View source for Low German

{{Short description|West Germanic language}}
{{Other uses|Low German (disambiguation)|Low Saxon (disambiguation)}}
{{multiple issues |
{{Duplicated citations |date=December 2024}}
{{Full citations needed |date=December 2024}}
{{citation style |reason=article predominantly uses full citations, but also some short citations. Pick one style and use it consistently. |date=December 2024}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates |date=March 2017}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Low German
| altname          = Low Saxon
| nativename       = ''Plattdütsch, Plattdüütsch, Plattdütsk, Plattdüütsk, Plattduitsk (South-Westphalian), Plattduitsch (Eastphalian), Plattdietsch (Low Prussian); Neddersassisch; Nedderdüütsch''
| image = <!--Noordlandflagg.svg-->
| states           = {{ubli
||[[Northern Germany|Northern]] and [[Western Germany|western]] [[Germany]]
|Eastern [[Netherlands]]
|[[Southern Denmark]]
}}
| ethnicity        = {{ubl
|[[Dutch people|Dutch]]
|[[Germans]]
|[[Frisians]]
|[[Russian Mennonites]]
|Historically [[Saxons]]
}}
| speakers         = Estimated 4.35–7.15 million{{efn|2.2–5 million in northern Germany and 2.15 million in eastern Netherlands}}<ref name="blo05">{{cite report |title=Taaltelling Nedersaksisch. Een enquête naar het gebruik en de beheersing van het Nedersaksisch in Nederland |trans-title=Lower Saxon Language Census. A survey of the use and proficiency of Low Saxon in the Netherlands |first=Henk |last=Bloemhoff |year=2005 |language=nl |department=Nedersaksisch Instituut |publisher=Rijksuniversiteit te Groningen |location=Groningen |url=https://www.stellingia.nl/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/Taaltelling-Nedersaksisch-1.pdf |url-status=live |access-date=2024-12-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241202143049if_/https://www.stellingia.nl/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/Taaltelling-Nedersaksisch-1.pdf |archive-date=2024-12-02 |isbn=90-6466-1324 |ol=OL31709135M |lccn=2006364430 |oclc=230137295 }}</ref>{{rp|p=88}}<ref name="Status&Gebrauch 2016">[https://www.ins-bremen.de/fileadmin/ins-bremen/user_upload/umfrage2016/broschuere-umfrage.pdf Status und Gebrauch des Niederdeutschen 2016] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116170501/https://www.ins-bremen.de/fileadmin/ins-bremen/user_upload/umfrage2016/broschuere-umfrage.pdf |date=16 January 2021 }}, A. Adler, C. Ehlers, R. Goltz, A. Kleene, A. Plewnia (2016)</ref><ref name=TOLoE/><br>Up to 10 million [[second language|second-language speakers]]
| date             = 2001
| ref              =<ref name="ndsethnologue">[https://www.ethnologue.com/language/nds Saxon, Low] ''Ethnologue''.</ref>
| nation           = 
| minority         = 
{{flag|Netherlands}}<ref>{{cite book | last = Maas | first = Sabine | title = Twents op sterven na dood? : een sociolinguïstisch onderzoek naar dialectgebruik in Borne | publisher = Waxmann | location = Münster New York | year = 2014 | page = 19 | isbn = 978-3830980339 }}</ref>
{{DEU}}<ref>{{langx|de|[http://bundesrecht.juris.de/vwvfg/__23.html §&nbsp;23 Absatz&nbsp;1 Verwaltungsverfahrensgesetz (Bund)].<br />Die Frage, ob unter deutsch rechtlich ausschließlich die hochdeutsche oder auch die [[niederdeutsche Sprache]] subsumiert wird, wird juristisch uneinheitlich beantwortet: Während der [[Federal Court of Justice|BGH]] in einer Entscheidung zu [[Gebrauchsmuster]]einreichung beim [[Deutsches Patent- und Markenamt|Deutschen Patent- und Markenamt]] in plattdeutscher Sprache das Niederdeutsche einer Fremdsprache gleichstellt („Niederdeutsche (plattdeutsche) Anmeldeunterlagen sind im Sinn des §&nbsp;4a Abs.&nbsp;1 Satz&nbsp;1 [[Gebrauchsmustergesetz|GebrMG]] nicht in deutscher Sprache abgefaßt.“ – BGH-Beschluss vom 19.&nbsp;November 2002, Az. X ZB 23/01), ist nach dem Kommentar von Foerster/Friedersen/Rohde zu §&nbsp;82a des Landesverwaltungsgesetzes Schleswig-Holstein unter Verweis auf Entscheidungen höherer Gerichte zu §&nbsp;184 des Gerichtsverfassungsgesetzes seit 1927 (OLG Oldenburg, 10.&nbsp;Oktober 1927 – K 48, HRR 1928, 392) unter dem Begriff deutsche Sprache sowohl Hochdeutsch wie auch Niederdeutsch zu verstehen.}}</ref>
*{{flag|Schleswig-Holstein|size=20px}}
*{{flag|Hamburg|size=20px}}
*{{flag|Lower Saxony|size=20px}}
*{{flag|Saxony-Anhalt|size=20px}}
*{{flag|Mecklenburg-Vorpommern|size=20px}}<ref>{{lang|de|Unterschiedliche Rechtsauffassungen, ob Niederdeutsch in Deutschland insgesamt Amtssprache ist – siehe dazu: [[Amtssprache (Deutschland)]]; zumindest aber in [[Schleswig-Holstein]] und [[Mecklenburg-Vorpommern]]}}</ref>
*{{flag|Brandenburg|size=20px}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.platt-in-brandenburg.de|title=Platt in Brandenburg – Aktuelles|website=www.platt-in-brandenburg.de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.niederdeutschsekretariat.de/category/aus-den-laendern/brandenburg/|title=Brandenburg &#124; Niederdeutschsekretariat und Bunnsraat för Nedderdüütsch}}</ref>
{{flagcountry|Bolivia}} (70,000)<ref>[http://mexico.cnn.com/videos/2012/06/07/los-menonitas-en-bolivia Los Menonitas en Bolivia] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203073427/http://mexico.cnn.com/videos/2012/06/07/los-menonitas-en-bolivia |date=3 December 2013 }} ''CNN en Español''</ref>

{{flagcountry|Paraguay}} (30,000)<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.elcomercio.com/sociedad/menoitas-paraguay-aniversario-asuncion_0_815318535.html |title=El Comercio: Menonitas cumplen 85 años en Paraguay con prosperidad sin precedentes |access-date=27 March 2013 |archive-date=10 April 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130410183252/http://www.elcomercio.com/sociedad/menoitas-paraguay-aniversario-asuncion_0_815318535.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
{{flagcountry|Brazil}} (8,000)
| familycolor      = Indo-European
| fam2             = [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
| fam3             = [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
| fam4             = [[North Sea Germanic]]
| ancestor         = [[Old Saxon]]
| ancestor2        = [[Middle Low German]]
| dia1             = [[Low Saxon]]
| dia2             = [[East Low German]]
| iso2             = nds
| iso3             = nds
| iso3comment      = (Dutch varieties and Westphalian have separate codes)
| lingua           = 52-ACB
| map              = File:Low_Saxon_dialects.png
| mapcaption       = Post-1945 Low German language area in Europe
| glotto           = lowg1239
| glottoname       = Low German
| notice           = IPA
}}

'''Low German'''{{efn|"Low German" is known by the following other names in other languages. It is known
in the Low German of Germany as {{lang|nds|Plattdütsch}}, {{lang|nds|Plattdüütsch}}, {{lang|nds|Plattdütsk}}, {{lang|nds|Plattdüütsk}}, {{lang|nds|Plattduitsk}} (South-Westphalian), {{lang|nds|Plattduitsch}} (Eastphalian), {{lang|nds|Plattdietsch}} (Low Prussian), or {{lang|nds|Neddersassisch}}, or {{lang|nds|Nedderdüütsch}};
in the [[Dutch Low Saxon|Low Saxon of the Netherlands]] as {{lang|nds|Nedersaksisch}};
in ([[Standard German|Standard]]) [[High German languages|High German]] as {{lang|de|Plattdeutsch}}, {{lang|de|Niedersächsisch}}, {{lang|de|Niederdeutsch}} (in a stricter sense) or {{lang|de|Platt}}, {{IPA|de|plat|pron|De-Platt.ogg}} (which can also mean ''dialect'' and refer to non-Low German varieties);
in [[Dutch language|Dutch]] as {{lang|nl|Saksisch}}, {{lang|nl|Nedersaksisch}}, {{lang|nl|Platduits}}, {{lang|nl|Nederduits}} {{IPA|nl|ˈneːdərdœyts||Nl-Nederduits.ogg}} (in a stricter sense);
in [[Danish language|Danish]] as {{lang|da|Plattysk}};
plus, other dialectal variants exist.}} is a [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]] [[language variety|language]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Regionalsprache Niederdeutsch |url=https://www.aussiedlerbeauftragte.de/Webs/AUSB/DE/themen/minderheiten-sprachgruppen/niederdeutsch/niederdeutsch.html;jsessionid=774195D52D5278EE9DF1B4DDA3B3AFDC.1_cid373?nn=11582092 |access-date=2023-08-25 |website=Beauftragte für Aussiedlerfragen und nationale Minderheiten |language=de}}</ref><ref>Hubertus Menke: ''Niederdeutsch: Eigenständige Sprache oder Varietät einer Sprache?'' In: Schmitsdorf et al. (Hrsgg.): ''Lingua Germanica. Studien zur deutschen Philologie. Jochen Splett zum 60. Geburtstag.'' Münster 1998, S.&nbsp;171–184.</ref> spoken mainly in [[Northern Germany]] and the northeastern [[Netherlands]]. The dialect of [[Plautdietsch]] is also spoken in the [[Russian Mennonite]] diaspora worldwide. "Low" refers to the altitude of the areas where it is typically spoken.

Low German is most closely related to [[Frisian languages|Frisian]] and [[English language|English]], with which it forms the [[North Sea Germanic]] group of the West Germanic languages. Like [[Dutch language|Dutch]], it has historically been spoken north of the [[Benrath line|Benrath]] and [[Uerdingen line|Uerdingen]] [[isogloss]]es, while forms of [[High German languages|High German]] (of which [[Standard German]] is a standardized example) have historically been spoken south of those lines. Like Frisian, English, Dutch and the [[North Germanic languages]], Low German has not undergone the [[High German consonant shift]], as opposed to [[Standard German|Standard High German]], which is based on [[High German languages|High German dialects]]. Low German evolved from [[Old Saxon|Old Saxon (Old Low German)]], which is most closely related to [[Old Frisian]] and [[Old English|Old English (Anglo-Saxon)]].

The Low German dialects spoken in the Netherlands are mostly referred to as ''Low Saxon'', those spoken in northwestern Germany ([[Lower Saxony]], [[Westphalia]], [[Schleswig-Holstein]], [[Hamburg]], [[Bremen (state)|Bremen]], and [[Saxony-Anhalt]] west of the [[Elbe]]) as either Low German or Low Saxon, and those spoken in northeastern Germany ([[Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania]], [[Brandenburg]], and Saxony-Anhalt east of the Elbe) mostly as Low German, not being part of Low Saxon. This is because northwestern Germany and the northeastern Netherlands were the area of settlement of the [[Saxons]] ([[Old Saxony]]), while Low German spread to northeastern Germany through [[Ostsiedlung|eastward migration]] of Low German speakers into areas with an originally [[Slavic languages|Slavic-speaking]] population. This area is known as [[Germania Slavica]], where the former Slavic influence is still visible in the names of settlements and physiogeographical features.{{efn|Almost all settlements and physiogeographical features in East Germany have a Slavic etymology, e.g. cities like [[Berlin]], [[Leipzig]], [[Dresden]], [[Rostock]], [[Lübeck]] and [[Schwerin]], rivers like the [[Ryck]] or the [[Recknitz]], or islands like [[Fehmarn]].}}

It has been estimated that Low German has approximately 2–5 million speakers in Germany, primarily Northern Germany (ranging from well to very well),<ref>{{cite web |title=Status und Gebrauch des Niederdeutschen 2016 |url=https://www.ins-bremen.de/fileadmin/ins-bremen/user_upload/umfrage2016/broschuere-umfrage.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116170501/https://www.ins-bremen.de/fileadmin/ins-bremen/user_upload/umfrage2016/broschuere-umfrage.pdf |archive-date=16 January 2021 |access-date=13 March 2021 |website=ins-bremen.de |page=40}}</ref> and 2.15 million in the Netherlands (ranging from reasonable to very well).<ref name="blo05"  />{{rp|p=88}}

==Geographical extent==
===Inside Europe===
====Germany====
[[File:Oortsschild von Olenbrook, Landkreis Cuxhoben 4.jpg|thumb|upright|left|City limit sign in Lower Saxony showing that Low German is closer to English for {{lang |de |Altenbruch}} (meaning {{gloss |old bog/swamp}}), an incorporated village of [[Cuxhaven]]. The name in Low German is {{lang |nds |Olenbrook}}.]]

It has been estimated that Low German has approximately two to five million speakers (depending on the definition of 'native speaker') in Germany, primarily in Northern Germany.<ref name="Gechattet wird auf Plattdeusch">{{cite web|url=http://www.noz.de/deutschland-welt/kultur/artikel/10731/gechattet-wird-auch-auf-plattdeutsch |title=Gechattet wird auf Plattdeusch |date=21 August 2013 |publisher=Noz.de |access-date=2014-03-14}}</ref>

Variants of Low German are spoken in most parts of [[Northern Germany]], for instance in the states of [[Lower Saxony]], [[North Rhine-Westphalia]], [[Hamburg]], [[Bremen]], [[Schleswig-Holstein]], [[Mecklenburg-Vorpommern]], [[Saxony-Anhalt]], and [[Brandenburg]]. Small portions of northern [[Hesse]] and northern [[Thuringia]] are traditionally Low Saxon-speaking too.
Historically, Low German was also spoken in formerly German parts of [[Poland]] (e.g., Pomerania and [[Silesia]]), as well as in [[East Prussia]] and the Baltic provinces (modern [[Estonia]] and [[Latvia]]). The [[Baltic Germans]] spoke a distinct Low German dialect, which has influenced the vocabulary and phonetics of both Estonian and Latvian. The historical [[sprachraum]] of Low German also included contemporary northern Poland, East Prussia (the modern [[Kaliningrad Oblast]] of Russia), a part of western [[Lithuania]], and the German communities in Estonia and Latvia, most notably their Hanseatic cities. German speakers in this area fled the Red Army or were forcibly expelled after the border changes at the end of World War II.

The language was also formerly spoken in the outer areas of what is now the city-state of [[Berlin]], but in the course of urbanisation and national centralisation in that city, the language has vanished (the Berlin dialect itself is a northern outpost of [[High German languages|High German]], though it has some Low German features).

Today, there are still speakers outside Germany to be found in the coastal areas of present-day [[Poland]] (minority of [[ethnic German]] [[East Pomeranian dialect|East Pomeranian]] speakers who were not expelled from [[Province of Pomerania (1815–1945)|Pomerania]], as well as the regions around [[Braniewo]]).{{Citation needed|date=January 2008}} In the Southern [[Jutland]] region of Denmark there may still be some Low German speakers in some [[German as a minority language|German minority]] communities, but the Low German dialects of [[Denmark]] can be considered [[Moribund language|moribund]] at this time.{{Citation needed|date=May 2008}}
[[File:Ls-dialects.jpg|thumb|center|650px|Low German-speaking area before the [[Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)|expulsion of almost all Low German- and German-speakers]] from east of the [[Oder–Neisse line]] in 1945. Low German-speaking provinces of Germany east of the [[Oder]], before 1945, were [[Province of Pomerania (1815–1945)|Pomerania]] with its capital ''Stettin'' (now [[Szczecin]], Poland), where east of the Oder [[East Pomeranian]] dialects were spoken, and [[East Prussia]] with its capital ''[[Königsberg]]'' (now [[Kaliningrad]], Russia), where [[Low Prussian]] dialects were spoken. ''Danzig'' (now [[Gdańsk]], Poland) was also a Low German-speaking city before 1945, and its former dialect [[Danzig German]] is also classified as [[Low Prussian]].]]

