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'''Livermorium''' is a [[synthetic element|synthetic chemical element]]; it has [[Chemical symbol|symbol]] '''Lv''' and [[atomic number]] 116. It is an extremely [[radioactivity|radioactive]] element that has only been created in a laboratory setting and has not been observed in nature. The element is named after the [[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]] in the United States,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Livermorium - Element information, properties and uses {{!}} Periodic Table |url=https://periodic-table.rsc.org/element/116/Livermorium |access-date=2025-07-21 |website=periodic-table.rsc.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-07-05 |title=Livermorium {{!}} Definition & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/livermorium |access-date=2025-07-21 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> which collaborated with the [[Joint Institute for Nuclear Research]] (JINR) in [[Dubna]], Russia, to discover livermorium during experiments conducted between 2000 and 2006. The name of the laboratory refers to the city of [[Livermore, California]], where it is located, which in turn was named after the rancher and landowner [[Robert Livermore]]. The name was adopted by [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry|IUPAC]] on May 30, 2012.<ref name="IUPAC-names-114-116" /> Six [[isotopes of livermorium]] are known, with [[mass number]]s of 288–293 inclusive; the longest-lived among them is livermorium-293 with a [[half-life]] of about 80&nbsp;[[millisecond]]s. A seventh possible isotope with mass number 294 has been reported but not yet confirmed.
	
In the [[periodic table]], it is a [[p-block]] [[transactinide element]]. It is a member of the [[period 7 element|7th period]] and is placed in group 16 as the heaviest [[chalcogen]], but it has not been confirmed to behave as the heavier [[Homologous series|homologue]] to the chalcogen [[polonium]]. Livermorium is calculated to have some similar properties to its lighter homologues ([[oxygen]], [[sulfur]], [[selenium]], [[tellurium]], and polonium), and be a [[post-transition metal]], though it should also show several major differences from them.

==Introduction==
{{Excerpt|Superheavy element|Introduction|subsections=yes}}

== History ==
=== Unsuccessful synthesis attempts ===
The first search for element 116, using the reaction between <sup>248</sup>Cm and <sup>48</sup>Ca, was performed in 1977 by Ken Hulet and his team at the [[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]] (LLNL). They were unable to detect any atoms of livermorium.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.39.385 |title=Search for Superheavy Elements in the Bombardment of <sup>248</sup>Cm with<sup>48</sup>Ca |year=1977 |last1=Hulet |first1=E. K. |journal=Physical Review Letters |volume=39 |pages=385–389 |last2=Lougheed |first2=R. |last3=Wild |first3=J. |last4=Landrum |first4=J. |last5=Stevenson |first5=P. |last6=Ghiorso |first6=A. |last7=Nitschke |first7=J. |last8=Otto |first8=R. |last9=Morrissey |first9=D. |last10=Baisden |first10=P. |last11=Gavin |first11=B. |last12=Lee |first12=D. |last13=Silva |first13=R. |last14=Fowler |first14=M. |last15=Seaborg |first15=G. |bibcode=1977PhRvL..39..385H |issue=7 |display-authors=8}}</ref> [[Yuri Oganessian]] and his team at the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions (FLNR) in the [[Joint Institute for Nuclear Research]] (JINR) subsequently attempted the reaction in 1978 and met failure. In 1985, in a joint experiment between Berkeley and Peter Armbruster's team at GSI, the result was again negative, with a calculated [[cross section (physics)|cross section]] limit of 10–100&nbsp;pb. Work on reactions with <sup>48</sup>Ca, which had proved very useful in the synthesis of [[nobelium]] from the <sup>nat</sup>Pb+<sup>48</sup>Ca reaction, nevertheless continued at Dubna, with a superheavy element separator being developed in 1989, a search for target materials and starting of collaborations with LLNL being started in 1990, production of more intense <sup>48</sup>Ca beams being started in 1996, and preparations for long-term experiments with 3 orders of magnitude higher sensitivity being performed in the early 1990s. This work led directly to the production of new isotopes of elements 112 to 118 in the reactions of <sup>48</sup>Ca with actinide targets and the discovery of the 5 heaviest elements on the periodic table: [[flerovium]], [[moscovium]], livermorium, [[tennessine]], and [[oganesson]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.54.406 |title=Attempts to Produce Superheavy Elements by Fusion of <sup>48</sup>Ca with <sup>248</sup>Cm in the Bombarding Energy Range of 4.5–5.2&nbsp;MeV/u |year=1985 |last1=Armbruster |first1=P. |journal=Physical Review Letters |volume=54 |pages=406–409 |pmid=10031507 |last2=Agarwal |first2=YK |last3=Brüchle |first3=W |last4=Brügger |first4=M |last5=Dufour |first5=JP |last6=Gaggeler |first6=H |last7=Hessberger |first7=FP |last8=Hofmann |first8=S |last9=Lemmertz |first9=P |last10=Münzenberg |first10=G. |last11=Poppensieker |first11=K. |last12=Reisdorf |first12=W. |last13=Schädel |first13=M. |last14=Schmidt |first14=K. |last15=Schneider |first15=J. |last16=Schneider |first16=W. |last17=Sümmerer |first17=K. |last18=Vermeulen |first18=D. |last19=Wirth |first19=G. |last20=Ghiorso |first20=A. |last21=Gregorich |first21=K. |last22=Lee |first22=D. |last23=Leino |first23=M. |last24=Moody |first24=K. |last25=Seaborg |first25=G. |last26=Welch |first26=R. |last27=Wilmarth |first27=P. |last28=Yashita |first28=S. |last29=Frink |first29=C. |last30=Greulich |first30=N. |issue=5 |bibcode=1985PhRvL..54..406A |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1233843 |display-authors=8}}</ref>

In 1995, an international team led by [[Sigurd Hofmann]] at the [[Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung]] (GSI) in [[Darmstadt]], [[Germany]] attempted to synthesise element 116 in a radiative capture reaction (in which the compound nucleus de-excites through pure [[gamma emission]] without evaporating neutrons) between a [[lead]]-208 target and [[selenium]]-82 projectiles. No atoms of element 116 were identified.<ref>{{cite conference |url=https://www.epj-conferences.org/articles/epjconf/pdf/2016/26/epjconf-NS160-06001.pdf |title=The discovery of elements 107 to 112 |last1=Hofmann |first1=Sigurd |journal=EPJ Web of Conferences |date=1 December 2016 |volume=131 |page=06001 |conference=Nobel Symposium NS160 – Chemistry and Physics of Heavy and Superheavy Elements |doi=10.1051/epjconf/201613106001|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Unconfirmed discovery claims ===
In late 1998, Polish physicist [[Robert Smolańczuk]] published calculations on the fusion of atomic nuclei towards the synthesis of [[superheavy element|superheavy atoms]], including [[oganesson|elements 118]] and 116.<ref name="Smolanczuk">{{cite journal|author=Smolanczuk, R.|journal=Physical Review C|volume=59|issue=5|date=1999|title=Production mechanism of superheavy nuclei in cold fusion reactions|pages=2634–2639|doi=10.1103/PhysRevC.59.2634|bibcode = 1999PhRvC..59.2634S}}</ref> His calculations suggested that it might be possible to make these two elements by fusing [[lead]] with [[krypton]] under carefully controlled conditions.<ref name="Smolanczuk" />

