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[[Image:Statue-Augustus.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Augustus of Prima Porta|The Prima Porta statue]] of [[Augustus]] ({{Reign}}27 BC – AD 14), the first [[Roman emperor]]|alt=statue of Augustus]]
The [[Roman emperor]]s were the rulers of the [[Roman Empire]] from the granting of the name and title ''[[Augustus (title)|Augustus]]'' to [[Augustus|Octavian]] by the [[Roman Senate]] in 27&nbsp;BC onward.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mosshammer|2008|pp=342–343}}; {{Harvnb|Kienast|Eck|Heil|pp=53–54}}</ref> Augustus maintained a facade of Republican rule, rejecting monarchical titles but calling himself ''[[princeps senatus]]'' (first man of the [[Senate of the Roman Empire|Senate]]) and ''princeps civitatis'' (first citizen of the state). The title of Augustus was conferred on his successors to the imperial position, and emperors gradually grew more monarchical and authoritarian.{{Sfn|Loewenstein|1973|pp=329, 403}}

The style of government instituted by Augustus is called the [[Principate]] and continued until the late third or early fourth century.{{Sfn|Loewenstein|1973|p=238}} The modern word "emperor" derives from the title ''[[imperator]]'', that was granted by an army to a successful general; during the initial phase of the empire, the title was generally used only by the ''[[princeps]]''.{{Sfn|Loewenstein|1973|p=329}} For example, Augustus's official name was ''Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus''.{{Sfn|Loewenstein|1973|p=245}} The territory under command of the emperor had developed under the period of the [[Roman Republic]] as it invaded and occupied much of [[Europe]] and portions of [[North Africa]] and the [[Middle East]]. Under the republic, the [[SPQR|Senate and People of Rome]] authorized provincial governors, who answered only to them, to rule regions of the empire.{{Sfn|Richardson|1984|pp=39–40}} The chief magistrates of the republic were two [[Roman consul|consuls]] elected each year; consuls continued to be elected in the imperial period, but their authority was subservient to that of the emperor, who also controlled and determined their election.{{Sfn|Wu|2016|p=35}} Often, the emperors themselves, or close family, were selected as consul.{{Sfn|Loewenstein|1973|p=443}}

After the [[Crisis of the Third Century]], [[Diocletian]] increased the authority of the emperor and adopted the title ''dominus noster'' (our lord). The rise of powerful [[Barbarian#In classical Greco-Roman contexts|barbarian tribes]] along the borders of the empire, the challenge they posed to the defense of far-flung borders as well as an unstable imperial succession led Diocletian to divide the administration of the Empire geographically with a co-''augustus'' in 286. In 330, [[Constantine the Great]], the emperor who accepted Christianity, established a second capital in [[Byzantium]], which was renamed [[Constantinople]]. Historians consider the [[Dominate]] period of the empire to have begun with either Diocletian or Constantine, depending on the author.{{Sfn|Loewenstein|1973|pp=238, 403}} For most of the period from 286 to 480, there was more than one recognized senior emperor, with the division usually based on geographic regions. This division became permanent after the death of [[Theodosius I]] in 395, which historians have traditionally dated as the division between the [[Western Roman Empire]] and the [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Roman Empire]]. However, formally the Empire remained a single polity, with separate co-emperors in the separate courts.{{Sfn|Sandberg|2008|pp=199–213.}}

The [[fall of the Western Roman Empire]] is dated either from the ''[[de facto]]'' date of 476, when [[Romulus Augustulus]] was deposed by the Germanic [[Herules|Herulians]] led by [[Odoacer]], or the ''[[de jure]]'' date of 480, on the death of [[Julius Nepos]], when Eastern emperor [[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]] ended recognition of a separate Western court.<ref>{{Harvnb|Arnold|Bjornlie|Sessa|2016|p=3}}; {{Harvnb|Williams|Friell|1998|p=187}}.</ref> Historians typically refer to the empire in the centuries that followed as the "[[Byzantine Empire]]", governed by the Byzantine emperors.{{Efn|The term ''[[basileus]]'' eventually replaced ''[[augustus (title)|augustus]]'' as the official title of the emperor, although both were seen as equals already by the times of [[Constantine I]].{{Sfn|ODB|p=264}}}} Given that "Byzantine" is a later [[Historiography|historiographical]] designation and the inhabitants and emperors of the empire continually maintained [[Roman identity]], this designation is not used universally and continues to be a subject of specialist debate.{{Efn|The Byzantine Empire is universally recognized as the remnant, continuation or later stage of the Roman Empire. There is no universally agreed date used to separate the ancient Roman and "Byzantine" empires, with proposed dates ranging in age from 284 to 717.{{Sfn|Mango|2002|p=2}} Some authors reject the term "Byzantine" entirely.{{Sfn|Goldsworthy|2009|p=8}}}} Under [[Justinian I]], in the sixth century, a large portion of the western empire was retaken, including Italy, Africa, and part of Spain.{{Sfn|Halsall|2018|p=53}} Over the course of the centuries thereafter, most of the imperial territories were lost, which eventually restricted the empire to [[Anatolia]] and the [[Balkans]].{{Efn|Spain was lost in 625{{Sfn|Collins|2004|pp=47–49}} and Africa in 698.{{Sfn|Becker|1913|p=370}} A large portion of Italy was conquered by the [[Lombards]] already under Justinian I's successor, [[Justin&nbsp;II]].{{Sfn|Hartmann|1913|p=196}} Rome and its surroundings remained under imperial control until 756, when they became the [[Papal States]],{{Sfn|Logan|2012|pp=71–74}} though the last Italian holdouts were not lost until 1071 with the [[Siege of Bari|fall of Bari]].{{Sfn|Chalandon|1923|p=325}} The seventh century also saw much of the empire's eastern and southern territories lost permanently to [[Spread of Islam|Arab Muslim conquests]].{{Sfn|Nicol|1992|p=ix}}}} The line of emperors continued until the death of [[Constantine XI Palaiologos]] at the [[fall of Constantinople]] in 1453, when the remaining territories were conquered by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]] led by Sultan [[Mehmed II]].{{Sfn|Nicol|1992|p=ix}}{{Efn|There is no generally-accepted count of Roman emperors given that different scholars sometimes include and omit different emperors (see [[#Legitimacy|Legitimacy]]). This list includes 170 emperors, 8 of whose legitimacy is disputed in scholarship (including the obscure figure of [[Silbannacus]], whose existence and role are shrouded in mystery,{{Sfn|Estiot|1996}} and the four [[Empire of Nicaea|emperors of Nicaea]], who are often seen as the "legitimate" emperors during the interregnum of 1204–1261),{{Sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=734}} and 4 ruling empresses for a total of 174 monarchs. Also included are 35 junior co-emperors, 3 of whose legitimacy is debated, and 1 junior co-empress ([[Thekla (daughter of Theophilos)|Thekla]]). All in all, this list thus includes a total of 210 occupants of the Roman imperial office.}} In the aftermath of the conquest, Mehmed II proclaimed himself ''kayser-i Rûm'' ("[[Caesar (title)|''Caesar'']] of the Romans"),{{Efn|This was one of the titles used for the emperors in Constantinople by Ottoman writers prior to 1453.{{Sfn|Çolak|2014|p=19}}}} thus claiming to be the new emperor,{{Sfn|Nicol|1967|p=334}} [[Ottoman claim to Roman succession|a claim]] maintained by succeeding sultans.{{Sfn|Çolak|2014|pp=21–22}} Competing claims of [[Succession of the Roman Empire|succession to the Roman Empire]] have also been forwarded by various other states and empires, and by numerous [[Succession to the Byzantine Empire#Claims to descent and inheritance|later pretenders]].{{Sfn|Nicol|1992|pp=115–116}}

== Legitimacy ==
{{See also|Roman emperor|Roman usurper}}
[[File:Denarius of Pescennius Niger.png|thumb|Coin of [[Pescennius Niger]], a [[Roman usurper]] who claimed imperial power AD 193–194. Legend: IMP CAES C PESC NIGER IVST AVG|alt=coin]]
While the imperial government of the [[Roman Empire]] was rarely called into question during its five centuries in the west and fifteen centuries in the east, individual emperors often faced unending challenges in the form of usurpation and perpetual civil wars.{{Sfn|Omissi|2018|p=3}} From the rise of [[Augustus]], the first Roman emperor, in 27 BC to the [[Sack of Rome (455)|sack of Rome]] in AD 455, there were over a hundred usurpations or attempted usurpations (an average of one usurpation or attempt about every four years). From the murder of [[Commodus]] in 192 until the fifth century, there was scarcely a single decade without succession conflicts and civil war. Very few emperors died of natural causes, with [[regicide]] in practical terms having become the expected end of a Roman emperor by [[late antiquity]].{{Sfn|Smolin|2021|p=22}} The distinction between a usurper and a legitimate emperor is a blurry one, given that a large number of emperors that were commonly considered legitimate began their rule as usurpers, revolting against the previous legitimate emperor.{{Sfn|Claes|2015|p=15}}

True legitimizing structures and theories were weak, or wholly absent in the Roman Empire,{{Sfn|Smolin|2021|p=22}} and there were no true objective legal criteria for being acclaimed emperor beyond acceptance by the [[Roman army]].{{Sfn|Omissi|2018|p=25}} Dynastic succession was not legally formalized, but also not uncommon, with powerful rulers sometimes succeeding in passing power on to their children or other relatives. While dynastic ties could bring someone to the throne, they were not a guarantee that their rule would not be challenged.{{Sfn|Claes|2015|p=23}} With the exception of [[Titus]] ({{Reign}}79–81; son of [[Vespasian]]), no son of an emperor who ruled after the death of his father died a natural death until [[Constantine the Great|Constantine I]] in 337. Control of [[Rome]] itself and approval of the [[Roman Senate]] held some importance as legitimising factors, but were mostly symbolic. Emperors who began their careers as usurpers had often been deemed [[Public enemy|public enemies]] by the senate before they managed to take the city. Emperors did not need to be acclaimed or crowned in Rome itself, as demonstrated in the [[Year of the Four Emperors]] (69), when claimants were crowned by armies in the [[Roman province]]s, and the senate's role in legitimising emperors had almost faded into insignificance by the [[Crisis of the Third Century]] (235–285). By the end of the third century, Rome's importance was mainly ideological, with several emperors and usurpers even beginning to place their court in other cities in the empire, closer to the imperial frontier.{{Sfn|Omissi|2018|pp=9, 14, 17, 24}}

Common methods used by emperors to assert claims of legitimacy, such as proclamation by the army, blood connections (sometimes fictitious) to past emperors, wearing imperial regalia, distributing one's own coins or statues and claims to pre-eminent virtue through propaganda, were pursued just as well by many usurpers as they were by legitimate emperors.{{Sfn|Smolin|2021|p=|pp=22–23}} There were no constitutional or legal distinctions that differentiated legitimate emperors and usurpers. In ancient Roman texts, the differences between emperors and "tyrants" (the term typically used for usurpers) is often a moral one (with the tyrants ascribed wicked behaviour) rather than a legal one. Typically, the actual distinction was whether the claimant had been victorious or not. In the ''[[Historia Augusta]]'', an ancient Roman collection of imperial biographies, the usurper [[Pescennius Niger]] (193–194) is expressly noted to only be a tyrant because he was defeated by [[Septimius Severus]] ({{Reign}}193–211).{{Sfn|Omissi|2018|pp=21, 29–30}} This is also followed in modern [[historiography]], where, in the absence of constitutional criteria separating them, the main factor that distinguishes usurpers from legitimate Roman emperors is their degree of success. What makes a figure who began as a usurper into a legitimate emperor is typically either that they managed to gain the recognition from a more senior, legitimate emperor, or that they managed to defeat a more senior, legitimate emperor and seize power from them by force.{{Sfn|Claes|2015|p=23}}

=== List inclusion criteria ===
Given that a concept of constitutional legitimacy was irrelevant in the Roman Empire, and emperors were only 'legitimate' in so far as they were able to be accepted in the wider empire,{{Sfn|Omissi|2018|p=34}} this list of emperors operates on a collection of inclusion criteria:

* Imperial claimants whose power across the empire became, or from the beginning was, absolute and who ruled undisputed are treated as legitimate emperors.{{Sfn|Omissi|2018|p=32}} From 286 onward, when imperial power was usually divided among two colleagues in the east and west,{{Sfn|Omissi|2018|p=xix}} control over the respective half is sufficient even if a claimant was not recognized in the other half, such as was the case for several of the last few emperors in the west.{{Sfn|Mathisen|1997}}
* Imperial claimants who were proclaimed emperors by another, legitimate, senior emperor, or who were recognized by a legitimate senior emperor, are treated as legitimate emperors.<ref>{{Harvnb|Omissi|2018|p=25}}; {{Harvnb|Claes|2015|p=18}}.</ref> Many emperors ruled alongside one or various joint-emperors. However, and specially from the 4th century onwards, most of these were children who never ruled in their own right. Scholars of the later Empire always omit these rulers,<ref>{{Harvnb|Foss|2005|p=101}}; {{Harvnb|ODB|p=360}}.</ref> but the same is not always applied during the early Empire.{{Sfnm|1a1=Elton|1y=1825|1p=303|2a1=Grant|2y=1998|2p=179|3a1=Hekster|3y=2008|3p=155|4a1=Cooley|4y=2012|5a1=Kienast|5a2=Eck|5a3=Heil|5pp=v-xii|6a1=Britannica|7a1=Livius|8a1=MET}} For the purposes of consistency, later senior emperors' tenures as junior co-emperors are not counted as part of their reign. The list also gives all co-emperors their own entry only up to the 4th century.
* Imperial claimants who achieved the recognition of the Roman Senate, especially in times of uncertainty and civil war, are, due to the senate's nominal role as an elective body, treated as legitimate emperors.<ref>{{Harvnb|Claes|2015|p=15}}; {{Harvnb|Omissi|2018|p=17}}</ref> In later times, especially when emperors ruled from other cities, this criterion defaults to the possession and control of Rome itself. In the later eastern empire, possession of the capital of [[Constantinople]] was an essential element of imperial legitimacy.{{Sfn|Van Tricht|2011|pp=79–80}}
In the case of non-dynastic emperors after or in the middle of the rule of a dynasty, it is customary among historians to group them together with the rulers of said dynasty,{{Sfn|Lawler|2004|p=323}} an approach that is followed in this list. Dynastic breaks with non-dynastic rulers are indicated with thickened horizontal lines.

== Principate (27 BC – AD 284) ==
{{Main|Principate}}

=== Julio-Claudian dynasty (27 BC – AD 68) ===
{{Main|Julio-Claudian dynasty}}

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center; width:100%"
|+ {{Sronly|Julio-Claudian dynasty}}
! scope=col width="7%" | Portrait
! scope=col width="17%" | &nbsp;Name{{Efn|Entries also include the [[regnal name]] of each emperor. These generally differed from their birth name, often adopting elements from the previous emperor.{{Sfn|Cooley|2012}} [[Augustus]]'s full name would be "Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus"  according to [[Roman naming conventions]] ("Octavian" was a nickname), but he styled himself as "[[Imperator]] Caesar Augustus", treating "Caesar" as a family name.{{Sfn|Syme|1958}} Given that "Imperator" was only a victory title, it will be omitted from the emperors' full nomenclature.}}
! scope=col width="26%" | Reign
! scope=col width="25%" | Succession
! scope=col width="25%" | Life details

|-
| [[File:04.2022 Augustus Bevilacqua cropped.jpg|frameless|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Augustus]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Caesar Augustus''}}
| 16 January 27 BC – 19 August AD 14<br/>&nbsp;&nbsp;{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|-26|1|16|14|8|19}})}}{{Efn|The conventional date for the Empire's founding is 27 BC,{{Sfn|Mosshammer|2008|pp=342–343}} when the Senate awarded Octavian the title and name ''[[Augustus (title)|Augustus]]'' alongside one of several grants of power.{{Sfn|Kienast|Eck|Heil|pp=53–54}} Ancient writers, however, give him a rule of 56 years.{{Sfn|Mosshammer|2008|pp=342–343}} He became ''[[de facto]]'' monarch in 31&nbsp;BC, after defeating his last remaining opposition at the [[Battle of Actium]].{{Sfn|Meijer|2004|pp=14–16}} This is a date also used by some writers.{{Sfn|Mosshammer|2008|pp=342–343}} Augustus himself dated his accession to legal power to 7&nbsp;January 43 BC, when he first received {{Lang|la|[[imperium]]}}.{{Sfn|Kienast|Eck|Heil|pp=53–54}} Later that year he became [[Roman consul|consul]] (19 August) and then [[Second Triumvirate|triumvir]] (27&nbsp;November) alongside [[Mark Antony]] and [[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)|Lepidus]]. Augustus thus ruled the Roman state for exactly 56 years, but only 40 as "emperor".{{Sfn|Kienast|Eck|Heil|pp=53–54}}}}
| Grandnephew and adopted son of [[Julius Caesar]]. Gradually acquired further power through grants from, and constitutional settlements with, the [[Roman Senate]]. Continuously head of state since [[Octavian's march on Rome|19&nbsp;August&nbsp;43&nbsp;BC]], unopposed after the [[Battle of Actium]] in 31&nbsp;BC. 
| 23 September 63 BC – 19 August 14<br/>{{Small|(aged 75)}}<hr/>Born as [[Augustus#name|Gaius Octavius]]. [[Death by natural causes|Died probably of natural causes]], allegedly poisoned with figs by [[Livia]].{{Sfnm|1a1=Grant|1pp=8, 9, 12–13|2a1=Kienast|2a2=Eck|2a3=Heil|2pp=53–54, 350}}{{sfn|Tacitus|loc=1.5}}{{sfn|Cassius Dio|loc=55.22.2, 56.30}}

|-
| [[File:MSR-Ra342b-DM (1) (cropped2).jpg|frameless|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Tiberius]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Tiberius Caesar Augustus''}}
| 17 September 14 – 16 March 37<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|14|9|17|37|3|16}})}}
| Stepson, former son-in-law and adopted son of [[Augustus]]
| 16 November 42 BC – 16 March 37<br/>{{Small|(aged 77)}}<hr/>Died probably of natural causes, allegedly murdered at the instigation of [[Caligula]]{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1pp=70–72, 350|2a1=Grant|2pp=8, 16, 20, 25}}

|-
| [[File:Caligula MET DP337264 (cropped).jpg|frameless|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Caligula]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus''}}
| 18 March 37 – 24 January 41<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|37|3|18|41|1|24}})}}
| Grandnephew and adopted heir of [[Tiberius]], great-grandson of [[Augustus]]
| 31 August 12 – 24 January 41<br/>{{Small|(aged 28)}}<hr/>Murdered in a conspiracy involving the [[Praetorian Guard]] and senators{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1p=78|2a1=Grant|2pp=8, 25, 27}}

|-
| [[File:Claudius_crop_(cropped).jpg|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Claudius]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus''}}
| 24 January 41 – 13 October 54<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|41|1|24|54|10|13}})}}
| Uncle of [[Caligula]], nephew of [[Tiberius]], grandnephew of [[Augustus]], proclaimed emperor by the [[Praetorian Guard]] and accepted by the Senate
| 1 August 10 BC – 13 October 54<br/>{{Small|(aged 63)}}<hr/>Began the [[Roman conquest of Britain]]. Probably poisoned by his wife [[Agrippina the Younger|Agrippina]], in favor of her son [[Nero]]{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1p=82|2a1=Grant|2pp=8, 29, 33}}

|-
| [[File:Nero Glyptothek Munich 321 (cropped).jpg|frameless|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Nero]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus''}}
| 13 October 54 – 9 June 68<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|54|10|13|68|6|9}})}}
| Grandnephew, stepson, son-in-law and adopted son of [[Claudius]], great-great-grandson of [[Augustus]]
| 15 December 37 – 9 June 68<br/>{{Small|(aged 30)}}<hr/>Committed suicide after being deserted by the [[Praetorian Guard]] and sentenced to death by the Senate{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1pp=88–89, 350|2a1=Grant|2pp=8, 34, 39}}

|}

=== Year of the Four Emperors (68–69) ===
{{Main|Year of the Four Emperors}}

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center; width:100%"
|+ {{Sronly|Year of the Four Emperors}}
! scope=col width="7%" | Portrait
! scope=col width="17%" | Name
! scope=col width="26%" | Reign
! scope=col width="25%" | Succession
! scope=col width="25%" | Life details

|-
| [[File:Galba, aureus (obverse).jpg|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Galba]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Servius Galba Caesar Augustus''}}
| 8 June 68 – 15 January 69<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|68|6|8|69|1|15}})}}
| Governor of [[Hispania Tarraconensis]], revolted against [[Nero]] and seized power after his suicide, with support of the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] and [[Praetorian Guard]]
| 24 December 3 BC – 15 January 69<br/>{{Small|(aged {{Age in years|-3|12|24|68|1|15}}) <!-- Remember that there was no Year 0. -->}}<hr/>Murdered by soldiers of the [[Praetorian Guard]] in a coup led by [[Otho]]{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1p=94|2a1=Grant|2pp=43, 44|3a1=Hammond|3p=24}}

|-
| [[File:Gold Aureus of Otho.jpg|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Otho]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Marcus Otho Caesar Augustus''}}
| 15 January – 16 April 69<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|69|1|15|69|4|16}})}}
| Seized power through a coup against [[Galba]]
| 28 April 32 – 16 April 69<br/>{{Small|(aged 36)}}<hr/>Committed suicide after losing the [[Battle of Bedriacum]] to [[Vitellius]]{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1p=97|2a1=Grant|2pp=46–47}}

|-
| [[File:Gold Aureus of Vitellius (MANTIS).jpg|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Vitellius]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Aulus Vitellius Germanicus Augustus''}}
| 19 April – 20 December 69<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|69|4|19|69|12|20}})}}
| Governor of [[Germania Inferior]], proclaimed emperor by the Rhine legions on 2 January in opposition to [[Galba]] and [[Otho]], later recognized by the [[Roman Senate|Senate]]
| 24 September 15 – 20 December 69<br/>{{Small|(aged 54)}}<hr/>Murdered by [[Vespasian]]'s troops{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1pp=99–100|2a1=Grant|2pp=48–50}}

|}

=== Flavian dynasty (69–96) ===
{{Main|Flavian dynasty}}

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center; width:100%"
|+ {{Sronly|Flavian dynasty}}
! scope=col width="7%" | Portrait
! scope=col width="17%" | Name
! scope=col width="26%" | Reign
! scope=col width="25%" | Succession
! scope=col width="25%" | Life details

|-
| [[File:Naples Archaeology Museum (3x4 cropped).jpg|frameless|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Vespasian]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Caesar Vespasianus Augustus''}}
| 1 July 69 – 23 June 79<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|69|7|1|79|6|23}})}}
| Proclaimed by the eastern legions in opposition to [[Vitellius]], later recognized by the Senate
| 17 November 9 – 23 June 79<br/>{{Small|(aged 69)}}<hr/>Began construction of the [[Colosseum]].<br/>Died of [[dysentery]]{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1p=101|2a1=Grant|2pp=51–52, 55}}

|-
| [[File:Titus Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek IN3159 (cropped).jpg|frameless|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Titus]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Titus Caesar Vespasianus Augustus''}}
| 24 June 79 – 13 September 81<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|79|6|24|81|9|13}})}}
| Son of [[Vespasian]]
| 30 December 39 – 13 September 81<br/>{{Small|(aged 41)}}<hr/>Died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1p=105|2a1=Grant|2p=55|3a1=Hammond|3p=27}}

|-
| [[File:Domiziano_da_collezione_albani,_fine_del_I_sec._dc._02_cropped_(cropped).jpg|frameless|100px|alt=statue]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Domitian]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Caesar Domitianus Augustus''}}
| 14 September 81 – 18 September 96<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|81|9|14|96|9|18}})}}
| Brother of [[Titus]] and son of [[Vespasian]]
| 24 October 51 – 18 September 96<br/>{{Small|(aged 44)}}<hr/>Assassinated in a conspiracy of court officials, possibly involving [[Nerva]]{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1p=109|2a1=Grant|2pp=60–69}}<!-- Not confirmed, but still mentioned by Grant 1985. -->

|}

=== Nerva–Antonine dynasty (96–192) ===
{{Main|Nerva–Antonine dynasty}}

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center; width:100%"
|+ {{Sronly|Nerva–Antonine dynasty}}
! scope=col width="7%" | Portrait
! scope=col width="17%" | Name
! scope=col width="26%" | Reign
! scope=col width="25%" | Succession
! scope=col width="25%" | Life details