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Self-reported Low German speakers
|-
! rowspan=2|[[States of Germany|State]] !! colspan=2|'Well' or 'very well'<ref name="ins-bremen.de">Based on figures cited in [http://www.ins-bremen.de/fileadmin/ins-bremen/user_upload/umfrage2016/broschuere-umfrage.pdf Status und Gebrauch des Niederdeutschen 2016] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180313031748/http://www.ins-bremen.de/fileadmin/ins-bremen/user_upload/umfrage2016/broschuere-umfrage.pdf |date=13 March 2018 }}, page 15.</ref>!! colspan=2|'Very well' only<ref name="ins-bremen.de"/>
|-
! % of pop.||Numbers||% of pop.||Numbers
|-
| [[Schleswig-Holstein]] || 24.5% || 694,085|| 16.5% || 467,445
|-
| [[North Rhine-Westphalia]]|| 11.8% || 2,103,940|| 5.2% || 927,160
|-
| [[Lower Saxony]] || 15.4% || 1,218,756 || 4.7% || 371,958
|-
| [[Hamburg]] || 9.5% || 169,860 || 3.2% || 57,216
|-
| [[Bremen (state)|Bremen]] || 17.6% || 116,336 || 9.9% || 65,439
|-
| [[Brandenburg]] || 2.8% || 70,000|| 2.6% || 65,000
|-
| [[Mecklenburg-Vorpommern]] || 20.7% || 339,273 || 5.9% || 96,701
|-
| [[Saxony-Anhalt]] || 11.8% || 275,058 || 2.2% || 51,282
|-
! Entire Low German dialect area!!15.7%!!4,987,308!!6.2%!!2,197,205
|}

====The Netherlands====
Dialects of Low German are spoken in the northeastern area of the Netherlands ([[Dutch Low Saxon]]) by approximately 1.6 million speakers.<ref name="blo05"  /> These dialects are written with an unstandardized orthography based on Standard Dutch orthography. The position of the language is, according to UNESCO, vulnerable.<ref name=":2">{{cite web|title=UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in danger|url=http://www.unesco.org/languages-atlas/index.php?hl=en&page=atlasmap&lid=383|website=www.unesco.org|language=en}}</ref> Between 1995 and 2011 the numbers of parent speakers dropped from 34% in 1995 to 15% in 2011. Numbers of child speakers dropped from 8% to 2% in the same period.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=http://www.its-nijmegen.nl/pdf/NTR12%20dialect1995-2011.pdf|title=Ontwikkelingen in het gebruik van Fries, streektalen en dialecten in de periode 1995–2011|last=Driessen|first=Geert|date=2012|website=Radboud University Nijmegen|access-date=2017-04-29}}</ref> According to a 2005 study 53% speak Low Saxon or Low Saxon and Dutch at home and 71% could speak it in the researched area.<ref name="blo05"  /> The total number of speakers is estimated at 1.7 million speakers.<ref name=TOLoE>The Other Languages of Europe: Demographic, Sociolinguistic, and Educational Perspectives by Guus Extra, Durk Gorter; Multilingual Matters, 2001 – 454; page 10.</ref> There are speakers in the Dutch north and eastern provinces of [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]], [[Drenthe]], [[Stellingwarfs|Stellingwerf]] (part of [[Friesland]]), [[Overijssel]], [[Gelderland]], [[Utrecht]] and [[Flevoland]], in several dialect groups per province.

===Outside Europe and the Mennonites===
{{Main|Plautdietsch|East Low German}}

There are also immigrant communities where Low German is spoken in the Western hemisphere, including Canada, the United States, Mexico, Belize, Venezuela, Bolivia, Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay. In some of these countries, the language is part of the [[Mennonite]] religion and culture.<ref>{{cite web |title=Platdietsch |access-date=2008-02-29 |date=2008-01-27 |url=http://www.plautdietsch.ca/}}</ref> There are Mennonite communities in [[Ontario]], [[Saskatchewan]], [[Alberta]], [[British Columbia]], [[Manitoba]], [[Kansas]] and [[Minnesota]] which use Low German in their religious services and communities. These Mennonites are descended from primarily Dutch settlers that had initially settled in the [[Vistula delta]] region of [[Prussia]] in the 16th and 17th centuries before moving to newly acquired Russian territories in Ukraine in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, and then to the [[Americas]] in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The types of Low German spoken in these communities and in the [[Midwest]] region of the United States have diverged since emigration. The survival of the language is tenuous in many places, and has died out in many places where assimilation has occurred. Members and friends of the Historical Society of North German Settlements in western New York ([[Bergholz, New York]]), a community of Lutherans who trace their immigration from Pomerania in the 1840s, hold quarterly "Plattdeutsch lunch" events, where remaining speakers of the language gather to share and preserve the dialect. Mennonite colonies in Paraguay, Belize, and [[Chihuahua (state)|Chihuahua]], Mexico, have made Low German a "co-official language" of the community.{{citation needed|date=November 2014}}
[[File:ColegioWitmarsumPR.JPG|thumb|A public school in [[Witmarsum Colony]] ([[Paraná (state)|Paraná]], [[South Region, Brazil|Southern Brazil]]) teaches in the [[Portuguese language]] and in ''Plautdietsch''.<ref name="colw">{{Cite web |title=O trilinguismo no Colégio Fritz Kliewer de Witmarsum. (Paraná) [The trilingualism the College of Fritz Kliewer Witmarsum (Paraná)] |publisher=Elvine Siemens Dück |language=pt |url=http://www.celsul.org.br/Encontros/08/trilinguismo_col_fritz_kliewer.pdf |access-date=23 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606214109/http://www.celsul.org.br/Encontros/08/trilinguismo_col_fritz_kliewer.pdf |archive-date=6 June 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>]]
[[East Pomeranian dialect|East Pomeranian]] is also spoken in parts of [[South Region, Brazil|southern]] and [[Southeast Region, Brazil|southeastern]] Brazil, in the latter especially in the state of {{lang|pt|[[Espírito Santo]]}}, being official in five municipalities, and spoken among its [[European immigration to Brazil|ethnically European]] migrants elsewhere, primarily in the states of [[Rio de Janeiro (state)|Rio de Janeiro]] and {{lang|pt|[[Rondônia]]}}. East Pomeranian-speaking regions of Southern Brazil are often assimilated into the general [[German Brazilian]] population and culture, for example celebrating the {{lang|de|[[Oktoberfest]]}}, and there can even be a language shift from it to {{lang|de|[[Riograndenser Hunsrückisch]]}} in some areas. In {{lang|pt|Espírito Santo}}, nevertheless, Pomeranian Brazilians are more often proud of their language, and particular religious traditions and culture,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rog.com.br/claudiovereza2/mostraconteudos.asp?cod_conteudo=735|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121221183002/http://www.rog.com.br/claudiovereza2/mostraconteudos.asp?cod_conteudo=735|url-status=dead|title=Claudio Vereza, Espírito Santo's state assemblyman by the Workers' Party &#124; The Pomeranian people in Espírito Santo|archivedate=21 December 2012}}</ref> and not uncommonly inheriting the nationalism of their ancestors, being more likely to accept marriages of its members with Brazilians of origins other than a Germanic Central European one than to assimilate with Brazilians of [[Swiss Brazilian|Swiss]], [[Austrian Brazilian|Austrian]], [[Czech Brazilian|Czech]], and non-East Pomeranian-speaking German and Prussian heritage{{clarify|date=June 2017}} – that were much more numerous immigrants to both Brazilian regions (and whose language almost faded out in the latter, due to assimilation and internal migration){{clarify|date=June 2017}}, by themselves less numerous than the [[Italian Brazilian|Italian]] ones (with only Venetian communities in areas of highly Venetian presence conserving [[Talian dialect|Talian]], and other Italian languages and dialects fading out elsewhere).{{clarify|date=June 2017}}

{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" width="70%"
|-
!Speakers of low German outside Europe
|-
|{{German L1 speakers outside Europe}}
|}

==Nomenclature==
{{More citations needed section|date=June 2019}}
The language grouping of Low German is referred to, in the language itself as well as in its umbrella languages of German and Dutch, in several different ways, ranging from official names such as Niederdeutsche and Nederduits to more general characterisations such as "dialect". The proliferation of names or characterisations is due in part to the grouping stretching mainly across two different countries and to it being a collection of varieties rather than a standardised language.

There are different uses of the term "Low German":

* A specific name of any [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]] [[variety (linguistics)|varieties]] that neither have taken part in the [[High German consonant shift]] nor classify as [[Low Franconian languages|Low Franconian]] or [[Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglo-Frisian]]; this is the scope discussed in this article.
* A broader term for the closely related, continental [[West Germanic languages]] unaffected by the High German consonant shift, nor classifying as [[Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglo-Frisian]], and thus including [[Low Franconian]] varieties.

In Germany, native speakers of Low German call their language {{lang|nds|Platt}}, {{lang|nds|Plattdütsch}}, {{lang|nds|Plattdüütsch}}, {{lang|nds|Plattdütsk}}, {{lang|nds|Plattdüütsk}}, {{lang|nds|Plattduitsk}} (South-Westphalian), {{lang|nds|Plattduitsch}} (Eastphalian), {{lang|nds|Plattdietsch}} (Low Prussian), or {{lang|nds|Nedderdüütsch}}. In the Netherlands, native speakers refer to their language as {{lang|nds|dialect}}, {{lang|nds|plat}}, {{lang|nds|Nedersaksisch}}, or the name of their village, town or district.

Officially, Low German is called {{lang|de|niederdeutsche Sprache}} or {{lang|de|plattdeutsche Sprache}} (Nether or Low German language), {{lang|de|Niederdeutsch}} or {{lang|de|Plattdeutsch}} (Nether or Low German) in High German by the German authorities, {{lang|nds|nedderdüütsche Spraak}} (Nether or Low German language), {{lang|nds|Nedderdüütsch}} or {{lang|nds|Plattdüütsch}} (Nether or Low German) in Low German by the German authorities and {{lang|nl|Nedersaksisch}} (Nether or Low Saxon) by the Dutch authorities. {{lang|de|Plattdeutsch}}, {{lang|de|Niederdeutsch}} and {{lang|nl|Platduits}}, {{lang|nl|Nedersaksisch}} are seen in linguistic texts from the German and Dutch linguistic communities respectively.

In Danish it is called {{lang|da|Plattysk}}, {{lang|da|Nedertysk}} or, rarely, {{lang|da|Lavtysk}}. Mennonite Low German is called {{lang|pdt|[[Plautdietsch language|Plautdietsch]]}}.

"Low" refers to the flat plains and coastal area of the [[Northern European Lowlands|northern European lowlands]], contrasted with the mountainous areas of central and southern Germany, Switzerland, and Austria, where [[High German languages|High German]] (Highland German) is spoken.{{efn |{{linktext|cf.}} the definition of ''high'' in the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' (Concise Edition): "[…] situated far above ground, sea level, etc; upper, inland, '''as […] High German'''". }}

The colloquial term {{lang|de|Platt}} denotes both Low German dialects and any non-[[standard language|standard]] Western variety of [[German language|German]]; this use is chiefly found in northern and Western Germany and is not considered to be [[linguistics|linguistically]] correct.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.philhist.uni-augsburg.de/lehrstuehle/germanistik/sprachwissenschaft/ada/runde_1/f20/|title=Mundart/Platt|website=www.philhist.uni-augsburg.de|access-date=6 June 2018}}</ref>

The [[ISO 639-2]] language code for Low German has been ''nds'' ({{lang|de|niedersächsisch}} or {{lang|nl|nedersaksisch, neddersassisch}}) since May 2000.

==Classification==
{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2019}}
Low German is a part of the continental [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]] [[dialect continuum]]. To the West, it blends into the [[Low Franconian languages]], including [[Dutch language|Dutch]]. A distinguishing feature between the Low Franconian varieties and Low German varieties is the plural of the verbs. Low German varieties have a common verbal plural ending, whereas Low Franconian varieties have a different form for the second person plural. This is complicated in that in most Low Franconian varieties, including standard [[Dutch language|Dutch]], the original second-person plural form has replaced the singular. Some dialects, including again standard Dutch, innovated a new second-person plural form in the last few centuries, using the other plural forms as the source.

To the South, Low German blends into the [[High German languages|High German]] dialects of [[Central German]] that have been affected by the [[High German consonant shift]]. The division is usually drawn at the [[Benrath line]] that traces the ''{{lang|nds|maken}} – {{lang|de|machen}}'' [[isogloss]].

To the East, it abuts the [[Kashubian language]] (the only remnant of the [[Pomeranian language]]) and, since the expulsion of nearly all Germans from the Polish part of [[Pomerania]] following the Second World War, also by the [[Polish language]].
[[East Pomeranian dialect|East Pomeranian]] and [[Central Pomeranian dialect|Central Pomeranian]] are dialects of Low German.

To the North and Northwest, it abuts the [[Danish language|Danish]] and the [[Frisian languages]]. In Germany, Low German has replaced the Danish and Frisian languages in many regions. [[Saterland Frisian language|Saterland Frisian]] is the only remnant of East Frisian language and is surrounded by Low German, as are the few remaining [[North Frisian language|North Frisian]] varieties, and the Low German dialects of those regions have influences from Frisian substrates.

Most linguists classify the dialects of Low German together with [[English language|English]] and [[Frisian languages|Frisian]] as the ''[[North Sea]] Germanic'' or ''[[Ingaevones|Ingvaeonic]]'' languages. However, most exclude Low German from the group often called [[Anglo-Frisian languages]] because some distinctive features of that group of languages are only partially preserved in Low German, for instance the [[Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law]] (some dialects have ''us'', {{lang|gml|os}} for "us" whereas others have {{lang|de|uns}}, {{lang|nl|ons}}), and because other distinctive features almost do not occur in Low German at all, for instance the [[palatalization (sound change)|palatalization]] and assibilation of {{IPAslink|k}} (compare palatalized forms such as English ''cheese'', Frisian {{lang|fy|tsiis}} to non-palatalized forms such as Low German {{lang|nds|Kees}} or {{lang|nds|Kaise}}, Dutch {{lang|nl|kaas}}, German {{lang|de|Käse}} but Low German Sever/Sebber while German Käfer<ref>{{Cite web |title=Plattdeutsches Wörterbuch |url=https://www.ndr.de/kultur/norddeutsche_sprache/plattdeutsch/woerterbuch101.html |access-date=2023-08-05 |website=www.ndr.de |language=de}}</ref>) However, since Anglo-Frisian features occur in Low German and especially in its older language stages, there is a tendency to prefer the Ingvaeonic classification instead of the Anglo-Frisian one, which also takes Low German into account. Because Old Saxon came under strong Old High German and Old Low Franconian influence early on and therefore lost many Ingvaeonic features that were to be found much more extensively in earlier language states.<ref>{{Citation |last=Nielsen |first=Hans Frede |title=48. Frisian and the Grouping of the Older Germanic Languages |date=2001-12-31 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9783110946925.512 |work=Handbuch des Friesischen / Handbook of Frisian Studies |pages=512–523 |access-date=2023-08-05 |publisher=DE GRUYTER |doi=10.1515/9783110946925.512 |isbn=978-3-484-73048-9|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

===Language or dialect===
The question of whether today's Low German should be considered a separate language or a dialect of [[German language|German]] or even [[Dutch language|Dutch]] has been a point of contention. Although Low German is mostly regarded as an independent language<ref>{{Cite web |title=Niederdeutsch |url=https://www.mundart-kommission.lwl.org/de/forschung/niederdeutsch/ |access-date=2023-08-05 |website=www.mundart-kommission.lwl.org |language=de}}</ref> [[linguistics]] offers no simple, generally accepted criterion to decide the question.