In 1999, researchers at [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]] made use of these predictions and announced the discovery of elements 118 and 116, in a paper published in ''[[Physical Review Letters]]'',<ref name="Ninov83.1104">{{cite journal|last1=Ninov|first1=Viktor|last2=Gregorich|first2=K.|last3=Loveland|first3=W.|last4=Ghiorso|first4=A.|last5=Hoffman|first5=D.|last6=Lee|first6=D.|last7=Nitsche|first7=H.|last8=Swiatecki|first8=W.|last9=Kirbach|first9=U.|first10=C. |last10=Laue|first11=J. |last11=Adams|first12=J. |last12=Patin|first13=D. |last13=Shaughnessy|first14=D. |last14=Strellis|first15=P. |last15=Wilk|title=Observation of Superheavy Nuclei Produced in the Reaction of {{SimpleNuclide|Krypton|86}} with {{SimpleNuclide|Lead|208}}|journal=[[Physical Review Letters]]|volume=83|pages=1104–1107|date=1999|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.83.1104|bibcode=1999PhRvL..83.1104N|issue=6 |display-authors=10|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1233919}}{{Retraction|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.89.039901|intentional=yes}}</ref> and very soon after the results were reported in ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]''.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Service, R. F.|journal=Science|date=1999|volume=284|page=1751|doi=10.1126/science.284.5421.1751|title=Berkeley Crew Bags Element 118|issue=5421|s2cid=220094113}}</ref> The researchers reported to have performed the [[nuclear reaction|reaction]]

:{{nuclide|Krypton|86}} + {{nuclide|Lead|208}} → {{nuclide|oganesson|293}} + {{SubatomicParticle|link=yes|Neutron}} → {{nuclide|Livermorium|289}} + [[alpha particle|α]]

The following year, they published a retraction after researchers at other laboratories were unable to duplicate the results and the Berkeley lab itself was unable to duplicate them as well.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://enews.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/118-retraction.html|publisher=Berkeley Lab|author=Public Affairs Department|title=Results of element 118 experiment retracted|date=2001-07-21|access-date=2008-01-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080129191344/http://enews.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/118-retraction.html|archive-date=2008-01-29}}</ref> In June 2002, the director of the lab announced that the original claim of the discovery of these two elements had been based on data fabricated by principal author [[Victor Ninov]].<ref>{{cite journal|pages=728–729|title=Misconduct: The stars who fell to Earth|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=420|doi=10.1038/420728a|date=2002|pmid=12490902|last1=Dalton|first1=R.|issue=6917|bibcode = 2002Natur.420..728D |s2cid=4398009}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20071012075515/http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/2629 Element 118 disappears two years after it was discovered]. Physicsworld.com (August 2, 2001). Retrieved on 2012-04-02.</ref> The isotope <sup>289</sup>Lv was finally discovered in 2024 at the JINR.<ref name=jinr2024/>

=== Discovery ===
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Curium target livermorium.jpg|thumb|left|Curium-248 target used in the synthesis of livermorium]] -->
Livermorium was first synthesized on July 19, 2000, when scientists at [[Dubna]] ([[Joint Institute for Nuclear Research|JINR]]) bombarded a [[curium-248]] target with accelerated [[calcium-48]] ions. A single atom was detected, decaying by [[alpha decay|alpha emission]] with [[decay energy]] 10.54&nbsp;[[electronvolt|MeV]] to an isotope of [[flerovium]]. The results were published in December 2000.<ref name="00Og01">{{cite journal|doi=10.1103/PhysRevC.63.011301|title=Observation of the decay of <sup>292</sup>116|date=2000|author=Oganessian, Yu. Ts.|journal=Physical Review C|volume=63|issue=1|article-number=011301|bibcode=2000PhRvC..63a1301O|last2=Utyonkov|last3=Lobanov|last4=Abdullin|last5=Polyakov|last6=Shirokovsky|last7=Tsyganov|last8=Gulbekian|last9=Bogomolov|last10=Gikal|last11=Mezentsev|last12=Iliev|last13=Subbotin|last14=Sukhov|last15=Ivanov|last16=Buklanov|last17=Subotic|last18=Itkis|last19=Moody|last20=Wild|last21=Stoyer|last22=Stoyer|last23=Lougheed|last24=Laue|last25=Karelin|last26=Tatarinov}}</ref>

:{{nuclide|curium|248}} + {{nuclide|calcium|48}} → {{nuclide|livermorium|296}}* → {{nuclide|livermorium|293}} + 3 {{nuclide|neutronium|1}} → {{nuclide|flerovium|289}} + α

The [[decay product|daughter]] flerovium isotope had properties matching those of a flerovium isotope first synthesized in June 1999, which was originally assigned to <sup>288</sup>Fl,<ref name="00Og01" /> implying an assignment of the parent livermorium isotope to <sup>292</sup>Lv. Later work in December 2002 indicated that the synthesized flerovium isotope was actually <sup>289</sup>Fl, and hence the assignment of the synthesized livermorium atom was correspondingly altered to <sup>293</sup>Lv.<ref name="04Og01" />

=== Road to confirmation ===
Two further atoms were reported by the institute during their second experiment during April–May 2001.<ref name="03Pa01">[https://e-reports-ext.llnl.gov/pdf/302186.pdf "Confirmed results of the <sup>248</sup>Cm(<sup>48</sup>Ca,4n)<sup>292</sup>116 experiment"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160130164119/https://e-reports-ext.llnl.gov/pdf/302186.pdf |date=2016-01-30 }}, ''Patin et al.'', ''LLNL report (2003)''. Retrieved 2008-03-03</ref> In the same experiment they also detected a decay chain which corresponded to the first observed decay of [[flerovium]] in December 1998, which had been assigned to <sup>289</sup>Fl.<ref name="03Pa01" /> No flerovium isotope with the same properties as the one found in December 1998 has ever been observed again, even in repeats of the same reaction. Later it was found that <sup>289</sup>Fl has different decay properties and that the first observed flerovium atom may have been its [[nuclear isomer]] <sup>289m</sup>Fl.<ref name="00Og01" /><ref name="04OgJINRPP">{{cite journal|last1=Oganessian |first1=Yu. Ts. |last2=Utyonkov |first2=V. K. |date=2004 |title=Measurements of cross sections and decay properties of the isotopes of elements 112, 114, and 116 produced in the fusion reactions <sup>233,238</sup>U, <sup>242</sup>Pu, and <sup>248</sup>Cm + <sup>48</sup>Ca |url=http://www.jinr.ru/publish/Preprints/2004/160(E7-2004-160).pdf |journal=[[Physical Review C]] |volume=70 |issue=6 |article-number=064609 |bibcode=2004PhRvC..70f4609O |doi=10.1103/PhysRevC.70.064609 |last3=Lobanov |first3=Yu. |last4=Abdullin |first4=F. |last5=Polyakov |first5=A. |last6=Shirokovsky |first6=I. |last7=Tsyganov |first7=Yu. |last8=Gulbekian |first8=G. |last9=Bogomolov |first9=S. |last10=Gikal |first10=B. |last11=Mezentsev |first11=A. |last12=Iliev |first12=S. |last13=Subbotin |first13=V. |last14=Sukhov |first14=A. |last15=Voinov |first15=A. |last16=Buklanov |first16=G. |last17=Subotic |first17=K. |last18=Zagrebaev |first18=V. |last19=Itkis |first19=M. |last20=Patin |first20=J. |last21=Moody |first21=K. |last22=Wild |first22=J. |last23=Stoyer |first23=M. |last24=Stoyer |first24=N. |last25=Shaughnessy |first25=D. |last26=Kenneally |first26=J. |last27=Wilk |first27=P. |last28=Lougheed |first28=R. |last29=Il'Kaev |first29=R. |last30=Vesnovskii |first30=S. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528130343/http://www.jinr.ru/publish/Preprints/2004/160%28E7-2004-160%29.pdf |archive-date=May 28, 2008 }}</ref> The observation of <sup>289m</sup>Fl in this series of experiments may indicate the formation of a parent isomer of livermorium, namely <sup>293m</sup>Lv, or a rare and previously unobserved decay branch of the already-discovered state <sup>293</sup>Lv to <sup>289m</sup>Fl. Neither possibility is certain, and research is required to positively assign this activity. Another possibility suggested is the assignment of the original December 1998 atom to <sup>290</sup>Fl, as the low beam energy used in that original experiment makes the 2n channel plausible; its parent could then conceivably be <sup>294</sup>Lv, but this assignment would still need confirmation in the <sup>248</sup>Cm(<sup>48</sup>Ca,2n)<sup>294</sup>Lv reaction.<ref name="00Og01" /><ref name="04OgJINRPP" /><ref name="Hofmann2016">{{cite journal |last1=Hofmann |first1=S. |last2=Heinz |first2=S. |first3=R. |last3=Mann |first4=J. |last4=Maurer |first5=G. |last5=Münzenberg |first6=S. |last6=Antalic |first7=W. |last7=Barth |first8=H. G. |last8=Burkhard |first9=L. |last9=Dahl |first10=K. |last10=Eberhardt |first11=R. |last11=Grzywacz |first12=J. H. |last12=Hamilton |first13=R. A. |last13=Henderson |first14=J. M. |last14=Kenneally |first15=B. |last15=Kindler |first16=I. |last16=Kojouharov |first17=R. |last17=Lang |first18=B. |last18=Lommel |first19=K. |last19=Miernik |first20=D. |last20=Miller |first21=K. J. |last21=Moody |first22=K. |last22=Morita |first23=K. |last23=Nishio |first24=A. G. |last24=Popeko |first25=J. B. |last25=Roberto |first26=J. |last26=Runke |first27=K. P. |last27=Rykaczewski |first28=S. |last28=Saro |first29=C. |last29=Scheidenberger |first30=H. J. |last30=Schött |first31=D. A. |last31=Shaughnessy |first32=M. A. |last32=Stoyer |first33=P. |last33=Thörle-Popiesch |first34=K. |last34=Tinschert |first35=N. |last35=Trautmann |first36=J. |last36=Uusitalo |first37=A. V. |last37=Yeremin |date=2016 |title=Review of even element super-heavy nuclei and search for element 120 |journal=The European Physical Journal A |volume=2016 |issue=52 |page=180 |doi=10.1140/epja/i2016-16180-4|bibcode=2016EPJA...52..180H |osti=1410078 |s2cid=124362890 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897926 }}</ref>