|-
| [[File:Nerva.JPG|frameless|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Nerva]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Nerva Caesar Augustus''}}
| 18 September 96 – 27 January 98<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|96|9|18|98|1|27}})}}
| Proclaimed [[Roman emperor|emperor]] by the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] after the murder of [[Domitian]]
| 8 November 30 – 27/28 January 98<br/>{{Small|(aged&nbsp;67)}}<hr/>First of the "[[Five Good Emperors]]". Died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1p=114|2a1=Grant|2p=69|3a1=Burgess|3y=2014|3p=53–54}}

|-
| [[File:Traianus Glyptothek Munich 72 (cropped).jpg|frameless|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Trajan]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Caesar Nerva Traianus Augustus''}}
| 28 January 98 – 9 August (?) 117<br/>{{Small|(19 years, 6 months and 11 days)}}
| Adopted son of [[Nerva]]
| 18 September 53 – 9 August (?) 117<br/>{{Small|(aged&nbsp;63)}}<hr/>First non-Italian emperor. His reign marked the geographical peak of the empire. Died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1pp=116–117|2a1=Grant|2pp=71, 73, 76|3a1=Omissi|3y=2018|3p=8|4a1=Burgess|4y=2014|4p=54–56}}

|-
| [[File:Публий Элий Адрианның бьюсты.jpg|frameless|100px|alt=statue]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Hadrian]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Caesar Traianus Hadrianus Augustus''}}
| 11 August 117 – 10 July 138<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|117|8|11|138|7|10}})}}
| Cousin of [[Trajan]], allegedly adopted on his deathbed
| 24 January 76 – 10 July 138<br/>{{Small|(aged&nbsp;62)}}<hr/>Ended Roman expansionism. Destroyed Judea after a massive revolt. Died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1pp=122–123|2a1=Grant|2pp=68, 76|3a1=Omissi|3y=2018|3p=8}}

|-
| [[File:Marble portrait of the emperor Antoninus Pius (cropped).jpg|frameless|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Antoninus Pius]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Pius''{{Efn|By this time, '[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]' and '[[Augustus (title)|Augustus]]' are regarded less as personal names and more as imperial titles, with the former denoting the heir-apparent and the latter indicating the emperor himself.{{Sfn|Hammond|pp=29–31}} }}}}
| 10 July 138 – 7 March 161<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|138|7|10|161|3|7}})}}
| Adopted son of [[Hadrian]]
| 19 September 86 – 7 March 161<br/>{{Small|(aged&nbsp;74)}}<hr/>Died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1p=128|2a1=Grant|2p=87}}

|-
| [[File:Metropolitan Marcus Aurelius Roman 2C AD 2.JPG|frameless|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Marcus Aurelius]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Marcus Aurelius Antoninus''}}
| 7 March 161 – 17 March 180<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|161|3|7|180|3|17}})}}
| Son-in-law and adopted son of [[Antoninus Pius]]. Until 169 reigned jointly with his adoptive brother, [[Lucius Verus]], the first time multiple emperors shared power. Since 177 reigned jointly with his son [[Commodus]]
| 26 April 121 – 17 March 180<br/>{{Small|(aged&nbsp;58)}}<hr/>Last of the "[[Five Good Emperors]]"; also one of the most representative [[Stoicism|Stoic philosophers]]. Died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1pp=131–132|2a1=Grant|2pp=68, 89, 91, 93}}

|-
| [[File:Lucius Verus bust (crop).png|frameless|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Lucius Verus]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Lucius Aurelius Verus''}}
| 7 March 161 – January/February 169<br/>{{Small|(7 years and 11 months)}}
| Adopted son of [[Antoninus Pius]], named joint emperor by his adoptive brother [[Marcus Aurelius]]
| 15 December 130 – early 169<br/>{{Small|(aged&nbsp;38)}}<hr/>Died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1p=135|2a1=Grant|2pp=93, 94}}

|-
| [[File:Commodus Musei Capitolini MC1120 (cropped enhanced).jpg|frameless|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Commodus]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Marcus Aurelius Commodus Antoninus / Lucius Aelius Aurelius Commodus''}}
| 17 March 180 – 31 December 192<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|180|3|17|192|12|31}})}}
| Son of [[Marcus Aurelius]]. Proclaimed co-emperor in 177, at age 16, becoming the first emperor to be elevated during predecessor's lifetime
| 31 August 161 – 31 December 192<br/>{{Small|(aged&nbsp;31)}}<hr/>Strangled to death in a conspiracy involving his [[Praetorian Guard|praetorian]] prefect, [[Quintus Aemilius Laetus|Laetus]], and mistress, [[Marcia (mistress of Commodus)|Marcia]]{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1pp=140–141|2a1=Grant|2p=97|3a1=Omissi|3y=2018|3p=8}}

|}

=== Year of the Five Emperors (193) ===
{{Main|Year of the Five Emperors}}
:{{Small|'''''Note:''' The other claimants during the Year of the Five Emperors were [[Pescennius Niger]] and [[Clodius Albinus]], generally regarded as usurpers.''}}

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center; width:100%"
|+ {{Sronly|Year of the Five Emperors}}
! scope=col width="7%" | Portrait
! scope=col width="17%" | Name
! scope=col width="26%" | Reign
! scope=col width="25%" | Succession
! scope=col width="25%" | Life details

|-
| [[File:Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence (cropped).jpg|frameless|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Pertinax]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Publius Helvius Pertinax''}}
| 1 January – 28 March 193<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|193|1|1|193|3|28}})}}
| [[Praefectus urbi|City prefect]] of Rome at [[Commodus]]'s death, set up as emperor by the [[Praetorian Guard|praetorian]] prefect, [[Quintus Aemilius Laetus|Laetus]], with consent of the [[Roman Senate|Senate]]
| 1 August 126 – 28 March 193<br/>{{Small|(aged&nbsp;66)}}<hr/>Murdered by mutinous soldiers of the [[Praetorian Guard]]{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1p=145|2a1=Grant|2pp=103–104}}

|-
| [[File:Lyon_5e_-_Musée_Lugdunum_-_EnQuête_de_pouvoir_-_Buste_de_Didius_Iulianus_01_(cropped).jpeg|frameless|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Didius Julianus]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Marcus Didius Severus Julianus''}}
| 28 March – 1 June 193<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|193|3|28|193|6|1}})}}
| Won auction held by the [[Praetorian Guard]] for the position of emperor
| 30 January 133 – 1/2 June 193<br/>{{Small|(aged&nbsp;60)}}<hr/>Killed on order of the [[Roman Senate|Senate]], at the behest of [[Septimius Severus]]{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1p=147|2a1=Grant|2pp=106–108|3a1=Cooley|3y=2012|3p=495}}

|}

=== Severan dynasty (193–235) ===
{{Main|Severan dynasty}}
{{Legend|#F0FFFF|(§) – Varying ascribed status{{Efn|The junior co-emperors marked as being of "varying ascribed status" are figures, mostly children, who are usually not counted as "true" emperors given their submissive status to the senior emperor, but are still present in some lists of rulers.{{Sfnm|1a1=Elton|1y=1825|1p=303|2a1=Grant|2y=1998|2p=179|3a1=Hekster|3y=2008|3p=155|4a1=Cooley|4y=2012|5a1=Kienast|5a2=Eck|5a3=Heil|5pp=v-xii|6a1=Britannica|7a1=Livius|8a1=MET}}|name=Principate co-emperors}}}}

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center; width:100%"
|+ {{Sronly|Severan dynasty}}
! scope=col width="7%" | Portrait
! scope=col width="17%" | Name
! scope=col width="26%" | Reign
! scope=col width="25%" | Succession
! scope=col width="25%" | Life details

|-
| [[File:Septimius Severus Glyptothek Munich 357 (cropped).jpg|frameless|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Septimius Severus]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Lucius Septimius Severus Pertinax''}}
| 9 April 193 – 4 February 211<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|193|4|9|211|2|4}})}}
| Governor of [[Pannonia Superior|Upper Pannonia]], acclaimed emperor by the Pannonian legions following the murder of [[Pertinax]]
| 11 April 145 – 4 February 211<br/>{{Small|(aged&nbsp;65)}}<hr/>First non-European emperor. Died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1pp=149–150|2a1=Grant|2pp=108, 110|3a1=Omissi|3y=2018|3p=9}}

|-
| [[File:Caracalla Musei Capitolini MC2310.jpg|frameless|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Caracalla]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Marcus Aurelius Antoninus''}}
| 4 February 211 – 8 April 217<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|211|2|4|217|4|8}})}}
| Son of [[Septimius Severus]], proclaimed co-emperor on 28 January 198, at age 10. Succeeded jointly with his brother, [[Geta (emperor)|Geta]], in 211
| 4 April 188 – 8 April 217<br/>{{Small|(aged&nbsp;29)}}<hr/>First child emperor. Granted [[Roman citizenship]] to all free inhabitants of the [[Roman Empire|empire]]. Murdered by a soldier at the instigation of [[Macrinus]]{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1pp=156–157|2a1=Grant|2pp=119–120|3a1=Hammond|3pp=35–36}}

|-
| [[File:Geta (cropped).jpg|frameless|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Geta (emperor)|Geta]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Publius Septimius Geta''}}
| 4 February 211 – 26 December 211<br/>{{Small|(10 months and 22 days)}}
| Son of [[Septimius Severus]], proclaimed co-emperor in October 209, succeeded jointly with his older brother, [[Caracalla]]
| 7 March 189 – 26 December 211<br/>{{Small|(aged&nbsp;22)}}<hr/>Murdered on order of his brother, [[Caracalla]]{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1p=160|2a1=Grant|2p=122}}

|-
! colspan=5 | &nbsp;

|-
| [[File:Bust of Macrinus - Palazzo Nuovo - Musei Capitolini - Rome 2016.jpg|frameless|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Macrinus]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Marcus Opellius Severus Macrinus''}}
| 11 April 217 – 8 June 218<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|217|4|11|218|6|8}})}}
| [[Praetorian prefect]] of [[Caracalla]], accepted as emperor by the army and [[Roman Senate|Senate]] after having arranged his predecessor's death in fear of his own life
| c. 165 – June 218<br/>{{Small|(aged {{Abbr|approx.|approximately}} 53)}}<hr/>First non-senator to become emperor, and first emperor not to visit Rome after acceding. Executed during a revolt of the troops in favor of [[Elagabalus]].{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1p=162|2a1=Grant|2pp=123, 124, 125–126}}

|-
| style="background:#F0FFFF" | [[File:Diadumenian, denarius, 218, RIC 4b 118 (obverse).png|frameless|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F0FFFF" | '''[[Diadumenian]]''' (§) <br/>{{Small|''Marcus Opellius Antoninus Diadumenianus''}}
| style="background:#F0FFFF" | Late May – June 218<br/>{{Small|(less than a month)}}
| style="background:#F0FFFF" | Son of [[Macrinus]], named co-emperor by his father after the eruption of a rebellion in favor of [[Elagabalus]]
| style="background:#F0FFFF" | 14 September 208 – June 218<br/>{{Small|(aged&nbsp;9)}}<hr/>Caught in flight and executed in favor of [[Elagabalus]]{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1pp=163–164|2a1=Grant|2p=125}}

|-
! colspan=5 | &nbsp;

|-
| [[File:Bust of Elagabalus - Palazzo Nuovo - Musei Capitolini - Rome 2016 (2) (cropped).jpg|frameless|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Elagabalus]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Marcus Aurelius Antoninus''}}
| 16 May 218 – 13 March 222<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|218|5|16|222|3|13}})}}
| Cousin and alleged illegitimate son of [[Caracalla]], acclaimed as emperor by rebellious legions in opposition to [[Macrinus]] at the instigation of his grandmother, [[Julia Maesa]]
| 203/204 – 13 March 222<br/>{{Small|(aged&nbsp;18)}}<hr/>Murdered by the [[Praetorian Guard]] alongside his [[Julia Soaemias|mother]], probably at the instigation of [[Julia Maesa]]{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1p=165|2a1=Grant|2pp=126, 129|3a1=Burgess|3y=2014|3pp=65–66}}

|-
| [[File:Bust Alexander Severus Louvre Ma1051 n2 (cropped).jpg|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Severus Alexander]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander''}}
| 14 March 222 – March 235<br/>{{Small|(13 years)}}
| Cousin and adopted heir of [[Elagabalus]]
| 1 October 208 – early March 235<br/>{{Small|(aged&nbsp;26)}}<hr/>Lynched by mutinous troops, alongside his [[Julia Avita Mamaea|mother]]{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1pp=171–172|2a1=Grant|2pp=130–133|3a1=Burgess|3y=2014|3pp=67–69}}

|}

=== Crisis of the Third Century (235–284) ===
{{Main|Crisis of the Third Century|Year of the Six Emperors|Gordian dynasty}}
{{Legend|#EBEBEB|({{Hash-tag}}) – Ambiguous legitimacy{{Efn|Unless otherwise noted to be some other ambiguity, the emperors marked to be of ambiguous legitimacy are those who fulfill one or more of the inclusion criteria above, but who are not universally regarded by scholars to count as legitimate. In most cases, such figures are those who held power only briefly, and/or who in times of more than one emperor held one of the capitals but never achieved the full recognition of the other emperor(s).{{Sfn|Vagi|1999|pp=415, 463, 529}}{{Sfn|Omissi|2018|p=24}}{{failed verification|date=February 2025}}{{Sfn|Seibt|2018|p=213}}{{Sfn|Tilemachos|2015|p=243}}|name=ambig}}}}
{{Legend|#F0FFFF|(§) – Varying ascribed status{{Efn|name=Principate co-emperors}}}}

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:100%; text-align:center"
|+ {{Sronly|Crisis of the Third Century}}
! scope=col width="7%" | Portrait
! scope=col width="17%" | Name
! scope=col width="26%" | Reign{{Efn|On account of the limited surviving source material, almost all dates used here are just approximate. The chronology of the whole period is dubious and sources rarely agree on each other, in part due to the fact that many reigns overlap due to most emperors starting as rivals. For an analysis of the chronology, see {{Harvnb|Rea|1972}}, {{Harvnb|Peachin|1990}} and {{Harvnb|Burgess|2014}}.}}
! scope=col width="25%" | Succession
! scope=col width="25%" | Life details

|-
| [[File:Maximinus Thrax Musei Capitolini MC473 (cropped).jpg|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Maximinus Thrax|Maximinus I]]''' "Thrax"<br/>{{Small|''Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus''}}
|{{Circa}} March 235 – c. June 238<br/>{{Small|(3 years and 3 months)}}
| Proclaimed emperor by Germanic legions after the murder of [[Severus Alexander]], recognized at Rome on 23 March 235
| c. 172–180 – c. June 238<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 58–66)}}<hr/>First commoner to become emperor. Murdered by his men during the [[siege of Aquileia]] against the Senatorial forces of [[Pupienus]] and [[Balbinus]]{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|2a1=Grant|2pp=137–139|3a1=Omissi|1pp=176–179|3y=2018|3p=10|4a1=Burgess|4y=2014|4pp=67–69}}

|-
| [[File:Gordian1cng80000719 (obverse).jpg|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Gordian I]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus''}}
| c. April – {{Circa}} May 238<br/>{{Small|(22 days)}}
| Proclaimed emperor alongside his son, [[Gordian II]], while serving as governor of [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]], in a revolt against [[Maximinus Thrax|Maximinus]], and recognized by the [[Roman Senate|Senate]]
| c. 158 (?) – c. May 238<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 80)}}<hr/>Oldest emperor at the time of his elevation. Committed suicide upon hearing of the death of his son{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|2a1=Grant|2pp=140–141|3a1=Meijer|1pp=180–181|3y=2004|3p=85}}

|-
| [[File:Gordiano II - ritratto da sesterzio.jpg|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Gordian II]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus''}}
| c. April – c. May 238<br/>{{Small|(22 days)}}
| Proclaimed emperor alongside his father [[Gordian I]], during revolt in [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]] against [[Maximinus Thrax|Maximinus]]
| c. 192 – c. May 238<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 46)}}<hr/>The shortest-reigning emperor. Killed outside [[Carthage]] in battle against an army loyal to [[Maximinus Thrax|Maximinus I]]{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|2a1=Grant|2pp=142–143|3a1=Meijer|3y=2004|3p=85|1p=182|4a1=Peachin|4y=1990|4p=28}}

|-
| [[File:Pupienus Musei Capitolini MC477 (cropped).jpg|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Pupienus]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Marcus Clodius Pupienus Maximus''}}
| c. May – c. August 238<br/>{{Small|(99 days)}}
| Proclaimed emperor jointly with [[Balbinus]] by the Senate after death of [[Gordian I]] and [[Gordian II|II]], in opposition to [[Maximinus Thrax|Maximinus]]
| c. 164 – c. August 238<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 74)}}<hr/>Tortured and murdered by the [[Praetorian Guard]]{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|2a1=Grant|2pp=146–148|3a1=Meijer|1pp=183–184|3y=2004|3p=87|4a1=Peachin|4y=1990|4p=28}}

|-
| [[File:Ritratto di balbino, 238 (cropped enhanced).jpg|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Balbinus]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Decimus Caelius Calvinus Balbinus''}}
| c. May – c. August 238<br/>{{Small|(99 days)}}
| Proclaimed emperor jointly with [[Pupienus]] by the Senate after death of Gordian I and II, in opposition to [[Maximinus Thrax|Maximinus]]
| c. 178 – c. August 238<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 60)}}<hr/>Tortured and murdered by the [[Praetorian Guard]]{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|2a1=Grant|2pp=144–145|1pp=185–186|3a1=Peachin|3y=1990|3p=28}}

|-
| [[File:Bust Gordianus III Louvre Ma1063 (cropped).jpg|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Gordian III]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Marcus Antonius Gordianus''}}
| c. August 238 – c. February 244<br/>{{Small|(c. 5 years and 6 months)}}
| Grandson of [[Gordian I]], appointed as heir by [[Pupienus]] and [[Balbinus]], upon whose deaths he succeeded as emperor
| 20 January 225 – c. February 244<br/>{{Small|(aged 19)}}<hr/>Died during campaign against [[Sasanian Empire|Persia]], possibly in a murder plot instigated by [[Philip the Arab|Philip I]]{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1pp=187–189|2a1=Grant|2pp=149–151|3a1=Peachin|3y=1990|3p=29}}

|-
| [[File:Portrait of Philip the Arab. Saint-Petersburg (head).jpg|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Philip the Arab|Philip I]]''' "the Arab"<br/>{{Small|''Marcus Julius Philippus''}}
| c. February 244 – September/October 249<br/>{{Small|(c. 5 years and 7/8 months)}}
| [[Praetorian prefect]] under [[Gordian III]], seized power after his death
| c. 204 – September/October 249<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 45)}}<hr/>Killed at the [[Battle of Verona (249)|Battle of Verona]], against [[Decius]]{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|2a1=Grant|1pp=190–191|2pp=152–155}}

|-
| style="background:#F0FFFF" | [[File:MSR-ra-73-h-1-DM (cropped).jpg|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F0FFFF" | '''[[Philip II (Roman emperor)|Philip II]]''' "the Younger" (§)<br/>{{Small|''Marcus Julius Severus Philippus''}}
| style="background:#F0FFFF" | July/August 247 – September/October 249<br/>{{Small|(c. 2 years and 2 months)}}
| style="background:#F0FFFF" | Son of Philip I, appointed co-emperor
| style="background:#F0FFFF" | c. 237 – September/October 249<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 12)}}<hr/>Murdered by the [[Praetorian Guard]]{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|2a1=Grant|1pp=192–193|2pp=152–155}}

|-
| [[File:Emperor Traianus Decius (Mary Harrsch) enhanced (cropped).jpg|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Decius]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Gaius Messius Quintus Traianus Decius''}}
| September/October 249 – June 251<br/>{{Small|(c. 1 year and 8/9 months)}}
| Proclaimed emperor by the troops in [[Moesia]], then defeated and killed [[Philip the Arab|Philip I]] in battle
| c. 190/200 – June 251<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 50/60)}}<hr/>Killed at the [[Battle of Abrittus]], against the [[Goths]]{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|2a1=Grant|1pp=195–197|2pp=156–159}}

|-
| style="background:#F0FFFF" | [[File:Coin of Herennius Etruscus as augustus (obverse).jpg|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F0FFFF" | '''[[Herennius Etruscus]]''' (§)<br/>{{Small|''Quintus Herennius Etruscus Messius Decius''}}
| style="background:#F0FFFF" | May/June – June 251<br/>{{Small|(less than a month)}}
| style="background:#F0FFFF" | Son of [[Decius]], appointed co-emperor
| style="background:#F0FFFF" | Unknown – June 251<hr/>Killed at the [[Battle of Abrittus]] alongside his [[Decius|father]]{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|2a1=Grant|1pp=197–198|2pp=156–159}}

|-
| [[File:Bronze statue of the emperor Trebonianus Gallus (detail) (cropped).jpg|100px|alt=statue]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Trebonianus Gallus]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Gaius Vibius Trebonianus Gallus''}}
| June 251 – {{Circa}} August 253<br/>{{Small|(c. 2 years and 2 months)}}
| Senator and general, proclaimed emperor after the deaths of [[Decius]] and [[Herennius Etruscus]]
| c. 206 – c. August 253<br/>{{Small|(aged 47)}}<hr/>Murdered by his own troops in favor of [[Aemilian]]{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|2a1=Grant|1pp=200–201|2pp=160–161}}

|-
| [[File:Sestertius Hostilian-s2771 (obverse).jpg|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F0FFFF" | '''[[Hostilian]]''' (§)<br/>{{Small|''Gaius Valens Hostilianus Messius Quintus''}}
| style="background:#F0FFFF" | c. June – c. July 251<br/>{{Small|(c. 1 month)}}
| style="background:#F0FFFF" | Younger son of Decius, named ''caesar'' by his father and proclaimed co-emperor by Trebonianus Gallus
| style="background:#F0FFFF" | Unknown – c. July 251<hr/>Died of [[Plague of Cyprian|plague]] or murdered by Trebonianus Gallus{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1pp=198–199|2a1=Peachin|2y=1990|2p=34}}

|-
| [[File:Aureus Volusianus (obverse).jpg|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F0FFFF" | '''[[Volusianus]]''' (§)<br/>{{Small|''Gaius Vibius Afinius Gallus Veldumnianus Volusianus''}}
| style="background:#F0FFFF" | c. August 251 – c. August 253<br/>{{Small|(2 years)}}
| style="background:#F0FFFF" | Son of Gallus, appointed co-emperor
| style="background:#F0FFFF" | c. 230 – c. August 253<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 23)}}<hr/>Murdered by the soldiers, alongside his father{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|2a1=Grant|2pp=160–161|3a1=Peachin|1pp=201–202|3y=1990|3p=36}}

|-
| [[File:Aemilianus RIC IV 20 (obverse).jpg|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Aemilianus]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Marcus Aemilius Aemilianus''}}
| c. July – c. September 253<br/>{{Small|(2 months?)}}
| Commander in [[Moesia]], proclaimed emperor by his soldiers after defeating barbarians, in opposition to Gallus
| c. 207 – c. September 253<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 46)}}<hr/>Murdered by his own troops in favor of [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]]{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|2a1=Grant|3a1=Peachin|1pp=203–204|3y=1990|3pp=36–37|2p=162}}

|-
| style="background:#EBEBEB" | [[File:Silbannacus coin (transparent background).png|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#EBEBEB" | '''[[Silbannacus]]'''{{Efn|Unmentioned in literary sources and known only from two coins seemingly issued in Rome, implying he was proclaimed emperor in the capital, probably between Aemilianus and Valerian, or against either.{{Sfn|Claes|2015|p=44}}{{Sfn|Estiot|1996|pp=105–117}}{{Sfn|Hartmann|2002}}}} ({{Hash-tag}})<br/>{{Small|''Mar. Silbannacus''}}
| style="background:#EBEBEB" | c. September/October 253 (?)<br/>{{Small|(very briefly?)}}
| style="background:#EBEBEB" | Obscure figure known only from coinage, may have briefly ruled in Rome between Aemilianus and Valerian
| style="background:#EBEBEB" | Nothing known{{Sfn|Estiot|1996}}

