View source for List of European medieval musical instruments

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This is a '''list of [[medieval music]]al instruments''' used in European music during the [[Middle ages|Medieval period]]. It covers the period from before 5th into the 15th A.D. There may be some overlap with Renaissance musical instruments; Renaissance music begins in the 15th century. The list mainly covers Western Europe. It may branch into Eastern Europe and non-European parts of the Byzantine Empire (Anatolia, northern Africa).

== Percussion ==
{| class="wikitable" 
! Names and variations
! width=|Description
! Ethnic connections, regions
! colspan=2|Pictures
|-
|[[Adufe]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gutwirth |first=Eleazar |date=1998 |title=Music, Identity and the Inquisition in Fifteenth-Century Spain |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/853882 |journal=Early Music History |volume=17 |pages=161–181 |doi=10.1017/S0261127900001637 |jstor=853882 |issn=0261-1279|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

[[Pandeiro]]<ref name="Molina2006">{{cite book |author=Mauricio Molina |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1hsE_kG53NgC&pg=PA101 |title=Frame Drums in the Medieval Iberian Peninsula |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-542-85095-0 |pages=101– |access-date=25 December 2012}}</ref>
|A frame drum brought to Iberia by Muslims and played mainly by women.<ref name="GroveAdulf">{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Sadie |editor-first=Stanley |last=Schechter |first=John M. |entry=Adulfe|encyclopedia=The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments |year=1984 |volume=1 |page=25}}</ref> Used in the ''charamba'' in Portugal, a circle dance for couples.<ref name="GroveAdulf" />

The adufe is a square or rectangular frame drum usually made of pine, over which is mounted a goat's skin. The size of the frame usually ranges from 12 to 22 inches on each side, and 1 to 2 inches thick. The skin is stitched on the sides, with the stitches covered by a coloured ribbon. In the interior small seeds, stones or bells are placed to make pleasing sounds. Illustrated examples are decorated, possibly with henna.<ref>{{cite web |date=4 December 2018|first=Noam |last=Sienna |title=March to Your Own Drummer: The History of Hennaed Drums (Part One)|url=https://fagottobooks.gr/blog/history-of-hennaed-drums/}}</ref>
|[[Iberia]]<br>Portugal<br>Spain
|[[File:Musicians, Crusader Bible, MS M.638, fol. 29r.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Musicians, Crusader Bible, MS M.638, fol. 29r]][[File:Adufe, Cappella Palatina-ceiling-circa 1140 AD.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1140 A.D., Sicily.  A woman in Muslim clothes plays an adufe percussion instrument, in a painting at the Capella Patina.]]
|[[File:Crusader Bible (MS M.638, fol. 39r) cropped to show King David and musicians.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1240s A.D., France. An adulf (square held over the group's head)]]
[[File:Adufe in the Golden Haggadah.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1320, Barcelona. Woman playing an adufe, from an illustration in the [[Golden Haggadah]].]]
|-
|[[Bell]]
:[[:de:Bienenkorbglocke|Beehive bell]]<ref name=Rincker>{{cite web |website=rincker.de |title= Das Geheimnis der Rippe |trans-title= The Secret of the Rib |language= de |url= http://www.rincker.de/glocken/herstellung/rippe/ |quote=The " transitional rib" (from around the 12th century... and the so-called "Gothic rib"...were made in this way until at least the [[Thirty Years' War]] [1618 to 1648]. This was a major turning point for bell making, since bell founders, if they survived at all, tended to become piece-casters, i.e. cannon founders).}}</ref><ref name="GroveBell2">{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Sadie |editor-first=Stanley |last=Price|first=Percival|entry=Bell: 5 Bellfounding|encyclopedia=The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments |year=1984 |volume=1 |page=214 |quote= The common form of the bell changed from the more or less cylindrical 'beehive' shape to a slightly conical 'sugar-loaf'...}}</ref>
:[[:de:Zuckerhutglocke|Sugarloaf bell]]<ref name=Rincker/><ref name="GroveBell2"/>
:Gothic rib bell<ref name=Rincker/>

[[Church bell]]

|From the 1st-4th centuries A.D., [[Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire|Christians were persecuted in the Roman Empire]] and their religious ceremonies were kept secret. After persecution ended with the 313 A.D. [[Edict of Milan]] bells became part of open expression of Christianity.<ref name=Vermeer>{{cite web |website= Essential Vermeer |title= Carillon History |first= Adelheid |last= Rech |url= https://www.essentialvermeer.com/music/carillon/carillon_a.html}}</ref> As Christianity became widespread, trumpets, [[semantron]]s and [[Church bell|bells]] were used in religious services, including calling worshippers to service.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Buse |first=Adolf |title=S. Paulin évêque de Nole et son siècle (350-450) |publisher=H. Casterman |year=1858 |location=Paris |pages=415–418 |language=fr |translator-last=Dancoisne |translator-first=L.}}</ref> [[Paulinus of Nola]] (about 400 A.D.) and [[Pope Sabinianus]] (about 604 A.D.) are credited for early use of bells in church.<ref>{{cite book |first= H. B. |last=Walters |title= The Arts of the Church: Church Bells|publisher= A. R. Mowbray & Company Ltd |place= London |date= 1908|pages= 3–4 |url= https://www.gutenberg.org/files/46273/46273-h/46273-h.htm |quote= Their [the bells'] invention is sometimes ascribed to Paulinus, Bishop of Nola, in Italy, about A.D. 400; sometimes to Pope Sabinianus (A.D. 604)...}}</ref><ref name="Roger J. Smith 1997">{{Cite web |last=Roger J. Smith |year=1997 |title=Church Bells |url=http://www.awakentoprayer.org/church_bells.htm |publisher=Sacred Heart Catholic Church and St. Yves Mission |quote=Bells came into use in our churches as early as the year 400, and their introduction is ascribed to [[Paulinus of Nola|Paulinus]], bishop of Nola, a town of [[Campania]], in Italy. Their use spread rapidly, as in those unsettled times the church-bell was useful not only for summoning the faithful to religious services, but also for giving an alarm when danger threatened. Their use was sanctioned in 604 by Pope Sabinian, and a ceremony for blessing them was established a little later. Very large bells, for church towers, were probably not in common use until the eleventh century. |access-date=October 26, 2012 |archive-date=December 7, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207150201/http://www.awakentoprayer.org/church_bells.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Monks in Byzantine cloisters in Damascus cast some of Christianity's earliest bells (about handbell sized).<ref name=Vermeer/> These were used to broadcast time inside the cloisters.<ref name=Vermeer/> Small cast bells in "Mediterranean tradition" were used by Christians during the first four centuries A.D.<ref name="GroveBell">{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Sadie |editor-first=Stanley |last=Price|first=Percival|entry=Bell: 5 Bellfounding|encyclopedia=The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments |year=1984 |volume=1 -|page=214}}</ref>

In the 5th century Irish Christians made forged bells of sheet metal, and one was carried by [[Saint Patrick]] for use as a church bell.<ref name="GroveBell" /> By [[St. Columba]]'s day (521-597 A.D.), both riveted sheet-metal bells of iron and quadrangular cast-bronze bells were in use.<ref name="ScottBells">{{cite book |title=Scotland in early Christian times |last=Anderson |first=Joseph |date=1881|place=Edinburgh |publisher=D. Douglas|pages=186-187,199, 214-215}}</ref> The bells were wrung in the [[Celtic Christianity#Britain|Celtic Christian Church]], whose missionary work brought Christianity to parts of Europe conquered by Germanic tribes in the fall of the Roman Empire.<ref name="ScottBells" /><ref>{{cite book |title= How the Irish saved civilization : the untold story of Ireland's heroic role from the fall of Rome to the rise of medieval Europe |last= Cahill |first= Thomas |publisher= Nan A. Talese, Doubleday|place= New York |date= 1995 |isbn= 978-0-385-41848-5 |url= https://archive.org/details/howirishsavedciv00cahi}}</ref> The bells in Ireland are culturally linked to those in Scotland, Wales, England, Brittany, France, and Switzerland.<ref name="ScottBells" /> Based on number of known bells, Ireland may be source of the region's sheet-metal bell type.<ref name="ScottBells" />

In 530 A.D., the Benedictine Order began to engineer cast churchbells and set up foundries to make them, supplying them throughout western Europe.<ref name="GroveBell" /> Eastern Europe got bells from Constantinople.<ref name="GroveBell" /> [[Chersonesus|Cherson]] in Crimea also made bells.<ref name="GroveBell" />