The team repeated the experiment in April–May 2005 and detected 8 atoms of livermorium. The measured decay data confirmed the assignment of the first-discovered [[isotope]] as <sup>293</sup>Lv. In this run, the team also observed the isotope <sup>292</sup>Lv for the first time.<ref name="04Og01">{{cite journal|title=Measurements of cross sections and decay properties of the isotopes of elements 112, 114, and 116 produced in the fusion reactions <sup>233,238</sup>U, <sup>242</sup>Pu, and <sup>248</sup>Cm+<sup>48</sup>Ca|doi=10.1103/PhysRevC.70.064609|year=2004|journal=Physical Review C|volume=70|article-number=064609|last1=Oganessian|first1=Yu. Ts.|last2=Utyonkov|first2=V.|last3=Lobanov|first3=Yu.|last4=Abdullin|first4=F.|last5=Polyakov|first5=A.|last6=Shirokovsky|first6=I.|last7=Tsyganov|first7=Yu.|last8=Gulbekian|first8=G.|last9=Bogomolov|first9=S.|first10=B. N. |last10=Gikal|first11=A. N. |last11=Mezentsev|first12=S. |last12=Iliev|first13=V. G. |last13=Subbotin|first14=A. M. |last14=Sukhov|first15=A. A. |last15=Voinov|first16=G. V. |last16=Buklanov|first17=K. |last17=Subotic|first18=V. I. |last18=Zagrebaev|first19=M. G. |last19=Itkis|first20=J. B. |last20=Patin|first21=K. J. |last21=Moody|first22=J. F. |last22=Wild|first23=M. A. |last23=Stoyer|first24=N. J. |last24=Stoyer|first25=D. A. |last25=Shaughnessy|first26=J. M. |last26=Kenneally|first27=P. A. |last27=Wilk|first28=R. W. |last28=Lougheed|first29=R. I. |last29=Il'kaev|first30=S. P. |last30=Vesnovskii|display-authors=10|bibcode = 2004PhRvC..70f4609O|issue=6|url=http://www1.jinr.ru/Preprints/2004/160(E7-2004-160).pdf}}</ref> In further experiments from 2004 to 2006, the team replaced the curium-248 target with the lighter [[curium]] isotope [[curium-245]]. Here evidence was found for the two isotopes <sup>290</sup>Lv and <sup>291</sup>Lv.<ref name="JWP" />

In May 2009, the [[IUPAC]]/[[IUPAP]] Joint Working Party reported on the discovery of [[copernicium]] and acknowledged the discovery of the isotope <sup>283</sup>Cn.<ref name="jwr">{{cite journal|journal = [[Pure Appl. Chem.]]|date = 2009|title = Discovery of the element with atomic number 112|format = IUPAC Technical Report|author = Barber, R. C.|author2 = Gaeggeler, H. W.|author3 = Karol, P. J.|author4 = Nakahara, H.|author5 = Verdaci, E.|author6 = Vogt, E.|name-list-style = amp |url = http://media.iupac.org/publications/pac/2009/pdf/8107x1331.pdf|doi = 10.1351/PAC-REP-08-03-05|volume = 81|page = 1331|issue = 7|s2cid = 95703833}}</ref> This implied the ''de facto'' discovery of the isotope <sup>291</sup>Lv, from the acknowledgment of the data relating to its granddaughter <sup>283</sup>Cn, although the livermorium data was not absolutely critical for the demonstration of copernicium's discovery. Also in 2009, confirmation from Berkeley and the [[Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung]] (GSI) in Germany came for the flerovium isotopes 286 to 289, immediate daughters of the four known livermorium isotopes. In 2011, IUPAC evaluated the Dubna team experiments of 2000–2006. Whereas they found the earliest data (not involving <sup>291</sup>Lv and <sup>283</sup>Cn) inconclusive, the results of 2004–2006 were accepted as identification of livermorium, and the element was officially recognized as having been discovered.<ref name="JWP">{{cite journal|last1=Barber |first1=R. C.|last2=Karol |first2=P. J.|last3=Nakahara |first3=H.|last4=Vardaci |first4=E.|last5=Vogt |first5=E. W.|date=2011|title=Discovery of the elements with atomic numbers greater than or equal to 113 (IUPAC Technical Report)|journal=[[Pure and Applied Chemistry]]|volume=83 |issue=7 |page=1485|doi=10.1351/PAC-REP-10-05-01|doi-access=free}}</ref>