Scholarly arguments have been put forward for classifying Low German as a German dialect.<ref>[[Jan Goossens (linguist)|J. Goossens]]: "Niederdeutsche Sprache. Versuch einer Definition", in: J. Goossens (ed.), ''Niederdeutsch. Sprache und Literatur'', vol. 1, Neumünster 1973.</ref> As stated above, the arguments are not linguistic but rather sociopolitical and revolve mainly around the fact that Low German has no official standard form or use in sophisticated media. The situation of Low German may thus be considered a "pseudo-dialectized [[Ausbausprache, Abstandsprache and Dachsprache|abstand language]]" ("{{lang|de|scheindialektisierte Abstandsprache}}").<ref>W. Sanders: ''Sachsensprache — Hansesprache — Plattdeutsch. Sprachgeschichtliche Grundzüge des Niederdeutschen'', Göttingen 1982, p. 32, paraphrasing [[Heinz Kloss]]: "Abstandsprachen und Ausbausprachen", in: J. Göschel et al. (edd.), ''Zur Theorie des Dialekts'', Wiesbaden 1976, pp. 301–322.</ref> In contrast, [[Old Saxon]] and [[Middle Low German]] are generally considered separate languages in their own right. Since Low German has strongly declined since the 18th century, the perceived similarities with High German or Dutch may often be direct adaptations from the dominating standard language, resulting in a growing inability by speakers to speak correctly what was once Low German proper.<ref>Hubertus Menke: "Niederdeutsch: Eigenständige Sprache oder Varietät einer Sprache?", in: Eva Schmitsdorf et al. (edd.), ''Lingua Germanica. Studien zur deutschen Philologie. Jochen Splett zum 60. Geburtstag'', Waxmann, Münster et al. 1998, pp. 171–184, in particular p. 180.</ref>

Others have argued for the independence of today's Low German dialects, taken as continuous outflow of the Old Saxon and Middle Low German tradition.<ref>Hubertus Menke: "Niederdeutsch: Eigenständige Sprache oder Varietät einer Sprache?", in: Eva Schmitsdorf et al. (edd.), ''Lingua Germanica. Studien zur deutschen Philologie. Jochen Splett zum 60. Geburtstag'', Waxmann, Münster et al. 1998, pp. 171–184, in particular p. 183f.</ref> ''Glottolog'' classifies six varieties of Low German as distinct languages based on a low degree of [[mutual intelligibility]]. Eastern Low German and Plautdietsch are classified as part of Greater East Low German, while Eastphalian, Westphalic, and the North Low Saxon languages, German Northern Low Saxon and Gronings, are classified as part of West Low German.<ref>{{cite web| editor-last1= Hammarström| editor-first1 = Harald| editor-last2 = Forke| editor-first2 = Robert| editor-last3 = Haspelmath| editor-first3 = Martin| editor-last4 = Bank| editor-first4 = Sebastian| year = 2020|title = Low German | work = [[Glottolog]] 4.3| url = https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/lowg1239}}</ref>

===Legal status===
{{Further |topic=official status |de:Niederdeutsche Sprache#Schriftsprache und heutiger Schutzstatus |l1=recognition and protection in Germany }}
Low German has been recognized by the Netherlands and by Germany (since 1999) as a [[regional language]] according to the [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]]. Within the official terminology defined in the charter, this status would not be available to a dialect of an official language (as per article 1a), and hence not to Low German in Germany if it were considered a dialect of German. Advocates of the promotion of Low German have expressed considerable hope that this political development will at once lend legitimacy to their claim that Low German is a separate language, and help mitigate the functional limits of the language that may still be cited as objective criteria for a mere dialect (such as the virtually complete absence from legal and administrative contexts, schools, the media, etc.).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ins-bremen.de/de/sprache/politik.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011124916/http://www.ins-bremen.de/de/sprache/politik.html|url-status=dead|title=Institut für niederdeutsche Sprache – Sprachenpolitik|archivedate=11 October 2017}}</ref>

At the request of [[Schleswig-Holstein]], the German government has declared Low German as a [[regional language]]. German offices in Schleswig-Holstein are obliged to accept and handle applications in Low German on the same footing as Standard High German applications.<ref>[http://www.schleswig-holstein.de/DE/Landesregierung/I/_startseite/Artikel/2016/Material_2016/160609_Sprachencharta_Material/160609_Sprachenchartabericht.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=1 Sprachenchartabericht of the regional government of Schleswig-Holstein for 2016] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011125215/http://www.schleswig-holstein.de/DE/Landesregierung/I/_startseite/Artikel/2016/Material_2016/160609_Sprachencharta_Material/160609_Sprachenchartabericht.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=1 |date=11 October 2017 }}, p. 14 f.</ref> The {{lang|de|[[Bundesgerichtshof]]}} ruled in a case that this was even to be done at the patent office in [[Munich]], in a [[Bavaria|non–Low German region]], when the applicant then had to pay the charge for a translator, because applications in Low German are considered not to be written in the German language.

==Varieties of Low German==
{{Unreferenced section|date=October 2021|especially for the classification of Stellingwerfs, Drents, Twents etc. as Westphalian, cp. [[Westphalian language]] and the citation needed there}}
[[File:Low German dialects around the world.jpg|thumb|Low German dialects around the world]]
{{Tree list}}
* [[Low Saxon]] or West Low German 
** [[East Frisian Low Saxon]]
** [[Northern Low Saxon]]
*** Holsteinian (Holsteinisch)
*** [[Schleswigian|Schleswigian (Schleswigsch)]]
*** [[Dithmarsch|Dithmarsch (Dithmarsisch)]]
*** [[North Hanoverian|North Hanoverian (Nordhannoversch)]]
*** [[Emslandish|Emslandish (Emsländisch)]]
*** [[Oldenburgish|Oldenburgish (Oldenburgisch)]]
*** [[Gronings]] and [[Noord-Drents]]
**** [[Hogelandsters]]
**** [[Oldambtsters]]
**** [[Stadsgronings]]
**** [[Veenkoloniaals]]
**** [[Westerkwartiers]]
***** [[Kollumerpompsters]]
***** [[Kollumerlands]]
***** [[Middaglands]]
***** [[Midden-Westerkwartiers]]
***** [[Zuid-Westerkwartiers]]
**** [[Westerwolds]]
** [[Westphalian language|Westphalian]] ({{lang|de|Westfälisch}})
*** Westmünsterländisch
*** [[Münsterländer Platt|Münsterländisch]]
*** South Westphalian ({{lang|de|Südwestfälisch}})
*** East Westphalian ({{lang|de|Ostwestfälisch}})
*** [[Stellingwerfs]]
*** [[Drents]]
**** [[Midden-Drents]]
**** [[Zuid-Drents]]
*** [[Twents]]
**** [[Twents-Graafschaps]]
**** ''Twents''
*** [[Gelders-Overijssels]]
**** [[Achterhoeks]]
**** [[Sallands]]
**** [[Oost-Veluws]] (partly classified as Veluws)
**** [[Urkers]]
*** [[Veluws]]
**** [[Oost-Veluws]] (partly classified as Gelders-Overijssels)
**** [[West-Veluws]]
** [[Eastphalian language|Eastphalian]] ({{lang|de|Ostfälisch}})
* [[East Low German]] 
** {{lang|de|[[Brandenburgisch]]}}
** {{lang|de|[[Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch dialect|Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch]]}}
** Central Pomeranian ({{lang|de|Mittelpommersch}})
** [[East Pomeranian dialect|East Pomeranian]] ({{lang|de|Ostpommersch}})
** [[Low Prussian]] ({{lang|de|Niederpreußisch}})
** {{lang|pdt|[[Plautdietsch]]}} ([[Mennonite]] Low German, used also in many other countries)
{{Tree list/end}}

==History==
{{Main|History of Low German}}

===Old Saxon===
{{Main|Old Saxon}}
Old Saxon ({{lang|de|Altsächsisch}}), also known as Old Low German ({{lang|de|Altniederdeutsch}}), is a [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic language]]. It is documented from the 9th century until the 12th century, when it evolved into [[Middle Low German]]. It was spoken on the north-west coast of Germany by [[Saxon people]]s. It is closely related to Old [[Anglo-Frisian]] ([[Old Frisian]], [[Old English]]), partially participating in the [[Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law]].

Only a few texts survive, predominantly in baptismal vows the Saxons were required to perform at the behest of [[Charlemagne]]. The only literary texts preserved are ''[[Heliand]]'' and the [[Old Saxon Genesis]].

{{Gallery
|align=centre
|width=264
|height=180
<!-- |mode=packed -->
<!-- |noborder=yes -->

|File:Evolutionsgeschichte der Indo-Europäischen Sprachen mit Schwerpunkt Westeuropa.svg
|{{lang |de |Altniederdeutsch}} (Old Saxon); {{lang |de |Mittelniederdeutsch}} (Middle Low German); {{lang |de |Niederdeutsch}} (Modern Low German)

|File:Historical West Germanic language area.png
|Old Saxon speaking area (shown in purple)

|File:Berlin heliand.jpg
|[[Heliand]]{{snd}}fragment, one of the most important testimonies of Old Saxon
}}

{|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|''Old Saxon''
|
|
|''Modern Low German''
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|Fadar usa firiho barno,
|
|
|Vadder van us, (...)
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|thu bist an them hohon himila rikea,
|
|
|Du bist an den hogen himmlischen Riek,
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|geuuihid si thin namo uuordo gehuuilico,
|
|
|Hiligt wees dien naam in elk Woord,
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|Cuma thin craftag riki.
|
|
|Kaam dien mächtig Riek.
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|UUerða thin uuilleo oƀar thesa werold alla,
|
|
|Warr dien Wille över düsse Werld allerwegens,
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|so sama an erðo, so thar uppa ist
|
|
|so up de Eerd, as dat it is dor baven
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|an them hohon himilo rikea.
|
|
|in den hogen himmlischen Riek.
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|Gef us dag gehuuilikes rad, drohtin the godo,
|
|
|Giff us elk Dag Raad, Herr de Gode,
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|thina helaga helpa, endi alat us,
|
|
|Dine hilige Hölp, un laat us free,
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|heƀenes uuard,
|
|
|Beschermer van de Heven,
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|managoro mensculdio,
|
|
|us männje Schullen, 
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|al so uue oðrum mannum doan.
|
|
|ust so as wi doot mit anneren Minschen.
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|Ne lat us farledean leða uuihti
|
|
|Laat lege Wichten nich us verschünnen
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|so forð an iro uuileon, so uui uuirðige sind,
|
|
|jümehr Willen to doon, as wi würdig sind,
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|ac help us uuiðar allun uƀilon dadiun.
|
|
|man hölp us twingen tegen alle öveln Daden.
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|}

===Middle Low German===
{{Main|Middle Low German}}
The Middle Low German language ({{lang|de|Mittelniederdeutsch}}) is an ancestor of modern Low German. It was spoken from about 1100 to 1600. At the time it was known as '''Sassisch''' or '''de Sassische sprâke''' in Middle Low German and the region in which it was spoken '''Sassenlant'''.{{sfn |Lasch |1914 |p= }}{{page needed |date=May 2025}} The neighbouring languages within the [[dialect continuum]] of the [[West Germanic languages]] were [[Middle Dutch]] in the West and [[Middle High German]] in the South; the latter developed into [[Early New High German]]. Middle Low German was the [[lingua franca]] of the [[Hanseatic League]], spoken all around the [[North Sea]] and the [[Baltic Sea]].<ref>Sanders, W. (1982) Sachsensprache, Hansesprache, Plattdeutsch. Sprachgeschichtliche Grundzüge des Niederdeutschen. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Rupprecht.</ref> It had a significant influence on the [[Scandinavian languages]] and other languages around the Baltic Sea. Based on the language of [[Lübeck]], a standardized written language was developing, though it was never codified.

{{Gallery
|align=centre
|width=577
|height=180
|mode=packed
<!-- |noborder=yes -->

|File:Extent of the Hansa.png
|Hanseatic main area

|File:Reyneke1539.jpg
|Reyneke de Vos is the most important Middle Low German animal epic in verse.

|File:Mittelniederdeutsch.jpg
|alt3=
|Inscription in Middle Low German on a house at Hameln that translated into English reads ''All the world's magnificence is like a flower that grows today and vanishes tomorrow; the Lord's word remains in eternity.'' 
}}
{|
|+Comparison<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sassen {{!}} Sassisk voot vôer voot |url=https://sassen.land/texten/reynke%20de%20vos%20capitels.php?lang=nds&dialect=sassisk&text=V%C3%B2err%C3%A8de |access-date=2023-10-25 |website=sassen.land}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Reynke de Vos, Book 1 |url=http://www.dodedans.com/Ereynke-book1.htm |access-date=2023-10-25 |website=www.dodedans.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Lowlands-L Anniversary Celebration |url=http://www.lowlands-l.net/anniversary/contents-de.php |access-date=2023-10-25 |website=www.lowlands-l.net}}</ref>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|Middle Low German 
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Modern Low German 
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|Van deme thunkonnynck
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Van dên niëtelkuönînk
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|Yd gheschach vp eynen voryarsdach,
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Et geschooich up eenen vruijaorsdag
|-
|Alze grone men bomen vnde haghen sach
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Asse gruinen mên buime on hagen saoch
|-
|Vnde manck de krüder vele schone blomen,
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Un mank de kruder viêle schuine blooumen,
|-
|Men horde ghesangen wyde van bomen,
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Men horde ghesangen wyde van bomen,
|-
|Do boeden voghelen grote vnde kleyne
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Doar bowweden vuëgel, graaute on kleeine,
|-
|Nester vp dat se nicht leuen alleyne.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Nester, op dat ze nich liêwen alleeîne.
|-
|Eyn thunkonnynck wonede wol tho vreden
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Eein niëtelkuönînk woeönde wul touvriêr
|-
|Myt wyff vnde kyndere in eyner steden
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Met wiew un kînners în eeine stiehe,
|-
|Waghenschune wol aff gheleghen,
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|În ’ne waogenschoer woal afgeliêgen,
|-
|Dar balken vogheles nester dreghen.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Dar balken vogheles nester dreghen.
|-
|Eyns weren vth ghevloghen de olden,
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Eeins wören oetvloeögen de aaulen,
|-
|Wente se vödynge vynden wolden
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Wieldat ze voder vînnen wollen
|-
|Vor ere yungen tho huß in deme neste,
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Veur iêre jongen touhoes în dên neste,
|-
|Dat se gud ethen vnde wassen vpt beste.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Dat ze gout iêten on wassen op’t beste.
|-
|Men do se vth ghevloghen tho tweyne,
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Mên wiel ze oetvloeögen weuren tou tweeine,
|-
|Weren de yungen gantz alleyne.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Weuren de jongen gaans aleeine.
|-
|Alzo de vader quam wedder thom nest,
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|As dên de vaoder toun nest wier kwam,
|-
|Is dar eyn gantz arg gheluth ghewest.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Was doar eein arget geloete aan gaang.
|-
|Was doar eein arget geloete aan gaang.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Doa sproik he »Worumme dat, kînners mien,
|-
|We dede yw an solke wee vnde pyn?«
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Wêr dêe joe aan sokke laiden on pien?«
|-
|»Leue vader,« repen se, »horet gy!
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|»Lêiwe vaoder,« roipen ze, »heuëret Jie!
|-
|Eyn groue vnwycht quam hyr vor by.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Eein groawe onwicht kwam hier veurbie.
|-
|Seer greselyk sach he vth vnde slym.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Zêêr greeslik saoch hei oet on slim.
|-
|Syne oghen glvpeden quad vnde grym
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Ziene aaugen gloepkeden kwaaud on met grîm
|-
|Wo kvnden wy dar ane anxte syn?«
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Woe konnen wi doar aaune aangste zien?«
|-
|»Wanne, kyndere myn,« sus sprack he do,
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|»Waorhen, kînnerken mien,« zaau sproik hei doar,
|-
|»War is de vnwycht ghebleuen? Secht tho!« 
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|»Waor is de onwicht bliewen? Zegget tou!«
|-
|»Leue vader,« he do tho antwort krech,
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|»Lêiwe vader,« hêw hei tou aantwoort krieëgen
|-
|»He ghynck van hyr vp dennen wech.«
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|»Hei göng van hier op dênne wiêgen.«
|-
|Alzo sprack de vader »Wachtet gy hyr!
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Aal voart sproik de vaoder » Tuiwet gie hier!
|-
|Syd gy schon stylle! Bewyset fyn tzyr!
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Ziët gie schuîn stîlle! Bewiezet vien sier!
|-
|Ick wyl en volgen vnde sal en wol kryghen.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Ik wil em volgen on zal em woal kriegen.
|-
|Dar vmme möthen gy schulen vnde swyghen.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Doarumme muëtet gie schoelen on swiegen.
|-
|Gy dorven nu nicht vruchten meer.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Gie druëwet noe nich vruchten mêêr.
|-
|Ik wyl drade komen wedder heer.«
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Ik wîl gawwe koeömen wier hiêr.«
|-
|De thunkonnynck is vp den wech ghevloghen,
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|De niëtelkuönînk is op den wiêge vloeögen,
|-
|Vnde alze he quam vmme eynen boghen,
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|On as hei kwaim ümme eeinen boeögen,
|-
|Sach he dar eynen lauen ghaen
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Sach he dar eynen lauen ghaen
|-
|Myt breydem rugge vnde langer maen.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Met breeiden rugge on laanke maon.
|-
|Men de luttyke voghel was vnvorverd,
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Mên de lutke voagel was onvervêrt,
|-
|Alze sy des lauen kraft weynich werd.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Asse weur den löwwen zien kraft weeinig wêrt.
|-
|He vloch vp des lauen rugge myt hast,
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Hei vloig op den löwwen zien rugge met hast,
|-
|He sette de klouen dar ynne vast
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Hei zett’de de klaauen doar înne vast
|-
|Vnde vunck eyn seer luth schelden an,
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|On vöng eein zêêr loetet schênnen aan,
|-
|Alze luth eyn voghel ok schelden kan.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Asse loet eein vuagel aauk schênnen kaan.
|-
|Men de laue horde nicht den luttyken ryder
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Mên de löwwe hêörde nich den lutken rieder
|-
|Vnde ghynck synen wech gantz stylle wyder.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|On göng zienen wiêge gaans stille wieder.
|-
|Do worde des kerlkens torn noch slymmer.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Doar weurde dat kêrlken zien torn naau slîmmer.
|-
|Syn moth worde dryster, syn vlöken grymmer.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Zien moout weurde driester, sien vluiken grîmmer.
|-
|»Ick segge dy, slumpe bözewycht,
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|»Ik zegge die, slompe buizewicht,
|-
|Myne kynder vorveren vorloue ick nicht!
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Miene kînners vervêren verluiwe ik nicht!
|-
|Vnde kumpst du wedder tho mynem nest,
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|On kümps du wier tou mienen nest,
|-
|Is yd eyn myßdat, dat du doest tho lest.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Is et eein misdaaut, deei doe dois toulest.
|-
|Ick wyl yd nicht gherne doen. O neyn!« 
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Ik wîl et nich gêren doun. O neeîn!«
|-
|Vnde he lüftede an eyn van syn beyn,
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|On hei luftede aan eein van zien beeîn,
|-
|»Nochtan dede ick yd – god möthe my wreken:
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|»Doach daon dê ik et – God mogte mie vriêken:
|-
|Myt mynem beyn dyn rugge thobreken.«
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Met mienen beeîn dien rugge toubriêken.«
|-
|Sus vloch he tho rugge tho synem huß,
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Zaau vloig hei tourugge tou zienen hoes,
|-
|War de kyndere wachten, elk styl alze eyn muß,
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Wao de kînnerken tuiw’den, êlk stîl as eein moes,
|-
|Vnde sprack »horet, kynder! Ick gaff deme syn leer.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|On sproik »Hêöret, kînner! Ik gaaif dêm zien lêêr.
|-
|He kumpt nu nicht wedder.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Heei kump noe nich wier.
|-
|Neyn, nummer meer!«
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Neei, nummer mêêr!«
|}