Beehive bells were produced on about the 8th-12th centuries A.D.<ref>{{cite web |title= Successful Carolingian bell-founding |first= Bastian |last= Asmus |date= 6 May 2018 |url= https://en.archaeometallurgie.de/successful-carolingian-bell-founding/ |quote= The bells from the 8th to the 12th century did differ in several respects from bells we know nowadays. They possessed a different shape, reminiscent of old beehives.}}</ref> Sugarloaf bells were made starting in the 12th century.<ref>{{cite web |title= Zuckerhutglocke |trans-title= Sugarloaf Bell |website= haseldorfer-marsch.de/|url= https://www.haseldorfer-marsch.de/haselau/diehaselauerkirche/zuckerhutglocke/index.html |quote= Towards the end of the 12th century, a new bell shape with an elongated, truncated cone-shaped bell body became popular: the sugarloaf bell. In bell manufacturing, the lost-wax casting process had been replaced by the shell-lifting process, and the new bell shape probably developed from this.}}</ref> Transitional rib and Gothic rib bells were made from the 12th century and into the 17th century.<ref name=Rincker/>

|Latin, western tradition from church
:''tintinabulum'', bell
:''cymbalum'', single bell
|
[[File:Campana di san patrizio e il suo contenitore, da armagh, co. armagh, VI-VIII secolo, poi 1100 ca. 01.jpg|thumb|center|200px|[[Saint Patrick#Saint Patrick's Bell|Saint Patrick's Bell]]. Iron sheet-metal bell, riveted and coated with bronze. Carried by Patrick, and found in his tomb by [[Saint Columba]]. Patrick (died circa 450-500 A.D.).<ref name="ScottBells" />]][[File:Bell of St Ruadhan Anderson 1881 Fig 65 scotlandinearlyc00ande 0223.jpg|thumb |200px|center |The Bell of [[Ruadhán of Lorrha|St. Ruadhan of Lorrlia]] (died 584 A.D.). Cast bronze with decorated handle.<ref name="ScottBells" />]]
[[File:Bell of St Gall Anderson 1881 Fig 80 scotlandinearlyc00ande 0250.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Bell of [[Saint Gall]] (550–645 A.D).<ref name="ScottBells"/><ref name=BritGall/> Brought with him when he helped bring Christianity from Ireland to Switzerland, founding an abbey.<ref name=BritGall>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia= Encyclopedia Britannica online|title= Saint Gall: Irish saint |url= https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Gall}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title= Abbey Cathedral St.Gallen |date= 28 September 2022 |first= Clarissa |last= Schwartz |url= https://www.thisismysaintgallen.com/abbey-cathedral/ |quote=preserved in the [St. Gall] cathedral...The bell brought by Gallus on his seventh-century journey from Ireland is one of the three oldest surviving bells in Europe...}}</ref>]][[File:Saufang Bell, Cologne, 9th c, exh. Benedictines NG Prague, 150743.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 9th century A.D., [[Carolingian Empire]]. [[:de:Saufang (Glocke)|Saufang bell]], which hung for centuries in [[St. Cecilia's Church, Cologne]]. Iron sheets, forged and riveted with copper nails and bronze coated.]]
|[[File:Glocke von Haithabu.jpg|thumb |200px|center |Circa 950 A.D., Germany. The bell of Haithabu, a beehive bell.]][[File:Hachen bell.jpg|thumb |200px|center |11th century A.D., Germany. Bell of Hachen, a beehive bell.]]
[[File:Evangelische Kirche Niederwetz Glocke 4.jpg|thumb |200px|center |Early 13th century A.D.,Germany. Evangelist's Bell, [[Niederwetz]], a sugarloaf bell.]]
[[File:DzwonGrzesznika.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Poland, church of St Mary Magdalen in Breslau. Sinner's bell, cast 1386, destroyed in 1945.<ref>{{cite web |website=revisionist.net/|title=THE BELL-FOUNDER OF BRESLAU |author=Linda Schaitberger|url=https://www.revisionist.net/breslaustory.html|quote=on May 17, 1945, an explosion destroyed the south tower. Part of the church collapsed and demolished the bridge connecting the towers, the gable end and the main portal (west) with its valuable sculptures as well as the vaults and the famous 'Bell of the Sinners', cast in 1386. It was probably the largest bell in Silesia with a circumference of 6.30 meters and an inner height of 1.80 meters, and was rung on holidays and the Lord's Prayer.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |work=New York Times |date=26 August 1886 |title=A bell's 500 years: from the London Times |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/94449648|id={{ProQuest|94449648}} |quote=The bell which hangs in the southern tower of St. Mary Magdalen's Church and is named "St. Mary's bell," but is usually known as "the poor sinner's bell," rang out morning and evening on the 17th of July to remind all who heard it that it was cast on that day 500 years ago...the bell founder withdrew... leaving a boy in charge of the furnace... warning him not to mess with the catch that secured the seething metal in the caldron. The boy disregarded the caution...rushing in and seeing what he had intended to be his masterpiece ruined, as he thought, angered to madness, he slew the boy on the spot... he was condemned to die, and went to his doom while his beautiful bell pealed an invitation to all to pray for "the poor sinner..."}}</ref>]]
|-
|Handbells

Chimes

Chime bells

Bell chime

[[cymbalum]] 

|In the Roman Empire preceding medieval Europe, bells were known. An example is the [[Tintinnabulum (ancient Rome)|tintinnabulum]], a wind chime made of small bells.

Racks of hammer struck bells are called chimes.<ref name="Grovechime">{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Sadie |editor-first=Stanley |last=Price|first=Percival|entry=Chimes |encyclopedia=The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments |year=1984 |volume=1 |pages=351–352}}</ref> Chimes from ''[[cymbalum]]'' (Latin).<ref name="Grovechime" /> In Middle Ages (10th-16th centuries) was for indoor instrument made up of 4-12 small bells, hung from a bar and struck with hammers.<ref name="Grovechime" /> Beginning 12th century, may have had "large wooden key installed" to make playing easier and to help play bigger bells.<ref name="Grovechime" />

Depicted in small sets (4 to 5, 8 to 9).<ref>{{cite journal |title= Percussion instruments of the Middle Ages and Renaissance Their history in literature and painting |first=James |last= Blades |journal= Early Music |volume= 1 |issue= 1 |date= January 1973 |pages=11–18 |doi=10.1093/earlyj/1.1.11 |url= https://doi.org/10.1093/earlyj/1.1.11|url-access= subscription }}</ref>

''Cymbala'', hung in towers became carillons, the bells eventually becoming very large in comparison to the [[:File:Bell chimes, from the 1461 manuscript Cologny, Fondation Martin Bodmer, Cod. Bodmer 91.jpg|wrack-suspended bells]]


|Latin, western tradition from church
:''tintinabuli'', little bell 
:''Cymbala'', plural, bell chime (multiple bells)
|[[File:Bellringers from the Bayeux Tapestry Scene 26, King Edward's funeral procession.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1066-1083 A.D., Normandy. Bellringers from the Bayeux Tapestry Scene 26, King Edward the Confessor's funeral procession]][[File:Chimes and handbell, Die 24 Alten (The 24 Elders), Coburg State Library, Ms Cas 43.jpg|thumb |200px|center|1448, Germany. Singer with handbell, musician with chimes on a bar.]][[File:Juan Oliver - The Female Saints at the Tomb and the Resurrection detail of the Bell Ringer 1330.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1330 A.D., [[Pamplona Cathedral]]. Bell wringer in a painting by Juan Oliver]][[File:Clavichord, bells and psaltery by Perinetto da Benevento.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1438, Italy. Clavichord, chimes and psaltery by Perinetto da Benevento.]]
|[[File:Refectory Bell, German, 13th century, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Cloister's Collection 2014.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Bell used in monastery to signal times of day for activities; inscribed in Latin TINNIO PRANSVRIS CENATVRIS BIBITVRIS (“I ring for breakfast, dinner, and drinks”).<ref>{{cite web |website=Metropolitan Museum of Art |title=Refectory Bell |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/collection/the-collection-online/search/640179}}</ref> This would have been hung on a rod or bar and played with a mallet.]][[File:Cantigas - Bell player.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Bell table]][[File:Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, page Bl-2 169R cropped.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1280 A.D., Spain. Miniature from the Cantigas de Santa Maria showing bells hung from a rack resembling church arches (like a [[carillon]]?), struck by hammers, but also having clappers.<ref name=Vermeer/>]][[File:Musicians playing handbells and psaltery, detail from Glasgow University Library MS Hunter 229 (U.3.2), folio 21V.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Musicians playing handbells and psaltery, detail from Glasgow University Library MS Hunter 229 (U.3.2), folio 21V]]
|-
|Bell
:cowbell
:sheep bell
:goat bell
:herd bell
:harness bell
| Used on animals to find them when straying. Used on animal harness.
|
|[[File:Indirectly struck idiophone (2) Sheep-Bells - Soinuenea.jpg|thumb|200px|center|European animal bells (modern but designs go back to medieval era)]][[File:Harness bells, detail of painting by Ezra Winter.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Harness bells, detail of painting by [[Ezra Winter]].]]
|[[File:Medieval bell (FindID 463906).jpg|thumb|200px|center |1200-1400 A.D., England. A copper-alloy bell, dating from the Medieval period and probably originally serving as a harness pendant.]][[File:The Monk from the Canterbury Tales, detail of painting by Ezra Winter.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Crotal bells on harness, detail of painting by Ezra Winter.]]

