1870). [http://www.authorama.com/former-philippines-b-8.html ''The Former Philippines thru Foreign Eyes''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109161446/http://www.authorama.com/former-philippines-b-8.html |date=January 9, 2021 }}</ref> Most Americans have settled in Central Luzon's highly urbanized cities of [[Angeles City|Angeles]] and [[Olongapo]] due to the former presence of the U.S. air and naval bases ([[Clark Air Base|Clark]] & [[U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay|Subic]]) there, while a majority of the Koreans and Japanese have mainly settled in the major cities and towns like Koreatown in [[Angeles City]] and [[Baguio]] and [[Subic, Zambales|Subic]].

===Languages===
{{Main|Languages of the Philippines}}
[[File:Philippine languages per region.png|thumb|left|upright|Dominant languages per administrative region]]
[[File:Map of the Major Languages of the Philippines.png|thumb|center|600px|Major languages per province, showing their subdivisions.]]
Almost all of the languages of Luzon belong to the [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] group of the [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]] branch of the [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian language family]]. Major regional languages include: [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]], [[Ilocano language|Ilocano]], [[Central Bikol]], [[Kapampangan language|Kapampangan]], and [[Pangasinan language|Pangasinan]].

[[Philippine English|English]] is spoken by many inhabitants. The use of [[Spanish language in the Philippines|Spanish]] as an [[official language]] declined following the [[American occupation of the Philippines]]. Almost inexistent among the general populace, Spanish is still used by the elderly of some families of great tradition (Rizal, Liboro...) and by upper and middle-class residents of Spanish blood.

[[File:Paoay Church of Ilocos Norte, Philippines.JPG|thumb|[[Paoay Church|Saint Augustine Catholic Church]] in [[Paoay, Ilocos Norte|Paoay]]]]

===Religion===
<!--Please suggest changes through the talk page. Thanks.-->

{{Main|Religion in the Philippines}}

Like most of the Philippines, the major religion in Luzon is [[Christianity in the Philippines|Christianity]], with [[Roman Catholicism in the Philippines|Roman Catholicism]] being the major [[Christian denomination|denomination]]. Other major sects includes [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], [[Protestantism in the Philippines|Protestantism]], the [[Philippine Independent Church]] (Aglipayans), the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), and the [[Iglesia ni Cristo]].<ref>[https://www.census.gov.ph/old/data/pressrelease/2003/pr0323tx.html PHILIPPINES: ADDITIONAL THREE PERSONS PER MINUTE] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305074956/http://www.census.gov.ph/old/data/pressrelease/2003/pr0323tx.html |date=March 5, 2016 }}, [https://www.census.gov.ph/ National Statistics Office] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004104825/http://census.gov.ph/ |date=October 4, 2013 }}. Last revised: July 18, 2003. Retrieved November 27, 2006.</ref> Indigenous traditions and rituals, though rare, are also present.

There are also sizable communities of [[Sikhism by country|Sikhs]], [[Hinduism in the Philippines|Hindu]]s, [[Buddhism in the Philippines|Buddhist]]s and [[Islam in the Philippines|Muslim]]s in [[Metro Manila]] and in other, especially, urban areas due to the immigration of [[Indian Filipino|Indians]], [[Japanese settlement in the Philippines|Japanese]], [[Koreans in the Philippines|Koreans]], [[Filipino Chinese|Chinese]], [[Moro people|Moros]] and Muslims from other countries to the island.

[[File:EDSA-Guadalupe northward view 2012-10-29.jpg|thumb|[[EDSA]], a major thoroughfare in [[Metro Manila]]]]

==Economy==
The economy of the island is centered in [[Metro Manila]] with [[Makati]] serving as the main economic and financial hub. Major companies such as [[Ayala Corporation|Ayala]], [[Jollibee Foods Corporation]], [[SM Investments|SM Group]], and [[Metropolitan Bank and Trust Company|Metrobank]] are based in the business hubs of [[Makati Central Business District]], [[Ortigas Center]], and [[Bonifacio Global City]]. Industry is concentrated in and around the urban areas of Metro Manila while agriculture predominates in the other regions of the island producing crops such as rice, bananas, mangoes, coconuts, pineapple, and coffee.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Index of Agriculture and Fishery Statistics |url=https://www.census.gov.ph/data/sectordata/dataagri.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120221223854/http://www.census.gov.ph/data/sectordata/dataagri.html |archive-date=February 21, 2012 |access-date=December 19, 2010 |website=National Statistics Office |language=en}}</ref> Other sectors include livestock raising, tourism, mining, and fishing.