The synthesis of livermorium has been separately confirmed at the GSI (2012) and [[RIKEN]] (2014 and 2016).<ref name="gsi12">{{cite journal | doi=10.1140/epja/i2012-12062-1 | volume=48 | issue=5 | page=62 | title=The reaction <sup>48</sup>Ca + <sup>248</sup>Cm → <sup>296</sup>116<sup>*</sup> studied at the GSI-SHIP | journal=The European Physical Journal A| year=2012 | last1=Hofmann | first1=S. | last2=Heinz | first2=S. | last3=Mann | first3=R. | last4=Maurer | first4=J. | last5=Khuyagbaatar | first5=J. | last6=Ackermann | first6=D. | last7=Antalic | first7=S. | last8=Barth | first8=W. | last9=Block | first9=M. | last10=Burkhard | first10=H. G. | last11=Comas | first11=V. F. | last12=Dahl | first12=L. | last13=Eberhardt | first13=K. | last14=Gostic | first14=J. | last15=Henderson | first15=R. A. | last16=Heredia | first16=J. A. | last17=Heßberger | first17=F. P. | last18=Kenneally | first18=J. M. | last19=Kindler | first19=B. | last20=Kojouharov | first20=I. | last21=Kratz | first21=J. V. | last22=Lang | first22=R. | last23=Leino | first23=M. | last24=Lommel | first24=B. | last25=Moody | first25=K. J. | last26=Münzenberg | first26=G. | last27=Nelson | first27=S. L. | last28=Nishio | first28=K. | last29=Popeko | first29=A. G. | last30=Runke | first30=J. | display-authors=29 | bibcode=2012EPJA...48...62H| s2cid=121930293 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.nishina.riken.jp/researcher/APR/APR047/pdf/xi.pdf |title=Measurement of the <sup>248</sup>Cm + <sup>48</sup>Ca fusion reaction products at RIKEN GARIS |page=11 |journal=RIKEN Accel. Prog. Rep. |volume=47 |year=2014 |author=Morita, K.|display-authors=etal}}</ref> In the 2012 GSI experiment, one chain tentatively assigned to <sup>293</sup>Lv was shown to be inconsistent with previous data; it is believed that this chain may instead originate from an [[nuclear isomer|isomeric state]], <sup>293m</sup>Lv.<ref name="gsi12" /> In the 2016 RIKEN experiment, one atom that may be assigned to <sup>294</sup>Lv was seemingly detected, alpha decaying to <sup>290</sup>Fl and <sup>286</sup>Cn, which underwent spontaneous fission; however, the first alpha from the livermorium nuclide produced was missed, and the assignment to <sup>294</sup>Lv is still uncertain though plausible.<ref name="Kaji">{{cite journal |last1=Kaji |first1=Daiya |last2=Morita |first2=Kosuke |first3=Kouji |last3=Morimoto |first4=Hiromitsu |last4=Haba |first5=Masato |last5=Asai |first6=Kunihiro |last6=Fujita |first7=Zaiguo |last7=Gan |first8=Hans |last8=Geissel |first9=Hiroo |last9=Hasebe |first10=Sigurd |last10=Hofmann |first11=MingHui |last11=Huang |first12=Yukiko |last12=Komori |first13=Long |last13=Ma |first14=Joachim |last14=Maurer |first15=Masashi |last15=Murakami |first16=Mirei |last16=Takeyama |first17=Fuyuki |last17=Tokanai |first18=Taiki |last18=Tanaka |first19=Yasuo |last19=Wakabayashi |first20=Takayuki |last20=Yamaguchi |first21=Sayaka |last21=Yamaki |first22=Atsushi |last22=Yoshida |date=2017 |title=Study of the Reaction <sup>48</sup>Ca + <sup>248</sup>Cm → <sup>296</sup>Lv* at RIKEN-GARIS |journal=Journal of the Physical Society of Japan |volume=86 |issue=3 |pages=034201–1–7 |doi=10.7566/JPSJ.86.034201 |bibcode=2017JPSJ...86c4201K }}</ref>

=== Naming ===
[[File:Robert Livermore.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Robert Livermore]], the indirect namesake of livermorium]]
Using [[Mendeleev's predicted elements|Mendeleev's nomenclature for unnamed and undiscovered elements]], livermorium is sometimes called ''eka-[[polonium]]''.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1088/0031-8949/10/A/001| title = The Search for New Elements: The Projects of Today in a Larger Perspective| journal = Physica Scripta| volume = 10| pages = 5–12| year = 1974| last1 = Seaborg | first1 = Glenn T. | bibcode = 1974PhyS...10S...5S| s2cid = 250809299}}</ref> In 1979 IUPAC recommended that the [[placeholder name|placeholder]] [[systematic element name]] ''ununhexium'' (''Uuh'')<ref name="iupac">{{cite journal|author=Chatt, J.|journal=Pure Appl. Chem.|date=1979|volume=51|pages=381–384|title=Recommendations for the Naming of Elements of Atomic Numbers Greater than 100|doi=10.1351/pac197951020381|issue=2|doi-access=free}}</ref> be used until the discovery of the element was confirmed and a name was decided. Although widely used in the chemical community on all levels, from chemistry classrooms to advanced textbooks, the recommendations were mostly ignored among scientists in the field,<ref name="Folden">{{cite web|url=http://cyclotron.tamu.edu/smp/The%20Heaviest%20Elements%20in%20the%20Universe.pdf |title=The Heaviest Elements in the Universe |author=Folden, Cody |date=31 January 2009 |website=Texas A&M University |access-date=9 March 2012 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140810213232/http://cyclotron.tamu.edu/smp/The%20Heaviest%20Elements%20in%20the%20Universe.pdf |archive-date=August 10, 2014}} "</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://pubs.acs.org/cen/80th/print/darmstadtium.html |title= Darmstadtium and Beyond|journal=Chemical & Engineering News|author=Hoffman, Darleane C. }}</ref> who called it "element 116", with the symbol of ''E116'', ''(116)'', or even simply ''116''.<ref name="Haire" />

According to IUPAC recommendations, the discoverer or discoverers of a new element have the right to suggest a name.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1351/pac200274050787|url=http://media.iupac.org/publications/pac/2002/pdf/7405x0787.pdf|title=Naming of new elements(IUPAC Recommendations 2002)|date=2002|author=Koppenol, W. H.|journal=Pure and Applied Chemistry|volume=74|page=787|issue=5|s2cid=95859397}}</ref> The discovery of livermorium was recognized by the Joint Working Party (JWP) of IUPAC on 1 June 2011, along with that of [[flerovium]].<ref name="JWP" /> According to the vice-director of JINR, the Dubna team originally wanted to name element 116 ''moscovium'', after the [[Moscow Oblast]] in which Dubna is located,<ref name="E114&116">{{cite web|publisher=rian.ru|date=2011|access-date=2011-05-08|url=http://www.rian.ru/science/20110326/358081075.html|title=Russian Physicists Will Suggest to Name Element 116 Moscovium}}: Mikhail Itkis, the vice-director of JINR stated: "We would like to name element 114 after [[Georgy Flerov]] – flerovium, and another one [element 116] – moscovium, not after Moscow, but after [[Moscow Oblast]]".</ref> but it was later decided to use this name for [[moscovium|element 115]] instead. The name ''livermorium'' and the symbol ''Lv'' were adopted on May 23,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Loss|first1=Robert D.|last2=Corish|first2=John|title=Names and symbols of the elements with atomic numbers 114 and 116 (IUPAC Recommendations 2012)|url=http://pac.iupac.org/publications/pac/pdf/2012/pdf/8407x1669.pdf|website=IUPAC; Pure and Applied Chemistry|publisher=IUPAC|access-date=2 December 2015}}</ref> 2012.<ref name="IUPAC-names-114-116" /><ref name="IUPAC">{{cite web|title=News: Start of the Name Approval Process for the Elements of Atomic Number 114 and 116 |url=http://www.iupac.org/news/news-detail/article/start-of-the-name-approval-process-for-the-elements-of-atomic-number-114-and-116.html |work=International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry |access-date=February 22, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120302173200/http://www.iupac.org/news/news-detail/article/start-of-the-name-approval-process-for-the-elements-of-atomic-number-114-and-116.html |archive-date=March 2, 2012 }}</ref> The name recognises the [[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]], within the city of [[Livermore, California]], US, which collaborated with JINR on the discovery. The city in turn is named after the American rancher [[Robert Livermore]], a naturalized Mexican citizen of English birth.<ref name="IUPAC-names-114-116" /> The naming ceremony for flerovium and livermorium was held in Moscow on October 24, 2012.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://newuc.jinr.ru/img_sections/file/Practice2016/EU/2016-07%20AGP_SHE.pdf |title=Synthesis of superheavy elements |last=Popeko |first=Andrey G. |date=2016 |website=jinr.ru |publisher=[[Joint Institute for Nuclear Research]] |access-date=4 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180204124109/http://newuc.jinr.ru/img_sections/file/Practice2016/EU/2016-07%20AGP_SHE.pdf |archive-date=4 February 2018 }}</ref>