|-
|[[Bumbulum]] (legendary)

Bunibulum (legendary)
|Some medieval scribes theorized about music from the past, or used musical instruments to illustrate doctrinal points. They copied in manuscript a letter from [[St. Jerome]] (342-420 A.D.) to [[Claudius Postumus Dardanus]]. In it, Jerome tried to explain pagan and Christian musical instruments that are mentioned in the Bible and their allegorical meanings.<ref>''Ad Dardanum, de diversis generibus musicorum instrumentorum.''</ref> The letter was reproduced in Christian manuscripts. Starting about 850, scribes began to illustrate the letter in manuscripts, from descriptions of the musical instruments in the letter.<ref name="LOC">{{cite book |publisher=Library of Congress |first=Juliane |last=Trede|url=https://www.loc.gov/resource/gdcwdl.wdl_14684 |title=Image 109 of Saint Jerome's "Instruments of Hieronymus" and other Music Manuscripts.|date=January 0800 }}</ref> Some are allegorical and wouldn't work, such as a horn with three mouthpieces for each of the [[Holy Trinity]] to blow through; however in an allegory the Trinity would be expressed by speaking through the four outlets, symbolizing the [[Four Evangelists]].

The bumbulum was played by shaking it. It had hanging bells or jingles, suspended from a centerpiece, itself suspended from overhead. It was described as a carpenter's square (signifiying the Holy Cross) with a "four cornered object" hanging from it (signifying Christ on the Cross), with 12 pipes hanging from the object's sides (to jingle and to signify the 12 Apostles).<ref name="Virgung1">{{cite book | author=Sebastian Virdung| year=1993| title=Musica Getutscht - A Treatise on Musical Instruments (1511) by Sebastian Virdung |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cYhtqhgnC1QC |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-30830-4 |page=[https://www.google.com/books/edition/Musica_Getutscht/cYhtqhgnC1QC?gbpv=1&pg=PA116 116],[https://www.google.com/books/edition/Musica_Getutscht/cYhtqhgnC1QC?gbpv=1&pg=PA117 117],[https://www.google.com/books/edition/Musica_Getutscht/cYhtqhgnC1QC?gbpv=1&pg=PA118 118] |quote=[note, Virdung first published Musica Getutscht in [[Basel]] in 1511.] }}</ref>
|
|[[File:Saint Jerome's "Instruments of Hieronymus" and other Music Manuscripts, Image 110.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 850-875 A.D., Benedictine Abbey of Saint Emmeran, Germany. Illustrations of St. Jerome's instruments. Top, the bumbulum; below it the ''tubae'' blown through by the Trinity; the two instruments below the tubae are [[Psaltery|psalterium]]s; below them are a ''timpanum'' and ''chorus'' (trumpet that splits into two and rejoins at the exit).]]
|[[File:Musica getutscht und außgezogen 033.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1511 A.D. Germany. Reproduction of line of images in manuscript that go back into the 850s A.D. At left a bumbulum; at right an organum ([[pipe organ]]).]]
|-
|[[Clapper (musical instrument)|Clappers]]

[[crotalum]]

cliquettes

castagnettes
|Crotala, from the [[Carolingian Empire]] were metal chimes attached to sticks. Cliquettes (also called crotala)  were blocks of wood held in the palms. The palm-held blocks could make clicking and rattle noises like castanets. Other similar instruments worldwide include  the Thai/Cambodian'' [[Krap|krap sepha]]'', Indian/Nepali [[khartal]], [[Uzbeks|Uzbek]]/[[Tajiks|Tajik]] [[qairaq]], or North African [[krakeb]]s. Castagnettes were wooden instrument, made up of sticks that were clapped or beaten together.<ref name=uciim>{{cite web |publisher= Union Cattolica Italiana, Insegnanti, Dirigenti, Educatori, Formatori (UCIIM) |url= http://www.uciimtorino.it/europa/strum_medioevo_percussioni.htm |archive-date= 16 November 2019 |title= Le Percussioni nel medioevo: Introduzione|trans-title= Percussion in the middle ages |language= it |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20191116114320/http://www.uciimtorino.it/europa/strum_medioevo_percussioni.htm}}</ref>
|
|[[File:Krotala player, from the Mosaic of the Female Musicians, Mariamin.jpg|thumb|200px|center|4th century A.D., Mariamin (Byzantine Empire). Musian playing crotala.]][[File:Clappers from Dagulf psalter.jpg|thumb|200px|center|795 A.D., France or Germany. Carved ivory bookcover, showing man playing crotalus (clappers), from the Dagulf psalter]]
[[File:Utrechts-Psalter PSALM-149-PSALM-150 Psaltery and cymbols.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 850 A.D. Musicians in the [[Utrecht Psalter]] holding a lyre and crotalus (clappers).]]
|[[File:Crusader Bible (MS M.638, fol. 39r) cropped for cliqettes.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1250 A.D. Crusader Bible (MS M.638, fol. 39r) cropped for crotala (cliquettes in modern French). Also a bell and a [[three-hole pipe]] (with [[fipple]] mouthpiece and duct).]]
[[File:Cantiga 330 Cantigas de santa maria.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1280 A.D. Crotala, cliquettes or clappers (in the woman's hands) from the Musician's Codex, Cantigas de Santa Maria.]][[File:Castagnettes or clapping blocks, Gorleston Psalter, circa 1310-1324 A.D., England.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1310-1324 A.D., England. Castagnettes or clapping blocks, Gorleston Psalter.]]
|-
|[[Cymbals]]

[[Cymbala]]

[[Carillon]]
|Greek word ''kymbolon'' transmitted to medieval Europe through Latin (''cymbalum'' -singular, ''cymbala'' -plural). Examples in Roman and Byzantine mosaics show girls dancing with them, in different versions that include [[:File:Woman playing cymbala (or kymbala), from the Mosaic of the Female Musicians, Mariamin.jpg|finger or palm cymbals]], [[:File:Maenads dancing in Dionysus's Procession from a 4th century mosiac in Augusta Traiana, Byzantine Empire, now Stara Zagora, Bulgaria.jpg|cymbals on sticks]] and [[:File:Cymbala acitabula, dancer from the Byzantine Empire, House of Madaba (now in Jordan).jpg|cup-shaped cymbals]].