==See also==
{{Portal|Philippines|Islands|Geography}}
* [[Regions of the Philippines]]
* [[Provinces of the Philippines]]
* [[Battle of Luzon]]
* [[Visayas]]
* [[Mindanao]]

==Notes==
{{notelist|refs=
{{efn|name=popnote|Figure composed of the eight administrative regions excluding the island provinces of Batanes, Catanduanes, and Masbate and the region MIMAROPA.}}
}}
{{clear}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{Div col|colwidth=30em|style=font-size:95%;}}
*{{cite book|title=History of the Filipino People|first1=Teodoro A.|last1=Agoncillo|first2=Milagros|last2=Guerrero|edition=4|year=1975|publisher=R. P. Garcia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z3PiAAAAMAAJ|isbn=9712345386|access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=Philippine History|first=Teodoro A.|last=Agoncillo|year=1962|publisher=Inang Wika Publishing Company|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=odpwAAAAMAAJ|isbn=9712345386|access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=Political and Cultural History of the Philippines, Volumes 1-2  |first= Eufronio Melo |last=Alip|edition=revised|year=1954|publisher=Alip & Sons|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0A5wAAAAMAAJ|access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=Turning Points I' 2007 Ed.|first1=Eleanor D.|last1=Antonio|first2=Evangeline M.|last2=Dallo|first3=Consuelo M.|last3=Imperial|first4=Maria Carmelita B.|last4=Samson|first5=Celia D.|last5=Soriano|edition=unabridged|year=2007|publisher=Rex Bookstore, Inc.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lb8a7P_2InIC|isbn=978-9712345388|access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=War Background Studies, Issues 1-7 |issue=Issues 1–6 of Origin of Far Eastern Civilizations: A Brief Handbook, Origin of Far Eastern Civilizations: A Brief Handbook|first= Carl Whiting |last=Bishop|others=Contributor: Smithsonian Institution|year=1942|publisher=Smithsonian Institution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=daq0AAAAIAAJ|access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=Origin of Far Eastern Civilizations: A Brief Handbook, Issues 1–7 |first= Carl Whiting |last=Bishop|others=Contributor: Smithsonian Institution|year=1942|publisher=Smithsonian Institution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XNFFAAAAMAAJ|access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=The bureaucracy in the Philippines |issue=Issue 4 of Studies in public administration, University of the Philippines Institute of Public Administration|first= Onofre D. |last=Corpuz|year=1957|publisher=Institute of Public Administration, University of the Philippines|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3BMQAQAAMAAJ|access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=Myths and Symbols: Philippines |first= Francisco R.  |last=Demetrio|edition=2|year=1981|publisher=National Book Store|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lGuBAAAAMAAJ|access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=Princess Urduja, Queen of the Orient Seas: Before and After Her Time in the Political Orbit of the Shri-vi-ja-ya and Madjapahit Maritime Empire : a Pre-Hispanic History of the Philippines |first= Antonio |last=Del Castillo y Tuazon|year=1988|publisher=A. del. Castillo y Tuazon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yv1xAAAAMAAJ|access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=Mask of Asia: The Philippines Today |first= George |last=Farwell|year=1967|publisher=Praeger|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8ZACAAAAMAAJ|access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=A concise history of East Asia |first= Charles Patrick |last=Fitzgerald|year=1966|publisher=Praeger|url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00fitz|url-access=registration |access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=Connecting and Distancing: Southeast Asia and China  |editor-first= Khai Leong |editor-last=Ho|edition=illustrated|year=2009|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EwnzBiM0LmAC |isbn=978-9812308566 |access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=In Our Image: America's Empire in the Philippines  |first= Stanley |last=Karnow|edition=unabridged|year=2010|publisher=Random House LLC|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VbwogbQ3l8UC |isbn=978-0307775436 |access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=Peoples of the Philippines, Issue 4 |issue=Issue 4 of Smithsonian Institution Washington, DC: War background studies|first= Herbert William  |last=Krieger|volume=3694 of Publication (Smithsonian Institution)|year=1942|publisher=Smithsonian Institution|isbn=9780598408662|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHsZAAAAMAAJ|access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=Moro Archives: A History of Armed Conflicts in Mindanao and East Asia  |first= Norodin Alonto  |last=Lucman|year=2000|publisher=FLC Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IplyAAAAMAAJ|access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=Chinese participation in Philippine culture and economy  |editor-first= Shubert S. C.|editor-last=Liao|year=1964|publisher=Bookman|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vrDkAAAAIAAJ|archive-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O1AeAAAAMAAJ|archive-date=November 9, 2006|access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=Chinese Elements in the Tagalog Language: With Some Indication of Chinese Influence on Other Philippine Languages and Cultures, and an Excursion Into Austronesian Linguistics  |first= Esperidion Arsenio  |last=Manuel|others=Contributor: Henry Otley Beyer|year=1948|publisher=Filipiniana Publications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=19APAAAAYAAJ|access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=Islands of Pleasure: A Guide to the Philippines  |first= Hans Arvid  |last=Ostelius|year=1963|publisher=G. Allen & Unwin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oWpwAAAAMAAJ|access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=The literature of the Pilipinos: a survey|first1=José Villa|last1=Panganiban|first2=Consuelo Torres|last2=Panganiban|edition=5|year=1965|publisher=Limbagang Pilipino|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zG2CAAAAIAAJ|access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=A