===Contemporary===
There is a distinction between the [[Germany|German]] and the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] Low Saxon/Low German situation.

====Germany====
After mass education in [[Germany]] in the 19th and 20th centuries, the slow decline which Low German had been experiencing since the end of the [[Hanseatic League]] turned into a free fall. The decision to exclude Low German in formal education was not without controversy, however. On one hand, proponents of Low German advocated that since it had a strong cultural and historical value and was the native language of students in northern Germany, it had a place in the classroom. On the other hand, High German was considered the language of education, science, and national unity, and since schools promoted these values, High German was seen as the best candidate for the language of instruction.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Langer, Nils and Robert Langhanke|title=How to Deal with Non-Dominant Languages – Metalingusitic Discourses on Low German in the Nineteenth Century|journal=Linguistik Online|year=2013|volume=58|issue=1| doi=10.13092/lo.58.240|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Initially, regional languages and dialects were thought to limit the intellectual ability of their speakers. When historical linguists illustrated the archaic character of certain features and constructions of Low German, this was seen as a sign of its "backwardness". It was not until the efforts of proponents such as Klaus Groth that this impression changed. Groth's publications demonstrated that Low German was a valuable language in its own right, and he was able to convince others that Low German was suitable for literary arts and was a national treasure worth keeping.<ref name=":0" />

Through the works of advocates like Groth, both proponents and opponents of Low German in formal education saw the language's innate value as the cultural and historical language of northern Germany. Nevertheless, opponents claimed that it should simply remain a spoken and informal language to be used on the street and in the home, but not in formal schooling. In their opinion, it simply did not match the nationally unifying power of High German. As a result, while Low German literature was deemed worthy of being taught in school, High German was chosen as the language of scholarly instruction. With High German the language of education and Low German the language of the home and daily life, a stable diglossia developed in Northern Germany.<ref name=":0" /> Various Low German dialects are understood by 10 million people, but many fewer are [[Native language|native speakers]].

The [[KDE]] project supports Low German (nds) as a language for its computer desktop environment,<ref>http://l10n.kde.org/stats/gui/trunk-kde4/nds/ {{Dead link|date=April 2017}}</ref> as does the [[GNOME]] Desktop Project. [[Open-source software]] has been translated into Low German; this used to be coordinated via a page on SourceForge,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nds.sourceforge.net/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120701012935/http://nds.sourceforge.net/|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 July 2012|title=Linux op Platt|date=1 July 2012|access-date=6 June 2018}}</ref> but as of 2015, the most active project is that of KDE.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nds.i18n.kde.org/|title=Hartlich willkamen bi KDE op Platt|website=nds.i18n.kde.org|access-date=6 June 2018}}</ref>

====Netherlands====
In the early 20th century, scholars in the Netherlands argued that speaking dialects hindered language acquisition, and it was therefore strongly discouraged. As education improved, and mass communication became more widespread, the Low Saxon dialects further declined, although decline has been greater in urban centres of the Low Saxon regions. When in 1975 dialect folk and rock bands such as [[Normaal]] and {{ill|Boh Foi Toch|nl}} became successful with their overt disapproval of what they experienced as "misplaced Dutch snobbery" and the Western Dutch contempt for (speakers of) Low Saxon dialects, they gained a following among the more rurally oriented inhabitants, launching Low Saxon as a sub-culture. They inspired contemporary dialect artists and rock bands, such as {{ill|Daniël Lohues|nl}}, {{ill|Mooi Wark|Nl}}, {{ill|Jovink en de Voederbietels|Nl}}, {{ill|Hádiejan|Nl}}
Nonetheless, the position of the language is vulnerable according to UNESCO.<ref name=":2" />  Low Saxon is still spoken more widely than in Northern Germany. Efforts are made in Germany and in the Netherlands to protect Low German as a [[regional language]].

==Phonetic and grammatical changes==
===High German consonant shift===

As with the [[Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglo-Frisian]] and [[North Germanic languages]], Low German has not been influenced by the [[High German consonant shift]] except for old {{IPA|/ð/}} having shifted to {{IPA|/d/}}. Therefore, a lot of Low German words sound similar to their English counterparts. One feature that does distinguish Low German from English generally is final devoicing of obstruents, as exemplified by the words 'good' and 'wind' below. This is a characteristic of Dutch and German as well and involves positional neutralization of voicing contrast in the coda position for obstruents (i.e. t = d at the end of a syllable.) This is not used in English except in the [[Yorkshire dialect]], where there is a process known as ''[[Yorkshire assimilation]]''.<ref>See John Wells, ''Accents of English'', pages 366–7, Cambridge University Press, 1981</ref>

For instance: ''water'' {{IPA|[wɒtɜ, ˈwatɜ, ˈwætɜ]}}, ''later'' {{IPA|[ˈlɒːtɜ, ˈlaːtɜ, ˈlæːtɜ]}}, ''bit'' {{IPA|[bɪt]}}, ''dish'' {{IPA|[dis, diʃ]}}, ''ship'' {{IPA|[ʃɪp, skɪp, sxɪp]}}, ''pull'' {{IPA|[pʊl]}}, ''good'' {{IPA|[ɡou̯t, ɣɑu̯t, ɣuːt]}}, ''clock'' {{IPA|[klɔk]}}, ''sail'' {{IPA|[sɑi̯l]}}, ''he'' {{IPA|[hɛi̯, hɑi̯, hi(j)]}}, ''storm'' {{IPA|[stoːrm]}}, ''wind'' {{IPA|[vɪˑnt]}}, ''grass'' {{IPA|[ɡras, ɣras]}}, ''hold'' {{IPA|[hoˑʊl(t)]}}, ''old'' {{IPA|[oˑʊl(t)]}}.

The table below shows the relationship between Low German consonants which were unaffected by this [[chain shift]] and their equivalents in other West Germanic languages. Contemporary Swedish and Icelandic shown for comparison; Eastern and Western North Germanic languages, respectively.

{| class="wikitable"
! Proto-Germanic
! High German
! Northern Low German
! Dutch
! English
! High German
! Swedish
! Icelandic
|-
| -k- || -ch- || {{lang|nds|maken}} || {{lang|nl|maken}} || make || {{lang|de|machen}} || {{lang|sv|maka}} (arch.) || 
|-
| k- || k- || {{lang|nds|Keerl (Kerl)}} (''fellow'') || {{lang|nl|kerel}} || churl || {{lang|de|Kerl}}{{efn |High German {{lang|de|Kerl}} is a loanword from Low German. }} || {{lang|sv|karl}} || {{lang|is|karl}}
|-
| d- || t- || {{lang|nds|Dag}} || {{lang|nl|dag}} || day || {{lang|de|Tag}} || {{lang|sv|dag}} || {{lang|is|dagur}}
|-
| -t- || -ss- || {{lang|nds|eten (ȩten, äten)}}<br /> [Westphalian: {{lang|nds|iäten}}] || {{lang|nl|eten}} || eat || {{lang|de|essen}} || {{lang|sv|äta}} || {{lang|is|eta}}
|-
| t- || z- (/t͡s/) || {{lang|nds|teihn (tein)}} || {{lang|nl|tien}} || ten || {{lang|de|zehn}} || {{lang|sv|tio}} || {{lang|is|tíu}}
|-
| -tt- || -tz-, -z- (/t͡s/) || {{lang|nds|sitten}} || {{lang|nl|zitten}} || sit || {{lang|de|sitzen}} || {{lang|sv|sitta}} || {{lang|is|sitja}}
|-
| -p || -f, -ff || Schipp, Schepp, Schüpp and Skipp || {{lang|nl|schip}} || ship || {{lang|de|Schiff}} || {{lang|sv|skepp}}{{efn |Pronounced ''shepp'' since the 17th century. }} || {{lang|is|skip}}
|-
| p- || pf- || {{lang|nds|Peper}} || {{lang|nl|peper}} || pepper || {{lang|de|Pfeffer}} || {{lang|sv|peppar}} || {{lang|is|pipar}}
|-
| -β- || -b- || {{lang|nds|Wiew, Wiewer; Wief, Wiewer; Wief, Wiever; Wief, Wieber}} || {{lang|nl|wijf, wijven}}{{efn |name="wief" |The series {{lang|de|Wief}}–{{lang|nl|wijf}}, etc. are [[cognates]], not semantic equivalents. The meanings of some of these words have shifted over time. For example, the correct equivalent term for "wife" in modern Dutch, German and Swedish is {{lang|nl|vrouw}}, {{lang|de|Frau}} and {{lang|sv|fru}} respectively; using {{lang|nl|wijf}}, {{lang|de|Weib}} or {{lang|sv|viv}} for a human is considered archaic in Swedish and nowadays derogatory in Dutch and German, comparable to "[[wicked girl]]". No cognate to {{lang|de|Frau}} / {{lang|nl|vrouw}} / {{lang|sv|fru}} has survived in English (compare Old English {{lang|ang|[[Wikt:frowe#Old English|frōwe]]}} "lady"; the English word ''[[wikt:frow|frow]]'' "woman, lady" rather being a borrowing of the Middle Dutch word). }} || wife, wives || {{lang|de|Weib, Weiber}}{{efn |name="wief" }} || {{lang|sv|viv}}{{efn |name="wief" }} || {{lang|is|víf}}
|}