The cymbals on sticks (crotala) [[:File:Aeman holding clappers in the Charles the Bald Bible, illustrated by Master C.jpg|found their way into art of the Carolingian Empire]]. In medieval manuscripts, cymbala became bell chimes, bells suspended in series and struck with hammers. Cup shaped cymbals also made their way into medieval manuscripts. Unlike the dancing artwork from Roman and Byzantine mosaics, the Carolingian and later artwork was stripped of sexuality and put into a Christian or Jewish context.
|
|[[File:Tiaso (playing cymbala) dances with Dionysus, from a Roman villa at Agora, Argos, Greece, 5th century A.D.jpg|thumb|200px|center|5th century A.D., Roman villa at Agora, Argos, Greece. A dancer in the [[thiasus]] plays cymbala and dances with Dionysus.]][[File:Woman playing cymbala (or kymbala), from the Mosaic of the Female Musicians, Mariamin.jpg|thumb|200px|center|4th century A.D., Byzantine Empire. Woman playing cymbala (or kymbala) finger or palm cymbals, from the Mosaic of the Female Musicians, Mariamin]][[File:Cymbala and handbells, Bodleian Library MS. Laud Misc. 752.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Late 12th-early 13th century A.D. Musician accompanying [[David]] plays the [[cymbala]] with hammers, and another also plays cymbala (cup-shaped cymbals).]]
|[[File:Cymbals in the Valcavado Beaus, folio 199V.jpg|thumb|200px|center|970 A.C. Cymbals in the Valcavado Beaus, Spain]][[File:Cymbals in the Golden Haggadah, circa 1320.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Cymbals in the [[Golden Haggadah]], circa 1320]]
[[File:Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, page Bl-2 176V.jpg|thumb|200px|center]]
|-
|Drum
|The only drums in Europe reaching into ancient times were "Semitic frame drums", such as the Greek and Roman ''[[Tympanum (hand drum)|tympanum]]''.<ref name=MarcuseDrum>{{cite book |first=Sibyl |last=Marcuse |title=A Survey of Musical Instruments |publisher=Harper & Row |place=New York |date=1975 |entry= Drum |page=156}}</ref> Larger drums were introduced from "West Asia" in the medieval period.<ref name=MarcuseDrum/> They were played as timekeepers, marking the beat, their "metrical development" not developed yet.<ref name=MarcuseDrum/>
|''drum'', English, starting in the 16th century.

''tambour'', French<ref name=MarcuseDrum/>

''tamburo'', Italian<ref name=MarcuseDrum/>

''trommel'', German<ref name=MarcuseDrum/>
|[[File:Drummer, 11th century A.D. Theodore Psalter page 191r Ps.151 sharp.jpg|thumb|200px|center|11th century A.D, Byzantine Empire. Drummer with stylized drumstick.]][[File:The Mocking of Jesus scene of the musicians ca 1315-1317 A.D., drum, cymbals, recorder.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1315 A.D., Macedonia. Drum, cymbals and recorder. This drum does not have a snare.]]
|[[File:Drum from PSALTERIUM TRIPLEX, St John's College Cambridge, manuscript B.18, folio 1r.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Early 12th century, England. [[Jongleur]] in a bear suit playing a drum in "profane music".<ref>{{cite journal |title= Percussion instruments of the Middle Ages and Renaissance Their history in literature and painting |first= James |last= Blades |journal= Early Music |volume= 1 |issue= 1 |date= January 1973 |url= https://www.jstor.org/stable/3125789 |quote=A 12th century manuscript in St. John's College, Cambridge, associates the drum at this period with profane music. It shows a barrel-shaped drum suspended horizontally in front of the performer (a juggler disguised as a bear) who strikes it with his hand}}</ref> From PSALTERIUM TRIPLEX, St John's College Cambridge, manuscript B.18, folio 1r]]
|-
|*[[Frame drum]]
|See ''pandeiro'', ''tabor''

"A tympanum is a piece of skin or leather stretched over a piece of wood on one side." —Isidore of Seville, about 600 A.D.

The frame drum in use in Europe before the bigger drums arrived from West Asia can be called tambourines today. ''Tympanum'' was used as a name, as well as ''tabor''. These were wooden rings with leather covering one side. At first there were no jingles, as became common. A variant was the ''pandeiro'', introduced with Muslim invasions and pictured in manuscripts in Spain and Sicily. Some tabors could be frame drums, but other grew wider than the hand-held ring which we call tambourine today. 

Tof was the Hebrew instrument which Miriam played, "most commonly translated" into English as timbrel<ref name="Grove">{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Sadie |editor-first=Stanley |entry=Timbrel |encyclopedia=The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments |year=1984 |volume=3 |page=585}}</ref> Near eastern origin, used by Gauls, Greeks, Romans (''[[Tympanum (hand drum)|tympanum]]''), Egyptians, Assyrians.<ref name="Grove2">{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Sadie |editor-first=Stanley |entry=Tambourine |encyclopedia=The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments |year=1984 |volume=3 |page=511}}</ref> Jingles were probably originally separate from this instrument.<ref name="Grove2" /> Also related to [[Daf]]f.<ref name="Grove2" />

When jingles are attached, the instrument is classified as a type of rattle, a "frame wrattle," in which the rattles (or jingles) strike the object to which they are attached.

A ''timbrel'' or ''Basque tamborello'' was a "single-skin frame drum with cymbals" (modern [[tambourine]]), while a "single-skin frame drum" without jingles could also be labeled ''tamburin'' or ''[[bendir]]''.<ref name=uciim/> The ''bendir'' is also a Muslim frame drum with two snares from North Africa, whose name "probably derives from a Spanish word."<ref name="GroveBendir">{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Sadie |editor-first=Stanley |entry= Bendir|encyclopedia=The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments |year=1984 |volume=1 |page=220}}</ref>

|''[[Tympanum (hand drum)|Tympanum]]'', Latin

''Tympanon'', Greek

''Tof'' 

''[[Timbrel]]''<ref name="jewish encyclopedia">{{cite web |title=TIMBREL - JewishEncyclopedia.com |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/14399-timbrel |access-date=2016-05-13 |website=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref><ref name=uciim/>

''[[Tambourine]]''<ref name=uciim/>

''Bendir''<ref name=uciim/>

''Basque tamborello''<ref name=uciim/>
|[[File:Triumph of Bacchus - Sousse (details of Maenad playing tympanum).jpg|thumb|200px|center|3rd century A.D., Tunisia (Roman Empire). [[Maenad]] playing a [[Tympanum (hand drum)|tympanum]].]][[File:Angel with tambourine in Maastricht Book of Hours, folio 129R.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1300-1325 Belgium/Netherlands. Angel with tambourine in Maastricht Book of Hours, folio 129R]][[File:Woman with tambourine or timbrel, Harley MS 6563 Book of Hours, British Library.jpg|thumb|200px|center|14th century, England. Woman with tambourine or timbrel, with both jingles and a snare.]]
|[[File:Tambourine player in the Golden Haggadah.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1320 A.D., Barcelona, from the [[Golden Haggadah]]; [[Miriam]] was known for playing the timbrel]][[File:Woman playing a tambourine, from "The Assumption of the Virgin" by Matteo di Giovanni.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1474, Italy. Woman playing a tambourine, from "The Assumption of the Virgin" by [[Matteo di Giovanni]].]]
|-
|[[Hourglass drum]]
|Images in miniatures in the [[Cantigas de Santa Maria]] and the [[Valcavado Beatus]] show an hourglass drum was in use in Spain. [[Darbuka|Such drums are used in northern Africa]] and may have entered Europe with the Moorish soldiers who conquered the Iberian Peninsula. The drum also had been painted in Sicily, another place in Europe where Islamic and Christian cultures met.
|
|[[File:Woman playing hourglass drum, Cappella Palatina-ceiling.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1140 A.D., Sicily. Woman in Muslim clothes playing an hourglass drum, from a fresco in the ceiling of the [[Cappella Palatina]].]][[File:Utrechts-Psalter PSALM-67 instruments.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 850 A.D., Carolingian Empire. Musician with hourglass drum (right), along with [[rotte (lyre)|rotte]] (lyre) and harp.]]
|[[File:Hourglass Drum in the Valcavado Beaus, folio 199V.jpg|thumb|200px|center|970 A.D., Spain. Hourglass Drum in the Valcavado Beatus, folio 199V]][[File:Woman playing an hourglass drum, Cantinas de Santa Maria, circa 1140 AD.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1280 A.D., Spain. Woman in Muslim clothing playing an hourglass drum, Cantinas de Santa Maria, Codex of the Musicians, Cantiga 300.<ref name=BouterseAlgodonHourglass>{{cite web |first= Curt |last= Bouterse |website= curt.bouterse.com |title= Las Cantigas de Santa Maria |url= https://curt.bouterse.com/alfonso-x-instruments-then-now-i/ |quote= On the other hand, Cantiga 300 shows a strange ensemble: a man and a woman (both Muslim by their sleeve patches) playing unique instruments. The man, wearing the noble box-cap birrete, blows a huge fingerhole horn, while the woman plays an hourglass-shaped drum.}}</ref>]]
|-
|[[Jew's harp]]<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/16356799 |title=The Jew's harp : a comprehensive anthology |date=1988 |publisher=Bucknell University Press |author=Leonard Fox |isbn=0-8387-5116-4 |location=Lewisburg |oclc=16356799}}</ref>
|
|
|[[File:Medieval copper alloy jews harp (FindID 395253).jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 11th-15th century A.D. Jaw Harp made of copper alloy, found in [[Rutland]]. The instrument is missing its tongue.]]
|[[File:Angel playing a guimbarde or Jew's harp, crypt of Cathédrale Notre-Dame de Bayeux.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Angel playing a [[guimbarde]] or [[Jew's harp]], crypt of Cathédrale Notre-Dame de Bayeux]]
|-
|[[Nakers]]
|Appears in English writings from 1352 to 1440<ref name=MarcuseNaker>{{cite book |first=Sibyl |last=Marcuse |title=A Survey of Musical Instruments |publisher=Harper & Row |place=New York |date=1975 |entry= Naker |page=358}}</ref> European adaptation of kettledrum from Near East, the ''[[naqqara|naqqâra]]''.<ref name=MarcuseNaker/> Singular ''naker'' but played in pairs.