===Other routes of synthesis===
{{See also|Isotopes of livermorium#Nucleosynthesis}}
The synthesis of livermorium in fusion reactions using projectiles heavier than <sup>48</sup>Ca has been explored in preparation for synthesis attempts of the yet-undiscovered [[unbinilium|element 120]], as such reactions would necessarily utilize heavier projectiles. In 2023, the reaction between <sup>238</sup>U and <sup>54</sup>Cr was studied at the JINR's Superheavy Element Factory in Dubna; one atom of the new isotope <sup>288</sup>Lv was reported.<ref name=Lv288/> More detailed analysis of this reaction was published in 2025, by which time another atom had been reported.<ref name=investigation>{{cite journal |last1=Oganessian |first1=Yu. Ts. |last2=Utyonkov |first2=V. K. |first3=F. Sh. |last3=Abdullin |first4=S. N. |last4=Dmitriev |first5=D. |last5=Ibadullayev |first6=M. G. |last6=Itkis |first7=A. V. |last7=Karpov |first8=N. D. |last8=Kovrizhnykh |first9=D. A. |last9=Kuznetsov |first10=O. V. |last10=Petrushkin |first11=A. V. |last11=Podshibiakin |first12=A. N. |last12=Polyakov |first13=A. G. |last13=Popeko |first14=R. N. |last14=Sagaidak |first15=V. V. |last15=Saiko |first16=L. |last16=Schlattauer |first17=V. D. |last17=Shubin |first18=M. V. |last18=Shumeiko |first19=D. I. |last19=Solovyev |first20=Yu. S. |last20=Tsyganov |first21=A. A. |last21=Voinov |first22=V. G. |last22=Subbotin |first23=A. V. |last23=Sabelnikov |first24=D. |last24=Abdusamadzoda |first25=A. Yu. |last25=Bodrov |first26=M. G. |last26=Voronyuk |first27=G. A. |last27=Bozhikov |first28=N. V. |last28=Aksenov |first29=A. V. |last29=Khalkin |first30=Z. G. |last30=Gan |first31=Z. Y. |last31=Zhang |first32=M. H. |last32=Huang |first33=H. B. |last33=Yang |first34=J. G. |last34=Wang |first35=M. M. |last35=Zhang |first36=X. Y. |last36=Huang |date=2025 |title=Investigation of reactions with <sup>50</sup>Ti and <sup>54</sup>Cr for the synthesis of new elements |url= |journal=Physical Review C |volume=112 |issue= |pages=014603 |doi=10.1103/k2g4-5k7x |access-date=}}</ref> Similarly, in 2024, a team at the [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]] reported the synthesis of two atoms of <sup>290</sup>Lv in the reaction between [[Plutonium-244|<sup>244</sup>Pu]] and <sup>50</sup>Ti. This result was described as "truly groundbreaking" by [[RIKEN]] director Hiromitsu Haba, whose team plans to search for [[ununennium|element 119]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://newscenter.lbl.gov/2024/07/23/a-new-way-to-make-element-116-opens-the-door-to-heavier-atoms/ |title=A New Way to Make Element 116 Opens the Door to Heavier Atoms |last=Biron |first=Lauren |date=23 July 2024 |website=lbl.gov |publisher=Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory |access-date=24 July 2024 |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bourzac |first1=Katherine |date=23 July 2024 |title=Heaviest element yet within reach after major breakthrough |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-02416-3 |journal=Nature |volume= 632|issue= 8023|pages= 16–17|doi=10.1038/d41586-024-02416-3 |pmid=39043946 |bibcode=2024Natur.632...16B |access-date=24 July 2024|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite arXiv |last1=Gates |first1=J. M. |title=Towards the Discovery of New Elements: Production of Livermorium (Z=116) with <sup>50</sup>Ti|date=2024-07-22 |eprint=2407.16079 |last2=Orford |first2=R. |last3=Rudolph |first3=D. |last4=Appleton |first4=C. |last5=Barrios |first5=B. M. |last6=Benitez |first6=J. Y. |last7=Bordeau |first7=M. |last8=Botha |first8=W. |last9=Campbell |first9=C. M.|class=nucl-ex }}</ref> The team at JINR studied the reaction between <sup>242</sup>Pu and <sup>50</sup>Ti in 2024 as a follow-up to the <sup>238</sup>U+<sup>54</sup>Cr, obtaining additional decay data for <sup>288</sup>Lv and its decay products (two new chains) and discovering the new isotope <sup>289</sup>Lv (three chains).<ref name=jinr2024/><ref name=investigation/>

== Predicted properties ==
Other than nuclear properties, no properties of livermorium or its compounds have been measured; this is due to its extremely limited and expensive production<ref name="Bloomberg">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2019-08-28/making-new-elements-doesn-t-pay-just-ask-this-berkeley-scientist|title=Making New Elements Doesn't Pay. Just Ask This Berkeley Scientist|last=Subramanian|first=S.|website=[[Bloomberg Businessweek]]|date=2019-08-28 |access-date=2020-01-18}}</ref> and the fact that it decays very quickly. Properties of livermorium remain unknown and only predictions are available.

=== Nuclear stability and isotopes ===
{{Main|Isotopes of livermorium}}
[[File:Island of Stability derived from Zagrebaev.svg|right|thumb|upright=1.8|The expected location of the island of stability is marked by the white circle. The dotted line is the line of [[beta decay|beta]] stability.]]
Livermorium is expected to be near an [[island of stability]] centered on [[copernicium]] (element 112) and [[flerovium]] (element 114).<ref name="Zagrebaev">{{cite conference |last1=Zagrebaev |first1=Valeriy |last2=Karpov |first2=Alexander |last3=Greiner |first3=Walter |date=2013 |title=Future of superheavy element research: Which nuclei could be synthesized within the next few years? |publisher=IOP Science |book-title=Journal of Physics: Conference Series |volume=420 |pages=1–15 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/1742-6596/420/1/012001/pdf/1742-6596_420_1_012001.pdf |access-date=20 August 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Van Nostrand's scientific encyclopedia|first1=Glenn D. |last1= Considine |first2=Peter H. |last2= Kulik|publisher=Wiley-Interscience|date=2002|edition=9th|isbn=978-0-471-33230-5|oclc=223349096}}</ref> Due to the expected high [[fission barrier]]s, any nucleus within this island of stability exclusively decays by alpha decay and perhaps some electron capture and [[beta decay]].{{Fricke1975}} While the known isotopes of livermorium do not actually have enough neutrons to be on the island of stability, they can be seen to approach the island, as the heavier isotopes are generally the longer-lived ones.<ref name="00Og01" /><ref name="JWP" />