===Ingvaeonisms===

Like English and Frisian, Low German is often recognized as a North Sea Germanic language and therefore has so-called Ingvaonisms. However, these are not distributed equally regionally everywhere. Some dialects have more and others fewer of these features, while some only occur in older forms of language and only leave relics in modern Low German.
{| class="wikitable"
|+<ref>{{Cite web |title=Westmünsterländische Dialekte :: Niederländische Philologie FU Berlin |url=https://neon.niederlandistik.fu-berlin.de/de/plattdeutsch/wb?such=Frosch |access-date=2023-09-28 |website=neon.niederlandistik.fu-berlin.de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Goltz |first=Reinhard |title=Plattdeutsch -Vom Klönen und Schnacken |publisher=GoltzReinhard |year=2022 |location=Berlin |pages=74–75 |language=de}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |Ingvaonic development
!Low German (different dialects)
!English
!Westfrisian
!Dutch
! colspan="2" |German
|-
! colspan="8" |
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="9" |Nasal-Spirant-Law
|{{lang|nds|küüt}}<ref name="auto2">{{Cite book |last=Postma |first=Gertjan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r6GNDwAAQBAJ |title=A Contrastive Grammar of Brazilian Pomeranian |date=2019-03-15 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |isbn=978-90-272-6353-7 |language=en}}</ref>
|could
|koed
|geku'''n'''d
| colspan="2" |geko'''nn'''t
|-
|{{lang|nds|us}}
|us
|ús
|o'''n'''s
| colspan="2" |u'''n'''s
|-
|{{lang|nds|wöösken}}
|to wish
|wi'''n'''skje
|we'''n'''sen
| colspan="2" |wü'''n'''schen
|-
|{{lang|nds|gaus}}
|goose
|goes
|ga'''n'''s
| colspan="2" |Ga'''n'''s
|-
|{{lang|nds|niegede}}<ref name="plattdeutsch-niederdeutsch.net">{{Cite web |title=Ravensberger Platt - Wörterverzeichnis Hochdeutsch-Plattdeutsch |url=https://www.plattdeutsch-niederdeutsch.net/woerterbuch/brockhagen1.htm |access-date=2023-09-28 |website=www.plattdeutsch-niederdeutsch.net}}</ref>
|ni'''n'''th
|njogge'''n'''de
|nege'''n'''de
| colspan="2" |neu'''n'''te
|-
|{{lang|nds|toeggede}}<ref name="plattdeutsch-niederdeutsch.net"/>
|te'''n'''th
|tsie'''n'''de
|tie'''n'''de
| colspan="2" |zeh'''n'''te
|-
|{{lang|nds|fiewe}}
|five
|fif
|vijf
| colspan="2" |fü'''n'''f
|-
|{{lang|nds|määske}}
| -
|mi'''n'''ske
|me'''n'''s
| colspan="2" |Me'''n'''sch
|-
|{{lang|nds|süss}}
| -
| -
|zus (obj.)
| colspan="2" |so'''n'''st
|-
! colspan="8" |
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="8" |R-Metathesis
|{{lang|nds|däärde}}
|third
|t'''re'''dde
|derde
| colspan="2" |d'''ri'''tter
|-
|{{lang|nds|dartehn}}
|thirteen
|t'''re'''ttjin
|dertien
| colspan="2" |d'''rei'''zehn
|-
|{{lang|nds|dartig}}
|thirty
|t'''ri'''tich
|dertig
| colspan="2" |d'''rei'''ßig
|-
|{{lang|nds|borste}}
|b'''rea'''st
|boarst
|borst
| colspan="2" |B'''ru'''st
|-
|{{lang|nds|forsk}}
|f'''ro'''sk
|f'''ro'''ask
|kikvors
| colspan="2" |F'''ro'''sch
|-
|{{lang|nds|hors}}<ref name="men29">{{cite Q |Q131604049 |editor-first=Otto |editor-last=Mensing |editor-link=Otto Mensing |mode=cs1}}</ref>
|horse
|hoars
| '''ros'''
| colspan="2" |'''Ro'''ss
|-
|{{lang|nds|born}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Netzwörterbuch (SASS Plattdeutsch) |url=https://netz.sass-platt.de/hoch-platt/?term=Brunnen |access-date=2023-09-28 |website=netz.sass-platt.de}}</ref>
|bourn
|boarne
|b'''ro'''n
| colspan="2" |B'''ru'''nnen
|-
|{{lang|nds|dröwwen}}
| th'''air''' <small>(dialectal)</small>
| -
| d'''ur'''ven
| colspan="2" |d'''ür'''fen
|-
! colspan="8" |
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="4" |Loss of persons distincions
in plural forms of verbs
|{{lang|nds|wi doot}}
|OE:  wē dōþ
|wy dogge
|wij doen
| colspan="2" |wir tun
|-
| rowspan="2" |{{lang|nds|ji doot}}
| rowspan="2" |OE:  ġē  dōþ
| rowspan="2" |jim dogge
|julie doen
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" |'''ihr tut'''
|-
|'''jij doet'''
|-
|{{lang|nds|se doot}}
|OE:  hīe dōþ
|sy dogge
|zij doen
| colspan="2" |sie tun
|-
! colspan="8" |
|-
! colspan="2" |No "t" in 3rd person singular of "to be"
|{{lang|nds|is}} ~ {{lang|nds|es}}
|is
|is
|is
| colspan="2" |is'''t'''
|-
! colspan="8" |
|-
! colspan="2" |No "r" in 1st person plural pronoun
|{{lang|nds|wi}}
|we
|wy
|wij
| colspan="2" |wi'''r'''
|-
! colspan="8" |
|-
! colspan="2" |Future tense formation
with the auxiliary verb "shall"
|{{lang|nds|schallen}}/{{lang|nds|sallen}}
|shall
|sille
|zullen
| colspan="2" |'''werden'''
|-
! colspan="8" |
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="11" |No distinction between
dative and accusative
|objective
<small>(East Frisian dialect)</small>
|objective
|objective
|objective
|accusative
|'''dative'''
|-
|den<ref>{{Cite web |title=2.2.2.1.2 Zwei Fälle - SASS Plattdeutsche Grammatik |url=https://sass-platt.de/plattdeutsche-grammatik/2-2-2-1-2-Zwei-Faelle.html |access-date=2023-09-30 |website=sass-platt.de}}</ref> 
| -
| -
| -
|den
|'''dem'''
|-
|dessen<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sassen {{!}} Sassisk voot vôer voot |url=https://www.sassen.land/grammatik/pronomens.php?lang=nds&dialect=sassisk |access-date=2023-11-06 |website=www.sassen.land}}</ref>
|this
|dizze
|deze
|diesen
|'''diesem'''
|-
|mi<ref>{{Cite web |title=Plattdeutsch-Hochdeutsches Wörterbuch für Ostfriesland |url=https://www.platt-wb.de/platt-hoch/?term=mi |access-date=2023-09-29 |website=www.platt-wb.de}}</ref>
|me
|my
|mij
|mich
|'''mir'''
|-
|di<ref>{{Cite web |title=Plattdeutsch-Hochdeutsches Wörterbuch für Ostfriesland |url=https://www.platt-wb.de/platt-hoch/?term=di |access-date=2023-09-30 |website=www.platt-wb.de}}</ref>
|you (thee)
|dy
|jou
|dich
|'''dir'''
|-
|hüm<ref>{{Cite web |title=Plattdeutsch-Hochdeutsches Wörterbuch für Ostfriesland |url=https://www.platt-wb.de/platt-hoch/?term=h%C3%BCm |access-date=2023-09-29 |website=www.platt-wb.de}}</ref>
|him
|him
|hem
|ihn
|'''ihm'''
|-
|hör<ref name="platt-wb.de">{{Cite web |title=Plattdeutsch-Hochdeutsches Wörterbuch für Ostfriesland |url=https://www.platt-wb.de/platt-hoch/?term=h%C3%B6r |access-date=2023-09-29 |website=www.platt-wb.de}}</ref>
|her
|har
|haar
|sie
|'''ihr'''
|-
|dat<ref>{{Cite web |title=Plattdeutsch-Hochdeutsches Wörterbuch für Ostfriesland |url=https://www.platt-wb.de/platt-hoch/?term=dat |access-date=2023-09-29 |website=www.platt-wb.de}}</ref>
|it
|it
|het
|es
|'''ihm'''
|-
|u(n)s<ref>{{Cite web |title=Suche nach uns(de>frs) - Oostfräisk woordenbauk - Ostfriesisches Wörterbuch |url=https://oostfraeisk.org/main?W=uns&df=de%3Efrs&fts=J |access-date=2023-09-29 |website=oostfraeisk.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Plattdeutsch-Hochdeutsches Wörterbuch für Ostfriesland |url=https://www.platt-wb.de/platt-hoch/?term=uns |access-date=2023-09-29 |website=www.platt-wb.de}}</ref>
|us
|ús
|ons
|uns
|'''uns'''
|-
|jo<ref>{{Cite web |title=Plattdeutsch-Hochdeutsches Wörterbuch für Ostfriesland |url=https://www.platt-wb.de/hoch-platt/?term=euch |access-date=2023-09-29 |website=www.platt-wb.de}}</ref>
|you
|jo
|jullie
|euch
|'''euch'''
|-
|hör<ref name="platt-wb.de"/>
|them
|harren
|hen ~ hun
|sie
|'''ihnen'''
|-
! colspan="8" |
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="4" |Using other personal pronouns
|he
|he
|hy
|hij
| colspan="2" |'''er'''
|-
|'''se''', <small>he (In Twente,<ref>{{Citation |title=Tweants Learn 5 - Verbs | date=18 September 2011 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rm3T4vpzs94 |access-date=2023-09-29 |language=en}}</ref> Western Overijssel and North Gelderland)</small>
|OE:  hēo
|'''sy''', hja
|'''zij'''
| colspan="2" |'''sie'''
|-
|ji
|you
|jim
|jullie
| colspan="2" |'''ihr'''
|-
|'''se'''
|OE: hīe
|'''sy''', hja
|'''zij'''
| colspan="2" |'''sie'''
|-
! colspan="8" |
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="5" |No ge-prefix
|maakt
|made
|makke
|'''ge'''maakt
| colspan="2" |'''ge'''macht
|-
|daon
|done
|dien
|'''ge'''daan
| colspan="2" |'''ge'''tan
|-
|sehn
|seen
|sjoen
|'''ge'''zien
| colspan="2" |'''ge'''sehen
|-
|gaone
|gone
|gien
|'''ge'''gaan
| colspan="2" |'''ge'''gangen
|-
|lääsen, leest<ref>{{Cite web |title=lesen auf Plattdeutsch |url=https://plattmakers.de/de/5495/lesen |access-date=2023-09-29 |website=Plattmakers |language=de}}</ref>
|read
|lêzen
|'''ge'''lezen
| colspan="2" |'''ge'''lesen
|-
! colspan="8" |
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="5" |Assibilization or palatalization of velar consonants
|<small>OS:</small> kiennan<ref name="Fulk">{{Cite book |last=Fulk |first=R. D. |url=https://www.jbe-platform.com/content/books/9789027263131 |title=A Comparative Grammar of the Early Germanic Languages |date=2018-09-15 |publisher=John Benjamins |isbn=978-90-272-6313-1 |language=en}}</ref>
|<small>OE:</small> '''c'''unnan
|'''k'''enne
|'''k'''ennen
| colspan="2" |'''k'''ennen
|-
|<small>OS</small>: kiesur<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ostfalenpost - Archiv |url=https://www.ostfalenpost.de/archiv/archiv.php |access-date=2023-09-29 |website=www.ostfalenpost.de}}</ref>
|<small>OE:</small> '''c'''aser
|'''k'''eizer
|'''k'''eizer
| colspan="2" |'''K'''aiser
|-
|<small>MLG</small>: zint{{sfn |Lasch |1914 |p= }}{{page needed |date=May 2025}}
|child
| -
|'''K'''ind
| colspan="2" |'''K'''ind
|-
|<small>Northern Low German:</small> Sebber/Sever<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sebber auf Plattdeutsch |url=https://plattmakers.de/de/5782/Sebber |access-date=2023-09-29 |website=Plattmakers |language=de}}</ref>
|<small>OE:</small>  ċeafor
| -
|'''k'''ever
| colspan="2" |'''K'''äfer
|-
|<small>OS:</small> ieldan<ref name="Fulk"/>

|yield
|jild
|'''g'''eld
| colspan="2" |'''G'''eld
|-
! colspan="8" |
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="3" |Palatalization of Germanic "a" 
|<small>OS</small>: therf<ref name="auto">{{Cite journal |last1=John |first1=Hines |last2=Ijssenagger |first2=Nelleke |title=Frisians and their North Sea Germanic Neighbours |url=https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/44642446/Versloot_Adamczyk_2017_Old_Saxon_dialects.pdf |journal=The Boydell Press}}</ref>
|<small>OE</small>: thearf
|?
|?
| colspan="2" |d'''a'''rf
|-
|<small>OS:</small> deg<ref name="auto"/>
|day
<small>OE:</small> dæg 
|dei
|d'''a'''g
| colspan="2" |T'''a'''g
|-
|<small>OS</small>: gles<ref name="auto"/>
|glas
<small>OE</small>: glæs
|glês
|gl'''a'''s
| colspan="2" |Gl'''a'''s
|-
! colspan="8" |
|-
! rowspan="3" |Loss reflexive pronoun in 3rd person singular plural
|3rd p. s. m.
|'''sik/sey''',<ref name=":6">{{cite book |last=Grimme |first=Hubert |url=http://archive.org/details/plattdeutschemun00grim |title=Plattdeutsche Mundarten |date=1922 |location=Berlin |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |others=PIMS - University of Toronto}}</ref> um <small>(for example in Vriezenveen)</small><ref name="Entjes 1970">{{Cite book |last=Entjes |first=H. |title=Die Mundart des Dorfes Vriezenveen - in der niederländischen Provinz Overijssel |publisher=Sasland Groningen |year=1970 |language=de}}</ref>
|himself
|him
|'''zich'''
| colspan="2" |'''sich'''
|-
|3rd p. s. f.
|'''sik/ierk''',<ref name=":6"/> eer <small>(for example in Vriezenveen)</small><ref name="Entjes 1970"/> 
|herself
|har
|'''zich'''
| colspan="2" |'''sich'''
|-
|3rd p. p.
|'''sik/ierk''',<ref name=":6" /> eer <small>( for example in Vriezenveen)</small><ref name="Entjes 1970"/> 
|themself
|harren
|'''zich'''
| colspan="2" |'''sich'''
|-
! colspan="8" |
|}

===Other changes===

In addition, there are of course numerous other changes that are not related to Ingwaonic phenomena, but that arose in exchange with other languages or something else. The table below reflects some of these developments insofar as they affect several dialects and are therefore not exceptional phenomena.

{| class="wikitable"
|+<ref>{{Cite web |title=Plattdeutsch-Hochdeutsches Wörterbuch für Ostfriesland |url=https://www.platt-wb.de/hoch-platt/?term=kalt |access-date=2023-11-07 |website=www.platt-wb.de}}</ref><ref name="auto2"/>
!Sound change
!German
!Frisian
!Dutch
!Low German
!Swedish
!English
|-
| rowspan="5" |ks → ss
|wachsen
|waa'''ks'''e
|wassen
|wassen
|vä'''x'''a
|wa'''x''' <small>(to grow)</small>
|-
|Fu'''chs'''
|vo'''ks'''
|vos
|foss
|fu'''x'''
|fo'''x'''
|-
|O'''chs'''e
|o'''ks'''e
|ose
|osse
|o'''x'''e
|o'''x'''
|-
|se'''chs'''
|seis
|zes
|sess
|se'''x'''
|si'''x'''
|-
|Wa'''chs'''
|waa'''ks'''
|was
|was
|va'''x'''
|wa'''x'''
|-
| colspan="7" |
|-
| rowspan="5" |intervocalic /d/ cluster
|alt - äl'''t'''er 
|âld- âl'''d'''er
|oud - ou'''d'''er
|old - oller
|gammal - äl'''d'''re
|old - ol'''d'''er 
|-
|kalt - käl'''t'''er 
|kâld - kâl'''d'''er
|koud - kou'''d'''er
|kold - koller
|kallt - kallare
|cold - col'''d'''er 
|-
|wild - wil'''d'''er
|wyld - wyl'''d'''er
|wild - wil'''d'''er
|wild - willer
|vild - vil'''d'''are
|wild- wil'''d'''er
|-
|un'''t'''er
|ûn'''d'''er
|on'''d'''er 
|unner
|un'''d'''er
|un'''d'''er
|-
|Schul'''t'''er
|skou'''d'''er
|schou'''d'''er 
|schuller
|skul'''d'''ra
|shoul'''d'''er
|}

==Grammar==
{{More citations needed|date=May 2016}}
{{cleanup|reason=Besides being unsourced, the article is wrong (or at best incomplete and misleading). Also, as there are different Low German dialects with different grammar, it probably makes more sense to give the dialectal grammar in articles like [[Northern Low Saxon]], [[Low Prussian dialect]], [[Westphalian language]] etc.|date=October 2017}}
Generally speaking, Low German [[grammar]] shows similarities with the [[grammar]]s of [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[Frisian languages|Frisian]], [[English language|English]], and [[Scots language|Scots]], but the [[dialect]]s of Northern [[Germany]] share some features (especially [[lexicon|lexical]] and [[syntax|syntactic]] features) with [[German language|German]] dialects.

===Personal pronouns===
The following table tries to reflect the linguistic situation of the individual dialects as diverse as possible and to name as many case forms of the respective pronouns, but it is not able to do justice to every dialect. So the pronoun of the third person singular feminine can be pronounced as follows: se(e), sey, soi, etc. Only one of these variants can be found in the table. This also applies to all other pronouns.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+Personal pronouns<ref>{{Cite web |title=2.4.1 Personale Pronomen (persönliche Fürwörter) - SASS Plattdeutsche Grammatik |url=https://sass-platt.de/plattdeutsche-grammatik/2-4-1-Personale-Pronomen-persoenliche-Fuerwoerter.html |access-date=2023-09-05 |website=sass-platt.de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sassen {{!}} Sassisk voot voer voot |url=https://www.sassen.land/grammatik/pronomens.php?lang=nds&dialect=sassisk |access-date=2023-09-05 |website=www.sassen.land}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Atlaskarten – DMW |url=https://www.dmw-projekt.de/?page_id=748 |access-date=2023-09-05 |website=www.dmw-projekt.de}}</ref><ref name=":6"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Suche nach "Euch" |url=https://plattmakers.de/de/find=Euch?q-submit=1 |access-date=2023-09-05 |website=plattmakers.de}}</ref>
! rowspan="3" | Case
! colspan="2" | 1st person
! colspan="2" | 2nd person
! colspan="4" | 3rd person
|-
! rowspan="2" | Singular
! rowspan="2" | Plural
! rowspan="2" | Singular
! rowspan="2" | Plural
! colspan="3" | Singular
! rowspan="2" | Plural
|-
! Masculine
! Neuter
! Feminine
|-
! Nominative
| ik(ke)
ek(ke)
| wy
|du
(j)y
|(j)y/
(j)it
|he
|it/(h)et/öt
dat/det
|se/
he (just in Twente used)
| se/
süm
|-
! Accusative/Objective
| my/
mik/mek
| u(n)s/üsk
| dy/
dik/dek/
ju
| (j)u(ch)/jük/
ink/
jem/jüm
|iänne/öne/
(h)em/hüm/him
|it/(h)et/öt
dat/det
|(h)er/(h)ör/
se
|jem/jüm/
(h)er/(h)ör/ se/

süm
|-
! Dative (Assinghausen)
|mey
|us
|dey
|uch
| iämme
|iämme
| iär
|iänne
|}

====Reflexive pronouns====
While Old Saxon has lost the Germanic reflexive pronouns such as Old English and Old Frisian and instead resorts to the relevant third-person personal pronoun, modern Low German borrows reflexive pronouns from German. In Sauerland, it is conjugated as in Proto-Germanic and Icelandic. In addition, a distinction is made between the individual genders as well as individual and multiple people.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-10-01 |title=Die 5 wichtigsten sauerländischen grammatikalischen Erscheinungen |url=https://woll-magazin.de/die-5-wichtigsten-sauerlaendischen-grammatikalischen-erscheinungen/ |access-date=2023-11-02 |website=WOLL-Magazin Sauerland |language=de-DE}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Entjes. |first=H. |title=Die Mundart des Dorfes Vriezenveen - in der niederländischen Provinz Overijssel |publisher=Sasland Groningen |year=1970 |isbn= |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Plattdeutsch-Hochdeutsches Wörterbuch für Ostfriesland |url=https://www.platt-wb.de/hoch-platt/?term=sich |access-date=2023-11-02 |website=www.platt-wb.de}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |Person
| rowspan="7" |
!East Frisian LG
| rowspan="7" |
! colspan="2" |Southern Westphalian
| rowspan="7" |
!Vriezenveen
| rowspan="7" |
! colspan="3" |Icelandic
|-
!Objective