|''nakers'', Middle English<ref name=MarcuseNaker/>

''nacaire'', French<ref name=MarcuseNaker/>

''nacchera'', Italian<ref name=MarcuseNaker/>

''nacara'', Spanish<ref name=MarcuseNaker/>
|[[File:Playing nakers, Bodleian Library MS. Bodleian 264, pt. I, folio 58r.jpg|thumb|200px|center|One man plays nakers on the move, carried on the shoulders of another man, circa 1338–1410 in Tournai, Belgium; from the  Bodleian Library MS. Bodleian 264, pt. I, folio 58r.]]
|[[File:Troubadors playing nakers and vielle, Olomouc Bible, folio 276R.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1417, Czechoslovakia. Troubadors playing nakers and vielle, from the Olomouc Bible, folio 276R]]

|-
|[[Rattle (percussion instrument)|Rattle]]

[[Jingle (percussion)|Jingles]]
:[[Jingle bell]]s
:Sleigh bells

Vessel rattle
:Crotal
:Shaker

Frame rattle (see tambourine)

Row or rod rattles

[[Crotalus (instrument)|Crotalus]]
[[Ratchet (instrument)|Ratchet]]

|Rattles in the medieval period included vessel wrattles (crotals) and rod rattles and frame rattles. See also ''adulfe'', ''clappers'' or ''cliquettes'', ''tambourine'', ''triangle''

Crotals, also known as jingle bells, were two hemispherical, slotted sheets of metal soldered together, bulging where they connected the sheets into a ball. There was a pellet inside the ball. Historical uses included use by nobility on clothing, armor, tents and knights' horses and dogs, use by ladies for dancing (such as girls wearing bells ""à la morisque" around their hips, arms and ankles" for the reception of Charles V in Spain), and use by the [[Jester|fool]] as part of his garb (the [[Cap and bells|fool's cap]]).<ref>{{cite book |first=Sibyl |last=Marcuse |title=A Survey of Musical Instruments |publisher=Harper & Row |place=New York |date=1975 |pages=80–91}}</ref><ref>{{cite dictionary |first=Sibyl |last=Marcuse |dictionary=Musical Instruments: A Comprehensive Dictionary. A complete, authoritative encyclopedia of instruments throughout the world |publisher=Country Life Limited |place=London |date=1966 |page=435f |entry=Rattle}}</ref>

Row or rod rattles; rattles strung on a straight or ring-shaped rod. Medieval triangles are illustrated with rattles in this manner.
|
|[[File:Triangle, Die 24 Alten (The 24 Elders), Coburg State Library, Ms Cas 43.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1448, Germany. Triangle with rod rattles attached.]][[File:Oseberg metal rattle. Likely religious instrument.JPG|thumb|200px|center|Circa 834 A.D., Norway. Oseberg metal wrattle, found in a grave in [[Oseberg]].]][[File:Till Eulenspiegel, Bernburg.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Jester wearing crotal bells on the bottom of his tunic.]][[File:Himmelkron Engel013.JPG|thumb|200px|center|1473, Germany. Angel with crotals (crotal bells or rattles).]]
|[[File:Crotals, Die 24 Alten (The 24 Elders), Coburg State Library, Ms Cas 43.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1448 A.D., Germany. Crotals (crotal bells). Also considered rattles.]][[File:Shaker, Die 24 Alten (The 24 Elders), Coburg State Library, Ms Cas 43.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Crotal rattle on the end of a handle. Two metal halves welded together (the bulge in the center).]][[File:Eulenspiegelbrunnen (Magdeburg-Altstadt).Detail.ajb.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Statue of a Jester or Fool wearing [[Cap and bells]].]]


|-
|[[Cog rattle]]

Clatter

[[Crotalus (instrument)|Crotalus]]
:matraca 

[[Grager]]

[[Ratchet (instrument)|Ratchet]]

|Has been used among Catholic Christians in religious ceremonies to replace bells. Among Catholics has been used to replace bells between the Gloria of the Mass of the Last Supper on Maundy Thursday and the Easter Vigil.<ref>{{cite dictionary |dictionary=Schweizerisches Idiotikon| volume=6 |page=117 |entry=Rätsch II|url=https://digital.idiotikon.ch/p/lem/242886 | title=Schweizerisches Idiotikon digital }}</ref> 

Among Jewish people a ratchet is used to make noise by the congregation during the celebration of [[Purim]]. [[Sephardi Jews]] immigrating to [[Spanish Empire|Spanish imperial]] holdings in the [[Americas]] following their [[Expulsion of Jews from Spain|1492 expulsion from Spain]] brought [[grager]]s for celebrating [[Purim]], which could pass as the ''matracha'' of Catholic usage.<ref name="ES">{{cite web|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/when-the-spanish-inquisition-expanded-to-the-new-world/|title=When the Spanish Inquisition expanded to the New World|work=[[The Times of Israel]]|last=Tenorio|first=Rich|date=16 August 2016|access-date=29 June 2022|archive-date=9 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509180913/https://www.timesofisrael.com/when-the-spanish-inquisition-expanded-to-the-new-world/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|
|[[File:Troccole.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Wooden rattle]]
|[[File:Purim Exhibition at Heichal Shlomo in Jerusalem (3) (8466740399).jpg|thumb|200px|center|Wooden grogger or grager (Purim Noisemaker)]]

|-
|[[Semantron]]

(Greek: σήμαντρον)

Lignum sacrum

[[Naqus]] (Arabic: ناقوس)

[[:ro:Toacă|Toacă]] (Romanian)

|Wooden percussion board, struck with a hammer like a bell. These may be hung horizontally or vertically. Smaller versions may be handheld. In monasteries, they are used to call the monks. Used in Greek Orthodox during Easter week. These are still in use in Eastern Orthodox monasteries and may be made of wood or metal.
|Greece

Macedonia

Bulgaria

Romania

Russia

Serbia

Armenia

Israel

Syria

|[[File:The priest Themel puts the Arabs to flight using his semantron.png|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1150-1200 A.D., Byzantine Empire. The priest Themel drives off the Arabs of [[Tarsus, Mersin|Tarsus]], [[Cilicia]], with his semantron. Miniature in the Greek Chronicle [[Madrid Skylitzes|Madrid Illuminated Manuscript des Skylitzes]]. Chapter XI, fol. 132r]][[File:Flickr - fusion-of-horizons - Sinaia Monastery (43).jpg|thumb|200px|center|Monk with a semantron in the form of a double paddle, Sinaia Monastery, Romania.]]
|[[File:Man playing semantron, from the Madrid Skylitzes, Madrid, National Library, codex vitr. 26-2, folio 28v cropped for semantron, sharpened.jpg|thumb|200px|center|12th-13th century A.D., Sicily. A man plays the semantron with a hammer. Madrid Skylitzes, Madrid, National Library, codex vitr. 26-2, folio 28v.]][[File:Toacă portabilă, Mănăstirea Mușunoaiele, VN, România.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Musunoaiele Orthodox Monastery, Romania. Semantron with holes on each end for hanging, a thin center to handhold, and a mallet.]] 

|-
|[[Tabor (instrument)|Tabor]]