Superheavy elements are produced by [[nuclear fusion]]. These fusion reactions can be divided into "hot" and "cold" fusion,{{efn|Despite the name, "cold fusion" in the context of superheavy element synthesis is a distinct concept from the idea that nuclear fusion can be achieved in room temperature conditions (see [[cold fusion]]).<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/0022-0728(89)80006-3 |title=Electrochemically induced nuclear fusion of deuterium |date=1989 |last1=Fleischmann |first1=Martin |last2=Pons |first2=Stanley |journal=Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry and Interfacial Electrochemistry |volume=261 |issue=2 |pages=301–308}}</ref>}} depending on the excitation energy of the compound nucleus produced. In hot fusion reactions, very light, high-energy projectiles are accelerated toward very heavy targets ([[actinide]]s), giving rise to compound nuclei at high excitation energy (~40–50&nbsp;[[electronvolt|MeV]]) that may either fission or evaporate several (3 to 5) neutrons.<ref name="fusion">{{cite journal |last1=Barber |first1=Robert C. |last2=Gäggeler |first2=Heinz W. |last3=Karol |first3=Paul J. |last4=Nakahara |first4=Hiromichi |last5=Vardaci |first5=Emanuele |last6=Vogt |first6=Erich |title=Discovery of the element with atomic number 112 (IUPAC Technical Report) |journal=Pure and Applied Chemistry |volume=81 |issue=7 |page=1331 |date=2009 |doi=10.1351/PAC-REP-08-03-05|s2cid=95703833 |url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/297412/files/pac-rep-08-03-05.pdf }}</ref> In cold fusion reactions (which use heavier projectiles, typically from the [[period 4 element|fourth period]], and lighter targets, usually [[lead]] and [[bismuth]]), the produced fused nuclei have a relatively low excitation energy (~10–20&nbsp;MeV), which decreases the probability that these products will undergo fission reactions. As the fused nuclei cool to the [[ground state]], they require emission of only one or two neutrons. Hot fusion reactions tend to produce more neutron-rich products because the actinides have the highest neutron-to-proton ratios of any elements that can presently be made in macroscopic quantities.<ref name="AM89">{{cite journal |first1=Peter |last1=Armbruster |name-list-style=amp |first2=Gottfried |last2=Münzenberg |title=Creating superheavy elements |journal=Scientific American |volume=34 |pages=36–42 |date=1989}}</ref>

Important information could be gained regarding the properties of superheavy nuclei by the synthesis of more livermorium isotopes, specifically those with a few neutrons more or less than the known ones – <sup>286</sup>Lv, <sup>287</sup>Lv, <sup>294</sup>Lv, and <sup>295</sup>Lv. This is possible because there are many reasonably long-lived [[isotopes of curium]] that can be used to make a target.<ref name="Zagrebaev" /> The light isotopes can be made by fusing [[curium-243]] with calcium-48. They would undergo a chain of alpha decays, ending at [[transactinide]] isotopes that are too light to achieve by hot fusion and too heavy to be produced by cold fusion.<ref name="Zagrebaev" /> The same neutron-deficient isotopes are also reachable in reactions with projectiles heavier than <sup>48</sup>Ca, which will be necessary to reach elements beyond atomic number 118 (or possibly [[ununennium|119]]); this is how <sup>288</sup>Lv and <sup>289</sup>Lv were discovered.<ref name=jinr2024>{{Cite web |url=https://indico.jinr.ru/event/4343/contributions/28663/attachments/20748/36083/U%20+%20Cr%20AYSS%202024.pptx |title=Synthesis and study of the decay properties of isotopes of superheavy element Lv in Reactions <sup>238</sup>U + <sup>54</sup>Cr and <sup>242</sup>Pu + <sup>50</sup>Ti |last=Ibadullayev |first=Dastan |date=2024 |website=jinr.ru |publisher=[[Joint Institute for Nuclear Research]] |access-date=2 November 2024 |quote=}}</ref><ref name=Lv288>{{cite news |url=http://www.jinr.ru/posts/v-lyar-oiyai-vpervye-v-mire-sintezirovan-livermorij-288/ |title=В ЛЯР ОИЯИ впервые в мире синтезирован ливерморий-288 |trans-title=Livermorium-288 was synthesized for the first time in the world at FLNR JINR |language=ru |date=23 October 2023 |publisher=Joint Institute for Nuclear Research |access-date=18 November 2023}}</ref>

The synthesis of the heavy isotopes <sup>294</sup>Lv and <sup>295</sup>Lv could be accomplished by fusing the heavy curium isotope [[curium-250]] with calcium-48. The [[cross section (physics)|cross section]] of this nuclear reaction would be about 1&nbsp;[[barn (unit)|picobarn]], though it is not yet possible to produce <sup>250</sup>Cm in the quantities needed for target manufacture.<ref name="Zagrebaev" /> Alternatively, <sup>294</sup>Lv could be produced via charged-particle evaporation in the <sup>251</sup>Cf(<sup>48</sup>Ca,pn) reaction.<ref name=Yerevan2023PPT>{{cite conference |url=https://indico.jinr.ru/event/3622/contributions/20021/attachments/15292/25806/Yerevan2023.pdf |title=Interesting fusion reactions in superheavy region |first1=J. |last1=Hong |first2=G. G. |last2=Adamian |first3=N. V. |last3=Antonenko |first4=P. |last4=Jachimowicz |first5=M. |last5=Kowal |conference=IUPAP Conference "Heaviest nuclei and atoms" |publisher=Joint Institute for Nuclear Research |date=26 April 2023 |access-date=30 July 2023}}</ref><ref name=pxn>{{cite journal |last1=Hong |first1=J. |last2=Adamian |first2=G. G. |last3=Antonenko |first3=N. V. |date=2017 |title=Ways to produce new superheavy isotopes with ''Z''&nbsp;=&nbsp;111–117 in charged particle evaporation channels |journal=Physics Letters B |volume=764 |pages=42–48 |doi=10.1016/j.physletb.2016.11.002 |bibcode=2017PhLB..764...42H|doi-access=free }}</ref> After a few alpha decays, these livermorium isotopes would reach nuclides at the [[line of beta stability]]. Additionally, [[electron capture]] may also become an important decay mode in this region, allowing affected nuclei to reach the middle of the island. For example, it is predicted that <sup>295</sup>Lv would alpha decay to <sup>291</sup>[[flerovium|Fl]], which would undergo successive electron capture to <sup>291</sup>Nh and then <sup>291</sup>[[copernicium|Cn]] which is expected to be in the middle of the island of stability and have a half-life of about 1200&nbsp;years, affording the most likely hope of reaching the middle of the island using current technology. A drawback is that the decay properties of superheavy nuclei this close to the line of beta stability are largely unexplored.<ref name="Zagrebaev" />

Other possibilities to synthesize nuclei on the island of stability include quasifission (partial fusion followed by fission) of a massive nucleus.<ref name="ZG" /> Such nuclei tend to fission, expelling doubly [[magic number (physics)|magic]] or nearly doubly magic fragments such as [[calcium-40]], [[tin-132]], [[lead-208]], or [[bismuth-209]].<ref name="jinr20006">{{cite web|title=JINR Annual Reports 2000–2006|url=http://www1.jinr.ru/Reports/Reports_eng_arh.html|publisher=[[Joint Institute for Nuclear Research|JINR]]|access-date=2013-08-27}}</ref> Recently it has been shown that the multi-nucleon transfer reactions in collisions of actinide nuclei (such as [[uranium]] and [[curium]]) might be used to synthesize the neutron-rich superheavy nuclei located at the island of stability,<ref name="ZG">{{cite journal|last1=Zagrebaev |first1=V.|last2=Greiner |first2=W.|date=2008|title=Synthesis of superheavy nuclei: A search for new production reactions|journal=[[Physical Review C]]|volume=78 |issue=3 |article-number=034610|arxiv=0807.2537|bibcode=2008PhRvC..78c4610Z|doi=10.1103/PhysRevC.78.034610}}</ref> although formation of the lighter elements [[nobelium]] or [[seaborgium]] is more favored.<ref name="Zagrebaev" /> One last possibility to synthesize isotopes near the island is to use controlled [[nuclear explosion]]s to create a [[neutron flux]] high enough to bypass the gaps of instability at <sup>258–260</sup>[[fermium|Fm]] and at [[mass number]] 275 (atomic numbers [[rutherfordium|104]] to [[hassium|108]]), mimicking the [[r-process]] in which the [[actinide]]s were first produced in nature and the gap of instability around [[radon]] bypassed.<ref name="Zagrebaev" /> Some such isotopes (especially <sup>291</sup>Cn and <sup>293</sup>Cn) may even have been synthesized in nature, but would have decayed away far too quickly (with half-lives of only thousands of years) and be produced in far too small quantities (about 10<sup>−12</sup> the abundance of [[lead]]) to be detectable as [[primordial nuclide]]s today outside [[cosmic ray]]s.<ref name="Zagrebaev" />