|-
| [[File:Valerianus Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek IN3387.jpg|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Publius Licinius Valerianus''}}
| c. September 253 – c. June 260<br/>{{Small|(c. 6 years and 9 months)}}
| Army commander in [[Raetia]] and [[Noricum]], proclaimed emperor by the legions in opposition to Aemilian
| c. 200 – after 262 (?)<hr/>[[Battle of Edessa|Captured at Edessa]] by the [[Sasanian Empire|Persian]] king [[Shapur I]], died in captivity possibly forced to swallow molten gold{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|2a1=Grant|2pp=163–167|3a1=Peachin|1pp=205–207|3y=1990|3pp=37–38}}

|-
| [[File:Ritratto di gallieno dalla casa delle vestali.jpg|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Gallienus]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus''}}
| c. September 253 – c. September 268<br/>{{Small|(15 years)}}
| Son of Valerian, appointed joint emperor. Sole emperor after Valerian's capture in 260
| 218 – c. September 268<br/>{{Small|(aged 50)}}<hr/>Faced [[Gallienus usurpers|multiple revolts]] and barbarian invasions. Murdered in a conspiracy of army officers, involving [[Claudius Gothicus|Claudius II]] and [[Aurelian]]{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1pp=209–211|2a1=Grant|2pp=168–172|3a1=Peachin|3y=1990|3pp=39–40}}

|-
| style="background:#F0FFFF" | [[File:Saloninus coin (transparent background).png|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F0FFFF" | '''[[Saloninus]]'''{{Efn|Made ''caesar'' by his father and only referred to as ''augustus'' in a single series of coins, issued while he was besieged in [[Cologne]] in 260. Coinage issued after his death lack any title; probably because Gallienus did not want to advertise the death of a second emperor in one year.{{Sfn|Shiel|1979|p=117}}{{Sfn|Vagi|1999|p=357}} It is unclear whether his acclamation was ever recognized (or even known) by Gallienus, but if he had survived it would surely have been recognized (like [[Valentinian II]], who was proclaimed by the army but was accepted by [[Gratian]]).}} (§)<br/>{{Small|''Publius Licinius Cornelius Saloninus Valerianus''}}
| style="background:#F0FFFF" | Autumn 260<br/>{{Small|(c. 1 month)}}
| style="background:#F0FFFF" | Son of Gallienus, proclaimed ''caesar'' by his father and proclaimed emperor by the praetorian prefect [[Silvanus (praetorian prefect)|Silvanus]] while besieged by [[Postumus]]
| style="background:#F0FFFF" | Unknown – Late 260<hr/>Murdered by troops loyal to Postumus{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1p=213|2a1=Grant|2pp=168–172|3a1=Peachin|3y=1990|3pp=39–40}}

|-
| [[File:Claudius Gothicus, Worcester Art Museum (cropped).jpg|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Claudius Gothicus|Claudius II]]''' "Gothicus"<br/>{{Small|''Marcus Aurelius Claudius''}}
| c. September 268 – c. August 270<br/>{{Small|(c. 1 year and 11 months)}}
| Army commander in [[Illyria]], proclaimed emperor after Gallienus's death
| 10 May 214 – August/September (?) 270<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 55)}}<hr/>Died of [[Plague of Cyprian|plague]]{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1p=222|2a1=Grant|2pp=179–180|3a1=Peachin|3y=1990|3pp=42–43}}

|-
| [[File:Aureus Quintillus (obverse).jpg|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Quintillus]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Marcus Aurelius Claudius Quintillus''}}
| c. August – c. September 270<br/>{{Small|({{Circa}} 27 days)}}
| Brother of Claudius II, proclaimed emperor after his death
| Unknown – 270<hr/>Committed suicide or killed at the behest of Aurelian{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1p=224|2a1=Grant|2pp=181–182|3a1=Peachin|3y=1990|3p=43}}

|-
| [[File:5305 - Brescia - S. Giulia - Ritratto di Claudio II il Gotico - Foto Giovanni Dall'Orto, 25 Giu 2011 (cropped).jpg|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Aurelian]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Lucius Domitius Aurelianus''}}
| c. August 270 – c. November 275<br/>{{Small|(c. 5 years and 3 months)}}
| Commander of the Roman cavalry, proclaimed emperor by Danube legions after Claudius II's death, in opposition to Quintillus
| 9 September 214 – Sept./Dec. 275<br/>{{Small|(aged 61)}}<hr/>Reunified the Roman Empire. Murdered by the [[Praetorian Guard]]{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|2a1=Grant|2pp=183–187|3a1=Peachin|1pp=225–227|3y=1990|3pp=43–44}}

|-
| [[File:P1150181 Louvre empereur Tacite Ma1018 rwk enhanced (cropped).jpg|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Tacitus (emperor)|Tacitus]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Marcus Claudius Tacitus''}}
| c. December 275 – c. June 276<br/>{{Small|(c. 7 months)}}
| Alleged ''[[princeps senatus]]'', proclaimed emperor by the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] or, more likely, by his soldiers in [[Campania]] after Aurelian's death
| c. 200 (?) – c. June 276<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 76)}}<hr/>Died of illness or possibly murdered{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|2a1=Grant|2pp=188–189|3a1=Watson|1pp=241–242|3y=1999|3pp=110, 225, 250 (n. 46)}}

|-
| [[File:Aureus Florianus Ticinum (obverse).jpg|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Florianus]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Marcus Annius Florianus''}}
| c. June – September 276<br/>{{Small|(88 days)}}
| Maternal half-brother of Tacitus, proclaimed himself emperor after the death of Tacitus
| Unknown – September/October 276<hr/>Murdered by his own troops in favor of Probus{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|2a1=Grant|3a1=Peachin|3y=1990|3pp=46–47|2p=190|1p=243}}

|-
| [[File:Probus Musei Capitolini MC493 (cropped enhanced).jpg|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Probus (emperor)|Probus]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Marcus Aurelius Probus''}}
| c. June 276 – c. September 282<br/>{{Small|(c. 6 years and 3 months)}}
| General; proclaimed emperor by the eastern legions, in opposition to Florianus
| 19 August 232 – c. September 282<br/>{{Small|(aged 50)}}<hr/>Murdered by his own troops in favor of Carus{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|2a1=Grant|2pp=191–193|3a1=Peachin|1pp=244–245|3y=1990|3p=47}}

|-
| [[File:Carusinc2955obverse.png|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Carus]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Marcus Aurelius Carus''}}
| c. September 282 – c. July/August 283<br/>{{Small|(c. 10 months)}}
| Praetorian prefect under Probus, seized power before or after Probus's murder
| c. 224 (?) – c. July/August 283<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 60)}}<hr/>Died in [[Sasanian Empire|Persia]], either of illness, assassination, or by being hit by lightning{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|2a1=Grant|2pp=194–195|3a1=Peachin|1pp=248–249|3y=1990|3p=49}}

|-
| [[File:Montemartini - Carino cropped (cropped).JPG|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Carinus]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Marcus Aurelius Carinus''}}
| Spring 283 – August/September 285<br/>{{Small|(2 years)}}
| Son of Carus, appointed joint emperor shortly before his death. Succeeded jointly with Numerian
| c. 250 – August/September 285<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 35)}}<hr/>Probably died in battle against Diocletian, likely betrayed by his own soldiers{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1pp=250–251|2a1=Grant|2pp=196–197|3a1=Peachin|3y=1990|3pp=49–50}}

|-
| [[File:Aureus of Numerian (obverse).jpg|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Numerian]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Marcus Aurelius Numerianus''}}
| c. July/August 283 – November 284<br/>{{Small|(1 year and 3/4 months)}}
| Son of Carus, succeeded jointly with Carinus
| c. 253 – November 284<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 31)}}<hr/>Died while marching to Europe, probably of disease, possibly assassinated{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|2a1=Grant|2pp=198–201|1p=252}}

|}

== Dominate (284–476) ==
{{Main|Dominate}}

=== Tetrarchy (293–324) ===
{{Main|Tetrarchy}}
{{Legend|#EBEBEB|({{Hash-tag}}) – Ambiguous legitimacy{{Efn|name=ambig}}}}

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:100%; text-align:center"
|+ {{Sronly|Tetrarchy}}
! scope=col width="7%" | Portrait
! scope=col width="17%" | Name
! scope=col width="26%" | Reign
! scope=col width="25%" | Succession
! scope=col width="25%" | Life details

|-
| [[File:Head of Diocletian, Getty Museum (cropped).jpg|frameless|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Diocletian]]''' "Jovius"<br/>{{Small|''Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus''}}
| 20 November 284 – 1 May 305<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|284|11|20|305|5|1}})<br/>'''Whole'''; then '''East'''}}
| Commander of the imperial bodyguard, acclaimed by the army after death of [[Numerian]], and proceeded to defeat Numerian's brother, [[Carinus]], in battle
| 22 December {{Circa}} 243 – 3 December {{Circa}} 311<br/>{{Small|(aged approx.&nbsp;68)}}<hr/>Began the last [[Diocletianic Persecution|great persecution]] of Christianity. First emperor to voluntarily abdicate. Died in unclear circumstances, possibly suicide{{Sfnm|1a1=Barnes|1pp=4, 30–32|2a1=Kienast|2a2=Eck|2a3=Heil|2pp=257–258|3a1=Grant|3p=204}}

|-
| [[File:Musée Saint-Raymond - 2017-09-02 - Inv. Ra 34b - 4654 (cropped).jpg|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Maximian]]''' "Herculius"<br/>{{Small|''Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus''}}
| 1 April 286{{efn|The chronology of Maximian's career is disputed. Some authors argue that he was promoted to ''augustus'' without ever being ''caesar'', as claimed by many others. Another possible date for his accession as emperor (and the first division of the Roman Empire) is 13 December 285.{{sfn|Burgess|2023}}}} – 1 May 305<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|286|4|1|305|5|1}}; '''West''')}}<br/>November 306 – 11 November 308<br/>{{Small|(2 years; '''Italy''')}}
| Elevated by Diocletian, ruled the [[Western Roman Empire|western provinces]]
| c. 250 – c. July 310<br/>{{Small|(aged approx.&nbsp;60)}}<hr/>Abdicated with Diocletian, later trying to regain power with, and then from, [[Maxentius]], before being probably killed on orders of [[Constantine&nbsp;I]]{{Sfnm|1a1=Barnes|1pp=4, 13, 32, 34|2a1=Kienast|2a2=Eck|2a3=Heil|2pp=262–263|3a1=Grant|3pp=210–212}}

|-
| [[File:Portrait of Galerius, Thessaloniki (head).jpg|100px]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Galerius]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus''}}
| 1 May 305 – May 311<br/>{{Small|(6 years; '''East''')}}
| Elevated to ''caesar'' in 293 by Diocletian, succeeded as eastern ''augustus'' upon Diocletian's abdication
| c. 258 – May 311<br/>{{Small|(aged approx.&nbsp;53)}}<hr/>Died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1pp=272–273|2a1=Barnes|2pp=4–6, 46|3a1=Grant|3pp=221–222}}

|-
| [[File:Constantius Chlorus Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek IN836 (cropped).jpg|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Constantius Chlorus|Constantius I]]''' "Chlorus"<br/>{{Small|''Marcus Flavius Valerius Constantius''}}
| 1 May 305 – 25 July 306<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|305|5|1|306|7|25}}; '''West''')}}
| Maximian's relation by marriage, elevated to ''caesar'' in 293 by Diocletian, succeeded as western ''augustus'' upon Maximian's abdication
| 31 March {{Circa}} 250 – 25 July 306<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 56)}}<hr/>Died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1p=269|2a1=Barnes|2pp=35–36|3a1=Grant|3pp=216–218|4a1=ODB|4p=524–525}}

|-
| [[File:Severus II Aureus Joanneum.jpg|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Severus II]]'''{{Small|<br/>''Flavius Valerius Severus''}}
| August 306 – March/April 307<br/>{{Small|(c. 8 months; '''West''')}}
| Elevated to ''caesar'' in 305 by Maximian, promoted to western ''augustus'' by Galerius upon Constantius&nbsp;I's death
| Unknown – September 307<hr/>Surrendered to Maximian and Maxentius, later murdered or forced to commit suicide{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1p=278|2a1=Barnes|2pp=4–5, 38–39|3a1=Grant|3pp=223–224}}

|-
| [[File:Portrait of Maxentius (SK Dresden Hm 406) 01 (cropped).jpg|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Maxentius]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius''}}
| 28 October 306 – 28 October 312<br/>{{Small|(6 years; '''Italy''')}}
| Son of Maximian and son-in-law of Galerius, seized power in Italy with support of the [[Praetorian Guard]] and his father after being passed over in the succession. Not recognized by the other emperors
| c. 283 – 28 October 312<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 29)}}<hr/>Died at the [[Battle of the Milvian Bridge]], against [[Constantine&nbsp;I]]{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1p=279|2a1=Grant|2pp=224–226|3a1=Barnes|3pp=12–13, 34}}

|-
| [[File:Bust of Licinius, Kunsthistorisches Museum (cropped).jpg|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Licinius]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Valerius Licinianus Licinius''}}
| 11 November 308 – 19 September 324<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|308|11|11|324|9|19}})<br/>'''West'''; then '''East'''}}
| Elevated by Galerius to replace Severus, in opposition to Maxentius. Defeated [[Maximinus Daza]] in a civil war to become sole emperor of the [[Eastern Roman Empire|East]] in 313
| c. 265 – early 325<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 60)}}<hr/>Defeated, deposed and put to death by [[Constantine&nbsp;I]]{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1p=282|2a1=Barnes|2pp=6–7, 43–44|3a1=Grant|3pp=235–237}}

|-
| [[File:Aureus of Maximinus II (obverse).jpg|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Maximinus Daza|Maximinus II]]''' "Daza"<br/>{{Small|''Galerius Valerius Maximinus''}}
| 310 – c. July 313<br/>{{Small|(3 years; '''East''')}}
| Nephew of Galerius, elevated to ''caesar'' by Galerius in 305, and acclaimed as ''augustus'' by his troops in 310
| 20 November c. 270 – c. July 313<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 42)}}<hr/>Defeated in civil war against [[Licinius]], died shortly afterwards{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1p=276|2a1=Barnes|2pp=6–7, 39|3a1=Grant|3pp=238–240}}

|-
| [[File:Valerius Valens coin (transparent background).png|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Valerius Valens]]'''{{Efn|name=valensandmartinian|Legitimately appointed as co-emperor by Licinius, though as western emperor (in opposition to Constantine&nbsp;I). Referred as ''caesar'' in literary sources, but called ''augustus'' in coinage. Did not actually rule anything given that Licinius did not control the west.{{Sfn|Vagi|1999|pp=466–467}}}}<br/>{{Small|''Aurelius Valerius Valens''}}
| October 316 – c. January 317<br/>{{Small|(c. 2–3 months; '''East'''*)}}
| Frontier commander in [[Dacia Ripensis|Dacia]], elevated by Licinius in opposition to Constantine&nbsp;I
| Unknown – 317<hr/>Executed in the lead-up to a peace settlement between Licinius and Constantine{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1p=284|2a1=Barnes|2p=15}}

|-
| [[File:Martinian coin (transparent background).png|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Martinian (emperor)|Martinian]]'''{{Efn|name=valensandmartinian}}<br/>{{Small|''Mar. Martinianus''}}
| July – 19 September 324<br/>{{Small|(2 months; '''East'''*)}}
| A senior bureaucrat, elevated by Licinius in opposition to Constantine&nbsp;I
| Unknown – Spring 325<hr/>Deposed by Constantine and banished to [[Cappadocia]], later executed{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1p=285|2a1=Barnes|2p=15}}

|}

=== Constantinian dynasty (306–363) ===
{{Main|Constantinian dynasty}}
{{Legend|#EBEBEB|({{Hash-tag}}) – Ambiguous legitimacy{{Efn|name=ambig}}}}

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:100%; text-align:center"
|+ {{Sronly|Constantinian dynasty}}
! scope=col width="7%" | Portrait
! scope=col width="16%" | Name
! scope=col width="24%" | Reign
! scope=col width="23%" | Succession
! scope=col width="30%" | Life details

|-
| [[File:Constantine Chiaramonti Inv1749 (cropped).jpg|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Constantine the Great|Constantine I]]'''<br/ >"the Great"<br/>{{Small|''Flavius Valerius Constantinus''}}
| 25 July 306 – 22 May 337<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|306|7|25|337|5|22}})<br/>'''West'''; then '''whole'''}}
| Son of Constantius I, acclaimed by his father's troops as ''augustus''. Accepted as ''caesar'' by Galerius, promoted to ''augustus'' in 307 by Maximian, refused demotion to ''caesar'' in 309
| 27 February 272/273 – 22 May 337<br/>{{Small|(aged 64/65)}}<hr/>First Christian emperor and founder of [[Constantinople]]. Sole ruler of the Empire after defeating [[Maxentius]] in 312 and [[Licinius]] in 324. Died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1pp=286–288|2a1=Barnes|2pp=5–8, 39–42|3a1=Grant|3pp=228–231, 234}}

|-
| [[File:Campidoglio, Roma - Costantino II cesare dettaglio (cropped).jpg|100px|alt=statue]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Constantine II (emperor)|Constantine II]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Flavius Claudius Constantinus''}}
| 9 September 337 – April 340<br/>{{Small|(2 years and 7 months; '''West''')}}
| Son of Constantine I
|{{Circa}} February 316 – April 340<br/>{{Small|(aged 24)}}<hr/>Ruled the [[praetorian prefecture of Gaul]]. Killed in an ambush during a war against his brother, Constans I{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1p=296|2a1=Barnes|2pp=8, 44–45|3a1=Grant|3p=241}}

|-
| [[File:Constant head.jpg|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Constans I]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Flavius Julius Constans''}}
| 9 September 337 – January 350<br/>{{Small|(12 years and 4 months; '''Middle''' then '''West''')}}
| Son of Constantine I
| 322/323 – January/February 350<br/>{{Small|(aged&nbsp;27)}}<hr/>Ruled Italy, Illyricum and Africa initially, then the western empire after Constantine II's death. Overthrown and killed by [[Magnentius]]{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1p=298|2a1=Barnes|2pp=8, 45}}

|-
| [[File:Bust of Constantius II (Mary Harrsch) (cropped).jpg|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Constantius II]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Flavius Julius Constantius''}}
| 9 September 337 – 3 November 361<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|337|9|9|361|11|3}})<br/>'''East'''; then '''whole'''}}
| Son of Constantine I
| 7 August 317 – 3 November 361<br/>{{Small|(aged 44)}}<hr/>Ruled the east initially, then the whole empire after the death of [[Magnentius]]. Died of a fever shortly after planning to fight a war against [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]]{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1pp=300–301|2a1=Grant|2pp=242–244}}

|-
! colspan=5 | &nbsp;

|-
| style="background:#EBEBEB" | [[File:Medallion of Magnentius.png|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#EBEBEB" | '''[[Magnentius]]''' ({{Hash-tag}})<br/>{{Small|''Magnus Magnentius''}}
| style="background:#EBEBEB" | 18 January 350 – 10 August 353<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|350|1|18|353|8|10}}; '''West''')}}
| style="background:#EBEBEB" | Proclaimed emperor by the troops, in opposition to Constans I
| style="background:#EBEBEB" | c. 303 – 10 August 353<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 50)}}<hr/>Committed suicide after losing the [[Battle of Mons Seleucus]]{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=Grant|1loc=Vol. I, p. 532|3a1=Kienast|3pp=305–306|2pp=248–250|3a2=Eck|3a3=Heil}}

|-
! colspan=5 | &nbsp;

|-
| [[File:Vetranio coin (transparent background).png|100px|alt=coin]]
| style="text-align:center" | '''[[Vetranio]]'''
| 1 March – 25 December 350<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|350|3|1|350|12|25}}; '''West''')}}
| General of Constans in Illyricum, acclaimed by the Illyrian legions at the expense of Magnentius, briefly recognized by Constantius II{{Efn|Although technically recognized by Constantius II, who even sent him the imperial [[diadem]], Vetranio is often regarded as a usurper.{{Sfnm|1a1=Grant|1p=249|2a1=Kienast|2a2=Eck|2a3=Heil|2p=307|3a1=Meijer|3y=2004|3p=127–128}} }}
| Unknown – c. 356<hr/>Abdicated in Constantius II's favor, retired, and died 6 years later{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1p=307|2a1=PLRE|2loc=Vol. I, p. 954|3a1=Omissi|3y=2018|3pp=181–182}}

|-
! colspan=5 | &nbsp;

|-
| style="background:#EBEBEB" | [[File:Coin of Nepotian.png|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#EBEBEB" | '''[[Nepotianus]]''' ({{Hash-tag}})<br/>{{Small|''Julius Nepotianus''}}
| style="background:#EBEBEB" | 3 June – 30 June 350<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|350|6|3|350|6|30}}; '''West''')}}
| style="background:#EBEBEB" | Son of [[Eutropia (sister of Constantine I)|Eutropia]], a daughter of Constantius&nbsp;I. Proclaimed emperor in Rome in opposition to Magnentius 
| style="background:#EBEBEB" | Unknown – 30 June 350<hr/>Captured and executed by supporters of Magnentius{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|1loc=Vol. I, pp. 624|2a1=Kienast|2a2=Eck|2a3=Heil|2p=306}}

|-
! colspan=5 | &nbsp;

|-
| [[File:Juliancng8851obverse.jpg|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Julian (emperor)|Julian]]''' "the Apostate"<br/>{{Small|''Flavius Claudius Julianus''}}
| 3 November 361 – 26 June 363<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|361|11|3|363|6|26}})}}
| Cousin and heir of Constantius II, acclaimed by the Gallic army around February 360; entered Constantinople on 11 December 361
| 331 – 26 June 363<br/>{{Small|(aged 32)}}<hr/>Last non-Christian emperor. Mortally wounded during a [[Julian's Persian expedition|campaign against Persia]]{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1pp=309–310|2a1=Grant|2pp=251–253}}

|-
! colspan=5 | &nbsp;

|-
| [[File:Solidus of Jovian2 (obverse).jpg|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Jovian (emperor)|Jovian]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Jovianus''}}{{Efn|From the fourth century, emperors and other high-profile men of non-aristocratic birth often bore the name "Flavius", the family name of the Constantinian dynasty. Because it was often used as a status marker rather than personal name,{{Sfn|Cameron|1988|pp=26, 28, 33}} "Flavius" will generally be omitted in the following entries for simplicity.}}
| 27 June 363 – 17 February 364<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|363|6|27|364|2|17}})}}
| Commander of imperial household guard; acclaimed by the army after Julian's death
| 330/331 – 17 February 364<br/>{{Small|(aged 33)}}<hr/>Died before reaching the capital, possibly due to inhaling toxic fumes or [[indigestion]]. Last emperor to rule the whole Empire during their entire reign{{Sfnm|1a1=Kienast|1a2=Eck|1a3=Heil|1p=312|2a1=Grant|2pp=255–258|3a1=PLRE|3loc=Vol. I, p. 461}}
|}

=== Valentinianic dynasty (364–392) ===
{{Main|Valentinianic dynasty}}
{{Legend|#EBEBEB|({{Hash-tag}}) – Ambiguous legitimacy{{Efn|name=ambig}}}}