[[Pipe and tabor]]

|Early [[snare drum]], narrow body compared to width of drumhead, 12th century and later.<ref name=MarcuseTabor>{{cite book |first=Sibyl |last=Marcuse |title=A Survey of Musical Instruments |publisher=Harper & Row |place=New York |date=1975 |entry= Tabor |page=504}}</ref> 

The ensemble that played a [[three-hole pipe]] and "small drum" was used throughout western Europe to provide music for dances and was first seen in southern France and northern Spain in the 12th century.<ref name=MarcusePipe_and_Tabor>{{cite book |first=Sibyl |last=Marcuse |title=A Survey of Musical Instruments |publisher=Harper & Row |place=New York |date=1975 |entry= Pipe and Tabor|page=413}}</ref> A player played both instruments at the same time.<ref name=MarcusePipe_and_Tabor/>

Early drums in Europe were "side drums", slung at the players side or worn over their shoulder, or hung on left arm.<ref name=MarcuseTabor/><ref name="GroveDrum">{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Sadie |editor-first=Stanley |last=Blades |first=James|entry=Drum, 3: Side |encyclopedia=The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments |year=1984 |volume=1 |pages=607–609}}</ref> These were tabors, double sided with snares of rope (possibly only on one side.<ref name="GroveDrum" /> The drums were either beaten with two sticks, or played as a ''pipe and tabor'' combination.<ref name="GroveDrum" /> Larger drums come on the scene by the 1500s.<ref name="GroveDrum" />

A variation in France uses the ''tambourine à cordes'' or [[tambourine de Bearn]], in which a dulcimer or string drum replaces the snare drum.<ref name=MarcusePipe_and_Tabor/>
|''tabur'', Old French<ref name=MarcuseTabor/>

''tabour''<ref name=MarcuseTabor/>
|[[File:Frame drum or tabor, from Crusader Bible, MS M.638, fol. 29r.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1244-1254 A.D., France. Frame drum or tabor, from Crusader Bible, MS M.638, fol. 29r.]][[File:Fra Angelico - Angel beating a Drum detail from the Linaivoli Triptych 1433 brightened cropped.jpg|thumb|center|200px|1433, Italy. An angel holds a small duct flute or pipe and beats a drum.]]
|[[File:Cantiga pipe and tabor.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Pipe and tabor, from the Cantigas de Santa Maria, circa 1280 A.D.]][[File:Himmelkron Engel037.JPG|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1473, Germany. Angel with pipe and tabor.]][[File:Luttrellpsaltertaborer.png|thumb|200px|center|Pipe and tabor. The string that holds the tablor in place is visible at the musician's neck.]]

|-
|[[Tambourine de Bearn]]

''tambourin à cordes''<ref name=MarcusePipe_and_Tabor/>

string drum

''tutu-panpan''<ref name=MarcusePipe_and_Tabor/><ref name=MarcuseTutu-Panpan>{{cite book |first=Sibyl |last=Marcuse |title=A Survey of Musical Instruments |publisher=Harper & Row |place=New York |date=1975 |entry= Tutu-panpan|page= 552 |quote= popular Provençal appellation for the galoubet and tambourine (''i.e.'', pipe and tabor) ensemble}}</ref>

''ttun-ttun''<ref name=MarcuseTuntun>{{cite book |first=Sibyl |last=Marcuse |title=A Survey of Musical Instruments |publisher=Harper & Row |place=New York |date=1975 |entry= Tuntun|page= 551 |quote= small Basque tambourin à cordes...}}</ref>

''buttafuoco''
|Instrument played mainly in the Iberian Peninsula and Spanish influenced areas of Italy.<ref>{{cite web |title= Buttafuoco (tamburo di corde) |author= Goffredo Degli Esposti |url= https://www.goffredodegliesposti.it/buttafuoco-2/}}</ref> Appears earlier in sculpture and miniatures as a simple squared box with strings. Later the box becomes more elaborate. Played with 3-hole pipe. Some images shows play using 2 sticks, as well as one stick and fingers.
|
|[[File:Jaume Huguet, detail from Marededéu dels Àngels de Vallmoll, 1447-1450.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1447-1450, Spain. Angel playing a string drum or Tambor de cordes, from a painting by Catalan painter [[Jaume Huguet]].]][[File:Juanangelpipepsalterium.gif|thumb|200px|center|17th century, Spain. Convento de la Concepción, Epila, Zaragoza, Aragón, Spain. ]]
|[[File:Filippino Lippi, Carafa Chapel, Assumption 05.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1489—1491,Rome. Tambourine de Bearn. This instrument is still used in Basque-language areas in Spain, called the [[:eu:Ttun-ttun|ttun-ttun]].]][[File:Nakers, string drum and gittern, from Evangeliarium, Sog Troppauer-Evangeliar, Cod 1182 page 2 sharpened.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Nakers, string drum and gittern, from Evangeliarium, Sog Troppauer-Evangeliar, Cod 1182 page 2]]


|-
|[[Triangle (musical instrument)|Triangle]]
|
|
|[[File:Perugia, oratorio di san bernardino, rilievi facciata di agostino di duccio 28.JPG|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1457–1461, [[Oratory of San Bernardino, Perugia]]. Nakers and a triangle.]]
|[[File:Musician plays triangle in Olomouc Bible, folio 276R.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Musician plays triangle in Olomouc Bible, folio 276R]]
|}

== String instruments ==
{| class="wikitable" 
! Names and variations
! width=|Description
! width=|Ethnic connections, regions
! colspan=2|Pictures
|-
|[[Citole]]<ref>{{cite web |website=British Museum |title=Citole|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/H_1963-1002-1}}</ref><ref name="Baker: Gittern and Citole">{{cite web |last=Baker |first=Paul |title=The Gittern and Citole |url=http://www.diabolus.org/guide/gittern.htm |access-date=4 December 2016}}</ref>
|
|
|
|[[File:Citole Robert De Lisle Psalter.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1310 A.D. Citole from the Robert de Lisle Psalter.]]
|-
|Clavichord
|Clavichords were in existence in the "early years of the 15th century."<ref name="GroveClavichord">{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Sadie |editor-first=Stanley |last=Ripin|first=Edwin M.|entry=Clavichord |encyclopedia=The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments |year=1984 |volume=1 |pages=415–417}}</ref> Word ''clavichord'' found in text from 1404.<ref name="GroveClavichord" /> Earliest known image dates to 1425, in an altarpiece carving in Minden, Germany.<ref name="GroveClavichord" />
|
|[[File:Clavichord, Die 24 Alten (The 24 Elders), Coburg State Library, Ms Cas 43.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1448, Germany. Clavichord, Die 24 Alten (The 24 Elders), Coburg State Library, Ms Cas 43]]
|[[File:Clavichord, detail from painting by Perinetto da Benevento.webp|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1438, Italy. Detail of a clavichord from a painting by Perinetto da Benevento.]]
|-

|[[Crwth]]
:chorus
:crot
:crowd
:rote

[[Gue]]


[[Jouhikko]]

Stråkharpa

[[Talharpa]]
|Welsh and Middle English words for the 3-5 string bowed instrument included crwth, chorus, crot, and crowd.<ref name="GroveCrwth">{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Sadie |editor-first=Stanley |last=Kettlewell|first=David |entry=Crwth|encyclopedia=The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments |year=1984 |volume=1 |page=523}}</ref> Irish used ''cruit'' (indicating a lyre and later a frame harp).<ref name="GroveCrwth"/> Seen in Wales into the 18th century.<ref name="GroveCrwth"/> Modern surviving instruments come from Karelia (''jouhikko''), the Estonian ''hiiukannel'', Swedish ''stråkharpa'', and Norwegian ''Talharpa''.<ref name="GroveCrwth"/>

It was seen throughout the British Isles, from where it traveled through the Shetland Islands and Norway to Sweden, ending up in Estonia and Finland. Probably related to the [[Anglo-Saxon lyre|rotte lyre]] of Germany and Anglo-Saxon England; the direction the plucked instrument moved between cultures and who had it first is unknown.<ref name="GroveCrwth"/><ref name="GroveRotteii">{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Sadie |editor-first=Stanley |last=Kettlewell|first=David |entry=Rotte (ii)|encyclopedia=The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments |year=1984 |volume=3 |page=261}}</ref>
|
|[[File:Crwth, Westminster Abbey, 14th century A.D.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Crwth, Westminster Abbey, 14th century A.D.]][[File:Hiiukandle mängija., AM 12854-169 F 5496-169.jpg|thumb|200px |center|An Estonian man playing the hiiu kannel (or, talharpa), ca. 1920.]][[File:Talharpa, by Charlie Bynum, Silver Spoon Music, NL 2014.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Talharpa, Norway.]]
|[[File:Crwth from Troparium et prosarium Sancti Martialis Lemovicensis BNF Latin 1118 fo 104.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1029 A.D. King David playing the ''crwth'' from the ''Troparium et prosarium Sancti Martialis Lemovicensis'', BNF Latin 1118, folio 104.]][[File:Cruth watercolour.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Watercolor from the 18th century of a Welsh crwth.]][[File:Stråkharpa - SMV - M1503 01.tif|thumb|200px|center|Stråkharpa, bowed lyre from Sweden, also called Jouhikko in Finland.]][[File:Trumpet and crwth, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Latin 2508, folio IIv.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1125, [[Farfa Abbey]], Italy. Men playing trumpet and crwth. The abbey was founded circa 681 A.D. during an era of [[Hiberno-Scottish mission|Christian missions by the Irish]]. Bibliothèque nationale de France, Latin 2508, folio IIv.]]
|-
|[[Dulcimer]]

[[Hammer dulcimer]]

|A box zither; see psaltery.