!Accusative

!Dative
!Objektive
!Accusative
!Dative
!Genetive
|-
|1. Singular
|mi
|miëck 
|mey
|mii
|meg
|mér
|mín
|-
|2. Singular
|di
|diëck 
|dey
|dii
|þig
|þér
|þín
|-
|'''3. Singular, Masculin'''
|'''sük'''
|'''siëck'''
|'''sey'''
|'''um'''
|'''sig'''
|'''sér'''
|'''sín'''
|-
|'''3. Singular, Feminin'''
|'''sük'''
|'''siëck'''
|'''sey/iärk'''
|'''eer'''
|'''sig'''
|'''sér'''
|'''sín'''
|-
|'''3. Singular, Neutral'''
|'''sük'''
|'''siëck'''
|'''sey'''
|'''um'''
|'''sig'''
|'''sér'''
|'''sín'''
|-
| colspan="8" |
| colspan="4" |
|-
|1. Plural
| rowspan="3" |
|us
| rowspan="2" |
|us
|us
|
|oons
| rowspan="3" |
|okkur
|okkur
|okkar
|-
|2. Plural
|ju
|ugg
|ugg
|
|ůů
|ykkur
|ykkur
|ykkar
|-
|'''3. Plural'''
|'''sük'''
|
|'''iärk'''
|'''iärk'''
|
|'''eer'''
|'''sig'''
|'''sér'''
|'''sín'''
|}

====Examples====
The respective translations consist only of cognates of the same origins. The sentences do not necessarily have to correspond semantically.
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!English
| rowspan="5" |
!East Frisian LG
| rowspan="5" |
!Southern Westphalian
| rowspan="5" |
!Vjens
|-
|He washes himself the hands.
|He wasket sük de hannen.
|Hai wäsket sey dei hänne.
|Hei wasket um de handen.
|-
|She washes herself.
|Se wasket sük.
|Sei wäsket iärk.
|Zei wasket eer.
|-
|He washes himself.
|He wasket sük.
|Hai wasket siëck.
|Hei wasket um.
|-
|They wash themselves.
|Se wasken sük.
|Sei wasket iärk.
|Zei wasket eer.
|}

===Verbs===
In Low German verbs are conjugated for person, number, and tense. There are five tenses in Low German:{{citation needed|date=May 2021}} [[present tense]], [[preterite]], [[perfect (grammar)|perfect]], and [[pluperfect]], and in Mennonite Low German the [[present perfect]] which signifies a remaining effect from a past finished action. For example, "{{lang|pdt|Ekj sie jekomen}}", "I am come", means that the speaker came and he is still at the place to which he came as a result of his completed action.

Unlike [[Dutch language|Dutch]], High German, and [[southern Low German]], the northern dialects form the past participle without the prefix ''ge-'', like the [[Scandinavian languages]], [[Frisian languages|Frisian]] and [[English language|English]]. Compare northern Low German {{lang|nds|slapen}} to the German past [[participle]] {{lang|de|'''ge'''schlafen}}. This past [[participle]] is used with the [[auxiliary verb]]s ''hewwen/hebben'' "to have" and ''wesen/sin/sien'' "to be". When the past [[participle]] ends with ''-en'' or in a few oft-used words like ''west'' (been).

The conjugation patterns can vary greatly depending on the dialect. The more northern dialects are strongly influenced by German, while East Westphalian and especially Vjens have retained many ancient features.

{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible"
|+East-Westphalian conjugation examples<ref name="Ahlert 2021 125–183">{{Cite book |last=Ahlert |first=Lucildo |title=Gramática da língua Westfaliana Brasiliera: expressões do cotidiano das westfalianos |publisher=Ahlert, Lucildo |year=2021 |location=Brazil |pages=125–183 |language=pt}}</ref>
! colspan="4" |verbs
!briäken, "to break"
!täin "to pull"
! doun, "to do"
! gaun, "to go"
!helpen, "to help"
!küren, "to speak"
!willen, "to want/ to become"
!kwuomen, "to come"
!haulen, "to hold"
!skräggen, "to shout"
!skäilen, "to scold"
!beskriieben, "to describe"
! wasken, "to wash"
|-
! colspan="4" |Infinitive
|briäken
|täin
| doun || gaun
|helpen
|küren
|willen
|kwuomen
|haulen
|skräggen
|skäilen
|beskriieben|| wasken
|-
! rowspan="2" |Participle
! colspan="3" |Present
|briäken
|täin
|doun
|gaun
|helpen
|küren
|willen
|kwuomen
|haulen
|skräggen
|skäilen
|beskriieben
|wasken
|-
! colspan="3" |Past
|bruoken
|tuogen
|daun
|gaun
|holpen
|kürt
|wolt
|kwuom
|haulen
|skrägget
|skuolen
|beskriben
|wasken
|-
! rowspan="8" |Indicative
! rowspan="4" | Present
! rowspan="3" |Singular
! 1st person
|briäke
|tee|| doo || goo
|helpe
|küre
|will
|kwuome
|haule
|skrägge
|skäile
|beskriiewe|| waske
|-
! 2nd person
|bräks
|tüss|| döss || gäis
|helps
|kürs
|wüss
|kümms
|hölts
|skrägges
|skäils
|beskrifs|| waskes
|-
! 3rd person
|briäk
|tüt|| dött || gäit
|helpet
|kürt
|will
|kümmp
|hölt
|skrägget
|skäilt
|beskrif|| wasket
|-
! colspan="2" |Plural
|briäket
|teet|| doot || goot
|helpet
|kürt
|willt
|kwuomet
|hault
|skrägget
|skäilt
|beskriiewet|| wasket
|-
! rowspan="4" | Past
! rowspan="3" |Singular
! 1st person
|broik
|toig|| dää || göng
|hölp
|kürede
|woll
|kweimp
|hoilt
|skräggede
|skoilt
|beskreif|| waskede
|-
! 2nd person
|broiks
|toigs|| dääs || göngs
|hölpes
|küredes
|woss
|kweimps
|hoilts
|skräggedes
|skoils
|beskreifs|| waskedes
|-
!3rd person
|broik
|toig
|dää
|göng
|hölp
|kürede
|woll
|kweimp
|hoilt
|skräggede
|skoilt
|beskreif
|waskede
|-
! colspan="2" |Plural
|broiken
|toigen|| dään || göngen
|hölpen
|küreden
|wollen
|kweimen
|hoilen
|skräggeden
|skoilen
|beskreiwen|| waskeden
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Imperative
! colspan="2" |Singular
|briäk
|tee
|dot
|gong
|help
|kür
|wuss
|kwumm
|haul
|skrägge
|skäil
|beskriiew
|waske
|-
! colspan="2" |Plural
|briäket
|teet
|doot
|goot
|helpet
|kürt
|willt
|kwuomet
|hault
|skrägget
|skäilt
|beskriiewet
|wasket
|}

{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible"
|+Northern Low German conjugation examples<ref>{{Cite web |title=Plattmakers – Das Plattdeutsche Wörterbuch |url=https://plattmakers.de/de |access-date=2023-11-03 |website=Plattmakers |language=de}}</ref>
! colspan="4" |verbs
!breken, "to break"
!tehn"to pull"
!doon, "to do"
!gahn, "to go"
!helpen, "to help"
!snacken, "to speak"
!willen, "to want/ to become"
!kamen, "to come"
!holen, "to carry"
!schre'en, "to shout"
!schellen, "to scold"
!beschrieven, "to describe"
! waschen, "to wash"
|-
! colspan="4" |Infinitive
|breken
|tehn
| doon || gahn
|helpen
|snacken
|willen
|kamen
|holen
|schre'en
|schellen
|beschrieven|| waschen
|-
! rowspan="2" |Participle
! colspan="3" |Present
|breken
|tehn
|doon
|gahn
|helpen
|snacken
|willen
|kamen
|holen
|schre'en
|schellen
|beschrieven
|waschen
|-
! colspan="3" |Past
|braken
|tagen
|dahn
|gahn
|hulpen
|snackt
|wullt
|kamen
|holen
|schreet
|schlellt
|beschreven
|wuschen
|-
! rowspan="8" |Indicative
! rowspan="4" | Present
! rowspan="3" |Singular
! 1st person
|breek
|teh|| do || gah
|help
|snack
|will
|kaam
|hool
|schree
|schell
|beschriev|| wasch
|-
! 2nd person
|brickst
|tühst|| deist || geihst
|helpst
|snackst
|willst
|kummst
|höllst
|schreest
|schellst
|beschriffst|| waschst
|-
! 3rd person
|brickt
|tüht|| deit || geiht
|helpt
|snackt
|will
|kummt
|höllt
|schreet
|schellt
|beschrifft|| wascht
|-
! colspan="2" |Plural
|breekt
|teht|| doon || gaht
|helpt
|snackt
|wölt 
|kaamt
|hoolt
|schreet
|schellt
|beschrievt|| wascht
|-
! rowspan="4" | Past
! rowspan="3" |Singular
! 1st person
|bröök
|töög|| deed || güng
|hölp
|snack
|wull
|keem
|höölen
|schree
|schell
|beschreev|| wüsch
|-
! 2nd person
|bröökst
|töögst|| deedst || güngst
|hölpst
|snackst
|wullst
|keemst
|höölst
|schreest
|schellst
|beschreevst|| wüschst
|-
!3rd person
|bröök
|töög
|deed
|güng
|hölp
|snack
|wull
|keem
|hööl
|schree
|schell
|beschreev
|wüsch
|-
! colspan="2" |Plural
|bröken
|tögen|| deden || güngen
|hölpen
|snacken
|wullen
|kemen
|hölen
|schreen
|schellen
|beschreven|| wüschen
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Imperative
! colspan="2" |Singular
|breek
|teh
|do
|gah
|help
|snack
|will
|kaam
|hool
|schree
|schell
|beschriev
|wasch
|-
! colspan="2" |Plural
|breekt
|teht
|doot 
|gaht 
|helpt
|snackt
|wöölt
|kamt 
|hoolt
|schreet
|schellt
|beschrievt
|wascht
|}

{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible"
|+Vjens conjugation examples<ref name="Ahlert 2021 125–183"/>
! colspan="4" |verbs
!bräken, "to break"
!dòůn, "to do"
!góón, "to go"
!helpen, "to help"
!wilen, "to want; to become"
!hoolen, "to carry"
! wasken, "to wash"
!biiten, " to bite"
!baigen, "to salvage"
!waiken, "to work"
!biieven, "to quake"
!visken, "to fish"
|-
! colspan="4" |Infinitive
|bräken
|dòůn
|góón
|helpen
|wilen
|hoolen|| wasken
|biiten
|baigen
|waiken
|biieven
|visken
|-
! rowspan="2" |Participle
! colspan="3" |Present
|bräkend
|dòůnd
|góónd
|helpend
|wilend
|hoolend
|waskend 
|biitend
|baigend
|waikend
|biievend
|viskend
|-
! colspan="3" |Past
|ebräken
|edòòn
|egóón
|ehölpen
|ewilt
|ehoolen
|ewösken
|ebjiten
|ebjörgen
|ewaiket
|ebiievet
|evisket
|-
! rowspan="8" |Indicative
! rowspan="4" | Present
! rowspan="3" |Singular
! 1st person
|bräke
|dòůe
|góó
|helpe
|wil
|hoole|| waske
|biite
|baige
|waike
|biieve
|viske
|-
! 2nd person
|brekst
|dòůst
|geist
|helpst
|wist
|hóólst|| waskest
|bitst
|baigst
|waikst
|biievst
|viskest
|-
! 3rd person
|brekt
|dòůn
|geiht
|helpt
|wil
|hóólt|| wasket
|bit
|baigt
|waikt
|biievt
|visket
|-
! colspan="2" |Plural
|bräkt
|dòůt
|góót
|helpt
|wilt
|hoolt|| wasket
|biitt
|baigt
|waikt
|biievt
|visket
|-
! rowspan="4" | Past
! rowspan="3" |Singular
! 1st person
|brak
|dee
|göng
|hölp
|wól
|höül|| wöske
|bjet
|björg
|waiken
|biievde
|viskede
|-
! 2nd person
|brakst
|deest
|göngst
|hölpst
|wóst
|höülst|| wöskest
|bjetst
|björgst
|waikenst
|biievdest
|viskedest
|-
!3rd person
|brak
|dee
|göng
|hölp
|wól
|höül
|wöske
|bjet
|bjrörg
|waiken
|biievde
|viskede
|-
! colspan="2" |Plural
|brakken
|deen
|göngen
|hölpen
|wólen
|höülen|| wösken
|bjeten
|björgen
|waiken
|biievden
|viskeden
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Imperative
! colspan="2" |Singular
|bräk
|dòůe
|góó
|help
|?
|hoole
|waske
|biite
|baige
|waike
|biieve
|viske
|-
! colspan="2" |Plural
|bräkt
|dòůt
|góót
|helpt
|wilt
|hoolt
|wasket
|biitet
|baigt
|waikt
|biievt
|visket
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+East Pomeranian conjugation examples<ref name="auto2"/>
! colspan="4" |verbs
!breeka, to break"
!häwa, "to have"
!wila, "to want/ to become"
!måka, "to male"
!bruuka, "to need"
!raupa, "to call/ to shout"
!srijga "to scream"
|-
! colspan="4" |Infinitive
|breeka
|häwa
|wila
|måka
|bruuka
|raupa
|srijga
|-
!Participle
! colspan="3" |Past
|brooka
|hat
|wud
|måkt
|bruukt
|roopa
|sreega
|-
! rowspan="8" |Indicative
! rowspan="4" |Present
! rowspan="3" |Singular
!1st person
|breek
|häw
|wil
|måk
|bruuk
|raup
|srijg
|-
!2nd person
|breekst
|häst
|wist
|mökst
|bruukst
|raupst
|srigst
|-
!3rd person
|breekt
|hät
|wil
|mök
|bruukt
|raupt
|srijgt
|-
! colspan="2" |Plural
|breeka
|häwa
|wila
|måka
|bruuka
|raupa
|srijga
|-
! rowspan="4" |Past
! rowspan="3" |Singular
!1st person
|braik
|haar
|wu
|maik
|brüükt
|raip
|sreig
|-
!2nd person
|braikst
|haast
|wust
|maikst
|brüükst
|raipst
|sreigst
|-
!3rd Person 
|braik
|haar
|wu
|maik
|brüükt
|raip
|sreigt
|-
! colspan="2" |Plural
|braika
|haara
|wula
|maika
|brüüka
|raipa
|sreiga
|}