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:100%; text-align:center"
|+ {{Sronly|Valentinianic dynasty}}
! scope=col width="7%" | Portrait
! scope=col width="17%" | &nbsp;Name{{Efn|Distinction between ''[[Nomen gentilicium|nomen]]'', ''[[praenomen]]'' and ''[[cognomen]]'', the core elements of [[Roman naming conventions]], began to fade away from the 3rd century onwards. Given that "new Romans" —that is, [[Barbarian#In classical Greco-Roman contexts|barbarians]] turned [[Roman citizenship|citizens]]— adopted the names of their masters, many citizens adopted the names [[Julia gens|Julius]], [[Flavian dynasty|Flavius]] (notable the [[Constantinian dynasty|Constantinians]]) and [[Nerva–Antonine dynasty|Marcus Aurelius]] (notable the 3rd century emperors), thus making them obsolete as [[surnames]]. As a result, most citizens of the Empire, even emperors, reverted back to single-names by the 5th century.{{Sfn|Salway|1994}}}}
! scope=col width="26%" | Reign
! scope=col width="25%" | Succession
! scope=col width="25%" | Life details

|-
| [[File:Restored head of Valentinian I (cropped).jpg|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Valentinian I]]''' "the Great"<br/>{{Small|''Valentinianus''}}
| 25/26 February 364 – 17 November 375<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|364|2|25|375|11|17}})<br/>'''Whole'''; then '''West'''}}
| General; proclaimed emperor by the army after Jovian's death
| 321 – 17 November 375<br/>{{Small|(aged 54)}}<hr/>Last emperor to cross the [[Rhine]] into Germania. Died of a stroke while yelling at envoys{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=Grant|1loc=Vol. I, pp. 933–934|3a1=Kienast|3pp=313–314|2pp=259–262|3a2=Eck|3a3=Heil}}

|-
| [[File:INC-1867-a Солид. Валент II. Ок. 375—378 гг. (аверс).png|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Valens]]'''
| 28 March 364 – 9 August 378<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|364|3|28|378|8|9}}; '''East''')}}
| Brother of Valentinian I, made eastern emperor by his brother (Valentinian retaining the west)
|{{Circa}} 328 – 9 August 378<br/>{{Small|(aged nearly 50)}}<hr/>Killed at the [[Battle of Adrianople]]{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=Grant|1loc=Vol. I, pp. 930–931|3a1=Kienast|3pp=316–318|2pp=263–265|3a2=Eck|3a3=Heil}}

|-
! colspan=5 | &nbsp;

|-
| style="background:#EBEBEB" | [[File:INC-1866-a Солид. Прокопий. Ок. 365—366 гг. (аверс).png|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#EBEBEB" | '''[[Procopius (usurper)|Procopius]]''' ({{Hash-tag}})
| style="background:#EBEBEB" | 28 September 365 – 27 May 366<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|365|9|28|366|5|27}}; '''East''')}}
| style="background:#EBEBEB" | Maternal cousin of Julian; revolted against Valens and captured Constantinople, where the people proclaimed him emperor
| style="background:#EBEBEB" | 326 – 27/28 May 366<br/>{{Small|(aged 40)}}<hr/>Deposed, captured and executed by Valens{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|1loc=Vol. I, pp. 742–743|2a1=Kienast|2a2=Eck|2a3=Heil|2p=318}}

|-
! colspan=5 | &nbsp;

|-
| [[File:Gratian Trier enhanced.jpg|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Gratian]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Gratianus''}}
| 17 November 375 – 25 August 383<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|375|11|17|383|8|25}}; '''West''')}}
| Son of Valentinian I; proclaimed western co-emperor on 24 August 367, at age 8. Emperor in his own right after Valentinian's death
| 18 April 359 – 25 August 383<br/>{{Small|(aged 24)}}<hr/>Killed by [[Andragathius]], an officer of [[Magnus Maximus]]{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=Grant|1loc=Vol. I, p. 401|3a1=Kienast|3pp=319–320|2pp=266–267|3a2=Eck|3a3=Heil}}

|-
! colspan=5 | &nbsp;

|-
| [[File:Rare aureus of Magnus Maximus (obverse transparent).png|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Magnus Maximus]]'''
| 25 August 383 – 28 August 388<br/>{{Small|(5 years and 3 days; '''West''')<hr/>''with'' [[File:Solidus Flavius Victor Trier (obverse).jpg|25px]] '''[[Victor (emperor)|Victor]]''' (383/387–388)}}{{Efn|name=co-emperor|Although they constitutionally held the same supreme power as their senior counterpart, it is customary among scholars of the later empire to only regard those who actually ruled as emperors, omitting junior co-emperors who only exercised power nominally and never governed in their own name. Most of these co-emperors were  children that barely appear in historical records.{{Sfn|Foss|2005|p=101}}{{Sfn|ODB|p=360}}}}
| General, related to Theodosius I; proclaimed emperor by the troops in Britain. Briefly recognized by Theodosius I and Valentinian II
| Unknown – 28 August 388<hr/>Defeated by Theodosius I at the [[Battle of Save]], executed after surrendering{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=Grant|1loc=Vol. I, p. 588|3a1=Kienast|3pp=327–328|2pp=274–275|3a2=Eck|3a3=Heil}}

|-
! colspan=5 | &nbsp;

|-
| [[File:Statue of emperor Valentinian II (cropped enhanced).JPG|100px|alt=statue]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Valentinian II]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Valentinianus''}}
| 28 August 388 – 15 May 392<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|388|8|28|392|5|15}}; '''West''')}}
| Son of Valentinian I, proclaimed co-emperor on 22 November 375, at age 4. Sole western ruler after the defeat of [[Magnus Maximus]] in 388
| 371 – 15 May 392<br/>{{Small|(aged 20/21)}}<hr/>Dominated by regents and co-emperors his entire reign. Probably suicide, possibly killed by [[Arbogast (magister militum)|Arbogast]]{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=Grant|1loc=Vol. I, pp. 934–935|3a1=Kienast|3pp=321–322|2pp=268–269|3a2=Eck|3a3=Heil}}

|-
! colspan=5 | &nbsp;

|-
| style="background:#EBEBEB" | [[File:Eugenius coin (transparent).png|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#EBEBEB" | '''[[Eugenius]]''' ({{Hash-tag}})
| style="background:#EBEBEB" | 22 August 392 – 6 September 394<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|392|8|22|394|9|6}}; '''West''')}}
| style="background:#EBEBEB" | Teacher of Latin grammar and rhetoric, secretary of Valentinian II. Proclaimed emperor by [[Arbogast (magister militum)|Arbogast]]
| style="background:#EBEBEB" | Unknown – 6 September 394<hr/>Defeated by Theodosius I at the [[Battle of the Frigidus]] and executed{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=Kienast|1loc=Vol. I, p. 293|2a2=Eck|2a3=Heil|2p=329}}

|}

=== Theodosian dynasty (379–457) ===
{{Main|Theodosian dynasty}}
{{Legend|#EBEBEB|({{Hash-tag}}) – Ambiguous legitimacy{{Efn|name=ambig}}}}

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:100%; text-align:center"
|+ {{Sronly|Theodosian dynasty}}
! scope=col width="7%" | Portrait
! scope=col width="15%" | Name
! scope=col width="24%" | Reign
! scope=col width="24%" | Succession
! scope=col width="30%" | Life details

|-
| [[File:Bust of Theodosius I (cropped).jpg|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Theodosius I]]'''<br/ >"the Great"
| 19 January 379 – 17 January 395<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|379|1|19|395|1|17}}) <br/>'''East'''; then '''whole'''}} 
| Retired general; proclaimed eastern emperor by Gratian after the death of [[Valens]]
| 11 January 346/347 – 17 January 395<br/>{{Small|(aged 48/49)}}<hr/>Last emperor to briefly rule over the two halves of the Empire after the [[Battle of the Frigidus]]. Died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=Grant|1loc=Vol. I, pp. 904–905|3a1=Kienast|3pp=323–329|2pp=270–273|3a2=Eck|3a3=Heil|4a1=ODB|4pp=2050–2051}}

|-
| [[File:Arcadius Istanbul Museum (cropped).JPG|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Arcadius]]'''
| 17 January 395 – 1 May 408<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|395|1|17|408|5|1}}; '''East''')}}
| Son of Theodosius I; co-emperor since 16 January 383. Emperor in the east
| 377 – 1 May 408<br/>{{Small|(aged 31)}}<hr/>Died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=ODB|3a1=Grant|4a1=Croke|4y=1995|1loc=Vol. I, p. 99|2pp=173–174|3pp=276–281|4p=58}}

|-
| [[File:Diptych of Honorius (head).jpg|100px|alt=carved portrait]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Honorius]]'''
| 17 January 395 – 15 August 423<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|395|1|17|423|8|15}}; '''West''')}}
| Son of Theodosius I; co-emperor since 23 January 393. Emperor in the west
| 9 September 384 – 15 August 423<br/>{{Small|(aged 38)}}<hr/>Reigned under several successive regencies, most notably [[Stilicho]]. His reign saw the first [[Sack of Rome (410)|sack of Rome]] in eight centuries. Died of [[edema]]{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=ODB|1loc=Vol. I, p. 442|3a1=Grant|3pp=282–285|2p=946}}

|-
! colspan=5 | &nbsp;

|-
| [[File:Solidus of Constantine III (west).png|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Constantine III (Western Roman emperor)|Constantine III]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Flavius Claudius Constantinus''}}{{Efn|name=Constantine3}}
| 407 – 411<br/>{{Small|(4 years; '''West''')<hr/>''with'' [[File:Siliqua Constans II Arelate (obverse).jpg|25px]] '''[[Constans II (son of Constantine III)|Constans]]''' (409–411)}}{{Efn|name=co-emperor}}
| Common soldier, proclaimed emperor by the troops in Britain. Recognized by Honorius in 409. Emperor in the west
| Unknown – 411 (before 18 September)<hr/>Surrendered to [[Constantius III|Constantius]], a general of Honorius, and abdicated. Sent to Italy but murdered on the way{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=Grant|1loc=Vol. II, pp. 316–317|2pp=286–287}}

|-
! colspan=5 | &nbsp;

|-
| [[File:Theodosius II Louvre Ma1036.jpg|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Theodosius II]]'''<br/>"the Calligrapher"
| 1 May 408 – 28 July 450<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|408|5|1|450|7|28}}; '''East''')}}
| Son of Arcadius; co-emperor since 10 January 402. Emperor in the east
| 10 April 401 – 28 July 450<br/>{{Small|(aged 49)}}<hr/>His reign saw the promulgation of the [[Theodosian Code]] and the construction of the [[Theodosian Walls]]. Died of a fall from his horse{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=ODB|1loc=Vol. II, p. 1100|3a1=Grant|3pp=288–291|2pp=2051–2052}}

|-
! colspan=5 | &nbsp;

|-
| style="background:#EBEBEB" | [[File:Rare solidus of Priscus Attalus (obverse).png|alt=coin|100x100px]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#EBEBEB" | '''[[Priscus Attalus]]''' ({{Hash-tag}})
| style="background:#EBEBEB" | Late 409 – summer 410<br/>{{Small|(less than a year; '''Italy''')}}
| style="background:#EBEBEB" | A leading member of the Senate, proclaimed emperor by [[Alaric I|Alaric]] after the [[Sack of Rome (410)|Sack of Rome]]. Emperor in the west
| style="background:#EBEBEB" | Unknown lifespan<hr/>Deposed by Alaric after reconciling with Honorius. Tried to claim the throne again 414–415 but was defeated and forced into exile; fate unknown{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|1loc=Vol. II, pp. 180–181}}

|-
! colspan=5 | &nbsp;

|-
| [[File:Constantius III diptych (detail).jpg|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Constantius III]]'''
| 8 February – 2 September 421<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|421|2|8|421|9|2}}}}; {{Small|'''West''')}}
| Prominent general under Honorius and husband of [[Galla Placidia]], a daughter of [[Theodosius I]]. Made co-emperor by Honorius. Emperor in the west
| Unknown – 2 September 421<hr/>''[[De facto]]'' ruler since 411; helped Honorius defeat numerous usurpers & foreign enemies. Died of illness{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=Grant|1loc=Vol. II, pp. 321–325|2pp=292–295}}

|-
! colspan=5 | &nbsp;

|-
| style="background:#EBEBEB" | [[File:Solidus of Joannes.png|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#EBEBEB" | '''[[Joannes]]''' ({{Hash-tag}})
| style="background:#EBEBEB" | 20 November 423 – {{Circa}} May 425<br/>{{Small|(1 year and a half; '''West''')}}
| style="background:#EBEBEB" | Senior civil servant, seized power in Rome and the west after [[Theodosius II]] delayed in nominating a successor of Honorius
| style="background:#EBEBEB" | Unknown – {{Circa}} May 425<hr/>Captured by the forces of Theodosius II, brought to Constantinople and executed{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=Grant|1loc=Vol. II, pp. 594–595|2pp=296–297}}

|-
! colspan=5 | &nbsp;

|-
| [[File:Bust of Valentinian III, Louvre (head).jpg|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Valentinian III]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Placidus Valentinianus''}}
| 23 October 425 – 16 March 455<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|425|10|23|455|3|16}}; '''West''')}}
| Son of Constantius III, grandson of Theodosius I and great-grandson of Valentinian I, installed as emperor of the west by Theodosius II
| 2 July 419 – 16 March 455<br/>{{Small|(aged 35)}}<hr/>Faced the invasion of the [[Huns]]. Murdered by Optelas and Thraustelas, retainers of [[Flavius Aetius|Aetius]]{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=Grant|1loc=Vol. II, pp. 1138–1139|2pp=298–304}}

|-
| [[File:Solidus of Marcian.png|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Marcian]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Marcianus''}}
| 25 August 450 – 27 January 457<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|450|8|25|457|1|27}}; '''East''')}}
| Soldier and official, proclaimed emperor after marrying [[Pulcheria]], a daughter of Arcadius. Emperor in the east
| 391/392 – 27 January 457<br/>{{Small|(aged 65)}}<hr/>Died after a prolonged period of illness{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=ODB|1loc=Vol. II, pp. 714–715|3a1=Grant|3pp=305–307|2pp=1296–1297}}

|}

=== Last western emperors (455–476) ===
{{See also|Fall of the Western Roman Empire}}

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:100%; text-align:center"
|+ {{Sronly|Puppet emperors}}
! scope=col width="7%" | Portrait
! scope=col width="15%" | Name
! scope=col width="24%" | Reign
! scope=col width="24%" | Succession
! scope=col width="30%" | Life details

|-
| [[File:Solidus of Petronius Maximus.png|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Petronius Maximus]]'''
| 17 March – 31 May 455<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|455|3|17|455|5|31}})}}
| General and civil official, murdered Valentinian&nbsp;III and married his widow, [[Licinia Eudoxia]]
| c. 397 – 31 May 455<hr/>Killed by a mob while fleeing during the [[Sack of Rome (455)|Vandalic sack of Rome]]{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=Grant|1loc=Vol. II, pp. 749–751|2pp=315–316}}

|-
| [[File:Solidus Avitus Arles (obverse).jpg|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Avitus]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Eparchius Avitus''}}
| 9 July 455 – 17 October 456<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|455|7|9|456|10|17}})}}
| General; proclaimed emperor by the [[Visigoths]] and [[Gallo-Romans]] after the death of Petronius Maximus
| Late 4th century – 456/457<hr/>Defeated and deposed by the ''[[magister militum]]'' [[Ricimer]], became a bishop. Died shortly after of either natural causes, strangulation, or being starved to death{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=Grant|1loc=Vol. II, pp. 196–198|2pp=310–311}}

|-
| [[File:Solidus Majorian Arles (obverse).jpg|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Majorian]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Julius Valerius Majorianus''}}
| 28 December 457 – 2 August 461<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|457|12|28|461|8|2}})}}
| General; proclaimed by the army, backed by [[Ricimer]]
| Unknown – 7 August 461<hr/>Reconquered Gaul, Hispania and Dalmatia. Deposed and executed by Ricimer{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=Grant|1loc=Vol. II, pp. 702–703|2pp=315–316}}

|-
| [[File:Libiusseverus01854obverse.jpg|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Libius Severus]]'''<br/>{{Small|('''Severus III''')}}
| 19 November 461 – 14 November 465<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|461|11|19|465|11|14}})}}
| Proclaimed emperor by Ricimer
| Unknown – 14 November 465<hr/>Died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=Grant|1loc=Vol. II, pp. 1004–1005|2pp=317–318}}

|-
| [[File:Solidus of Anthemius.png|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Anthemius]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Procopius Anthemius''}}
| 12 April 467 – 11 July 472<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|467|4|12|472|7|11}})}}
| General; great-grandson of [[Procopius (usurper)|Procopius]], a cousin of Julian, and husband of [[Marcia Euphemia]], a daughter of Marcian. Proclaimed western emperor by [[Leo I (emperor)|Leo I]]
| Unknown – 11 July 472<hr/>The last effective emperor of the West. Murdered by [[Gundobad]] after a civil war with Ricimer{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=Grant|1loc=Vol. II, pp. 96–98|2pp=319–321}}

|-
| [[File:Tremissis Olybrius (obverse).jpg|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Olybrius]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Anicius Olybrius''}}
|{{Circa}} April – 2 November 472 <br/>{{Small|(c. 7 months)}}
| Husband of [[Placidia]], a daughter of Valentinian III. Proclaimed emperor by Ricimer
| Unknown – 2 November 472<hr/>Died of [[Edema|dropsy]]{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=Grant|1loc=Vol. II, pp. 796–798|2p=322}}

|-
| [[File:Solidus Glycerius Ravenna (obverse).jpg|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Glycerius]]'''
| 3/5 March 473 – 24 June 474<br/>{{Small|(1 year, 3 months and 19/21 days)}}
| General; proclaimed emperor by [[Gundobad]]
| Unknown lifespan<hr/>Deposed by Julius Nepos and made a bishop, subsequent fate unknown{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=Grant|1loc=Vol. II, pp. 514, 777|2pp=323–324}}

|-
| [[File:Solidus of Julius Nepos.png|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Julius Nepos]]'''
| 24 June 474 – 28 August 475<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|474|6|24|475|8|28}})}}
----August 475 – 9 May 480<br/>{{Small|(4 years and 8 months, in [[Dalmatia (Roman province)|Dalmatia]])}}
| General; married to a relative of [[Verina]], the wife of the eastern emperor [[Leo I (emperor)|Leo I]]. Installed as western emperor by Leo
| Unknown – 9 May 480<hr/>Fled to [[Dalmatia]] in the face of an attack by his ''magister militum'' [[Orestes (father of Romulus Augustulus)|Orestes]]. Continued to claim to be emperor in exile. Murdered by his retainers{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=Grant|1loc=Vol. II, pp. 777–778|2pp=325–326}}

|-
| [[File:Romulus Augustulus, RIC X 3419 (obverse).jpg|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[Romulus Augustulus|'''Romulus''' "Augustulus"]]<br/>{{Small|''Romulus Augustus''}}
| 31 October 475 – 4 September 476<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|475|10|31|476|9|4}})}}
| Proclaimed emperor by his father, the ''magister militum'' Orestes
| Roughly 465 – after 507/511?<hr/>The last western emperor. Deposed by the Germanic general [[Odoacer]] and retired. Possibly alive as late as 507 or 511; fate unknown{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=Grant|1loc=Vol. II, pp. 949–950|2pp=332–334}}

|}

== Later Eastern emperors (457–1453) ==
{{See also|List of Byzantine emperors}}

=== Leonid dynasty (457–518) ===
{{Main|Leonid dynasty|Byzantine Empire under the Leonid dynasty}}

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:100%; text-align:center"
|+ {{Sronly|Leonid dynasty}}
! scope=col width="7%" | Portrait
! scope=col width="17%" | Name
! scope=col width="26%" | Reign
! scope=col width="25%" | Succession
! scope=col width="25%" | Life details

|-
| [[File:Leo I Louvre Ma1012 n2 (cropped).jpg|100px|alt=bust]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Leo I (emperor)|Leo I]]''' "the Thracian"
| 7 February 457 – 18 January 474<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|457|2|7|474|1|18}})}}
| Low-ranking army officer; chosen by the ''magister militum'' [[Aspar]] to succeed Marcian
| 400/401 – 18 January 474<br/>{{Small|(aged 73)}}<hr/>First emperor to be [[Coronation of the Byzantine emperor|crowned]] by the [[Patriarch of Constantinople]]. Died of [[dysentery]]{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=ODB|1loc=Vol. II, pp. 663–664|3a1=Grant|3pp=312–314|2pp=1206–1207|4a1=Croke|4y=2004|4p=569–572}}

|-
| [[File:Solidus of Leo II.png|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Leo II (emperor)|Leo II]]''' "the Younger"
| 18 January – November 474<br/>{{Small|(10 months)}}
| Grandson of Leo I and son of Zeno; co-emperor since 17 November 473
| 467 – November 474<br/>{{Small|(aged 7)}}<hr/>Youngest emperor at the time of his death. Died of illness{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=ODB|1loc=Vol. II, pp. 664–665|2pp=1207–1208|3a1=Croke|3y=2004|3pp=563–575}}

|-
| [[File:Semissis of Zeno.png|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]]'''
| 29 January 474 – 9 January 475<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|474|1|29|475|1|9}})}}
| Husband of [[Ariadne (empress)|Ariadne]], a daughter of Leo I, and father of Leo II. Crowned senior co-emperor with the approval of the [[Byzantine Senate|Senate]]
| 425 – 9 April 491<br/>{{Small|(aged 65)}}<hr/>Fled to [[Isauria]] in the face of a Revolt led by his mother-in-law [[Verina]] & [[Basiliscus]].{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=ODB|2p=2223|1loc=Vol. II, pp. 1200–1202|3a1=Grant|3pp=327–329|4a1=Croke|4y=2004|4p=572}}

|-
| [[File:Solidus of Basiliscus.png|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Basiliscus]]''' 
| 9 January 475 – August 476<br/>{{Small|(1 year and 7 months)<hr/>''with'' [[File:Basiliscus and Marcus.png|26px|alt=coin]] '''[[Marcus (son of Basiliscus)|Marcus]]''' (475–476)}}{{Efn|name=co-emperor}}
| Brother of [[Verina]], the wife of Leo I. Proclaimed emperor by his sister in opposition to Zeno and seized Constantinople
| Unknown – 476/477<hr/>Deposed by Zeno upon his return to Constantinople; imprisoned in a dried-up reservoir and starved to death{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=Grant|2p=|1loc=Vol. II, pp. 212–214|2pp=330–331}}

|-
| [[File:Semissis of Zeno.png|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]]''' <br/>{{Small|('''second reign''')}}
| August 476 – 9 April 491<br/>{{Small|(14 years and 8 months)}}
| Retook the throne with the help of general [[Illus]]
| 425 – 9 April 491<br/>{{Small|(aged 65)}}<hr/>Saw the [[fall of the Western Roman Empire|end of the Western Roman Empire]]. Died of [[dysentery]] or [[epilepsy]]{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=ODB|2p=2223|1loc=Vol. II, pp. 1200–1202|3a1=Grant|3pp=327–329|4a1=Croke|4y=2004|4p=572}}

|-
| [[File:Flavius Anastasius Probus 01c (Anastasius I) (cropped).JPG|100px|alt=carved portrait]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Anastasius I Dicorus|Anastasius I]]''' "Dicorus"
| 11 April 491 – 9 July 518<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|491|4|11|518|7|9}})}}
| Government official; chosen by Ariadne, whom he married, to succeed Zeno
| 430/431 – 9 July 518<br/>{{Small|(aged 88)}}<hr/>Oldest emperor at the time of his death. Died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=ODB|2p=|1loc=Vol. II, pp. 78–80|2pp=86–87}}

|}

=== Justinian dynasty (518–602) ===
{{Main|Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty}}