=== Physical and atomic ===
In the [[periodic table]], livermorium is a member of group 16, the chalcogens. It appears below [[oxygen]], [[sulfur]], [[selenium]], [[tellurium]], and polonium. Every previous chalcogen has six electrons in its valence shell, forming a [[valence electron]] configuration of ns<sup>2</sup>np<sup>4</sup>. In livermorium's case, the trend should be continued and the valence electron configuration is predicted to be 7s<sup>2</sup>7p<sup>4</sup>;<ref name="Haire" /> therefore, livermorium will have some similarities to its lighter [[congener (chemistry)|congeners]]. Differences are likely to arise; a large contributing effect is the [[spin–orbit interaction|spin–orbit (SO) interaction]]—the mutual interaction between the electrons' motion and [[Spin (physics)|spin]]. It is especially strong for the superheavy elements, because their electrons move much faster than in lighter atoms, at velocities comparable to the [[speed of light]].<ref name="Thayer">{{cite book |last1=Thayer |first1=John S. |title=Relativistic Methods for Chemists |chapter=Relativistic Effects and the Chemistry of the Heavier Main Group Elements |volume=10 |date=2010 |page=83 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-9975-5_2|isbn=978-1-4020-9974-8 |series=Challenges and Advances in Computational Chemistry and Physics }}</ref> In relation to livermorium atoms, it lowers the 7s and the 7p electron energy levels (stabilizing the corresponding electrons), but two of the 7p electron energy levels are stabilized more than the other four.<ref name="Faegri">{{cite journal|last1=Faegri |first1=K.|last2=Saue |first2=T.|date=2001|title=Diatomic molecules between very heavy elements of group 13 and group 17: A study of relativistic effects on bonding|journal=[[Journal of Chemical Physics]]|volume=115 |issue=6 |page=2456|bibcode=2001JChPh.115.2456F|doi=10.1063/1.1385366 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The stabilization of the 7s electrons is called the [[inert pair effect]], and the effect "tearing" the 7p subshell into the more stabilized and the less stabilized parts is called subshell splitting. Computation chemists see the split as a change of the second ([[azimuthal quantum number|azimuthal]]) [[quantum number]] ''l'' from 1 to {{frac|1|2}} and {{frac|3|2}} for the more stabilized and less stabilized parts of the 7p subshell, respectively: the 7p<sub>1/2</sub> subshell acts as a second inert pair, though not as inert as the 7s electrons, while the 7p<sub>3/2</sub> subshell can easily participate in chemistry.<ref name="Haire" /><ref name="Thayer" />{{efn|The quantum number corresponds to the letter in the electron orbital name: 0 to s, 1 to p, 2 to d, etc. See [[azimuthal quantum number]] for more information.}} For many theoretical purposes, the valence electron configuration may be represented to reflect the 7p subshell split as 7s{{su|p=2|w=70%}}7p{{su|b=1/2|p=2|w=70%}}7p{{su|b=3/2|p=2|w=70%}}.<ref name="Haire" />

Inert pair effects in livermorium should be even stronger than in polonium and hence the +2 [[oxidation state]] becomes more stable than the +4 state, which would be stabilized only by the most [[electronegative]] [[ligand]]s; this is reflected in the expected [[ionization energy|ionization energies]] of livermorium, where there are large gaps between the second and third ionization energies (corresponding to the breaching of the unreactive 7p<sub>1/2</sub> shell) and fourth and fifth ionization energies.{{Fricke1975|name}} Indeed, the 7s electrons are expected to be so inert that the +6 state will not be attainable.<ref name="Haire" /> The [[melting point|melting]] and [[boiling point]]s of livermorium are expected to continue the trends down the chalcogens; thus livermorium should melt at a higher temperature than polonium, but boil at a lower temperature.<ref name="B&K" /> It should also be [[density|denser]] than polonium (α-Lv: 12.9&nbsp;g/cm<sup>3</sup>; α-Po: 9.2&nbsp;g/cm<sup>3</sup>); like polonium it should also form an α and a β allotrope.{{Fricke1975|name}}<ref>
{{cite web |url=http://cyclotron.tamu.edu/she2015/assets/pdfs/presentations/Eichler_SHE_2015_TAMU.pdf |title=Gas phase chemistry with SHE – Experiments |last=Eichler |first=Robert |date=2015 |website=cyclotron.tamu.edu |publisher=Texas A & M University |access-date=27 April 2017}}</ref> The electron of a [[hydrogen-like atom|hydrogen-like]] livermorium atom (oxidized so that it only has one electron, Lv<sup>115+</sup>) is expected to move so fast that it has a mass 1.86 times that of a stationary electron, due to [[relativistic quantum chemistry|relativistic effects]]. For comparison, the figures for hydrogen-like polonium and tellurium are expected to be 1.26 and 1.080 respectively.<ref name="Thayer" />

=== Chemical ===
Livermorium is projected to be the fourth member of the 7p series of [[chemical element]]s and the heaviest member of group 16 in the periodic table, below [[polonium]]. While it is the least theoretically studied of the 7p elements, its chemistry is expected to be quite similar to that of polonium.{{Fricke1975|name}} The group oxidation state of +6 is known for all the chalcogens apart from oxygen which cannot [[Hypervalent molecule|expand its octet]] and is one of the strongest [[redox|oxidizing agents]] among the chemical elements. Oxygen is thus limited to a maximum +2 state, exhibited in the fluoride [[oxygen difluoride|OF<sub>2</sub>]]. The +4 state is known for [[sulfur]], [[selenium]], [[tellurium]], and polonium, undergoing a shift in stability from reducing for sulfur(IV) and selenium(IV) through being the most stable state for tellurium(IV) to being oxidizing in polonium(IV). This suggests a decreasing stability for the higher oxidation states as the group is descended due to the increasing importance of relativistic effects, especially the inert pair effect.<ref name="Thayer" /> The most stable oxidation state of livermorium should thus be +2, with a rather unstable +4 state. The +2 state should be about as easy to form as it is for [[beryllium]] and [[magnesium]], and the +4 state should only be achieved with strongly electronegative ligands, such as in livermorium(IV) fluoride (LvF<sub>4</sub>).<ref name="Haire" /> The +6 state should not exist at all due to the very strong stabilization of the 7s electrons, making the valence core of livermorium only four electrons.{{Fricke1975|name}} The lighter chalcogens are also known to form a −2 state as [[oxide]], [[sulfide]], [[selenide]], [[telluride (chemistry)|telluride]], and [[polonide]]; due to the destabilization of livermorium's 7p<sub>3/2</sub> subshell, the −2 state should be very unstable for livermorium, whose chemistry should be essentially purely cationic,<ref name="Haire" /> though the larger subshell and spinor energy splittings of livermorium as compared to polonium should make Lv<sup>2−</sup> slightly less unstable than expected.<ref name="Thayer" />
 	