Synthetic subjunctive verb forms are mostly identical to the indicative forms of the past tense and the pluperfect tense - much like Dutch and English. It is thus only recognizable from the context of a sentence.<ref>{{Cite web |title=2.1.7.1.3 Konjunktiv mit Indikativformen - SASS Plattdeutsche Grammatik |url=https://sass-platt.de/plattdeutsche-grammatik/2-1-7-1-3-Konjunktiv-mit-Indikativformen.html |access-date=2023-09-28 |website=sass-platt.de}}</ref>  It is often formed periphrastically by using the helping verbs ''woor'', ''schull'', ''wull'', and ''dee'': "Ik woor/wöör/worr/wurr mi freuen, wenn Vader noch lang leev" (I would be glad if father still lived for a long time).<ref>{{Cite web |title=2.1.7.1.4 Umschreibung des Konjunktivs (der Möglichkeitsform) mit woor/schull/wull/dee - SASS Plattdeutsche Grammatik |url=https://sass-platt.de/plattdeutsche-grammatik/2-1-7-1-4-Umschreibung-mit-woor-schull-wull-dee.html |access-date=2024-08-27 |website=sass-platt.de}}</ref> 
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Low German subjunctive 1/
English reported speech
! colspan="2" |Low German subjunctive 2
|-
!English Conditional 2
!English Conditional 3
|-
!Low German
|He see to mi,
he kaam nu.
|He see to mi,
he harr al eten.
|Weer ik riek,
deed ik ju en Pony köpen,
|Harr ik de tied hat,
harr ik ju hulpen.
|-
!English
|He said to me,
he came now.
|He said to me,
he had already eaten.
|If I were rich,
I would buy you a Pony.
|If I had had the time,
I would have helped you.
|}
However, compared to most other dialects, the Westphalian dialect has preserved an extremely complex conjugation of strong verbs with subjunctive:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ravensberger Platt - Wörterverzeichnis Hochdeutsch-Plattdeutsch |url=https://www.plattdeutsch-niederdeutsch.net/woerterbuch/brockhagen1.htm |access-date=2023-09-27 |website=www.plattdeutsch-niederdeutsch.net}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Merkmale des Westfälischen |url=https://www.plattdeutsch-niederdeutsch.net/westf.htm |access-date=2023-09-27 |website=www.plattdeutsch-niederdeutsch.net}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Infinitive
!Simple Past
!Westphalian
subjunctive 2
|-
|suin (to be)
|Ik was (I was)
|ik wöre (I would be)
|-
|bluiven (to stay)
|he blaiw (he stayed)
|he bliewe (he would stay)
|-
|kriupen (to crawl)
|he kraup (he crawled)
|he krüäpe (he would crawl)
|-
|soöken (to search)
|he sochte (he searched)
|he söchte (he would search)
|-
|wieten (to know)
|he wus (he knew)
|he wüsse (he would know)
|}
There is also a progressive form of verbs in present, corresponding to the same in the Dutch language.
It is formed with ''wesen'' (to be), the preposition ''an'' (at) and ''dat'' (the/it).
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! &nbsp; !! colspan="1" | Low German !! colspan="1" | Dutch !! colspan="1" | English
|-
!Main form
| Ik bün an't Maken. || Ik ben aan het maken. || I am making.
|-
!Main form 2
| Ik ''do'' maken.<sup>1</sup> || – || –
|-
!Alternative form
| Ik bün an'n Maken.<sup>2</sup> || Ik ben aan het maken. || –
|-
!Alternative form 2
| Ik bün maken.<sup>3</sup> || Ik ben makende. || I ''am'' making.
|}

: <sup>1</sup> Instead of ''wesen, sien'' (to be) Saxon uses ''doon'' (to do) to make to present continuous.
: <sup>2</sup> Many see the ''{{'}}n'' as an old dative ending of ''dat'' which only occurs when being shortened after prepositions. This is actually the most frequently-used form in colloquial Low German.
: <sup>3</sup> This form is archaic and mostly unknown to Low German speakers. It is the same pattern as in the English example "I am making." The present participle has the same form as the infinitive: ''maken'' is either "to make" or "making".

In the very south of the East Westphalian language area, the original gerund of the West Germanic languages has been preserved:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Atlaskarten – DMW |url=https://www.dmw-projekt.de/?page_id=748 |access-date=2023-10-05 |website=www.dmw-projekt.de}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Infinitive form
!Gerund form
|-
|maken (to make)
|to makene
|-
|kuoken (to cook)
|to kuokene
|-
|schniggen (to snow)
|to schniggene
|}

===Adjectives===
The forms of Low German's adjectives are distinct from other closely related languages such as German and English. These forms fall somewhere in between these two languages. As in German, the adjectives in Low German may make a distinction between singular and plural to agree with the nouns that they modify,<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Platt and Old Saxon: Plattdeutsch (Low German) in its Modern and Historical Forms|last=Biddulph|first=Joseph|publisher=Cyhoeddwr JOSEPH BIDDULPH Publisher|year=2003|location=Wales}}</ref> as well as between the three genders, between the nominative and oblique cases and between indefinite (weak) and definite (strong) forms.<ref name=SASS>{{Cite web|url=https://sass-platt.de/plattdeutsche-grammatik/2-5-2-Deklination-Beugung.html|title=2.5.2 Deklination (Beugung) - SASS Plattdeutsche Grammatik|website=sass-platt.de}}</ref> However, there is a lot of variation in that respect and some or all of these distinctions may also be absent, so that a single undeclined form of the adjective can occur in all cases, as in English. This is especially common in the neuter.<ref name=SASS/> If the adjective is declined, the pattern tends to be as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Gender !! !! Nominative !! Oblique || Gloss
|-
| Masculine || indefinite singular || en starke(n) Kerl || en(en) starke(n) Kerl || 'a strong man'
|-
|  || indefinite plural || starke Kerls || starke Kerls || 'strong men'
|-
|  || definite singular || de starke Kerl || den starken Kerl || 'the strong man'
|-
|  || definite plural || de starken Kerls || de starken Kerls || 'the strong men'
|-
| Feminine || indefinite singular || en(e) smucke Deern || en(e) smucke Deern || 'a pretty girl'
|-
|  || indefinite plural || smucke Deerns || smucke Deerns || 'pretty girls'
|-
|  || definite singular || de smucke Deern || de smucke Deern || 'the pretty girl'
|-
|  || definite plural || de smucken Deerns || de smucken Deerns || 'the pretty girls'
|-
| Neuter || indefinite singular || en lütt((e)t) Land || en lütt((e)t) Land || 'a little country'
|-
|  || indefinite plural|| lütt Lannen || lütt Lannen || 'little countries'
|-
|  || definite singular|| dat lütte Land || dat lütte Land || 'the little country'
|-
|  || definite plural|| de lütten Lannen || de lütten Lannen || 'the little countries'
|}

As mentioned above, alternative undeclined forms such as ''dat lütt Land'', ''de lütt Lannen'', ''en stark Kerl'', ''de stark Kerl'', ''stark Kerls'', ''de stark Kerls'' etc. can occur.

===Nouns===

The Westphalian and Eastphalian dialects have also preserved the so-called ''dative'' -e, adding a final -e to masculine and neuter nouns in the dative case.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Merkmale des Westfälischen |url=https://www.plattdeutsch-niederdeutsch.net/westf.htm |access-date=2023-10-05 |website=www.plattdeutsch-niederdeutsch.net}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!English
!Proto-West Germanic
!East Westphalian
!Münster
Westphalian
!Westfrisian
!Dutch
!German
|-
!the desk
|disk'''ē'''
|den disk'''e'''
|den disk
| -
| -
|dem Tisch
|-
!the summer
|sumar'''ē'''
|den summer'''e'''
|den summer
|de simer
|de zomer
|dem Sommer
|-
!the day
|dag'''ē'''
|den dag'''e'''
|den dag
|de dei
|de dag
|dem Tag
|-
!the market
|markat'''ē'''
|den marked'''e'''
|den market
|de merk
|de markt
|dem Markt
|-
!the swine
|swīnē
|den swien'''e'''
|dat swien
|it swyn
|het zwijn
|dem Schwein
|-
!the water
|watar'''ē'''
|den water'''e'''
|dat water
|it wetter
|het water
|dem Wasser
|}

==Phonology==

===Consonants===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2" |
![[Labial consonant|Labial]]
![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[Postalveolar consonant|Post-<br>alveolar]]
![[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]/<br>[[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]
![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Stop consonant|Stop]]
!<small>[[Voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
|{{IPA link|p}}
|{{IPA link|t}}
|({{IPA link|tʃ}})
|
|{{IPA link|k}}
|
|-
!<small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
|{{IPA link|b}}
|{{IPA link|d}}
|
|
|{{IPA link|ɡ}}
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
!<small>[[Voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
|{{IPA link|f}}
|{{IPA link|s}}
|{{IPA link|ʃ}}
|({{IPA link|ç}})
|{{IPA link|x}}
|{{IPA link|h}}
|-
!<small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
|{{IPA link|v}}
|{{IPA link|z}}
|({{IPA link|ʒ}})
|
|({{IPA link|ɣ}})
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
|{{IPA link|m}}
|{{IPA link|n}}
|
|
|{{IPA link|ŋ}}
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Trill consonant|Trill]]
|
|{{IPA link|r}}
|
|
|({{IPA link|ʀ}})
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
!<small>[[Lateral consonant|lateral]]</small>
|
|{{IPA link|l}}
|
|
|
|
|-
!<small>plain</small>
|
|
|
|{{IPA link|j}}
|
|
|}

*A common feature of the Low German speaking dialects, is the [[Relative articulation#Advanced and retracted|retraction]] of /{{IPA link|s}} {{IPA link|z}}/ to {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|s̠}} {{IPAplink|z̠}}]}}.<ref>R.E. Keller, ''German Dialects. Phonology and Morphology'', Manchester 1960</ref><ref name="Adams1975">{{Harvcoltxt|Adams|1975|p=289}}</ref>
*The sound [{{IPA link|ɣ}}] can occur as an allophone of /{{IPA link|ɡ}}/ among dialects.
*/{{IPA link|r}}/ and /{{IPA link|x}}/ can have allophones as [{{IPA link|ɾ}}] and [{{IPA link|ç}}].
*/{{IPA link|r}}/ can be articulated as uvular [{{IPA link|ʀ}}] among Northern dialects and younger speakers.
* The sound /{{IPA link|j}}/ can also be realized as fricative or affricate sounds [{{IPA link|ʝ}}~{{IPA link|ʑ}}~{{IPA link|ʒ}}], [{{IPA link|dʒ}}], in word-initial position.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":4" />

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" |[[Front vowel|Front]]
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |[[Central vowel|Central]]
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |[[Back vowel|Back]]
|- class="small"
! colspan="2" |[[Roundedness|<small>unrounded</small>]]
! colspan="2" |[[Roundedness|<small>rounded</small>]]
|-
!<small>short</small>
!<small>long</small>
!<small>short</small>
!<small>long</small>
!<small>short</small>
!<small>long</small>
!<small>short</small>
!<small>long</small>
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
|{{IPA link|ɪ}}
|{{IPA link|iː}}
|{{IPA link|ʏ}}
|{{IPA link|yː}}
| 
|
|{{IPA link|ʊ}}
|{{IPA link|uː}}
|-
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
|
|{{IPA link|eː}}
|
|{{IPA link|øː}}
|{{IPA link|ə}}
|
|
|{{IPA link|oː}}
|-
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
|{{IPA link|ɛ}}
|{{IPA link|ɛː}}
|{{IPA link|œ}}
|{{IPA link|œː}}
|({{IPA link|ɐ}})
|
|{{IPA link|ɔ}}
|{{IPA link|ɔː}}
|-
![[Open vowel|Open]]
|
|
|
| 
|{{IPA link|a}}
|{{IPA link|aː}}
|({{IPA link|ɑ}})
|({{IPA link|ɒː}})
|}

* [{{IPA link|ɒ}}] and [{{IPA link|ɐ}}] can occur as allophones of /{{IPA link|a}}/ and /{{IPA link|r}}/.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|title=Low German. A profile of a word language|last=Höder|first=Steffen|publisher=de Gruyter|year=2013|location=Syllable and word languages; Chapter: Low German}}</ref>
*Vowel backness of /{{IPA link|a}}/ to [{{IPA link|ɑ}}] may also occur among dialects.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/1168313/101796_thesis_klein.pdf|title=Vowel quantity and the fortis-lenis distinction in North Low Saxon|last=Prehn|first=Maike|publisher=Amsterdam: LOT.|year=2012}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+Diphthongs
!
! colspan="2" |[[Front vowel|Front]]
![[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
![[Close vowel|Close]]
| colspan="2" |{{IPA|ia, iɛ, iə}}
|{{IPA|ua, uɛ, uɔ}}
|-
![[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
|{{IPA|eˑi, ea}}
|{{IPA|øˑi, (øa)}}
|{{IPA| oˑu, oa}}
|-
![[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
|{{IPA|ɛɪ}}
|{{IPA|œɪ}}
|{{IPA|ɔʊ, ɔˑi, ɔˑy}}
|- align="center"
![[Open vowel|Open]]
| colspan="2" |{{IPA|aˑɪ, aˑi}}
|{{IPA|aˑʊ, aˑu}}
|}

* [{{IPA link|ɑ}}] can be heard as an allophone of /{{IPA link|a}}/ within diphthongs.
* Long phonemes /{{IPA link|eː}}/, /{{IPA link|øː}}/, /{{IPA link|oː}}/, occur mostly in the Geest dialects, while in other dialects, they may be realized as diphthongs.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Niederdeutsche Grammatik|last=Lindow|first=Wolfgang|publisher=Leer: Schuster.|year=1998|pages=25–45}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite book|title=North Saxon|last1=Goltz|first1=Reinhard H.|last2=Walker|first2=Alastair G.H.|publisher=Routledge|year=1990|location=The Dialects of Modern German: A Linguistic Survey|pages=31–58}}</ref>

==Writing system==
Low German is written using the [[Latin alphabet]]. There is no official standard [[orthography]], though there are several locally more or less accepted orthographic guidelines. Those in the [[Netherlands]] are mostly based on [[Dutch language|Dutch]] orthography and may vary per dialect region, and those in [[Germany]] mostly follow German orthography. To the latter group belongs the orthography devised by [[Johannes Sass]]. It is mostly used by modern official publications and internet sites, especially the Low German Wikipedia. This diversity, a result of centuries of official neglect and suppression, has a very fragmenting and thus weakening effect on the language as a whole, since it has created barriers that do not exist on the spoken level.<ref>Dieter Stellmacher: ''Niederdeutsche Grammatik – Phonologie und Morphologie''. In: Gerhard Cordes & Dieter Möhn: ''Handbuch zur niederdeutschen Sprach- und Literaturwissenschaft''. Berlin: Erich Schmidt Verlag 1983, p.239.</ref> This severely hampers interregional and interdialectal written communication.{{citation needed|date=April 2022}} Most of these systems aim at representing the [[phonetic]] ([[allophone|allophonic]]) output rather than underlying ([[phoneme|phonemic]]) representations.{{citation needed|date=April 2022}}

A commonly voiced idea on both sides of the border on the topic of spelling is 'Write it as you say it', which results in semi-phonetic spellings based on either German or Dutch spelling conventions. This seriously affects international legibility, as pronunciation can vary wildly, resulting in many different written forms of what are essentially the same words. An attempt to unify the dialects in spelling was created by Reinhard Franz Hahn, a German-American linguist. He created the Algemeyne Schryvwys on etymological principles. He however restricted his spelling's focus mostly to the northern German dialects. A group of enthusiasts from both sides of the border took his principles and expanded them for the majority of the Low German dialects in both the Netherlands and Germany. This reworked version is called the ''Nysassiske Skryvwyse'' (New Saxon Spelling).<ref>{{cite web |title=Nysassiske Skryvwyse - Eyn spräke, eyn skrywyse. |url=https://skryvwyse.eu/ |access-date=11 September 2024 |website=Skryvwyse.eu}}</ref>