"Little is known of the dulcimer before the mid-15th century."<ref name="GroveDulcimer">{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Sadie |editor-first=Stanley |last=Kettlewell|first=David |entry=Dulcimer |encyclopedia=The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments |year=1984 |volume=1 |page=627}}</ref> Earliest known depiction is on ivory carving for book cover, 12th century A.D.<ref name="GroveDulcimer" /><ref>{{cite web |date=26 May 2022 |title=A marvel in gold and ivory: Queen Melisende's Psalter|url=https://blogs.bl.uk/digitisedmanuscripts/2022/05/a-marvel-in-gold-and-ivory.html|quote=[Caption for photograph of the book cover. The dulcimer is in bottom right corner of book-cover carving] The Melisende Psalter, Upper cover with scenes from the life of David: Egerton MS 1139/1}}</ref>
|
|[[File:David and his musicians, detail of ivory bookcover of manuscript Egerton MS 1139, British Library.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1131-1143<ref>{{cite web |website= British Library: Medieval Manuscripts Blog |date= 22 May 2014 |title= A Sense of Detachment|url= https://blogs.bl.uk/digitisedmanuscripts/illuminated-manuscripts/page/73/}}</ref> David (playing hammered dulcimer) and his musicians, detail of ivory bookcover of [[Melisende Psalter]], Egerton MS 1139/1, British Library]][[File:Allegory of Music (Echecs amoureux).jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1496–1498, France. Allegory of Music, in a manuscript of Echecs amoureux, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Français 143, fol. 65v]][[File:Himmelkron Engel022.JPG|thumb|200px|center|1473, Germany. Angel with a hammer dulcimer.]][[File:Hammer dulcimer from Chronicles of Lord JEHAN FROISSART sharpened.jpg|thumb|200px|center|15th century, France. Hammer dulcimer from Chronicles of Lord JEHAN FROISSART, Français 2644, folio 154v.]]
|[[File:Hammer Dulcimer in painting by Bartolomeo della Gatta, circa1473.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Hammer Dulcimer in painting ''Assumption of Mary'' by Bartolomeo della Gatta, circa 1473.]][[File:Hammer Dulcimer, Die 24 Alten (The 24 Elders), Coburg State Library, Ms Cas 43.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1448, Germany. Hammer Dulcimer, Detail from Die 24 Alten (The 24 Elders), Coburg State Library, Ms Cas 43.]][[File:Angels playing hammered dulcimer and harp, detail from fresco in the Madonna-del-Brichetto, Morozzo, Italy.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1491, Italy.  Angels playing hammered dulcimer and harp, detail from fresco in the Madonna-del-Brichetto, [[Morozzo]].]]
|-
|[[Fiddle]] see also 
:[[Gusle]]
:[[Kemenche]]
::[[Kemenche of the Black Sea]]
::[[Kemane of Cappadocia]]
::[[:ru:Шичепшин|Shikepshine]]
:[[Lijerica]]
:Lyra
::[[Byzantine lyra]]
::[[Calabrian lira]]
::[[Classical kemençe|politiki lyra]]
::[[Cretan lyra]]
::[[Gadulka]]
::[[Gudok]]
:[[pochette (musical instrument)|Pochette]]
:[[Rebec]]
::[[rabel (instrument)|Rabel]]
:[[Vielle]]
:[[Vihuela de arco]]
|
|
|[[File:David, St Albans Psalter, page 56.jpg|thumb|200px|center|David playing music on a fiddle. From St. Albans Psalter, page 56.]]
|[[File:Memling - The reliquary of Saint Ursula, 0040147057.jpg|thumb|200px|center|14th century, Flemish artwork. Fiddle in the Reliquary of Saint Ursula. Fiddles such as this have been labeled fiddle, rabel and vielle. Names don't imply different instruments, but possibly reveal variations in music traditions.]][[File:Fiddle from Theodore Psalter page 191r Ps.151. 7-8 - David killing Goliath sharpened.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Fiddle from Theodore Psalter, folio 191R, 11th century A.D., Byzantine Empire]]
|-
|[[Gittern]]<ref name="Baker: Gittern and Citole" />
|
|
|
|[[File:Gitterns in the Cantigas de Santa-Maria, Codex of musicians page 104R.jpg|thumb|200px|center]]
|-
|[[Guitarra latina]]
|One writer has summed up the guitarra latina, which is not well defined, saying "For musicians in Alfonso's time it may have meant only 'a plucked stringed instrument: not the Muslim one.'"<ref>{{cite web |last=Bouterse |first=Curt |title=Medieval Instruments V: Fiddles – Curt Bouterse |url=https://curt.bouterse.com/medieval-instruments-v-fiddles/}}</ref> 
|
|[[File:Guitar latina morisca.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Instrument on left has been called guitarra latina and citole. Instrument on right has been called guitarra morisca (Moorish guitar) and vihuela peñola (quill plucked guitar).]]
|[[File:Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, page Bl-2 039V.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Fiddle at left could be called a [[vielle]]. Instrument on left has been called both guitarra latina and citole.]]

|-
|[[Guitarra morisca]]<ref name="galpin1">{{cite book |last=Galpin |first=Francis William |url=https://archive.org/details/oldenglishinstru00galprich |title=Old English Instruments of Music |date=1911 |publisher=A. C. McClurg and Company |location=Chicago |pages=[https://archive.org/details/oldenglishinstru00galprich/page/21 21]–22}}</ref>
|
|
|
[[File:Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, page Bl-2 140V.jpg|thumb|200px|center|unknown guitarra]][[File:Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, page Bl-2 133R.jpg|thumb|200px|center|unknown guitarra]]
|[[File:European and Islamic musicians in 13th century playing stringed instruments.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Possible guitarras morisca. The Moors (if they mean Africans) had a tradition of wood-bowed lutes covered with leather. Arab/Persian Muslims had a different carved wood with leather tradition ([[Barbat (lute)|barbat]] and [[gambus]]). Either group was called Moors in Spain.]]
|-
|[[Medieval harp]] (Medieval form of the modern [[harp]])

[[Celtic harp]]
:Irish Harp
::''cláirseach''

:Scottish harp
::''clàrsach''
:Breton
::''telenn''
:Welsh Harp
::''telyn''
|{{See|Origin of the harp in Europe}}

Not counting the [[ancient Greek harp]]s, earliest depictions of harps in Europe include [[Origin of the harp in Europe#Scottish origins|examples in Scotland]] (the [[Nigg Stone]], late 8th century) and Ireland (early images in stone carvings appear to show oblong, c-shaped and triangular harps or lyres.<ref>{{cite web |title=Early medieval depictions of harpers on stone, manuscript and metal |first=Simon |last=Chadwick|url=https://www.earlygaelicharp.info/earlymed/}}</ref>). Other early works can be seen from  France, such as the ivory cover to the [[Dagulf Psalter]] in France and the 9th century illustrations in the [[Utrecht Psalter]].