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:100%; text-align:center"
|+ {{Sronly|Justinian dynasty}}
! scope=col width="7%" | Portrait
! scope=col width="17%" | Name
! scope=col width="26%" | Reign
! scope=col width="25%" | Succession
! scope=col width="25%" | Life details

|-
| [[File:Solidus of Justin I (obverse).jpg|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Justin I]]''' "the Thracian"<br/>{{Small|''Justinus''}}
| 9/10 July 518 – 1 August 527<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|518|7|9|527|8|1}})}}
| Soldier; proclaimed emperor by the troops after the death of Anastasius I
| 450 – 1 August 527<br/>{{Small|(aged 77)}}<hr/>Died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=ODB|2p=1082|1loc=Vol. II, pp. 648–651|3a1=Grierson|3y=1962|3p=45}}

|-
| [[File:Mosaic of Justinianus I (cropped).jpg|100px|alt=mosaic]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Justinian I]]''' "the Great"<br/>{{Small|''Petrus Sabbatius Justinianus''}}
| 1 April 527 – 14 November 565<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|527|4|1|565|11|14}})}}
| Nephew and adoptive son of Justin I
| 482 <!--He was crowned at the age of 45, Zonaras XIV 5, see PLRE.-->– 14 November 565<br/>{{Small|(aged 83)}}<hr/>Temporarily reconquered half of the [[Western Roman Empire]], including [[Duchy of Rome|Rome]]. Died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=ODB|2p=|1loc=Vol. II, pp. 645–648|2pp=1083–1084}}

|-
| [[File:Solidus of Justin II (obverse).jpg|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Justin II]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Justinus''}}
| 14 November 565 – 5 October 578<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|565|11|14|578|10|5}})}}
| Son of [[Vigilantia]], sister of Justinian I
| Unknown – 5 October 578<hr/>Lost most of Italy to the [[Lombards]] by 570. Suffered an attack of dementia in 574, whereafter the government was run by regents. Died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=ODB|2p=|1loc=Vol. IIIA, pp. 754–756|2pp=1082–1083|3a1=Grierson|3y=1962|3p=47}}

|-
| [[File:Tiberios II (obverse).jpg|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[Tiberius II Constantine|'''Tiberius II''' Constantine]]<br/>{{Small|''Tiberius Constantinus''}}
| 26 September 578 – 14 August 582<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|578|9|26|582|8|14}})}}
| Adoptive son of Justin II
| Mid-6th century – 14 August 582<hr/>Died after a sudden illness, supposedly after accidentally eating bad food{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=ODB|2p=|1loc=Vol. IIIB, pp. 1323–1326|2pp=2083–2084}}

|-
| [[File:Solidus of Maurice (transitional issue).png|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Mauricius Tiberius''}}
| 13 August 582 – 27 November 602<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|582|8|13|602|11|27}})<hr/>''with'' [[File:Solidus of Theodosius (son of Maurice).png|30px|alt=coin]] '''[[Theodosius (son of Maurice)|Theodosius]]''' (590–602)}}{{Efn|name=co-emperor}}
| Husband of [[Constantina (empress)|Constantina]], a daughter of Tiberius&nbsp;II
| 539 – 27 November 602<br/>{{Small|(aged 63)}}<hr/>Captured and executed by troops loyal to [[Phocas]]{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=ODB|2p=1318|1loc=Vol. IIIB, pp. 855–860}}

|-
! colspan=5 | &nbsp;

|-
| [[File:Phocas (cropped3to4).jpg|100px|alt=statue portrait]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Phocas]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Focas''}}
| 23 November 602 – 5 October 610<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|602|11|23|610|10|5}})}}
| [[Centurion]] in the army; proclaimed emperor by the troops against Maurice
| 547 – 5 October 610<br/>{{Small|(aged 63)}}<hr/>Deposed and then beheaded on the orders of [[Heraclius]]{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=ODB|2p=1666|1loc=Vol. IIIB, pp. 1030–1032}}

|}

=== Heraclian dynasty (610–695) ===
{{Main|Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty}}

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:100%; text-align:center"
|+ {{Sronly|Heraclian dynasty}}
! scope=col width="7%" | Portrait
! scope=col width="17%" | Name
! scope=col width="26%" | Reign
! scope=col width="25%" | Succession
! scope=col width="25%" | Life details

|-
| [[File:Heraclius as job (cropped).jpg|100px|alt=miniature portrait]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Heraclius]]'''{{Small|<br/>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Ἡράκλειος}}{{Efn|From 629 onwards, Heraclius issued administrative documents in Greek.{{Sfn|Kaegi|2003|p=194}} Latin continued to be used in communication with Western Europe until the end of the empire and coins continued to be struck with Latin inscriptions until the early eighth century.{{Sfn|Grierson|1973|p=177}}}}
| 5 October 610 – 11 February 641<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|610|10|5|641|2|11}})}}
| Son of [[Heraclius the Elder]], the [[exarch of Carthage]]. Led a revolt against Phocas
| 574/575 – 11 February 641<br/>{{Small|(aged 66)}}<!--Nikephoros' "Breviarum", the closest source to Heraclius' time, explicitally states that he died at the age of 66 (see PLRE).--><hr/>Ended the [[Roman–Persian Wars|Persian Wars]], but suffered the [[Early Muslim conquests|loss of the Levant]] to the Muslims. Died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|2a1=ODB|2p=916–917|1loc=Vol. IIIA, p. 587|3a1=Treadgold|3y=1997|3pp=306, 308}}

|-
| [[File:Solidus Heraclius Constantine Obverse.jpg|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Heraclius Constantine]]'''<br/>{{Small|('''Constantine III'''){{Efn|name=Constantine3|There is particular confusion surrounding the name "Constantine III", as it has been applied to both a Western ([[Constantine III (Western Roman emperor)|Constantine]]) and an Eastern emperor ([[Heraclius Constantine]]). Heraclius Constantine is often enumerated as 'Constantine III',{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|1loc=Vol. IIIA, p. 349|2a1=Grierson|2y=1973|2p=385|3a1=Treadgold|3y=1997|3p=308ff|4a1=Kaegi|4y=2003|4p=112ff}} but this name is also often applied to the earlier western emperor and has also been used for Heraclius Constantine's son [[Constans II]] (who actually ruled under the name 'Constantine', 'Constans' being a nickname).{{Sfn|Foss|2005|pp=93–94}}}}<br/>''Heraclius Constantinus''<br/>Ἡράκλειος Κωνσταντῖνος}}
| 11 February – 25 May 641<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|641|2|11|641|5|25}})}}
| Son of Heraclius; co-emperor since 22 January 613
| 3 May 612 – 25 May 641<br/>{{Small|(aged 29)}}<hr/>Died of [[tuberculosis]]{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1pp=916–917|2a1=Grierson|2y=1962|2p=48|3a1=Treadgold|3y=1997|3p=309}}

|-
| [[File:Heraclius solidus sb 764 (obverse).png|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Heraclonas]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Heraclius'', Ἡράκλειος}}
| 25 May – 5 November (?) 641<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|641|5|25|641|11|5}})<hr/>''with his brother'' [[David (son of Heraclius)|'''Tiberius'''-David]] (641)}}{{Efn|name=co-emperor}}
| Son of Heraclius; co-emperor since 4 July 638. Co-ruler with Constantine and then sole emperor under the regency of his mother [[Martina (empress)|Martina]]
| 626 – unknown<hr/>Deposed, mutilated and exiled, subsequent fate unknown{{Sfnm|1a1=PLRE|1loc=Vol. IIIA, p. 588|2a1=ODB|2p=918|3a1=Treadgold|3y=1990|3pp=431–33}}

|-
| [[File:Solidus Constans II (transparent).png|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Constans II]]''' "the Bearded"<br/>{{Small|''Constantinus'', Κωνσταντῖνος}}
| September 641 – 15 July 668<br/>{{Small|(26 years and 10 months)}}
| Son of Heraclius Constantine; proclaimed co-emperor by Heraclonas at age 11
| 7 November 630 – 15 July 668<br/>{{Small|(aged 37)}}<hr/>[[Siege of Alexandria (641)|Lost Egypt]] in 641. Murdered in [[Exarchate of Ravenna|Sicily]] while bathing by supporters of [[Mezezius]]{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1pp=496–497|2a1=Grierson|2y=1968|2p=402}}

|-
| [[File:Constantine IV mosaic (cropped) (2).png|100px|alt=mosaic]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Constantine IV]]''' "the Younger"<br/>{{Small|''Constantinus'', Κωνσταντῖνος}}
| September 668 – 10 July (?) 685<br/>{{Small|(16 years and 10 months)<hr/>''with his brothers''<br/>[[File:INC-3023-r Солид. Констант II, Константин IV. Ок. 661—668 гг. (реверс).png|25px|alt=coin]] [[Heraclius (son of Constans II)|'''Heraclius''']] and [[Tiberius (son of Constans II)|'''Tiberius''']] (659–681)}}{{Efn|name=co-emperor}}{{Efn|Tiberius and Heraclius were crowned by their father [[Constans II]] on 2 June 659, likely as babies. Constantine tried to get rid of his brothers as soon as they came of age, but the army rioted. He initially accepted, but quickly turn against the leaders of the revolt and executed them. Then, around October 681, [[Political mutilation in Byzantine culture|cut the noses]] of their brothers, a common Byzantine punishment that disqualified anyone from the throne.{{sfn|Grierson|1968|pp=402-403, 512-514}}}}
| Son of Constans II; co-emperor since 13 April 654
| Roughly 650 – 10 July (?) 685<br/>{{Small|(aged about 35)}}<hr/>Defeated the [[First Arab Siege of Constantinople]]. Died of [[dysentery]]{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1pp=500–501|2a1=Grierson|2y=1968|2pp=402, 512}}

|-
| [[File:Justinian II mosaic (cropped).png|100px|alt=mosaic]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Justinian II]]''' "Rhinotmetus"<br/>{{Small|''Justinianus'', Ἰουστινιανός}}
| July 685 – 695<br/>{{Small|(10 years)}}
| Son of Constantine IV, chosen as successor over Constans' sons
| 668/669 <!--He was crowned at the age of 16.-->– 4 November 711<br/>{{Small|(aged 42)}}<hr/>Deposed and mutilated (hence his nickname, "Slit-nosed") by [[Leontios|Leontius]] in 695; returned to the throne in 705{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1pp=1084–1085|2a1=Grierson|2y=1962|2pp=50–51|3a1=Grierson|3y=1968|3p=568}}

|}

=== Twenty Years' Anarchy (695–717) ===
{{Main|Twenty Years' Anarchy}}

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:100%; text-align:center"
|+ {{Sronly|Twenty Years' Anarchy}}
! scope=col width="7%" | Portrait
! scope=col width="17%" | Name
! scope=col width="26%" | Reign
! scope=col width="25%" | Succession
! scope=col width="25%" | Life details

|-
| [[File:Solidus of Leontius.png|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Leontius]]'''<br/>{{Small|Λέων(τιος)}}
| 695 – 698<br/>{{Small|(3 years)}}
| General; deposed Justinian II
| Unknown – 15 February (?) 706<hr/>Lost Africa & Carthage to the Muslims. Deposed by [[Tiberius III]] in 698 and later executed by Justinian&nbsp;II in 706{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1pp=1212–1213}}

|-
| [[File:Solidus of Tiberius III Apsimar.png|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Tiberius III]]'''{{Small|<br/>Τιβέριος}}
| 698 – 21 August (?) 705<br/>{{Small|(7 years)}}
| General; proclaimed emperor by the troops against Leontius
| Unknown – 15 February (?) 706<hr/>Deposed and later executed by Justinian&nbsp;II alongside [[Leontius]]{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1p=2084|2a1=Grierson|2y=1962|2p=51}}

|-
| [[File:Justinian II mosaic (cropped).png|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Justinian II]]''' "Rhinotmetus"<br/>{{Small|''Justinianus'', Ἰουστινιανός<br/>('''second reign''')}}
| 21 August (?) 705 – 4 November 711<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|705|8|21|711|11|4}})<hr/>''with'' [[File:Solidus of Justinian II and Tiberius (obverse).jpg|30px]] [[Tiberius (son of Justinian II)|'''Tiberius''']] (706–711)}}{{Efn|name=co-emperor}}
| Retook the throne with the aid of the [[Khazars]]
| 668/669 – 4 November 711<br/>{{Small|(aged 42)}}<hr/>Killed by supporters of [[Philippicus]] after fleeing Constantinople{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1pp=1084–1085|2a1=Grierson|2y=1962|2pp=50–51}}

|-
| [[File:Solidus of Philippicus.png|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Philippicus]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Filepicus'', Φιλιππικός}}
| 4 November 711 – 3 June 713<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|711|11|4|713|6|3}})}}
| General; proclaimed emperor by the troops against Justinian II
| Unknown – 20 January 714/715<hr/>Deposed and blinded in favor of [[Anastasius II (emperor)|Anastasius II]], later died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1pp=|1p=1654|2a1=Grierson|2y=1962|2pp=51–52}}

|-
| [[File:Tremissis of Anastasius II.png|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Anastasius II (emperor)|Anastasius II]]'''<br/>{{Small|''Artemius Anastasius''<br/>Ἀρτέμιος Ἀναστάσιος}}
| 4 June 713 – fall 715<br/>{{Small|(less than 2 years)}}
| Senior court official, proclaimed emperor after the deposition of Philippicus
| Unknown – 1 June 719<hr/>Abdicated to [[Theodosius III]] after a six-month civil war, becoming a monk. Beheaded by [[Leo III the Isaurian|Leo&nbsp;III]] after an attempt to retake the throne{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1p=87|2a1=Grierson|2y=1962|2p=52}}

|-
| [[File:Coin of Theodosius III.png|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Theodosius III]]'''{{Small|<br/>Θεοδόσιος}}
| Fall 715 – 25 March 717<br/>{{Small|(less than 2 years)}}
| Tax-collector, possibly son of Tiberius III; proclaimed emperor by the troops against Anastasius II
| Unknown lifespan<hr/>Deposed by [[Leo III the Isaurian|Leo III]], whereafter he became a monk. His subsequent fate is unknown.{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1p=2052}}

|}

=== Isaurian (Syrian) dynasty (717–802) ===
{{Main|Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty}}
{{Legend|#EBEBEB|({{Hash-tag}}) – Ambiguous legitimacy{{Efn|name=ambig}}}}

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:100%; text-align:center"
|+ {{Sronly|Isaurian dynasty}}
! scope=col width="7%" | Portrait
! scope=col width="17%" | Name
! scope=col width="26%" | Reign
! scope=col width="25%" | Succession
! scope=col width="25%" | Life details

|-
| [[File:Solidus of Leo III sb1504.png|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Leo III the Isaurian|Leo III]]''' "the Isaurian"<br/>{{Small|Λέων}}{{Efn|Latin ceased being used in coin inscriptions under Leo III.{{Sfn|Grierson|1973|p=177}}}}
| 25 March 717 – 18 June 741<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|717|3|25|741|6|18}})}}
| General; deposed Theodosius III
|{{Circa}} 685 – 18 June 741<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 56)}}<hr/>Ended [[Early Muslim conquests|Muslim expansion]] in Anatolia. Died of [[dropsy]]{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1pp=1208–1209|2a1=Treadgold|2y=1997|2p=356}}

|-
| [[File:Solidus of Constantine V (transparent background).png|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Constantine V]]''' "Copronymus"<br/>{{Small|Κωνσταντῖνος}}
| 18 June 741 – 14 September 775<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|741|6|18|775|9|14}})}}
| Son of Leo III; co-emperor since 31 March 720
| 718 – 14 September 775<br/>{{Small|(aged 57)}}<hr/>Last emperor to rule over Rome. Vilified by later historians for his religious policies, hence his nickname "Dung-Named". Died of a fever{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1p=501|2a1=Treadgold|2y=1997|2p=366|3a1=PmbZ|3loc=[http://www.pbe.kcl.ac.uk/data/D43/F18.htm Konstantinos 7] (#3703)}}

|-
| style="background:#EBEBEB" | [[File:Solidus of Artabasdos.png|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#EBEBEB" | '''[[Artabasdos]]''' ({{Hash-tag}})<br/>{{Small|Ἀρτάβασδος}}
| style="background:#EBEBEB" | June 741 – 2 November 743<br/>{{Small|(2 years and 5 months)<hr/>''with'' [[File:Artabasdos-Nikephoros coin.png|26px|alt=coin]] [[Nikephoros (son of Artabasdos)|'''Nikephoros''']] (741–743)}}
| style="background:#EBEBEB" | Husband of [[Anna (wife of Artabasdos)|Anna]], a daughter of Leo III. Revolted against Constantine V and briefly ruled at Constantinople
| style="background:#EBEBEB" | Unknown lifespan<hr/>Deposed and blinded by Constantine V, relegated to a monastery where he died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1p=192|2a1=Treadgold|2y=1997|2p=356 (n. 12, p. 939)|3a1=Garland|3y=2006|3p=10|4a1=Schreiner|4pp=85–86}}

|-
| [[File:Solidus of Leo IV and Constantine VI.png|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Leo IV the Khazar|Leo IV]]''' "the Khazar"<br/>{{Small|Λέων}}
| 14 September 775 – 8 September 780<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|775|9|14|780|9|8}})}}
| Son of Constantine V; co-emperor since 6 June 751
| 25 January 750 – 8 September 780<br/>{{Small|(aged 30)}}<hr/>Died of a fever{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1p=1209|2a1=PmbZ|2loc=[http://www.pbe.kcl.ac.uk/data/D48/F19.htm Leo 4] (#4243)}}

|-
| [[File:Solidus of Constantine VI.png|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Constantine VI]]''' "the Blind"<br/>{{Small|Κωνσταντῖνος}}
| 8 September 780 – 19 August 797<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|780|9|8|797|8|19}})}}
| Son of Leo IV; co-emperor since 14 April 776
| 14 January 771 – before 805<br/>{{Small|(aged less than 34)}}<hr/>Last emperor to be recognized in the West. Deposed, blinded and exiled by [[Irene of Athens|Irene]]{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1pp=501–502|2a1=Treadgold|2y=1997|2pp=417–424|3a1=PmbZ|3loc=[http://www.pbe.kcl.ac.uk/data/D43/F19.htm Konstantinos 8] (#3704)}}

|-
| [[File:Solidus of Irene.png|100px|alt=coin]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Irene of Athens|Irene]]'''<br/>{{Small|Εἰρήνη}}
| 19 August 797 – 31 October 802<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|797|8|19|802|10|31}})}}
| Widow of Leo IV and former regent of Constantine VI. Became co-ruler in 792. Dethroned and blinded her son Constantine in 797, becoming the first female ruler of the empire
| c. 752 – 9 August 803<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 51)}}<hr/>Deposed by [[Nikephoros I]] and exiled to [[Lesbos]], where she died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1pp=1008–1009|2a1=Grierson|2y=1962|2p=55}}

|}

=== Nikephorian dynasty (802–813) ===
{{Main|Byzantine Empire under the Nikephorian dynasty}}

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:100%; text-align:center"
|+ {{Sronly|Nikephorian dynasty}}
! scope=col width="7%" | Portrait{{Efn|Most of miniature portraits used for the 9th to 11th centuries are not contemporary, but taken from the 12th-century ''[[Madrid Skylitzes]]''. The portrait of [[Nikephoros I]] is taken from the ''[[Manasses Chronicle]]'' ({{circa}}&nbsp;1345), while the portrait of [[Nikephoros II]] is taken from a 15th-century miniature of uncertain origin. All of these portraits are almost certainly imaginary. The 15th-century ''[[Mutinensis gr. 122]]'' is used for some 11th-century emperors with no surviving portrait, although these are probably imaginary as well.|name=Madrid}}
! scope=col width="17%" | Name
! scope=col width="26%" | Reign
! scope=col width="25%" | Succession
! scope=col width="25%" | Life details

|-
| [[File:Nikephoros I Logothetes.jpg|95px|alt=miniature portrait]]<br />{{Small|Non-contemporary}}
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Nikephoros I]]'''<br/ >"the Logothete"<br/>{{Small|Νικηφόρος}}
| 31 October 802 – 26 July 811<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|802|10|31|811|7|26}})}}
| Court official; proclaimed emperor in opposition to Irene
|{{Circa}} 760 – 26 July 811<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 51)}}<hr/>Killed at the [[Battle of Pliska]]{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1pp=1476–1477}}

|-
| [[File:INC-1870-r Солид. Никифор I и его сын Ставракий. Ок. 803—811 гг. (реверс).png|alt=coin|100px]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Staurakios]]'''<br/>{{Small|Σταυράκιος}}
| 28 July – 2 October 811<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|811|7|28|811|10|2}})}}
| Son of Nikephoros I; co-emperor since 25 December 803. Proclaimed emperor after the death of his father
| 790s – 11 January 812<br/>{{Small|(in his late teens)}}<hr/>Wounded at [[Battle of Pliska|Pliska]]; abdicated in favor of Michael I and became a monk{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1pp=1945–1946|2a1=Grierson|2y=1962|2p=55|3a1=Treadgold|3y=1997|3p=429}}

|-
| [[File:Byzantine co-emperor.jpg|95px|alt=miniature portrait]]<br />{{Small|Non-contemporary}}
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[Michael I Rangabe|'''Michael I''' Rangabe]]<br/>{{Small|Μιχαὴλ}}
| 2 October 811 – 11 July 813<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|811|10|2|813|7|11}})<hr/>''with'' [[File:Theophylact (811-813).png|25px]] '''[[Theophylact (son of Michael I)|Theophylact]]''' and [[Staurakios (son of Michael I)|'''Staurakios''' ('''II''')]]}}{{Efn|name=co-emperor}}
| Husband of [[Prokopia]], a daughter of Nikephoros I
| c. 770 – 11 January 844<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 74)}}<hr/>Abdicated in 813 in favor of [[Leo V the Armenian|Leo V]] after suffering a defeat at the [[Battle of Versinikia]] and retired as a monk{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|2a1=Treadgold|2y=1997|2p=431–433|1p=1362}}

|-
! colspan=5 | &nbsp;

|-
| [[File:Leo V in Madrid Skylitzes.jpg|95px|alt=miniature portrait]]<br />{{Small|Non-contemporary}}
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Leo V the Armenian|Leo V]]''' "the Armenian"<br/>{{Small|Λέων}}
| 11 July 813 – 25 December 820<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|813|7|11|820|12|25}})<hr/>''with'' [[File:Leo V solidus (reverse).jpg|26px|alt=coin]] [[Constantine (son of Leo V)|'''Constantine''' Symbatios]]}}{{Efn|name=co-emperor}}
| General; proclaimed emperor after the [[Battle of Versinikia]]
| c. 775 – 25 December 820<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 45)}}<hr/>Murdered while in church by supporters of [[Michael II]]{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1pp=1209–1210|2a1=Treadgold|2y=1997|2pp=431–433, 438}}

|}

=== Amorian dynasty (820–867) ===
{{Main|Byzantine Empire under the Amorian dynasty}}

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:100%; text-align:center"
|+ {{Sronly|Amorian dynasty}}
! scope=col width="7%" | Portrait{{Efn|name=Madrid}}
! scope=col width="17%" | Name
! scope=col width="26%" | Reign
! scope=col width="25%" | Succession
! scope=col width="25%" | Life details

|-
| [[File:Michael II in the Madrid Skylitzes (cropped).jpg|100px|alt=miniature portrait]]<br />{{Small|Non-contemporary}}
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Michael II]]''' "the Amorian"<br/>{{Small|Μιχαὴλ}}
| 25 December 820 – 2 October 829<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|820|12|25|829|10|2}})}}
| General sentenced to execution by Leo&nbsp;V; proclaimed emperor by Leo&nbsp;V's assassins and crowned by Patriarch [[Theodotus I of Constantinople|Theodotus I]] on the same day
|{{Circa}} 770 – 2 October 829<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 59)}}<hr/>Saw the beginning of the [[Muslim conquest of Sicily]]. Died of [[kidney failure]]{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|2a1=Treadgold|2y=1997|2pp=433–436, 438|1p=1363}}

|-
| [[File:Theophilos (cropped2).jpg|100px|alt=miniature portrait]]<br />{{Small|Non-contemporary}}
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Theophilos (emperor)|Theophilos]]'''<br/>{{Small|Θεόφιλος}}
| 2 October 829 – 20 January 842<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|829|10|2|842|1|20}})<hr/>''with'' [[File:INC-1528-r Солид Феофил (реверс).png|26px|alt=coin]] '''[[Constantine (son of Theophilos)|Constantine]]''' ({{Circa}} 834–835)}}{{Efn|name=co-emperor}}
| Son of Michael II; co-emperor since 12 May 821
| 812/813 – 20 January 842<br/>{{Small|(aged 30)}}<hr/>Died of [[dysentery]]{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1p=2066|3a1=Treadgold|3y=1997|3p=445|4a1=Grierson|4y=1973|4p=386}}

|-
| [[File:Michael iii.jpg|100px|alt=miniature portrait]]<br />{{Small|Non-contemporary}}
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Michael III]]''' "the Drunkard"<br/>{{Small|Μιχαὴλ}}
| 20 January 842 – 24 September 867<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|842|1|20|867|9|24}})<hr/>''with'' [[File:Solidus of Theodora II with Michael III and Thekla (cropped).png|26px|alt=coin]] '''[[Thekla (daughter of Theophilos)|Thekla]]''' (842–856)}}{{Efn|name=co-emperor}}{{Efn|Theodora's daughter Thekla appears to have been formally associated with Theodora and Michael III in the government of the Empire, although almost nothing is known about her actual role during her mother's rule.{{sfn|Garland|1999|p=102}}{{sfn|Grierson|1973|p=12}}}}
| Son of Theophilos; co-emperor since 16 May 840. Ruled under his mother [[Theodora (wife of Theophilos)|Theodora]]'s regency until 15 March 856
| 19 January 840 – 24 September 867<br/>{{Small|(aged 27)}}<hr/>The youngest emperor. Murdered by [[Basil I]] and his supporters{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1pp=1364|2a1=Treadgold|2y=1997|2pp=446–455|3a1=PmbZ|3loc=[http://www.pbe.kcl.ac.uk/data/D54/F77.htm Michael 11] (#4991)}}

|}

=== Macedonian dynasty (867–1056) ===
{{Main|Macedonian dynasty|Lekapenos|Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty}}