Survey of the Literature of the Filipinos|first1=José Villa|last1=Panganiban|first2=Consuelo Torres-|last2=Panganiban|edition=4|year=1962|publisher=Limbagang Pilipino|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CD0RAQAAIAAJ|access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=Philippine Cartography, 1320–1899  |first= Carlos  |last=Quirino|edition=2|year=1963|publisher=N. Israel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qTgIAQAAIAAJ|access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=The Philippines: A Young Republic on the Move  |first= Albert  |last=Ravenholt|year=1962|publisher=Van Nostrand|url=https://archive.org/details/philippinesyoung0000rave|url-access=registration  |access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=Francisco Balagtas and the roots of Filipino nationalism: life and times of the great Filipino poet and his legacy of literary excellence and political activism|first1=Fred|last1=Sevilla|first2=Francisco|last2=Balagtas|year=1997|publisher=Trademark Pub. Corp.|isbn=9789719185802|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZotkAAAAMAAJ|access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=Seven Thousand Islands: The Story of the Philippines  |first= Cornelia  |last=Spencer|year=1951|publisher=Aladdin Books|url=https://archive.org/details/seventhousandisl00spen|url-access=registration  |access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=The Chinese in the Philippines, 1898–1935: A Study of Their National Awakening  |first= Antonio S.  |last=Tan|year=1972|publisher=R. P. Garcia Publishing Company|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9xNwAAAAMAAJ|access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=The Philippines since pre-Spanish times.-v. 2. The Philippines since the British invasion  |first= Gregorio F.  |last=Zaide|volume=1 of Philippine Political and Cultural History|edition=revised|year=1957|publisher=Philippine Education Company|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pJYVAQAAIAAJ|access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=The Pageant of Philippine History: Political, Economic, and Socio-cultural, Volume 1  |first= Gregorio F.  |last=Zaide|year=1979|publisher=Philippine Education Company|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LRJwAAAAMAAJ|access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=The Philippines: a Handbook of Information  |author= Philippines (Republic). Office of Cultural Affairs|others=Contributor: National Economic Council (Philippines)|edition=revised|year=1965|publisher=Republic of the Philippines, Department of Foreign Affairs|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ykgeAAAAMAAJ|access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=The Annals of Philippine Chinese Historical Association, Volumes 5–8  |author= Philippine Chinese Historical Association |edition=revised|year=1975|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3DzjAAAAMAAJ|access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=Biennial Conference Proceedings, Issue 1  |author= IAHA Conference |year=1962|publisher=Philippine Historical Association.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QZ5IAAAAMAAJ|access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=The Philippines: A Handbook of Information  |publisher=Philippine Information Agency|year=1955|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gr4eAAAAMAAJ|access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=University of Manila Journal of East Asiatic Studies, Volume 7  |others=Contributors: Manila (Philippines) University, University of Manila|edition=revised|year=1959|publisher=University of Manila.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TVPRAAAAMAAJ|access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=Unitas, Volume 30, Issues 1–2  |others=Contributor: University of Santo Tomás|year=1957|publisher=University of Santo Tomás|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=26oiAQAAIAAJ|access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=The Researcher, Volume 2, Issue 2  |others=Contributors: University of Pangasinan, Dagupan Colleges|year=1970|publisher=Dagupan Colleges|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5c3_QiLW50EC|access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=Philippine Social Sciences and Humanities Review, Volumes 24–25  |others=Contributor: University of the Philippines. College of Liberal Arts|year=1959|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5KLjAAAAMAAJ|access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=Philippine Social Sciences and Humanities Reviews, Volume 24, Issues 1–2  |others=Contributors: Philippine Academy of Social Sciences, Manila, University of the Philippines. College of Liberal Arts|year=1959|publisher=College of Liberal Arts, University of the Philippines|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gi-2AAAAIAAJ|access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=Studies in Public Administration, Issue 4  |others=Contributor: University of the Philippines. Institute of Public Administration|year=1957|publisher=Institute of Public Administration, University of the Philippines|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0suOAAAAMAAJ|access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=Proceedings [of The] Second Biennial Conference, Held at Taiwan Provincial Museum, Taipei, Taiwan. Republic of China, October 6–9, 1962  |year=1963|publisher=Tʻai-pei|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wAkEAAAAMAAJ|access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=Yearbook  |year=1965|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oTUkAQAAMAAJ|access-date=April 24, 2014}}
*{{cite book|title=Philippine Almanac & Handbook of Facts  |year=1977|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uWzjAAAAMAAJ|access-date=April 24, 2014}}
{{div col end}}

==External links==
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* {{OSM relation|4250623}}
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{{Islands of the Philippines}}
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[[Category:Luzon| ]]
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[[Category:Islands of the Philippines]]
[[Category:Islands of Luzon]]