==Spoken examples ==
{|
|
|[[File:Holsteinisch-dialact.ogg|thumb|Holsteinisch dialect]]
| rowspan="3" |
|
|-
|
|[[File:Holsteinisch-dialect.ogg|thumb|Holsteinisch dialect]]
|
|-
|
|[[File:Holsteinisch-dialect 1.ogg|thumb|Holsteinisch dialect]]
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|[[File:South-Westphalian-dialect.ogg|thumb|Southern Westphalian]]
|[[File:Southern Westphalian.png|thumb]]
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|[[File:East-Westphalian-dialect 1 -483.ogg|thumb|East Westphalian]]
| rowspan="2" |[[File:East - Westphalian.png|thumb]]
|
|-
|
|[[File:Lippe-Low-German.ogg|thumb|East Westphalian]]
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|[[File:East-Frisian-dialect-of-Low-German-548.ogg|thumb|East Frisian Low German]]
| rowspan="3" |[[File:East Frisian Low German.png|thumb]]
|
|-
|
|[[File:East-Frisian-Low-German.ogg|thumb|East Frisian Low German]]
|
|-
|
|[[File:East Frisian Low German(1).ogg|thumb|East Frisian Low German]]
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|[[File:East-Pomeranian-dialect-623.ogg|thumb|East - Pomeranian]]
| rowspan="4" |[[File:East Pomeranian.png|thumb]]
|
|-
|
|[[File:East-Pomeranian-dialect-.ogg|thumb|East Pomeranian]]
|
|-
|
|[[File:East-Pomeranian-dialect.ogg|thumb|East Pomeranian]]
|
|-
|
|[[File:East-Pomeranian-dialect- 1.ogg|thumb|East Pomeranian]]
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|[[File:Plautdietsch-dialect-546.ogg|thumb|Plautdietsch]]
| rowspan="3" |
|
|-
|
|[[File:Plautdietsch 1.ogg|thumb|Plautdietsch]]
|
|-
|
|[[File:Plautdietsch.ogg|thumb|Plautdietsch]]
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|}

==Notable Low German writers and performers==
{{Div col |colwidth=30em}}
* [[Heinrich Bandlow]]
* [[Hans-Friedrich Blunck]]
* [[John Brinckman]]
* [[De fofftig Penns]]
* [[Gorch Fock (author)|Gorch Fock]]
* [[Friedrich Wilhelm Grimme]] (Westphalian: Sauerländisch)
* [[Klaus Groth]] (Dithmarsisch)
* [[August Hermann]]
* Joachim Mähl
* Johann Meyer (Dithmarsisch)
* Martha Müller-Grählert
* [[Fritz Reuter]] (Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch)
* Willem Schröder
* [[Julius Stinde]]
* [[Rudolf Tarnow]]
* Augustin Wibbelt (Westphalian: Münsterländisch)
* [[Wilhelm Wieben]]
* [[Hans-Jürgen Massaquoi]]
* [[Normaal]]
* Daniël Lohues
{{Div col end}}

[[Middle Low German]] authors:
{{Div col |colwidth=30em}}
* [[Eggerik Beninga]]
* [[Balthasar Russow]]
* [[Albert Suho]]
{{Div col end}}

[[Plautdietsch language|Plautdietsch]] authors:
{{Div col |colwidth=30em}}
* [[Arnold Dyck]]
* [[Reuben Epp]]
* [[Jack Thiessen]]
{{Div col end}}

==Low German culture==
As an important identity-forming element, the Low German language has been taught in schools in northern Germany for several years. In 2023, for example, the first class in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania graduated in the subject Low German.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-19 |title=Plattdeutsch bis zum Abitur: Erster Jahrgang in MV schließt ab {{!}} Niederdeutschsekretariat und Bunnsraat för Nedderdüütsch |url=https://www.niederdeutschsekretariat.de/plattdeutsch-bis-zum-abitur-erster-jahrgang-in-mv-schliesst-ab/ |access-date=2023-09-06 |language=de-DE}}</ref> The social position of Low German has improved significantly in recent years and enjoys a high level of prestige, especially in modern cities such as Hamburg and Bremen.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lesen Sie zeit.de mit Werbung oder im PUR-Abo. Sie haben die Wahl. |url=https://www.zeit.de/zustimmung?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.zeit.de%2F2012%2F03%2FPlattdeutsch-Unterricht |access-date=2023-09-06 |website=www.zeit.de }}{{Dead link|date=May 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

Numerous formats in Low German are also offered on [[Norddeutscher Rundfunk]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Plattdeutsch in Radio und Fernsehen im Überblick |url=https://www.ndr.de/kultur/norddeutsche_sprache/plattdeutsch/Plattdeutsch-in-Radio-und-Fernsehen,platt710.html |access-date=2023-09-06 |website=www.ndr.de |language=de}}</ref>

The television moderator Yared Dibaba has been campaigning for the preservation of Low German languages for years.<ref>{{Cite web |last=NDR |title=Platt Schnack Mucke mit Yared Dibaba |url=https://www.ndr.de/ndrschlager/programm/Platt-Schnack-Mucke-mit-Yared-Dibaba,plattschnackmucke100.html |access-date=2024-03-14 |website=www.ndr.de |language=de}}</ref> The internet magazine ''Wearldspråke'' (alternatively also: Wearldsproake) is run by the musician and language activist Martin ter Denge.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-08-09 |title=Werldspråke |url=https://wearldsproake.nl/ |access-date=2023-09-26 |website=Werldspråke |language=nl |archive-date=14 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214131516/https://wearldsproake.nl/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 2020 the film "The Marriage Escape" was released, which is mostly in [[Tweants dialect|Tweants]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=ter Denge |first=Matn |date=2020-12-29 |title=7 remarkable new Low Saxon initiatives of 2020 |url=https://martinterdenge.medium.com/7-remarkable-new-low-saxon-initiatives-of-2020-c502e562da53 |access-date=2023-09-06 |website=Medium |language=en}}</ref>

Linguistically, historically and culturally there are close contacts with the Netherlands, Denmark and other predominantly Protestant inhabitants of the North and Baltic Seas such as Great Britain, the rest of Scandinavia and the Baltic states. In German usage, for example on Norddeutscher Rundfunk, northern Germany is occasionally viewed as part of Northern Europe, while the remaining part of Germany is less questioned as belonging to Central Europe.<ref>{{Cite web |last=NDR |title=Schloss Güstrow: Renaissance in Mecklenburg |url=https://www.ndr.de/ratgeber/reise/mecklenburg/Schloss-Guestrow-Renaissance-in-Mecklenburg-,schlossguestrow113.html |access-date=2023-09-06 |website=www.ndr.de |language=de}}</ref> Close relationships also existed in the field of literature and poetry, for example the Norwegian Thidrekssaga (13th century) is based, according to its own information, on "Low German" and "Saxon" templates.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Der Nibelungen Tod in Soest |publisher=Walter Böckmann |year=1991 |isbn=3-430-11378-4}}</ref>

However, there are numerous other cultural and historical features that are common to the entire Low German-speaking area, such as the special architectural style of the "Low German hall house".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Niederdeutsches Hallenhaus Bauernhaus des Jahres 2023 |url=https://igbauernhaus.de/de/2_projekte-und-aktionen/bauernhaus-des-jahres/niederdeutsches-hallenhaus.php |access-date=2023-09-06 |website=igbauernhaus.de |language=de}}</ref> These houses are often provided with traditional gable decorations, which are also known under the terms "Hengst" and "Hors".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Die Welt der Giebelzeichen |url=http://www.bijkerk.de/documenten/gingst.pdf |access-date=2023-09-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151206221634/http://www.bijkerk.de/documenten/gingst.pdf |archive-date=6 December 2015 }}</ref>

The Germanic tribe of the Saxons, along with numerous other influencing factors like Slavic people, is considered one of the cultural and historical ancestors of the Northern Germans, so that there are still many points of connection to the Anglo-Saxons in folklore. The name of the city ''Bünde'' ({{lang |de |Bund}} is German for {{gloss |alliance}}) is said to allude to the alliance the brothers [[Hengist and Horsa|Hengest and Horsa]] once made there and then settled in what is now England. Modern scholars regard Hengest and Horsa as mythical figures.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Militzer |first=Von Jörg |title=Legendärer Händedruck |url=https://www.nw.de/lokal/kreis_herford/buende/buende/2960824_Legendaerer-Haendedruck.html |date=2009-05-27 |access-date=2023-09-07 |website=Neue Westfälische |language=de}}</ref>

{{Gallery
|align=centre
|width=271
|height=140
|mode=packed
<!-- |noborder=yes -->

|File:Stadtwappen der Stadt Bünde.svg
|Coat of Arms of Bünde

|File:Fachhallenhaus Verbreitung.png
|Spread of Low German Houses

|File:Wöhler Dusche Hof.jpg
|Low German House in Insernhagen

|File:Pferdeköpfe Giebel Schneverdingen 2011.jpg
|Gable jewelry

|File:Ringstraße 308 in Rastede-Loy (2023).jpg
|Low German House in Rastede  
}}

Since the Brothers Grimm were friends with the von Haxterhausen family, numerous fairy tales by the Grimm children and household tales come from the Westphalian and thus Low German cultural area. However, there are a remarkable number of Grimm's fairy tales that are written in Low German in their original version, which is evidence of the high level of identification that North Germans have with their language.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web |title="Zur Herkunft der Grimmschen Märchen – insbesondere aus dem Paderbörnischen" - Kreis Paderborn |url=https://www.kreis-paderborn.de/kreis_paderborn/aktuelles/pressemitteilungen/2013/vortrag-roelleke.php |access-date=2023-11-23 |website=www.kreis-paderborn.de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=bibliotheca Augustana |url=https://www.hs-augsburg.de/~harsch/germanica/Chronologie/Niederdeutsch/19Jh/Grimm/gri_n000.html |access-date=2023-11-23 |website=www.hs-augsburg.de}}</ref>
{{Gallery
|align=centre
|width=315
|height=200
<!-- |mode=packed -->
<!-- |noborder=yes -->

|File:Sprookjes uit de nalatenschap van Moeder de Gans - KW BJ 26563 - before045 (cropped).jpg
|{{lang |nds |Dat Erdmänneken}} (The Gnome)

|File:Swinegel1.jpg
|{{lang |nds |Dat Wettlopen twischen den Hasen un den Swinegel up de lütje Heide bi Buxtehude}} (The race between the Hare and the hedgehog)

|File:Fischer und Frau.jpg
|{{lang |nds |Von den Fischer und siine Fru}} (The Fisherman and his wife)

|File:Old Rinkrank by Edward H Wehnert.png
|{{lang |nds |Oll Rinkrank}} (Old Rinkrank)

|File:Louis-rhead-the-juniper-tree-grimms-fairy-tales-1917.jpg
|{{lang |nds |Van den Machandelboom}} (The Juniper Tree)
}}

There are also numerous fairy tales by the Brothers Grimm, which come from northern Germany, but are not or only partially in the original version in Low German.<ref name="auto1"/>
{{Gallery
|align=centre
|width=156
|height=200
<!-- |mode=packed -->
<!-- |noborder=yes -->

|File:Schneewittchen2.jpg
|{{lang |de |Sneewittchen}} (Snow White)

|File:Bremer Stadtmusikanten in Oberammergau.jpg
|{{lang |de |Die Bremer Stadtmusikanten}} (Town musicians of Bremen)

|File:King Thrushbeard (Fogel).jpg
|{{lang |de |König Drosselbart}} (King Thrushbeard)

|File:Simpleton takes The Golden Goose to the inn - Project Gutenberg eText 15661.jpg
|{{lang |de |Die goldene Gans}} (The golden Goose)
}}

[[File:Noordlandflaggneu.svg|thumb|160px|{{lang |nds |Noordlandflagg}} (''Flag of the Northern Lands'')]]
Even in Schleswig-Holstein, in the former settlement area of the Angles, one finds solitude in the storytelling tradition. {{lang |de |Grendel}} is a Schleswig-Holstein dialect expression for a monster living in swamps, as it appears in the Anglo-Saxon Beowulf poem .<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sterken |first=Arjan |date=2020-10-10 |title=En Kontinentåle Grendel? / A Continental Grendel? |url=https://saxonsagas.org/2020/10/10/en-kontinentale-grendel/ |access-date=2023-09-07 |website=Saxon Sagas |language=en}}</ref>

Although there are no secession efforts in northern Germany, some are making efforts to strengthen northern German identity. In the 80s a flag was designed for Lower Germany, which is more or less widespread in northern Germany and is very heavily criticized, because their design is similar to the official flag of the Vepsians in Russia.<ref>{{Cite web |last=elbsegler |date=2015-03-01 |title=Der Flaggenstreit 1: Die Noordlandflagg |url=https://nordstaat.wordpress.com/2015/03/01/der-flaggenstreit-1-die-noordlandflagg-2/ |access-date=2023-12-26 |website=Nordstaat -- Wer bist denn Du? |language=de-DE}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[1614 Low German Bible]]
* [[Bible translations into German]]
* [[Friar Rush]]
* [[Hamborger Veermaster]]
* [[The Juniper Tree (fairy tale)]]
* [[Low German (school subject)]]
* [[Meuse-Rhenish]]
* [[Moin]]
* [[Ohnsorg-Theater]]
* [[Masurian dialects]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist |30em}}

==Bibliography==
{{Refbegin |30em |indent=yes}}
*{{citation |last=Adams |first=Douglas Q. |year=1975 |title=The Distribution of Retracted Sibilants in Medieval Europe |journal=Language |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=282–292 |doi=10.2307/412855 |jstor=412855 |publisher=Linguistic Society of America }}
*{{cite Q |Q131355367 |last=Lasch |first=Agathe |author-link=Agathe Lasch |access-date=2025-05-30 |mode=cs1}}{{sfn whitelist|CITEREFLasch1914}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Prone to spam|date=September 2016}}
<!--     {{No more links}}

Please be cautious adding more external links.

Wikipedia is not a collection of links and should not be used for advertising.

Excessive or inappropriate links will be removed.

See [[Wikipedia:External links]] and [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details.

If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on
the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at
DMOZ (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}.

-->
{{Commons category|Low German language}}
{{InterWiki|code=nds|Low German (Germany)}}
{{InterWiki|code=nds-nl|Low Saxon (Netherlands)}}
{{Incubator|pdt|Wikipedia|lang=Plautdietsch}}
{{Incubator|frs|Wikipedia|lang=East Frisian Low German}}
{{NIE Poster|Plattdeutsch}}

* [http://www.plattmaster.de/ plattmaster 's Home Page] 
* [http://www.platt-online.de/ Platt-Online.de/index] 
* [http://www.niederdeutschzentrum.de/ Zentrum für Niederdeutsch in Holstein] 
* [https://www.deutsch-plattdeutsch.de/ Deutsch-Plattdeutsch.de]

===Online dictionaries===
* [https://plattmakers.de/en Plattmakers dictionary] with more than 20,000 word entries, with translations and interface available in several languages (English too)
* [https://www.drentswoordenboek.nl/ Dictionary of the Drents dialect] (Dutch)
* [http://www.mennolink.org/doc/lg/index.html Mennonite Low German-English Dictionary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000815221503/http://www.mennolink.org/doc/lg/index.html |date=15 August 2000 }}
* [https://netz.sass-platt.de/ Dictionary in the Sass Orthography] (German)

===Information===
* [http://lowlands-l.net/plattewelt/ Nu is de Welt platt!] International resources in and about Low German
* [http://lowlands-l.net/grammar/ Building Blocks of Low Saxon (Low German)], an introductory grammar in English and German
* [http://www.plattdeutsch-niederdeutsch.net/ Niederdeutsch/Plattdeutsch in Westfalen], by Olaf Bordasch
* [https://www.plattdeutsch.net/ Mönsterlänner Plat], by Klaus-Werner Kahl
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070328154446/http://www.ins-bremen.de/Geschichte/ndintroh.htm Plattdeutsch heute]

===Organisations===
* [https://www.ijsselacademie.nl/ IJsselacademie] (Overijssel and Veluwe, the Netherlands)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060220164820/http://www.staringinstituut.nl/ Staring Instituut] (Achterhoek, the Netherlands)
* [https://www.stellingwarfs.nl/ Stichting Stellingwarver Schrieversronte] (Friesland, the Netherlands)
* [https://www.sont.nl/ SONT] (General, the Netherlands)
* [https://www.oostfreeske-taal.de/ Oostfreeske Taal] (Eastern Friesland, Germany)
* [http://www.diesel-online.de/ Diesel – dat oostfreeske Bladdje] (Eastern Friesland, Germany)
* [https://www.ins-bremen.de/ Institut für niederdeutsche Sprache e.V.] (General, Germany)

{{Subject bar |auto=y |portal1=Germany |portal2=Linguistics }}
{{Languages of Germany}}
{{Germanic languages}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Low German| ]]
[[Category:Languages of Germany]]
[[Category:West Germanic languages]]
[[Category:German dialects]]
[[Category:North Sea Germanic]]