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:100%; text-align:center"
|+ {{Sronly|Macedonian dynasty}}
! scope=col width="7%" | Portrait
! scope=col width="17%" | Name
! scope=col width="26%" | Reign
! scope=col width="25%" | Succession
! scope=col width="25%" | Life details

|-
| [[File:Roman Emperor Basil I (cropped).png|100px|alt=miniature portrait]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Basil I]]''' "the Macedonian"<br/>{{Small|Βασίλειος}}
| 24 September 867 – 29 August 886<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|867|9|24|886|8|29}})<hr/>''with'' [[File:Solidus-Basil I with Constantine and Eudoxia-sb1703 (reverse).jpg|26px]] '''[[Constantine (son of Basil I)|Constantine]]''' (868–879)}}{{Efn|name=co-emperor}}
| General; proclaimed co-emperor by Michael III on 26 May 866 and became senior emperor after Michael's murder
| 811, 830 or 836 – 29 August 886<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 50, 56 or 75)}}<hr/>Captured [[Bari]] in 876 & [[Taranto]] in 880. Died after a hunting accident{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|2a1=Treadgold|2y=1997|1p=260|2pp=461, 490|3a1=Grierson|3pp=473–476|3y=1973}}

|-
| [[File:Emperor Leo VI detail (head).jpg|100px|alt=mosaic]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Leo VI the Wise|Leo VI]]''' "the Wise"<br/>{{Small|Λέων}}
| 29 August 886 – 11 May 912<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|886|8|29|912|5|11}})}}
| Son of Basil I or illegitimate son of Michael III; crowned co-emperor on 6 January 870
| 19 September 866 – 11 May 912<br/>{{Small|(aged 45)}}<hr/>Conquered Southern Italy but lost the remnants of Sicily in 902. Died of an [[intestinal disease]]{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1pp=1210–1211|2a1=Treadgold|2y=1997|2p=458–462, 470, 491}}

|-
| [[File:Emperor Alexander head.jpg|100px|alt=mosaic]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Alexander (Byzantine emperor)|Alexander]]'''<br/>{{Small|Αλέξανδρος}}
| 11 May 912 – 6 June 913<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|912|5|11|913|6|6}})}}
| Son of Basil I; co-emperor since September or October 879
| 23 November 870 – 6 June 913<br/>{{Small|(aged 42)}}<hr/>Died of illness, possibly [[testicular cancer]]{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1pp=56–57|2a1=Treadgold|2y=1997|2p=471|3a1=Grierson|3p=473–476|3y=1973}}

|-
| [[File:Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (cropped).jpg|frameless|100px|alt=carved portrait]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[Constantine VII|'''Constantine VII'''<br/>Porphyrogenitus]]<br/>{{Small|Κωνσταντῖνος}}
| 6 June 913 – 9 November 959<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|913|6|6|959|11|9}})}}
| Son of Leo VI; co-emperor since 15 May 908. Successively dominated by regents and co-emperors until 27 January 945, when he deposed Romanos&nbsp;I's sons
| 17/18 May 905 – 9 November 959<br/>{{Small|(aged 54)}}<hr/>Saw the beginning of renewed expansion in the East against the Arabs. Remembered for his numerous writings. Died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1pp=502–503|2a1=Treadgold|2y=1997|2p=491}}<!-- The rumors that Theophano poisoned Constantine are generally regarded to be false -->

|-
! colspan=5 | &nbsp;

|-
| [[File:Seal of Romanos I Lekapenos (detail).jpg|100px|alt=seal]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[Romanos I Lekapenos|'''Romanos I''' Lekapenos]]<br/>{{Small|Ῥωμανὸς}}
| 17 December 920 – 20 December 944<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|920|12|17|944|12|20}})<hr/>''with'' [[File:Romanos I & Christopher (reverse).jpg|27px|alt=coin]] [[Christopher Lekapenos|'''Christopher''']] (921–931), '''[[Romanos Lekapenos (grandson of Romanos I)|Romanos]]''' ({{circa}} 924){{efn|Son of Christopher and grandson of Romanos I; unattested in official documents and only briefly mentioned by [[Michael Psellos]] and [[Joannes Zonaras]]. He was probably crowned as a baby but died shortly after, certainly before 927.{{sfn|PmbZ|loc=Romanos [https://www.degruyter.com/database/PMBZ/entry/PMBZ28994/html (#28994)]}}}}<br/>[[Stephen Lekapenos|'''Stephen''']] and [[Constantine Lekapenos|'''Constantine''' Lekapenos]] (924–945)}}{{Efn|name=co-emperor}}
| Overthrew Constantine VII's regency, married him to his daughter [[Helena Lekapene|Helena]] and was made senior co-emperor. Made several sons co-emperors to curb Constantine&nbsp;VII's authority
|{{Circa}} 870 – 15 June 948<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 78)}}<hr/>Deposed by his sons Stephen and Constantine. Died of natural causes in exile as a monk{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1p=1806|2a1=Schreiner|2p=121–128}}

|-
! colspan=5 | &nbsp;

|-
| [[File:Romanos (cropped) (cropped).JPG|frameless|100px|alt=carved portrait]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Romanos II]]'''<br/>{{Small|Ῥωμανὸς}}
| 9 November 959 – 15 March 963<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|959|11|9|963|3|15}})}}
| Son of Constantine VII and grandson of Romanos I; co-emperor since 6 April 945
| 938 – 15 March 963<br/>{{Small|(aged 24/25)}}<!--He 21 years old in November 959, see PmbZ.--><hr/>[[Siege of Chandax|Reconquered Crete]] in 961. Died of exhaustion on a hunting trip{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1pp=1806–1807|2a1=Treadgold|2y=1997|2pp=495–497|3a1=PmbZ|3loc=[https://www.degruyter.com/database/PMBZ/entry/PMBZ28988/html Romanos II] (#26834)}}

|-
| [[File:Nikephoros Phokas (cropped 1).jpg|95px|alt=miniature portrait]]<br />{{Small|Non-contemporary}}
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[Nikephoros II Phokas|'''Nikephoros II''' Phokas]]<br/>{{Small|Νικηφόρος}}
| 16 August 963 – 11 December 969<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|963|8|16|969|12|11}})}}
| General; proclaimed emperor on 2 July 963 against the unpopular [[Joseph Bringas]] (regent for the young sons of Romanos II), entered Constantinople on 16 August 963. Married [[Theophano (born Anastaso)|Theophano]], the widow of Romanos II
| c. 912 – 11 December 969<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 57)}}<hr/>[[Byzantine conquest of Cilicia|Reconquered]] Cilicia & [[Antioch]]. Murdered in a conspiracy involving his former supporters (including [[John I Tzimiskes]]) and Theophano{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1pp=1478–1479}}

|-
| [[File:John I in Madrid Skylitzes2.jpg|95px|alt=miniature portrait]]<br />{{Small|Non-contemporary}}
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[John I Tzimiskes|'''John I''' Tzimiskes]]<br/>{{Small|Ἰωάννης}}
| 11 December 969 – 10 January 976<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|969|12|11|976|1|10}})}}
| Nephew of Nikephoros II, took his place as senior co-emperor
| c. 925 – 10 January 976<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 50)}}<hr/>Reconquered Eastern Thrace from the [[First Bulgarian Empire]]. Possibly poisoned by [[Basil Lekapenos]]{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1p=1045}}

|-
| [[File:Basil II crop.png|100px|alt=miniature portrait]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Basil II]]''' "the Bulgar-Slayer"<br/>{{Small|Βασίλειος}}
| 10 January 976 – 15 December 1025<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|976|1|10|1025|12|15}})}}
| Son of Romanos II; co-emperor since 22 April 960, briefly reigned as senior emperor in March–August 963. Succeeded as senior emperor upon the death of John I
| 958 – 15 December 1025<br/>{{Small|(aged 67)}}<hr/>The longest-reigning emperor; best known for his [[Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria|reconquest of Bulgaria]]. Died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1pp=261–262|2a1=Grierson|2y=1973|2pp=589, 599}}

|-
| [[File:Constantine VIII in the Exultet roll (3).jpg|100px|alt=miniature portrait]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Constantine VIII]]'''<br/>{{Small|Κωνσταντῖνος}}
| 15 December 1025 – 12 November 1028<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1025|12|15|1028|11|12}})}}
| Son of Romanos II and brother of Basil II; co-emperor since 30 March 962
| 960 – 12 November 1028<br/>{{Small|(aged 68)}}<hr/>''[[De jure]]'' longest-reigning emperor. Died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1p=503|2a1=Grierson|2y=1962|2p=58}}

|-
| [[File:Romanos III in Madrid Skylitzes.png|95px|alt=miniature portrait]]<br />{{Small|Non-contemporary}}
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[Romanos III Argyros|'''Romanos III''' Argyros]]<br/>{{Small|Ῥωμανὸς}}
| 12 November 1028 – 11 April 1034<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1028|11|12|1034|4|11}})}}
| Husband of [[Zoë Porphyrogenita|Zoë]], a daughter of Constantine VIII
| c. 968 – 11 April 1034<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 66)}}<hr/>Temporarily reconquered [[Edessa]] in 1031. Possibly drowned on Zoë's orders{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1pp=503, 1807|2a1=Grierson|2y=1962|2p=59}}

|-
| [[File:Michael IV the Paphlagonian (cropped).jpg|95px|alt=miniature portrait]]<br />{{Small|Non-contemporary}}
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Michael IV the Paphlagonian|Michael IV]]''' "the Paphlagonian"<br/>{{Small|Μιχαὴλ}}
| 12 April 1034 – 10 December 1041<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1034|4|12|1041|12|10}})}}
| Lover of Zoë, made emperor after their marriage following Romanos III's death
| c. 1010 – 10 December 1041<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 31)}}<hr/>Died of [[epilepsy]]{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1p=1365|2a1=Treadgold|2y=1997|2p=491}}

|-
| [[File:Michael V in Madrid Skylitzes.jpg|95px|alt=miniature portrait]]<br />{{Small|Non-contemporary}}
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | '''[[Michael V Kalaphates|Michael V]]''' "Kalaphates"<br/>{{Small|Μιχαὴλ}}
| 13 December 1041 – 21 April 1042<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1041|12|13|1042|4|21}})}}
| Nephew and designated heir of Michael&nbsp;IV, proclaimed emperor by Zoë three days after Michael IV's death
| c. 1015 – unknown<hr/>Deposed in a popular uprising after attempting to sideline Zoë, blinded and forced to become a monk{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|2a1=Treadgold|2y=1997|2p=491|1pp=1365–1366}}

|-
| [[File:Zoe mosaic Hagia Sophia (cropped).jpg|100px|alt=mosaic]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[Zoë Porphyrogenita|'''Zoë''' Porphyrogenita]]<br/>{{Small|Ζωή}}
| 21 April – 11 June 1042<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1042|4|21|1042|6|11}})}}
| Daughter of Constantine VIII and widow of Romanos&nbsp;III and Michael&nbsp;IV. Ruled in her own right from Michael V's deposition until her marriage to [[Constantine IX Monomachos|Constantine IX]].
| c. 978 – 1050<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 72)}}<hr/>Died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1p=2228|2a1=Treadgold|2y=1997|2p=590}}

|-
| [[File:Theodora Porphyrogenita crown.jpg|100px|alt=Portrait from the Monomachos crown]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[Theodora Porphyrogenita|'''Theodora''' Porphyrogenita]]<br/>{{Small|Θεοδώρα}}
| 21 April – 11 June 1042<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1042|4|21|1042|6|11}})}}
| Daughter of Constantine VIII and sister of Zoë, proclaimed co-empress during the revolt that deposed Michael V
| c. 980 – 31 August 1056<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 76)}}<hr/>Sidelined after Zoë's marriage to Constantine IX, returned to the throne in 1055{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1p=2038|2a1=Treadgold|2y=1997|2pp=491, 590}}

|-
| [[File:Emperor Constantine IX (cropped).jpg|100px|alt=mosaic]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[Constantine IX Monomachos|'''Constantine IX''' Monomachos]]<br/>{{Small|Κωνσταντῖνος Μονομάχος}}{{Efn|Emperors began to officially use family names from Constantine IX Monomachos onwards. The sole exception after Constantine IX's reign is Michael VI, whose family name (Bringas) was far less distinguished than those of the other imperial families and thus does not appear in official use.{{Sfn|Grierson|1973|p=180}}|name=famnames}}
| 11 June 1042 – 11 January 1055<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1042|6|11|1055|1|11}})}}
| Husband of Zoë, crowned the day after their marriage
| c. 1006 – 11 January 1055<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 49)}}<hr/>Died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1p=504}}

|-
| [[File:Theodora Porphyrogenita crown.jpg|100px|alt=Portrait from the Monomachos crown]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[Theodora Porphyrogenita|'''Theodora''' Porphyrogenita]]<br/>{{Small|Θεοδώρα<br/>('''second reign''')}}
| 11 January 1055 – 31 August 1056<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1055|1|11|1056|8|31}})}}
| Claimed the throne again after Constantine&nbsp;IX's death as the last living member of the Macedonian dynasty
| c. 980 – 31 August 1056<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 76)}}<hr/>Died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1p=2038|2a1=Treadgold|2y=1997|2pp=491, 590}}

|-
! colspan=5 | &nbsp;

|-
| [[File:132 - Michael VI Bringas (Mutinensis - color) (cropped).png|95px|alt=miniature portrait]]<br />{{Small|Non-contemporary}}
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[Michael VI Bringas|'''Michael VI''' Bringas]] "Stratiotikos"<br/>{{Small|Μιχαήλ}}{{Efn||name=famnames}}
| 22 August 1056 – 30 August 1057<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1056|8|22|1057|8|30}})}}
| Proclaimed emperor by Theodora on her deathbed
| 980s/990s – c. 1057<br/>{{Small|(in his sixties)}}<hr/>Deposed in a revolt, retired to a monastery and died soon afterwards{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1p=1366|2a1=Treadgold|2y=1997|2p=597|3a1=Schreiner|3pp=149–150}}

|-
| [[File:133 - Isaac I Komnenos (Mutinensis - color).png|95px|alt=miniature portrait]]<br />{{Small|Non-contemporary}}
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[Isaac I Komnenos|'''Isaac I''' Komnenos]]<br/>{{Small|Ἰσαάκιος Κομνηνός}}
| 1 September 1057 – 22 November 1059<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1057|9|1|1059|11|22}})}}
| General, proclaimed emperor on 8 June 1057 in opposition to Michael VI
| c. 1007 – 31 May/1 June 1060<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 53)}}<hr/>Abdicated to Constantine X due to illness and hostile courtiers, became a monk{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1pp=1011–2|2a1=Schreiner|2pp=151–2|3a1=Grierson|3y=1973|3pp=759–760}}

|}

=== Doukas dynasty (1059–1078) ===
{{Main|Doukas|Byzantine Empire under the Doukas dynasty}}
{{Legend|#F0FFFF|(§) – Varying ascribed status{{Efn|Some historians regard Eudokia as an empress regnant, while others consider her as a regent.}}}}

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:100%; text-align:center"
|+ {{Sronly|Doukas dynasty}}
! scope=col width="7%" | Portrait
! scope=col width="17%" | Name
! scope=col width="26%" | Reign
! scope=col width="25%" | Succession
! scope=col width="25%" | Life details

|-
| [[File:Constantine X portrait.jpg|100px|alt=miniature portrait]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[Constantine X Doukas|'''Constantine X''' Doukas]]<br/>{{Small|Κωνσταντῖνος Δούκας}}
| 23 November 1059 – 23 May 1067<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1059|11|23|1067|5|23}})}}
| Designated as emperor by Isaac I Komnenos during his abdication
|{{Circa}} 1006 – 23 May 1067<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 61)}}<hr/>Lost nearly all Italian territories to the [[Normans]]. Died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1pp=504–505|2a1=Schreiner|2pp=151–152|3a1=Grierson|3y=1973|3p=764}}

|-
| style="background:#F0FFFF" | [[File:Eudokia Makrembolitissa portrait.png|100px|alt=miniature portrait]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F0FFFF" | [[Eudokia Makrembolitissa|'''Eudokia''' Makrembolitissa]]<br/>{{Small|Εὐδοκία Μακρεμβολίτισσα}} (§)
| style="background:#F0FFFF" | 23 May – 31 December 1067<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1067|5|23|1067|12|31}})}}
| style="background:#F0FFFF" | Widow of Constantine X; either regent on behalf of their sons or co-ruler alongside them until her marriage to Romanos IV. Briefly resumed her regency in September 1071
| style="background:#F0FFFF" | c. 1030 – after 1078<hr/>Became a nun in November 1071 and later died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|2a1=Treadgold|2y=1997|2p=608|1pp=739–740|3a1=Grierson|3y=1973|3pp=779–780}}

|-
| [[File:136 - Romanos IV Diogenes (Mutinensis - color) (cropped).png|95px|alt=miniature portrait]]<br />{{Small|Non-contemporary}}
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[Romanos IV Diogenes|'''Romanos IV''' Diogenes]]<br/>{{Small|Ῥωμανὸς Διογένης}}
| 1 January 1068 – 26 August 1071<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1068|1|1|1071|08|26}})<hr/>''with'' [[Leo Diogenes|'''Leo''']] and [[Nikephoros Diogenes|'''Nikephoros''' Diogenes]] ({{Circa}} 1070–71)}}{{Efn|name=co-emperor}}{{Efn|Unattested in official documents; Leo is only called emperor in a singular letter, while his brother's status can only be deduced from the fact that he was [[born in the purple]] and that he also used the "imperial tokens".{{Sfn|PmbZ|loc=[https://pbw2016.kdl.kcl.ac.uk/person/156691/ Leon 15005.]}}}}
| Husband of Eudokia. Regent and senior co-emperor together with Constantine X's and Eudokia's children
| c. 1032 – 4 August 1072<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 40)}}<hr/>[[Battle of Manzikert|Captured at Manzikert]] by the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk Turks]]. After his release blinded on 29 June 1072 by [[John Doukas (Caesar)|John Doukas]], later dying of his wounds{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1p=1807|2a1=Treadgold|2y=1997|2pp=601–604, 608|3a1=Schreiner|3p=156}}

|-
| [[File:Michael VII Doukas on the Holy Crown (cropped).jpg|100px|alt=portrait from the Holy Crown of Hungary]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[Michael VII Doukas|'''Michael VII''' Doukas]] "Parapinakes"<br/>{{Small|Μιχαὴλ Δούκας}}
| 1 October 1071 – 24/31 March 1078<br/>{{Small|(6 years, 5 months and 23/30 days)<hr/>''with'' '''[[Konstantios Doukas|Konstantios]]''' (1060–1078), [[Andronikos Doukas (co-emperor)|'''Andronikos''']] (1068–1070s) and [[Constantine Doukas (co-emperor)|'''Constantine''' Doukas]] (1074–78; 1st time)}}{{Efn|name=co-emperor}}
| Son of Constantine X; made co-emperor in 1060 with Eudokia and Romanos IV. Proclaimed sole emperor after Romanos' defeat at the [[Battle of Manzikert]]
| c. 1050 – c. 1090<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 40)}}<hr/>Lost nearly all of Anatolia to the Turks. Forced to become a monk after a popular uprising. Died of natural causes several years later{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1pp=1366–1367|2a1=Schreiner|2p=157–159|3a1=Norwich|3y=1993|3p=361}}

|-
! colspan=5 | &nbsp;

|-
| [[File:Nikephoros III (cropped).jpg|100px|alt=miniature portrait]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[Nikephoros III Botaneiates|'''Nikephoros III''' Botaneiates]]<br/>{{Small|Νικηφόρος Βοτανειάτης}}
| 3 April 1078 – 1 April 1081<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1078|4|3|1081|4|1}})}}<!-- The chronology of Nikephoros III's rise is confusing and often contradictory; 3 April is the date shown in the ODB and thus the one usually used. -->
| General; revolted against Michael VII on 2 July or 2 October 1077 and entered Constantinople on 27 March or 3 April. Married [[Maria of Alania]], the former wife of Michael VII
| 1001/1002 – c. 1081<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 80)}}<hr/>Abdicated after Alexios I captured Constantinople, became a monk and died of natural causes, probably later in the same year{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1p=1479|2a1=Schreiner|2p=158–159|3a1=Grierson|3y=1973|3p=798–799, 821|4a1=Maynard|4y=2021}}

|}

=== Komnenos dynasty (1081–1185) ===
{{Main|Komnenos|Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty}}

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:100%; text-align:center"
|+ {{Sronly|Komnenos dynasty}}
! scope=col width="7%" | Portrait
! scope=col width="17%" | Name
! scope=col width="26%" | Reign
! scope=col width="25%" | Succession
! scope=col width="25%" | Life details

|-
| [[File:Alexios I Komnenos (cropped).jpg|100px|alt=miniature portrait]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[Alexios I Komnenos|'''Alexios I''' Komnenos]]<br/>{{Small|Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός}}
| 1 April 1081 – 15 August 1118<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1081|4|1|1118|8|15}})<hr/>''with'' [[Constantine Doukas (co-emperor)|'''Constantine''' Doukas]]<br/>(1081–1087; '''2nd time''')}}{{Efn|name=co-emperor}}{{Efn|Constantine Doukas notably served as junior co-emperor of two emperors, first his father Michael&nbsp;VII and then Alexios I, who briefly restored his rights. As always, this was only symbolical, as Constantine remained a minor during both tenures, having been crowned as a newborn. He died on 12 August 1094, aged around 20 years old.{{Sfn|PmbZ|loc=[http://pbw2016.kdl.kcl.ac.uk/person/Konstantinos/62/ Konstantinos 62.]}}}}
| Nephew of Isaac I, also husband of [[Irene Doukaina]], a grand-niece of Constantine&nbsp;X. General; revolted against Nikephoros&nbsp;III on 14 February 1081. Seized Constantinople on 1 April; crowned on 4 April
|{{Circa}} 1057 – 15 August 1118<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 61)}}<hr/>Started the [[Crusades]] & the reconquest of Anatolia. Died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1p=63|2a1=Schreiner|2p=159–164}}

|-
| [[File:John II head.png|100px|alt=mosaic]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[John II Komnenos|'''John II''' Komnenos]]<br/>"the Good"<br/>{{Small|Ἰωάννης Κομνηνός}}
| 15 August 1118 – 8 April 1143<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1118|8|15|1143|4|8}})<hr/>''with'' [[Alexios Komnenos (co-emperor)|'''Alexios''' the Younger]]<br/ >(1119–1142)}}{{Efn|name=co-emperor}}
| Son of Alexios I, co-emperor since about September 1092
| 13 September 1087 – 8 April 1143<br/>{{Small|(aged 55)}}<hr/>Reconquered most of Anatolia by the time of his death. Died of injuries sustained in a hunting accident, possibly assassinated (perhaps involving [[Raymond of Poitiers]] or supporters of [[Manuel I Komnenos|Manuel&nbsp;I]]){{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1pp=1046–1047|2a1=Treadgold|2y=1997|2pp=628–637|3a1=Bucossi|3a2=Rodriguez Suarez|3y=2016|3p=16}}

|-
| [[File:Manuel I Comnenus (cropped).jpg|100px|alt=miniature portrait]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[Manuel I Komnenos|'''Manuel I''' Komnenos]]<br/>"the Great"<br/>{{Small|Μανουὴλ Κομνηνός}}
| 8 April 1143 – 24 September 1180<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1143|4|8|1180|9|24}})}}
| Youngest son and allegedly designated heir of John II on his deathbed, crowned in November 1143 after a few months of having to establish his rights
| 28 November 1118 – 24 September 1180<br/>{{Small|(aged 61)}}<hr/>Last emperor to attempt reconquests in the west. Died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|2a1=Treadgold|2y=1997|2pp=636, 638–650|1pp=1289–1290}}

|-
| [[File:Alexios II Komnenos (Vat.gr.1851 folio 2v) (cropped).jpg|alt=miniature portrait|100px]]<br />{{Small|Uncertain}}{{efn|The identification of this figure from Vat. Gr. 1851 as Alexios II is by Ioannis Spatharakis.<ref name=Spatharakis>{{cite book|last=Spatharakis |first=Ioannis|title=The Portrait in Byzantine Illuminated Manuscripts|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AQ4VAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA210|year=1976|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=210–230|isbn=9004047832 }}</ref> Other historians variously identify him as a young [[Andronikos IV Palaiologos]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Hennessy |first=Cecily|author-link=Cecily Hennessy |title=A child bride and her representation in the Vatican Epithalamion, cod. gr. 1851|year=2006|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=177–183|doi=10.1163/9789004346239_010 }}</ref> or [[Andronikos II Palaiologos]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Iacobini |first=Antonio|title=Arte profana e arte sacra a Bisanzio|year=1995 |publisher=Argos |isbn=9788885897496}}</ref>}}
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[Alexios II Komnenos|'''Alexios II''' Komnenos]]<br/>{{Small|Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός}}
| 24 September 1180 – c. September 1183<br/>{{Small|(3 years)}}
| Son of Manuel I; co-emperor since 1171
| 14 September 1169 – c. September 1183<br/>{{Small|(aged 14)}}<hr/>Strangled on the orders of [[Andronikos I Komnenos|Andronikos I]], body thrown in the sea{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|2a1=Treadgold|2y=1997|2pp=650–653|1pp=64, 1289|3a1=Schreiner|3p=176}}

|-
| [[File:143 - Andronikos I Komnenos (Mutinensis - color).png|100px|alt=miniature portrait]]<br />{{Small|Non-contemporary}}
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[Andronikos I Komnenos|'''Andronikos I''' Komnenos]]<br/>{{Small|Ἀνδρόνικος Κομνηνός}}
| c. September 1183 – 12 September 1185<br/>{{Small|(2 years)<hr/>''with'' [[John Komnenos (son of Andronikos I)|'''John''' Komnenos]]<br/ >(1183–1185)}}{{Efn|name=co-emperor}}
| Son of [[Isaac Komnenos (son of Alexios I)|Isaac Komnenos]], a son of Alexios&nbsp;I. Overthrew the regency of Alexios II in April 1182, crowned co-emperor in 1183 and shortly thereafter had Alexios II murdered
| c. 1118/1120 – 12 September 1185<br/>{{Small|(aged 64–67)}}<hr/>Overthrown by [[Isaac II Angelos|Isaac II]], tortured and mutilated in the imperial palace, then slowly dismembered alive by a mob in the [[Hippodrome of Constantinople|Hippodrome]]{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|2a1=Treadgold|2y=1997|2pp=653–656|1pp=64, 94, 1012|3a1=Lascaratos|3y=1999|3p=73}}

|}

=== Angelos dynasty (1185–1204) ===
{{Main|Angelos|Byzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty}}