Livermorium hydride (LvH<sub>2</sub>) would be the heaviest [[hydrogen chalcogenide|chalcogen hydride]] and the heaviest homologue of [[water]] (the lighter ones are [[hydrogen sulfide|H<sub>2</sub>S]], [[hydrogen selenide|H<sub>2</sub>Se]], [[hydrogen telluride|H<sub>2</sub>Te]], and [[polonium hydride|PoH<sub>2</sub>]]). Polane (polonium hydride) is a more [[covalent]] compound than most metal hydrides because polonium straddles the border between [[metal]] and [[metalloid]] and has some nonmetallic properties: it is intermediate between a [[hydrogen halide]] like [[hydrogen chloride]] (HCl) and a [[metal hydride]] like [[stannane]] ([[tin|Sn]]H<sub>4</sub>). Livermorane should continue this trend: it should be a hydride rather than a livermoride, but still a covalent [[molecule|molecular]] compound. Spin-orbit interactions are expected to make the Lv–H bond longer than expected from [[periodic trends]] alone, and make the H–Lv–H bond angle larger than expected: this is theorized to be because the unoccupied 8s orbitals are relatively low in energy and can [[orbital hybridization|hybridize]] with the valence 7p orbitals of livermorium. This phenomenon, dubbed "supervalent hybridization",<ref name="Nash">{{cite journal |last1=Nash |first1=Clinton S. |last2=Crockett |first2=Wesley W. |date=2006 |title=An Anomalous Bond Angle in (116)H<sub>2</sub>. Theoretical Evidence for Supervalent Hybridization. |journal=The Journal of Physical Chemistry A |volume=110 |issue=14 |pages=4619–4621 |doi=10.1021/jp060888z |pmid=16599427 |bibcode=2006JPCA..110.4619N |url=https://figshare.com/articles/An_Anomalous_Bond_Angle_in_116_H_sub_2_sub_Theoretical_Evidence_for_Supervalent_Hybridization/3227647 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> has some analogues in non-relativistic regions in the periodic table; for example, molecular [[calcium difluoride]] has 4s and 3d involvement from the [[calcium]] atom.<ref>{{Greenwood&Earnshaw2nd|page=117}}</ref> The heavier livermorium di[[halide]]s are predicted to be [[linear molecular geometry|linear]], but the lighter ones are predicted to be [[bent molecular geometry|bent]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Van WüLlen | first1 = C. | last2 = Langermann | first2 = N. | doi = 10.1063/1.2711197 | title = Gradients for two-component quasirelativistic methods. Application to dihalogenides of element 116 | journal = The Journal of Chemical Physics | volume = 126 | issue = 11 | page = 114106 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17381195|bibcode = 2007JChPh.126k4106V }}</ref>

== Experimental chemistry ==
Unambiguous determination of the chemical characteristics of livermorium has not yet been established.<ref name="Düllmann">{{cite journal |last1=Düllmann |first1=Christoph E. |date=2012 |title=Superheavy elements at GSI: a broad research program with element 114 in the focus of physics and chemistry |journal=Radiochimica Acta |volume=100 |issue=2 |pages=67–74 |doi=10.1524/ract.2011.1842 |s2cid=100778491 }}</ref><ref name="Eichler">{{cite journal |last=Eichler |first=Robert |date=2013 |title=First foot prints of chemistry on the shore of the Island of Superheavy Elements |arxiv=1212.4292|journal=Journal of Physics: Conference Series |volume=420 |issue=1 |article-number=012003 |doi=10.1088/1742-6596/420/1/012003 |bibcode=2013JPhCS.420a2003E |s2cid=55653705 }}</ref> In 2011, experiments were conducted to create [[nihonium]], [[flerovium]], and [[moscovium]] isotopes in the reactions between calcium-48 projectiles and targets of americium-243 and [[plutonium-244]]. The targets included [[lead]] and [[bismuth]] impurities and hence some isotopes of bismuth and [[polonium]] were generated in nucleon transfer reactions. This, while an unforeseen complication, could give information that would help in the future chemical investigation of the heavier homologs of bismuth and polonium, which are respectively moscovium and livermorium.<ref name="Eichler" /> The produced nuclides [[bismuth-213]] and [[polonium-212m]] were transported as the hydrides [[bismuthine|<sup>213</sup>BiH<sub>3</sub>]] and [[polonium hydride|<sup>212m</sup>PoH<sub>2</sub>]] at 850&nbsp;°C through a quartz wool filter unit held with [[tantalum]], showing that these hydrides were surprisingly thermally stable, although their heavier congeners McH<sub>3</sub> and LvH<sub>2</sub> would be expected to be less thermally stable from simple extrapolation of [[periodic trends]] in the p-block.<ref name="Eichler" /> Further calculations on the stability and electronic structure of BiH<sub>3</sub>, McH<sub>3</sub>, PoH<sub>2</sub>, and LvH<sub>2</sub> are needed before chemical investigations take place. Moscovium and livermorium are expected to be [[volatility (chemistry)|volatile]] enough as pure elements for them to be chemically investigated in the near future, a property livermorium would then share with its lighter congener polonium, though the short half-lives of all presently known livermorium isotopes means that the element is still inaccessible to experimental chemistry.<ref name="Eichler" /><ref name="Moody">{{cite book |chapter=Synthesis of Superheavy Elements |last1=Moody |first1=Ken |editor1-first=Matthias |editor1-last=Schädel |editor2-first=Dawn |editor2-last=Shaughnessy |title=The Chemistry of Superheavy Elements |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |edition=2nd |pages=24–8 |isbn=978-3-642-37466-1|date=2013-11-30 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em|refs=

<ref name=Haire>{{cite book| title=The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements| editor1-last=Morss| editor2-first=Norman M.| editor2-last=Edelstein| editor3-last=Fuger| editor3-first=Jean| last1=Hoffman| first1=Darleane C.| last2=Lee| first2=Diana M.| last3=Pershina| first3=Valeria| chapter=Transactinides and the future elements| publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]]| year=2006| isbn=978-1-4020-3555-5| location=Dordrecht, The Netherlands| edition=3rd| ref=CITEREFHaire2006}}</ref>

}}

== Bibliography ==
* {{cite journal |ref={{harvid|Audi et al.|2017}} |title=The NUBASE2016 evaluation of nuclear properties |doi=10.1088/1674-1137/41/3/030001 |last1=Audi |first1=G. |last2=Kondev |first2=F. G. |last3=Wang |first3=M. |last4=Huang |first4=W. J. |last5=Naimi |first5=S. |display-authors=3 |journal=Chinese Physics C |volume=41 |issue=3 <!--Citation bot deny-->|article-number=030001 |year=2017 
|bibcode=2017ChPhC..41c0001A }}<!--for consistency and specific pages, do not replace with {{NUBASE2016}}-->
* {{cite book|last=Beiser|first=A.|title=Concepts of modern physics|date=2003|publisher=McGraw-Hill|isbn=978-0-07-244848-1|edition=6th|oclc=48965418}}
* {{cite book |last1=Hoffman |first1=D. C. |author-link=Darleane C. Hoffman |last2=Ghiorso |first2=A. |author-link2=Albert Ghiorso |last3=Seaborg |first3=G. T. |title=The Transuranium People: The Inside Story |year=2000 |publisher=[[World Scientific]] |isbn=978-1-78-326244-1 }}
* {{cite book |last=Kragh |first=H. |author-link=Helge Kragh |date=2018 |title=From Transuranic to Superheavy Elements: A Story of Dispute and Creation |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |isbn=978-3-319-75813-8 }}

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
* [http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/116.htm Livermorium] at ''[[The Periodic Table of Videos]]'' (University of Nottingham)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081205080201/http://www.cerncourier.com/main/article/41/8/17 ''CERN Courier'' – Second postcard from the island of stability]
* [http://webelements.com/livermorium/ Livermorium at WebElements.com]

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