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:100%; text-align:center"
|+ {{Sronly|Angelos dynasty}}
! scope=col width="7%" | Portrait{{Efn|Many of the miniature portraits used for the late Byzantine period are not contemporary, but taken from the ''[[Mutinensis gr. 122|Codex Mutinensis graecus 122]]'', completed {{Circa}}&nbsp;1425 and expanded after 1453. The codex depicts almost every single Roman emperor from [[Augustus]] to [[Constantine XI]], but only the later portraits are considerable reliable, specially those of the [[Palaiologoi]].|name=Mutinensis}}
! scope=col width="17%" | Name
! scope=col width="26%" | Reign
! scope=col width="25%" | Succession
! scope=col width="25%" | Life details

|-
| [[File:144 - Isaac II Angelos (Mutinensis - color).png|100px|alt=miniature portrait]]<br />{{Small|Non-contemporary}}
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[Isaac II Angelos|'''Isaac II''' Angelos]]<br/>{{Small|Ἰσαάκιος Κομνηνός Ἄγγελος}}
| 12 September 1185 – 8 April 1195<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1185|9|12|1195|4|8}})}}
| Great-grandson of Alexios I. Resisted an order of arrest issued by Andronikos I, after which he was proclaimed emperor by the people of Constantinople. Captured and killed Andronikos&nbsp;I
|{{Circa}} 1156 – January 1204<br/>{{Small|(aged 47)}}<hr/>Suffered the [[Uprising of Asen and Peter|loss]] of Bulgaria. Overthrown and blinded by Alexios III in 1195, reinstalled in 1203{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|2a1=Treadgold|2y=1997|1p=1012|2pp=654–660|3a1=Schreiner|3pp=183–185|4a1=Macrides|4y=1999|4loc=VI: p. 75, X: p. 514, XII: p. 195}}

|-
| [[File:145 - Alexios III Angelos (Mutinensis - color).png|100px|alt=miniature portrait]]<br />{{Small|Non-contemporary}}
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[Alexios III Angelos|'''Alexios III''' Angelos]]<br/>&nbsp;&nbsp;{{Small|Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός}}{{Efn|Alexios III used the name Alexios Komnenos Angelos (Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός Ἄγγελος) prior to his accession but reigned as Alexios Komnenos, dropping his own family name in order to stress his matrilineal descent from the Komnenos dynasty.{{Sfn|Cotsonis|2020|pp=260–261}}}}
| 8 April 1195 – 17/18 July 1203<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1195|4|8|1203|7|18}})}}
| Elder brother of Isaac II, overthrew and blinded his brother
| c. 1153 – 1211/1212<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 58)}}<hr/>Fled after brief resistance against the [[Fourth Crusade]]. Died a natural death after being captured and forced to become a monk by [[Theodore I Laskaris|Theodore I]]{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|2a1=Treadgold|2y=1997|2pp=659–664|1pp=64–65|3a1=Schreiner|3pp=183–185}}

|-
| [[File:146 - Alexios IV Angelos (Mutinensis - color).png|100px|alt=miniature portrait]]<br />{{Small|Non-contemporary}}
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[Alexios IV Angelos|'''Alexios IV''' Angelos]]<br/>{{Small|Ἀλέξιος Ἄγγελος}}
| 19 July 1203 – 27 January 1204<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1203|7|19|1204|1|27}})}}
| Son of Isaac II, overthrew Alexios III with the help of the crusaders as part of the [[Fourth Crusade]], then named co-emperor alongside his blinded father
| c. 1182/1183 – c. 8 February 1204<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 21)}}<hr/>Deposed and imprisoned by [[Alexios V Doukas|Alexios V]], then strangled in prison{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1pp=65–66|2a1=Schreiner|2pp=183–185}}

|-
| [[File:144 - Isaac II Angelos (Mutinensis - color).png|100px|alt=miniature portrait]]<br />{{Small|Non-contemporary}}
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[Isaac II Angelos|'''Isaac II''' Angelos]]<br/>{{Small|Ἰσαάκιος Κομνηνός Ἄγγελος<br/>('''second reign''')}}
| 19 July 1203 – 27 January (?) 1204<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1203|7|19|1204|1|27}})<!--The reign lengths for Alexios III to Alexios V are given by Choniates and confirmed by the Kleinchroniken no.7, but are often ignored by modern historians, for some reason.-->}}
| Freed from imprisonment during the Fourth Crusade by courtiers and reinstated as ruler after Alexios III abandoned the defense of Constantinople
| c. 1156 – January 1204<br/>{{Small|(aged 47)}}<hr/>Became senile or demented and died of natural causes around the time of Alexios&nbsp;V's coup{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|2a1=Treadgold|2y=1997|1p=1012|2pp=654–660|3a1=Schreiner|3pp=183–185|4a1=Macrides|4y=1999|4loc=VI: p. 75, X: p. 514, XII: p. 195}}

|-
! colspan=5 | &nbsp;

|-
| [[File:Alexius V (cropped).JPG|100px|alt=miniature portrait]]<br />{{Small|Non-contemporary}}
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[Alexios V Doukas|'''Alexios V''' Doukas]] "Mourtzouphlos"<br/>{{Small|Ἀλέξιος Δούκας}}
| 27/28 January – 12 April 1204<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1204|1|27|1204|4|12}})}}
| Seized power through a palace coup, son-in-law of Alexios III.
| c. 1139 – c. late November 1204<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 65)}}<hr/>Fled during the [[sack of Constantinople]]. Blinded by Alexios III, later captured by crusader [[Thierry de Loos]] and thrown from the [[Column of Theodosius]]{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|2a1=Treadgold|2y=1997|1p=66|2pp=265–266, 665|3a1=Schreiner|3pp=185–186}}

|}

=== Laskaris dynasty (1205–1261) ===
{{Main|Laskaris|Empire of Nicaea}}
:{{Small|'''''Note:''' Roman rule in Constantinople was interrupted with the [[sack of Constantinople|capture and sack of the city]] by the [[Fourth Crusade|crusaders]] in 1204, which led to the establishment of the [[Frankokratia]]. Though the crusaders created a new line of [[Latin emperor]]s in the city, modern historians recognize the line of emperors of the Laskaris dynasty, reigning in [[Empire of Nicaea|Nicaea]], as the legitimate Roman emperors during the [[struggle for Constantinople]] because the Nicene Empire eventually retook the city.{{Sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=734}} For other lines of claimant emperors, see [[List of Trapezuntine emperors]] and [[List of Thessalonian emperors]].''}}

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:100%; text-align:center"
|+ {{Sronly|Laskaris dynasty}}
! scope=col width="7%" | Portrait{{Efn|name=Mutinensis}}
! scope=col width="17%" | Name
! scope=col width="26%" | Reign
! scope=col width="25%" | Succession
! scope=col width="25%" | Life details

|-
| [[File:148 - Theodore I Laskaris (Mutinensis - color).png|100px|alt=miniature portrait]]<br />{{Small|Non-contemporary}}
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[Theodore I Laskaris|'''Theodore I''' Laskaris]]<br/>{{Small|Θεόδωρος Κομνηνὸς Λάσκαρις}}
|{{Circa}} May 1205 – November 1221<br/>{{Small|(16 years and 6 months)<hr/>''with'' [[Nicholas Laskaris (son of Theodore I)|'''Nicholas''' Laskaris]] ({{circa}} 1208–1210)}}{{Efn|Unattested in coins, Nicholas is called "emperor and heir" in a single document. He died soon after, less than 10 years old.{{sfn|Angelov|2019|p=32}}}}
| Husband of [[Anna Komnene Angelina]], a daughter of Alexios III. Organized resistance against the [[Latin Empire]] in [[Empire of Nicaea|Nicaea]] and proclaimed emperor in 1205 after the [[Battle of Adrianople (1205)|Battle of Adrianople]]; crowned by Patriarch [[Michael IV of Constantinople|Michael IV]] on 6 April 1208.
| c. 1174 – November 1221<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 47)}}<hr/>Died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1pp=2039–2040|2a1=Angelov|2y=2019|2p=18|3a1=Dragon|3y=2003|3p=275}}

|-
| [[File:149 - John III Doukas Vatatzes (Mutinensis - color).png|100px|alt=miniature portrait]]<br />{{Small|Non-contemporary}}
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[John III Vatatzes|'''John III''' Vatatzes]]<br/>{{Small|Ἰωάννης Δούκας Βατάτζης}}
| c. December 1221 – 3 November 1254<br/>{{Small|(32 years and 11 months)}}
| Husband of [[Irene Laskarina]], a daughter of Theodore I
| c. 1192 – 3 November 1254<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 62)}}<hr/>Started Nicaean expansionism. Died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1pp=1047–1048|2a1=Angelov|2y=2019|2p=256}}<!-- "Darrouzès dates the accession to around December 15, 1221, but the logic of his calculations is questionable"-->

|-
| [[File:Theodoros II Laskaris (cropped).jpg|100px|alt=miniature portrait]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[Theodore II Laskaris|'''Theodore II''' Laskaris]]<br/>{{Small|Θεόδωρος Δούκας Λάσκαρις}}
| 3 November 1254 – 16 August 1258<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1254|11|3|1258|8|16}})}}
| Son of John III and grandson of Theodore&nbsp;I, co-emperor since about 1235
| November 1221 – 16 August 1258<br/>{{Small|(aged 36)}}<hr/>Died of [[epilepsy]]{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1pp=2040–2041|2a1=Treadgold|2y=1997|2p=731|3a1=Angelov|3y=2019|3p=61, 258, 325}}

|-
| [[File:151 - John IV Laskaris (Mutinensis - color) (cropped).png|100px|alt=miniature portrait]]<br />{{Small|Non-contemporary}}
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[John IV Laskaris|'''John IV''' Laskaris]]<br/>{{Small|Ἰωάννης Δούκας Λάσκαρις}}
| 16 August 1258 – 25 December 1261<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1258|8|16|1261|12|25}})}}
| Son and co-emperor of Theodore II
| 25 December 1250 – c. 1305<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 55)}}<hr/>Blinded, deposed and imprisoned by [[Michael&nbsp;VIII Palaiologos]] in 1261, died in captivity several decades later{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1pp=1048–1049|2a1=Macrides|2y=2013|2p=303|3a1=Angelov|3y=2019|3p=305|4a1=PLP|4p=2663 (#14534)}}

|}

=== Palaiologos dynasty (1259–1453) ===
{{Main|Palaiologos|Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty}}
:{{Small|'''''Note:''' The Empire had up to three capitals: [[Selymbria]], [[Thessalonica]] and [[Constantinople]].<ref>{{Cite book |editor-last1=Jeffreys |editor-first1=Elizabeth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=liFKua_cWL8C&pg=PA292 |page=292 |title=The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies |editor-last2=Haldon |editor-first2=John F. |editor-last3=Cormack |editor-first3=Robin |date=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-925246-6 |language=en}}</ref>''}}

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:100%; text-align:center"
|+ {{Sronly|Palaiologos dynasty}}
! scope=col width="7%" | Portrait
! scope=col width="17%" | Name
! scope=col width="26%" | Reign
! scope=col width="25%" | Succession
! scope=col width="25%" | Life details

|-
| [[File:Miniature of Michael VIII (cropped).png|100px|alt=miniature portrait]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[Michael VIII Palaiologos|'''Michael VIII''' Palaiologos]]<br/>{{Small|Μιχαὴλ Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνὸς Παλαιολόγος}}
| 1 January 1259 – 11 December 1282<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1259|1|1|1282|12|11}})}}
| Great-grandson of Alexios III; became regent for John&nbsp;IV in 1258 and crowned co-emperor in 1259. [[Reconquest of Constantinople|Regained Constantinople]] on 25 July 1261, entered the city on 15 August. Became sole ruler after deposing John&nbsp;IV on 25 December
| 1224/1225 – 11 December 1282<br/>{{Small|(aged 57/58)}}<hr/>Died of [[dysentery]]{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|2a1=Treadgold|2y=1997|2p=745|1p=1367|3a1=Schreiner|3pp=196–206|4a1=PLP|4p=3929 (#21528)}}

|-
| [[File:Miniature of Andronikos II (cropped).png|100px|alt=miniature portrait]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[Andronikos II Palaiologos|'''Andronikos II''' Palaiologos]]<br/>{{Small|Ἀνδρόνικος Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνὸς Παλαιολόγος}}
| 11 December 1282 – 24 May 1328<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1282|12|11|1328|5|24}})<hr/>''with'' [[File:Violante of Montferrat.png|28px|alt=coin]] [[Irene of Montferrat|'''Irene''']] (1303–1317, in [[Thessalonica]])}}{{Efn|name=Thessalonica|During the last years of the Empire, the territory of [[Thessalonica]] was effectively ruled as separate realm from Constantinople. Two empresses, [[Irene of Montferrat|Irene]] and [[Anna of Savoy|Anna]], took residence there, even having their own courts and ruling as ''de facto'' empresses regnant. Anna notably ruled in Thessalonica in opposition to [[John VI Kantakouzenos]], who later recognized her portion of the empire.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Russell |first=Eugenia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ObCX9iXMp5kC&pg=PA17 |title=St. Demetrius of Thessalonica|date=2010 |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=978-3-0343-0181-7 |pages=17 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nicol |first=Norman Douglas |title=Anna of Savoy in Thessalonica |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/numi_0484-8942_1977_num_6_19_1764 |journal=Revue Numismatique |volume=6 |issue=19 |pages=87–102 |doi=10.3406/numi.1977.1764}}</ref>}}
| Son of Michael VIII; named co-emperor shortly after 1261, crowned on 8 November 1272
| 25 March 1259 – 13 February 1332<br/>{{Small|(aged 72)}}<hr/>Deposed by his grandson [[Andronikos III Palaiologos|Andronikos&nbsp;III]] in 1328 and became a monk, dying of natural causes four years later{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1pp=94–95|2a1=Angelov|2y=2009|2p=100|3a1=PLP|3p=3889 (#21436)}}

|-
| style="background:#F0FFFF" | [[File:154 - Michael IX Palaiologos (Mutinensis - color).png|100px|alt=miniature portrait]]<br />{{Small|Non-contemporary}}
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F0FFFF" | &nbsp;&nbsp;[[Michael IX Palaiologos|'''Michael IX''' Palaiologos]] (§)<br/>{{Small|Μιχαὴλ Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνὸς Παλαιολόγος}}
| style="background:#F0FFFF" | 21 May 1294 – 12 October 1320<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1294|5|21|1320|10|12}})}}
| style="background:#F0FFFF" | Son and co-ruler of Andronikos II, named co-emperor in 1281, crowned on 21 May 1294
| style="background:#F0FFFF" | 17 April 1277/1278 – 12 October 1320<br/>{{Small|(aged 42/43)}}<hr/>Allegedly died of grief due to the accidental murder of his second son, probably died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1pp=1367–8|2a1=Treadgold|2y=1997|2p=755|3a1=Angelov|3y=2009|3p=100|4a1=PLP|4p=3931 (#21529)}}

|-
| [[File:Андроник III Палеолог (cropped).jpg|100px|alt=miniature portrait]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[Andronikos III Palaiologos|'''Andronikos III''' Palaiologos]]<br/>{{Small|Ἀνδρόνικος Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνός Παλαιολόγος}}
| 24 May 1328 – 15 June 1341<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1328|5|24|1341|6|15}})}}
| Son of Michael IX, named co-emperor between 1308 and 1313. [[Byzantine civil war of 1321–1328|Fought with his grandfather]] Andronikos&nbsp;II for power from April 1321 onwards. Crowned emperor on 2 February 1325, became sole emperor after deposing Andronikos II
| 25 March 1297 – 15 June 1341<br/>{{Small|(aged 44)}}<hr/>Last Emperor to effectively control Greece. Died of sudden illness, possibly [[malaria]]{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|2a1=Treadgold|2y=1997|2p=764|1p=95|3a1=Lascaratos|3a2=Marketos|3y=1997|3pp=106–9|4a1=PLP|4p=3891 (#21437)}}

|-
|
[[File:Restored mosaic of John V Palaiologos (head cropped).jpg|100px|alt=miniature portrait]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[John V Palaiologos|'''John V''' Palaiologos]]<br/>{{Small|Ίωάννης Κομνηνός Παλαιολόγος}}
|<br/>15 June 1341 – 16 February 1391<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1341|6|15|1391|2|16}})<br/>{{Collapsible list
| titlestyle = background-color:transparent; text-align:right; font-weight:normal
| title = Details
| expand = 
| <hr/> 
* 15 June 1341 – 12 August 1376<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1341|6|15|1376|8|12}})}}
* 1 July 1379 – 14 April 1390<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1379|7|1|1390|4|14}})}}
* 17 September 1390 – 16 February 1391<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1390|9|17|1391|2|16}})}}
}}<hr/>''with'' [[File:Assarion of Anna of Savoy.png|28px|alt=coin]] [[Anna of Savoy|'''Anna''']] (1351–1365, in [[Thessalonica]])}}{{Efn|name=Thessalonica}}
| Son of Andronikos III, not formally crowned until 19 November 1341. Dominated by regents until 1354, faced numerous usurpations and civil wars throughout his long reign
| 18 June 1332 – 16 February 1391<br/>{{Small|(aged 58)}}<hr/>Reigned almost 50 years, but only held effective power for 33. Lost almost all territories outside Constantinople. Died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1p=1050|2a1=Schreiner|2pp=253, 345|3a1=PLP|3p=3912 (#21485)}}

|-
| [[File:Johannes VI. Cantacuzenos (cropped).jpg|100px|alt=miniature portrait]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[John VI Kantakouzenos|'''John VI''' Kantakouzenos]]<br/>{{Small|Ἰωάννης Ἄγγελος Κομνηνὸς Παλαιολόγος Καντακουζηνός}}
| 8 February 1347 – 10 December 1354<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1347|2|8|1354|12|10}})<hr/>''with'' [[File:Matthew Kantakouzenos.png|28px|alt=coin]] [[Matthew Kantakouzenos|'''Matthew''' Kantakouzenos]] (1353–1357)}}{{Efn|name=co-emperor}}
| Related to the Palaiologoi through his mother. Proclaimed by the army on 26 October 1341, became regent and senior co-emperor after a [[Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347|lengthy civil war]] with John&nbsp;V's mother, [[Anna of Savoy]]. Entered Constantinople on 8 February, crowned on 21 May 1347
|{{Circa}} 1295 – 15 June 1383<br/>{{Small|(aged approx. 88)}}<hr/>Deposed by John&nbsp;V in [[Byzantine civil war of 1352–1357|another civil war]] and retired, becoming a monk. Died of natural causes several decades later{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1pp=1050–1051|2a1=Schreiner|2pp=252–288|3a1=PLP|3p=2046 (#10973)|4a1=Feiller|4y=1976}}

|-
| [[File:158 - Andronikos IV Palaiologos (Mutinensis - color).png|100px|alt=miniature portrait]]<br />{{Small|Non-contemporary}}
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[Andronikos IV Palaiologos|'''Andronikos IV''' Palaiologos]]<br/>{{Small|Ἀνδρόνικος Κομνηνός Παλαιολόγος}}
| 12 August 1376 – 1 July 1379<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1376|8|12|1379|7|1}})}}<br/>May 1381 – June 1385<br/>{{Small|(4 years, in [[Selymbria]])}}
| Son of John V and grandson of John&nbsp;VI; named co-emperor and heir in 1352, but imprisoned and partially [[Political mutilation in Byzantine culture|blinded]] after a failed rebellion in May 1373. Rebelled again and successfully [[Byzantine civil war of 1373–1379|deposed his father]] in 1376; not formally crowned until 18 October 1377
| 11 April 1348 – 25/28 June 1385<br/>{{Small|(aged 37)}}<hr/>[[Byzantine civil war of 1373–1379|Deposed by John V]] in 1379; fled to [[Galata]] in exile but was restored as co-emperor and heir in May 1381, ruling over [[Selymbria]] and the [[Sea of Marmara|coast of Marmara]]. Rebelled again in June 1385 but died shortly thereafter{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|2a1=Mladenov|2y=2003|2p=190|1p=95|3a1=Schreiner|3pp=312–321|4a1=PLP|4p=3893 (#21438)}}

|-
| [[File:159 - John VII Palaiologos (Mutinensis - color).png|100px|alt=miniature portrait]]<br />{{Small|Non-contemporary}}
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[John VII Palaiologos|'''John VII''' Palaiologos]]<br/>{{Small|Ίωάννης Παλαιολόγος}}
| June 1385 – April 1390<br/>{{Small|(4 years and 10 months, in [[Selymbria]])}}{{Efn|John VII inherited his father's lands around Selymbria and, as per a 1381 agreement with Andronikos IV that legitimized his role as co-emperor and heir. He ruled there with the title of emperor (''basileus''), although he ruled heavely influenced by the Ottomans and [[Republic of Genoa|Genoese]].<ref>{{Cite thesis|last=Leonte|first=Florin|title=Rhetoric in Purple|date=2012|degree=PhD|publisher=[[Central European University]]|url=https://www.etd.ceu.edu/2012/leonte_florin.pdf|pages=46–47|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240422174706/https://www.etd.ceu.edu/2012/leonte_florin.pdf |archive-date=22 April 2024 }}</ref>}}<br/>14 April – 17 September 1390<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1390|4|14|1390|9|17}})}}<br/>late 1403 – 22 September 1408<br/>{{Small|(5 years, in [[Thessalonica]])<hr/>''with'' [[Andronikos V Palaiologos|'''Andronikos V''' Palaiologos]] (1403–1407)}}{{Efn|name=co-emperor}}
| Son of Andronikos IV, co-emperor since 1377; usurped the throne from John&nbsp;V in 1390. Deposed shortly thereafter but granted [[Thessaloniki|Thessalonica]] by [[Manuel II Palaiologos|Manuel&nbsp;II]] in 1403, from where he once more ruled as emperor until his death
| 1370 – 22 September 1408<br/>{{Small|(aged 38)}}<hr/>Ruled Constantinople as regent in [[Siege of Constantinople (1394–1402)|1399–1403]] during Manuel&nbsp;II's absence. Died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|2a1=Oikonomides|2y=1977|2p=331|1p=1052|3a1=Schreiner|3pp=340–343|4a1=PLP|4p=3908 (#21480)}}

|-
|
[[File:Manuel II Paleologus (cropped).jpg|100px|alt=miniature portrait]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[Manuel II Palaiologos|'''Manuel II''' Palaiologos]]<br/>{{Small|Μανουὴλ Παλαιολόγος}}
| Autumn 1382 – April 1387<br/>{{Small|(5 years, in [[Thessalonica]])}}{{Efn|Manuel, who previously had been given governorship over Thessalonica and had already been crowned co-emperor, set up an independent court and ruled there as ''basileus'' instead of ''[[despotes]]''. Manuel ruled in opposition of his father's soft policies towards the Ottomans, waging war uppon them. However, the city eventually fell and Manuel had to flee in shame.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Çelik |first=Siren |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i-8WEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA78 |title=Manuel II Palaiologos |date=2021 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-83659-3|pages=77–110}}</ref>}}<br/>16 February 1391 – 21 July 1425<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1391|2|16|1425|6|21}})}}
| Son of John V and grandson of John VI; co-emperor since 25 September 1373
| 27 June 1350 – 21 July 1425<br/>{{Small|(aged 74)}}<hr/>Suffered a [[stroke]] in 1422, whereafter the government was run by his son, John&nbsp;VIII. Died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1p=1291|2a1=Schreiner|2pp=276, 309, 429|3a1=PLP|3p=3923 (#21513)}}

|-
|
[[File:Palaio (cropped).jpg|100px|alt=miniature portrait]]<br />{{Small|Posthumous}}{{Efn|This depiction of John VIII is from the [[Magi Chapel]], which was painted in 1459&ndash;1461 (about a decade after his death) by [[Benozzo Gozzoli]]. Gozzoli likely saw John in person at the [[Council of Florence]]. He also seems to have used [[Medal of John VIII Palaeologus|a medal]] by [[Pisanello]] as a source.<ref>{{Cite web |author=<!-- not stated --> |date=27 October 2024 |title=John VIII Palaeologus|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-VIII-Palaeologus|access-date=3 April 2025 |website=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Horvat|first=Robert|date=7 May 2016|title=Portrait of an Emperor: John VIII Palaiologos.|url=https://the-rearview-mirror.com/2016/05/07/portrait-of-an-emperor-john-viii-palailogos/|access-date=3 April 2025}}</ref>}}
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[John VIII Palaiologos|'''John VIII''' Palaiologos]]<br/>{{Small|Ίωάννης Παλαιολόγος}}
| 21 July 1425 – 31 October 1448<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1425|6|21|1448|10|31}})}}
| Son of Manuel II; co-emperor by 1407 and full emperor since 19 January 1421
| 18 December 1392 – 31 October 1448<br/>{{Small|(aged 55)}}<hr/> Died of natural causes{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1pp=1053–1054|2a1=Schreiner|2pp=340, 387–411|3a1=PLP|3p=3909 (#21481)}}

|-
| [[File:Konstantinos XI Palaiologos fresco (less edited) (cropped).jpg|100px|alt=fresco portrait]]
! scope=row style="text-align:center; background:#F8F9FA" | [[Constantine XI Palaiologos|'''Constantine XI''' Palaiologos]]<br/>{{Small|Κωνσταντῖνος Δραγάσης Παλαιολόγος}}
| 6 January 1449 – 29 May 1453<br/>{{Small|({{Age in years, months and days|1449|1|6|1453|5|29}})}}
| Son of Manuel II and favored successor of his brother John&nbsp;VIII. Crowned emperor in [[Mystras]] on 6 January 1449, entered Constantinople on 12 March.
| 8 February 1405 – 29 May 1453<br/>{{Small|(aged 48)}}<hr/>The last Roman emperor. Died in battle at the [[fall of Constantinople]].{{Sfnm|1a1=ODB|1p=505|2a1=Nicol|2y=1992|2pp= 2, 35–38, 70|3a1=PLP|3p=3919 (#21500)}}

|}

== Other claims to the Roman imperial title ==
{{See also|Succession of the Roman Empire|Succession to the Byzantine Empire}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Other claims to the Roman imperial title
! Subject
! Description

|-
| Roman usurpers ([[List of Roman usurpers|list]])
| rowspan=2 | [[Roman usurper]]s were individuals or groups of individuals who obtained or tried to obtain power by force and without [[Legitimacy (political)|legitimate]] legal authority. [[Usurpation]] was endemic during the [[Roman Empire|Roman imperial]] era, especially from the [[crisis of the third century]] onwards, when political instability became the rule.
A number of individuals proclaimed themselves emperor (or were proclaimed or appointed as emperor), but are not considered as legitimate emperors because they did not oust the ruling emperor, or did not establish control of the whole empire, or were not accepted by the senate or other imperial colleagues.

|-
| Byzantine usurpers ([[List of Byzantine usurpers|list]])

|-
| Holy Roman Emperors ([[Holy Roman Emperor#List of emperors|list]])
| The [[Holy Roman Emperor]] was the ruler and [[head of state]] of the [[Holy Roman Empire]].
[[Charlemagne]] was crowned ''imperator romanorum'' ("Emperor of the Romans") by [[Pope Leo III]] in AD 800. In so doing, the Pope rejected the legitimacy of [[Empress Irene]].{{Sfn|ODB|p=413}} The Byzantines never recognized the Holy Roman emperors as "Roman emperors" and called them the 'emperor (or king) of the Franks', to them only the [[Byzantine Senate]] (successor to the [[Roman Senate]]) and/or the [[Byzantine military]] (successor to the [[Roman military]]) had the right to appoint a new Roman Emperor. Likewise, Western Europeans didn't recognize the legitimacy of the Byzantine emperors and called them the 'emperor of the Greeks' or the 'emperor of Constantinople'. See also: [[Problem of two emperors]]

|-
| Latin Emperors ([[Latin Emperor|list]])
| The [[Latin Emperor]] was the ruler of the [[Latin Empire]], the historiographical convention for the [[Crusades|Crusader]] realm, established in [[Constantinople]] after the [[Fourth Crusade]] (1204) and lasting until the city was recovered by the [[Byzantine Greeks]] in 1261. Its name derives from its [[Catholic]] and Western European ("[[Latins (Middle Ages)|Latin]]") nature. The empire, whose official name was ''Imperium Romaniae'' ([[Latin]]: "Empire of [[Roman Empire|Romania]]"), claimed the direct heritage of the [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Roman Empire]], which had most of its lands taken and partitioned by the crusaders. This claim however was disputed by the Byzantine Greek successor states, the [[Empire of Nicaea]], the [[Empire of Trebizond]] and the [[Despotate of Epirus]]. Out of these three, the Nicaeans succeeded in displacing the Latin emperors in 1261 and restored the [[Byzantine Empire]].

|-
| Trapezuntine emperors ([[List of Trapezuntine emperors|list]])
| The [[Trapezuntine emperors]] were the rulers of the [[Empire of Trebizond]], one of the successor states of the [[Byzantine Empire]] founded after the [[Fourth Crusade]] in 1204, until [[Siege of Trebizond (1461)|its fall]] to the [[Ottoman Empire]] in 1461. The rulers of Trebizond called themselves ''[[Grand Komnenos|Megas Komnenos]]'' and – like their counterparts in the other two Byzantine successor states, the [[Empire of Nicaea]] and the [[Despotate of Epirus]] – initially claimed supremacy as "Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans". However, after [[Michael VIII Palaiologos]] of Nicaea recaptured Constantinople in 1261, the Komnenian use of the style "Emperor" became a sore point. In September 1282, at Constantinople, [[John II of Trebizond]] relinquished his claim and accepted the title [[Despot (court title)|despot]]. His successors used a variant of the imperial title, "Emperor and Autocrat of all the East, [[Caucasian Iberia|the Iberians]], and the [[Perateia|Transmarine Provinces]]" until the Empire's end in 1461.<ref>{{Harvnb|ODB|p=1047}}; {{Harvnb|PLP|p=2326 (#12106)}}.</ref>

|-
| Emperors of Thessalonica ([[Empire of Thessalonica#Rulers|list]])
| The emperors of Thessalonica were the rulers of the [[Empire of Thessalonica]], a [[historiographic]] term to refer to the short-lived state centred on the city of [[Thessalonica]] between 1224 and 1246 (''[[sensu stricto]]'' until 1242) and ruled by the [[Komnenodoukas]] of [[Despotate of Epirus|Epirus]].

|-
| Despots of Epirus ([[Despot of Epirus#List of despots of Epirus, 1205–1479|list]])
| The [[despot of Epirus]] was the ruler of the [[Despotate of Epirus]], one of the successor states of the [[Byzantine Empire]] in the aftermath of the [[Fourth Crusade]]. The name "Despotate of Epirus" is a modern historiographical name and was not used at the time.
Some rulers used the version "[[despotes|despot]] of Romania" (Romania essentially referring to the territories of the [[Roman Empire]], i.e. Byzantium) or "despot of the [[Rhomaioi|Romans]]" (claiming rulership over the Romans, i.e. the Byzantines/Greeks).

|-
| Ottoman sultans ([[List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire|list]])
| Based on the concept of [[right of conquest]], the sultans of the [[Ottoman Empire]] claimed to be the legitimate Roman Emperors, in succession to the Byzantine emperors who had previously ruled from Constantinople. This claim was recognized by the [[Islamic world]], but was never recognized by the Western Europeans. See [[Ottoman claim to Roman succession]]

|}

== See also ==
* [[List of Roman empresses]] – for a list of the consorts of the Roman emperors
* [[Burial places of Roman emperors]] – for a list of the burial places of the Roman emperors
* [[List of Roman consuls]] – for a list of the consuls who held power during the Roman Republic and who continued to be appointed in imperial times
* [[List of Roman dictators]] – for a list of dictators during the Roman Republic
* [[List of Roman dynasties]] – for a list of the many dynasties that ruled the Roman Empire
* [[Family tree of Roman emperors]] – for a concise family tree of emperors and their immediate family (27 BC–518 AD)
* [[Family tree of Byzantine emperors]] – for a concise family tree of emperors and their immediate family (337–1453)

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
===Citations===
{{Reflist|20em}}

=== Works cited ===
{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{Cite book |author=[[Publius Cornelius Tacitus]] |title=[[The Annals]] |translator-last=Frederick W. Shipley |publisher=[[Loeb Classical Library]] |year=1924 |ref={{sfnref|Tacitus}} |orig-date=c. AD 110}}
* {{Cite book |author=[[Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus]] |title=[[The Twelve Caesars]] |translator-last=[[John Carew Rolfe]] |publisher=[[Loeb Classical Library]] |year=1914 |ref={{sfnref|Suetonius}} |orig-date=c. AD 121}}
* {{Cite book |author=[[Cassius Dio]] |title=Roman History |translator-last=Earnest Cary |publisher=[[Loeb Classical Library]] |year=1927 |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/home.html#45 |ref={{sfnref|Cassius Dio}} |orig-date=c. 230}}
* {{Cite book |last=Angelov |first=Dimiter G. |title=Becoming Byzantine: Children and Childhood in Byzantium |publisher=Dumbarton Oaks |date=2009 |isbn=978-0-8840-2356-2 |editor-last=Papaconstantinou |editor-first=Arietta |chapter=Emperors and Patriarchs as Ideal Children and Adolescents: Literary Conventions and Cultural Expectations |editor-last2=Talbot |editor-first2=Alice-Mary |editor2-link=Alice-Mary Talbot |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YnzbBwkDaeMC&pg=PA100}}
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* {{Cite book |last=Becker |first=C. H. |author-link=Carl Heinrich Becker |title=The Cambridge Medieval History: Volume II: The Rise of the Saracens and the Foundation of the Western Empire |publisher=The Macmillan Company |date=1913 |editor-last=Gwatkin |editor-first=H. M. |location=New York |chapter=The Expansion of the Saracens—The East |oclc=14739796 |editor-last2=Whitney |editor-first2=J. P.}}
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* {{Cite journal |last=Claes |first=Liesbeth |date=2015 |title=Coins with power?: imperial and local messages on the coinage of the usurpers of the second half of the third century |url=https://scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl/access/item%3A2865541/view |journal=Jaarboek voor Munt- en Penningkunde |volume=102 |pages=15–60 |oclc=948592865}}
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* {{Cite book |last=Collins |first=Roger |author-link=Roger Collins |title=Visigothic Spain, 409–711 |publisher=Blackwell |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-6311-8185-9 |location=Oxford}}
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* {{Cite journal |last=Croke |first=Brian |date=2004 |title=The Imperial Reigns of Leo II |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/BYZS.2003.559/html |journal=[[Byzantinische Zeitschrift]] |volume=96 |issue=2 |pages=559–575 |doi=10.1515/BYZS.2003.559 |s2cid=191460505|url-access=subscription }}
* {{Cite book |last=Dragon |first=Gilbert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yCnN4yAojagC |title=Emperor and Priest: The Imperial Office in Byzantium |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2003 |isbn=978-0-5218-0123-2}}
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* {{Cite journal |last=Estiot |first=Sylviane |date=1996 |title=L'empereur Silbannacus, un second antoninien |trans-title=Emperor Silbannacus, a second Antoninianus |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/numi_0484-8942_1996_num_6_151_2087 |journal=Revue numismatique |language=fr-FR |volume=6 |issue=151 |pages=105–117 |doi=10.3406/numi.1996.2087}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Feiller |first=Albert |date=1976 |title=Nouvelle note sur la chronologie du règne de Jean Cantacuzène |trans-title=New note on the chronology of the reign of John Kantakouzenos |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/rebyz_0766-5598_1976_num_34_1_2046 |journal=[[Études byzantines]] |volume=34 |pages=119–124 |doi=10.3406/rebyz.1976.2046}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Foss |first=Clive |date=2005 |title=Emperors named Constantine |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/numi_0484-8942_2005_num_6_161_2594 |journal=Revue numismatique |volume=6 |issue=161 |pages=93–102 |doi=10.3406/numi.2005.2594}}
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* {{Cite book |last=Grant |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Grant (classicist) |url=https://archive.org/details/romanemperorsbio0000gran |title=The Roman Emperors: A Biographical Guide to the Rulers of Imperial Rome, 31 BC–AD 476 |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |date=1985 |isbn=0-6841-8388-9 |location=New York |ref={{SfnRef|Grant}}}}
* {{Cite book |last=Grant |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Grant (classicist) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oXPakQJ6BLgC |title=From Rome to Byzantium: The Fifth Century |publisher=Psychology Press |date=1998 |isbn=978-0-4151-4753-8 |location=New York}}
* {{Cite book |last=Goldsworthy |first=Adrian Keith |title=How Rome Fell: Death of a Superpower |publisher=Yale University Press |date=2009 |isbn=978-0-3001-3719-4 |location=New Haven}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Grierson |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Grierson |date=1962 |title=The Tombs and Obits of the Byzantine Emperors (337–1042) |url=https://archive.org/details/SevcenkoStudies19611992/page/n23/mode/2up |journal=[[Dumbarton Oaks Papers]] |volume=16 |doi=10.2307/1291157 |jstor=1291157 |url-access=subscription}}
* {{Cite book |last=Grierson |first=Philip |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FIbav7CP4P4C |title=Catalogue of the Byzantine Coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection and in the Whittemore Collection |publisher=[[Dumbarton Oaks]] |date=1968 |isbn=978-0-8840-2024-0 |volume=2}}
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* {{Cite book |last=Halsall |first=Guy |title=Transformations of Romanness: Early Medieval Regions and Identities |publisher=De Gruyter |date=2018 |isbn=978-3-1105-9838-4 |editor-last=Pohl |editor-first=Walter |location=Berlin |chapter=Transformations of Romanness: The northern Gallic case |editor-last2=Gantner |editor-first2=Clemens |editor-last3=Grifoni |editor-first3=Cinzia |editor-last4=Pollheimer-Mohaupt |editor-first4=Marianne |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kFqXDwAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Hammond |first=Mason |author-link=Mason Hammond |date=1957 |title=Imperial Elements in the Formula of the Roman Emperors during the First Two and a Half Centuries of the Empire |journal=Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome |volume=25 |pages=19–64 |doi=10.2307/4238646 |jstor=4238646 |ref={{SfnRef|Hammond}}}}
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* {{Cite book |last=Hartmann |first=Udo |url=https://www.hsozkult.de/publicationreview/id/reb-3460 |title=Rezension zu: C. Körner: Philippus Arabs |date=2002 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=3-1101-7205-4 |series=H-Soz-Kult. Kommunikation und Fachinformation für die Geschichtswissenschaften |language=de |trans-title=Review of C. Körner: Philip the Arab |access-date=2021-04-11}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hekster |first=Olivier |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=COCqBgAAQBAJ |title=Rome and Its Empire: AD 193–284 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |date=2008 |isbn=978-0-7486-2304-4 |location=Edinburgh}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/prosopography-later-roman-empire |title=The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1971–1992 |editor-last=Jones |editor-first=A. H. M. |editor-link=A. H. M. Jones |location=Cambridge |ref=CITEREFPLRE |editor-last2=Martindale |editor-first2=J. R. |editor-link2=John Robert Martindale |editor-last3=Morris |editor-first3=John |editor-link3=John Morris (historian)}} {{Link note|note=see [[The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire|'''PLRE''']]}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kaegi |first=Walter E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tlNlFZ_7UhoC |title=Heraclius, Emperor of Byzantium |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2003 |isbn=0-5218-1459-6 |location=Cambridge}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/odb_20210521 |title=Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |date=1991 |isbn=978-0-1950-4652-6 |editor-last=Kazhdan |editor-first=Alexander |editor-link=Alexander Kazhdan |location=Oxford |ref=CITEREFODB}} {{Link note|note=see [[Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium|'''ODB''']]}}
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* {{Citation |last1=Lascaratos |first1=J. |title=The fatal disease of the Byzantine Emperor Andronicus III Palaeologus (1328-1341 A.D.) |journal=[[Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine]] |volume=90 |issue=2 |pages=106–109 |date=1997 |doi=10.1177/014107689709000215 |pmc=1296151 |pmid=9068444 |last2=Marketos |first2=S.}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Lascaratos |first=J. |date=1999 |title="Eyes" on the Thrones: Imperial Ophthalmologic Nicknames |url=https://www.surveyophthalmol.com/article/S0039-6257(99)00039-9/abstract |journal=Survey of Ophthalmology |language=English |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=73–78 |doi=10.1016/S0039-6257(99)00039-9 |issn=0039-6257 |pmid=10466590|url-access=subscription }}
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* {{Cite web |last=Mathisen |first=Ralph W. |author-link=Ralph W. Mathisen |date=1997 |title=Romulus Augustulus |url=http://www.roman-emperors.org/auggiero.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220318172614/http://www.roman-emperors.org/auggiero.htm |archive-date=2022-03-18 |website=[[De Imperatoribus Romanis]]}}
* {{Cite web |last=Maynard |first=Daniel R.F. |date=2021 |title=Nicephorus III |url=https://www.roman-emperors.org/nickiii.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220311020416/https://www.roman-emperors.org/nickiii.htm |archive-date=2022-03-11 |website=[[De Imperatoribus Romanis]]}}
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* {{Cite journal |last=Seibt |first=Werner |date=2018 |title=Wer war Niketas Nobellisimos und Komes von Opsikion (8. Jahrhundert)? |trans-title=Who was Niketas Nobellisimos and Komes of Opsikion (8th century)? |url=http://austriaca.at/0xc1aa5576%200x00390f8b.pdf |journal=Jahrbuch der Österreichischen Byzantinistik |language=German |volume=67 |pages=213–216 |doi=10.1553/joeb67s213}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Shiel |first=Norman |date=1979 |title=The Coinage of Saloninus as Augustus |journal=Museum Notes (American Numismatic Society) |volume=24 |pages=117–122 |jstor=43573579}}
* {{Cite thesis |last=Smolin |first=Nathan I. |title=Christ the Emperor: Roman Emperor and Christian Theology in the 4th Century AD |date=2021 |degree=Doctoral |publisher=University of North Carolina |url=https://cdr.lib.unc.edu/concern/dissertations/gq67k073z?locale=en |doi=10.17615/wg7y-3h07}}
* {{Citation |last=Syme |first=Ronald |title=Imperator Caesar: A Study in Nomenclature |date=1958 |work=Historia |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=175–188 |jstor=4434568 |author-link=Ronald Syme}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Tilemachos |first=Lounghis |date=2015 |title=Review Article: Juan Signes Codoner, The emperor Theophilos and the East, 829-842: Court and frontier in Byzantium during the last phase of Iconoclasm, Birmingham Byzantine and Ottoman Studies, vol 13, Ashgate 2014 |journal=Byzantina Symmeikta |volume=25 |pages=237–260 |doi=10.12681/byzsym.8773 |doi-access=free}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/ErichTrappProsopographischesLexikonDerPALAIOLOGENZEIT |title=Prosopographisches Lexikon der Palaiologenzeit |publisher=[[ÖAW]] |date=2001 |isbn=978-3-7001-1462-8 |editor-last=Trapp |editor-first=Erich |location=Vienna |language=German |trans-title=Prosopographical Lexicon of the Palaiologan era |ref=CITEREFPLP}} {{Link note|note=see [[Prosopographisches Lexikon der Palaiologenzeit|'''PLP''']]}}
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* {{The Latin Renovatio of Byzantium|chapter=The Imperial Ideology|pages=61–101}}
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* {{Cite book |last=Watson |first=A. |title=Aurelian and the Third Century |publisher=Routledge |date=1999 |isbn=0-4150-7248-4 |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Williams |first1=Stephen |title=The Rome that Did Not Fall: The Survival of the East in the Fifth Century |last2=Friell |first2=Gerard |date=1998 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-2039-8231-0 |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last=Wu |first=Chiang-Yuan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j9gyDQAAQBAJ |title=Perceiving Power in Early Modern Europe |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |date=2016 |isbn=978-1-1375-8624-7 |editor-last=So |editor-first=Francis K. H. |chapter="Live Like a King": The Monument of Philopappus and the Continuity of Client-Kingship}}
{{Refend}}

=== Cited links ===
* {{Wikicite |reference="[https://www.britannica.com/topic/list-of-Roman-emperors-2043294 List of Roman emperors]". ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''|ref={{SfnRef|''Britannica''}}}}
* {{Wikicite |reference="[https://www.livius.org/articles/misc/list-of-roman-emperors/ List of Roman emperors]". ''Livius.org''|ref={{SfnRef|''Livius''}}}}
* {{Wikicite |reference="[https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/roru/hd_roru.htm List of Rulers of the Roman Empire]". ''[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]''|ref={{SfnRef|''MET''}}}}

== Further reading ==
* {{Cite book |last=Foster |first=Russell |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D8kBCgAAQBAJ |title=Mapping European Empire: Tabulae imperii Europaei |publisher=Routledge |date=2015 |isbn=978-1-3157-4475-9 |location=Oxford}}
* {{Cite book |last=Giesey |first=Ralph E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G5yuNbIuPKwC |title=The Royal Funeral Ceremony in Renaissance France |publisher=Librairie Droz |date=1960 |location=Geneva}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Harris |first=Jonathan |date=2013 |title=Despots, Emperors, and Balkan Identity in Exile |journal=The Sixteenth Century Journal |language=en |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=643–661 |doi=10.1086/SCJ24244808 |jstor=24244808}}
* {{Cite book |last=Potter |first=David |title=A History of France, 1460–1560: The Emergence of a Nation State |publisher=St. Martin's Press |date=1995 |isbn=978-0-3121-2480-9 |location=New York}}
* {{The Papacy and the Levant|volume=2}} <!-- Setton 1978 -->

== External links==
* "[https://web.archive.org/web/20220321061813/http://www.roman-emperors.org/impindex.htm The Rulers of the Roman Empire]". ''[[De Imperatoribus Romanis]]''
* [https://drive.google.com/file/d/1I6aQjcxem4viTf_t0j8OJxPQHy_2QjVr/view Chronology of Roman emperors] by Ian Mladjov

{{Roman emperors}}
{{Epochs of Roman Emperors}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:List Of Roman emperors}}
[[Category:Roman emperors|*]]
[[Category:Government of the Roman Empire]]
[[Category:Lists of monarchs|Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Lists of office-holders in ancient Rome|Emperors]]