Harps were strung throughout Europe with gut strings. Exceptions include Ireland (where strings were of metal) and Wales (where portable harps used horsehair strings through the 17th century A.D.).<ref>{{cite book |title=A History of Welsh Music |chapter=Chapter 4 - Secular Music before 1650 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |author=Sally Harper |date=2022 |pages=78–99 |doi=10.1017/9781009036511.007 |editor1=Trevor Herbert |editor2=Martin V. Clarke |editor3=Helen Barlow |isbn=9781009036511 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/history-of-welsh-music/secular-music-before-1650/6FD91FEDEDE62B05ED84154DF396D7C4|quote=A self-accompanying poet like Dafydd ap Gwilym would have used a small, portable harp, perhaps a form of the telyn raun (or rawn)...This horsehair-strung instrument remained prevalent in the Welsh bardic context until at least the seventeenth century...Other types of harp were nevertheless known in Wales, including the metal-strung harp used by the Irish...Gut strings were the norm elsewhere in Europe and England, but apparently despised in Wales, at least by some...}}</ref>

For comparison of harps from across the ancient and medieval world, look at [[angular harp]]s, [[arched harp]]s, and [[konghou]].
|
|[[File:Utrechts-Psalter PSALM-80 cithara and harp.jpg|center|200px|thumb|Circa 850 A.D., Utrecht Psalter, France. Anglo-Saxon drawn illustration of harp and [[cythara]].]][[File:Harper, Bodleian Library MS. Junius 11 folio 54.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1000 A.D., England. Anglo-Saxon drawing of a harper. Bodleian Library MS. Junius 11 folio 54]][[File:Harp from Theodore Psalter page 191r Ps.151. 7-8 - David killing Goliath sharpened.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Harp from Theodore Psalter, 11th century A.D., Byzantine Empire]][[File:David, Siegburger Psalter, Vienna. ÖNB, Cod. lat. 1879, fol. 104v sharpened.jpg|thumb|150px|center|12th century A.D. France. David playing harp, a musician playing cornett at his feet, a vielle player behind him.]]
|[[File:Angel with harp from Nigg Stone.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 790-799 A.D., [[Nigg Stone]], from [[Nigg, Highland]], Scotland.]][[File:David, Asaph and Eman, from Cambridge University manuscript Ff 1.23, folio 4v.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Late 10th-11th century A.D., England. Drawing from Anglo Saxon manuscript. This  has been called a Welsh harper.<ref>{{cite book |title=Histoire de la musique |date=1884|last=Lavoix |first=Henri Marie |page=89|url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lavoix_-_Histoire_de_la_musique,_1884.djvu&page=95 |quote=Harpe des Bardes Gallois}}</ref>]][[File:Earliest Irish harp on the Breac Máedóc reliquary, circa 1000-1100 A.D.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1000-1100 A.D. Ireland. Early depiction of a ''cláirseach''. Earlier depictions are known, but with different shapes.]][[File:Westminster Psalter David.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1200 A.D, England. David playing a harp. Resembles [[Celtic harp]].]][[File:Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, page Bl-2 341R cropped.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1280 A.D., Spain. [[Sephardic]] Jewish musicians playing harps in the Musicians Codex of the [[Cantigas de Santa Maria]].]]
|-
|[[Lute]]<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1979 |title=A Panoply of Instruments for Medieval, Renaissance, and Baroque Music |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3395616 |journal=Music Educators Journal |volume=65 |issue=9 |pages=38–69 |doi=10.2307/3395616 |jstor=3395616 |issn=0027-4321|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
|
|
|[[File:Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, page Bl-2 054R.jpg|thumb|200px|center]][[File:Cantigas de Santa María, Codex of the musicians, B-I-2 162R lute rebab.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Rebec or rebab (left), lute right.]]
|[[File:Llaüt.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Circa 1376, Spain. Lute player, detail from ''Mare de Déu de la Llet'' (Our Lady of Milk) by [[Lorenzo Zaragoza]].]]
|-
|Lyra

:[[Byzantine lyra]]

:[[Cretan lyra]]
|Fiddle, related to rebec
|
|[[File:Lyres-creta.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Later versions of the Cretan lyra, from a museum in Athens.]]
|[[File:Byzantine Lyra Museo Nazionale.jpg|thumb|200px|center| Circa 900 – 1100 A.D. Lyra on a Byzantine ivory casket, ''Museo Nazionale, Florence'']]
|-
|[[Lyre]]

[[Anglo-Saxon lyre]]

:''Hearpe''

Germanic lyre <ref name="Hillberg">{{cite thesis|first=Julia|last=Hillberg|date=2015|title=Early Lyres in Context: A Comparative Contextual Study on Early Lyres and the Identity of Their Owner/User|publisher=Lund University |degree= Master's Thesis in Archaeology |pages= 6, 7, 22, 48|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/289938742.pdf}}</ref>

:[[Rotte (lyre)|Rotte]]

Irish lyre
:''Crot'', ''cruth''
|'''[[List of early Germanic peoples|Germanic]] [[lyre]]''', used in [[northwestern Europe]] in the early medieval period (circa 450 A.D.) into the 13th century.<ref name="rotte">{{Cite encyclopedia |entry=Rotte [round lyre, Germanic lyre](ii) |encyclopedia=Grove Music Online |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |date=2002 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.23943 |author=Myrtle Bruce-Mitford|title=Rotte (ii) |isbn=978-1-56159-263-0 |quote= one of the most widely used plucked instruments in north-western Europe from pre-Christian times to medieval times }}</ref> There are 21 mentions of the lyre in Anglo-Saxon poetry, five of these in ''[[Beowulf]]''.<ref name=21mentions>{{Cite web|url=https://heorot.dk/beowulf-rede-text.html|title=Beowulf|website=heorot.dk|access-date=Sep 2, 2020|quote= [note: mentioned in Beowulf, lines 89, 2107, 2262, 2458, 3023]}}</ref>
|*''Hearpe'' ([[Old English|OEng]])<ref name=MarcuseHearpe>{{cite dictionary |first=Sibyl |last=Marcuse |dictionary=Musical Instruments: A Comprehensive Dictionary. A complete, authoritative encyclopedia of instruments throughout the world |publisher=Country Life Limited |place=London |date=1966 |page=239 |entry=Hearpe |quote= Hearpe...harp}}</ref><ref name=Montagu/>
*Round lyre<ref name=Pulver>{{cite book |title= The Stringed Instruments Of The Middle Ages (English Edition, revised) |editor= Jeffrey Pulver |pages=91-101, 114|date=1915|author=Hortense Panum |url= https://archive.org/details/stringedinstrume017498mbp/page/90/mode/2up |quote= From its shape this lyre must, to differentiate it from the antique form, be characterized as the ''round lyre''. [note: Specific date this book was published in the early 20th century is not certain. On page 103, the author refers to his original Danish work from 1915 as if that were in the past.] }}</ref>
*Viking lyre, Scandinavian lyre<ref name=Montagu>{{cite web|first=Jeremy |last=Montagu |title= Lyres, Harps and Liars |url= https://jeremymontagu.co.uk/Lyres%20Harps%20and%20Liars.html |quote= The old English name for the lyre was hearpe, and until the tenth century or so this always meant the lyre, but from then on it meant the harp...Beowulf and his Anglo-Saxon contemporaries were said to play the harp – they didn't, they played the lyre.}}</ref>
*harpa, hörpu ([[Old Norse|ONorse]])<ref name=cleasby>{{cite dictionary |title= Cleasby & Vigfusson Dictionary |entry= Hörpu |url=https://cleasby-vigfusson-dictionary.vercel.app/word/horpu}}</ref><ref name=MarcuseHarpa>{{cite dictionary |first=Sibyl |last=Marcuse |dictionary=Musical Instruments: A Comprehensive Dictionary. A complete, authoritative encyclopedia of instruments throughout the world |publisher=Country Life Limited |place=London |date=1966 |page=231 |entry=Harpa |quote=Harpa...believed to have been a generic name for stringed instruments}}</ref>
*Anglo-Saxon lyre<ref name=Montagu/>

*cruð ([[Old English|OEng]])<ref name=MarcuseChrotta>{{cite book |first=Sibyl |last=Marcuse |title=A Survey of Musical Instruments |publisher=Harper & Row |place=New York |date=1975 |page=373|quote= At an early time this must have been translated into Old High German as ''chrotta'' or ''hrotta'', tortoise...}}</ref>
*cruit ([[Old Irish|OIrish]]),<ref name=MarcuseChrotta/><ref name=MarcuseCruit>{{cite dictionary |first=Sibyl |last=Marcuse |dictionary=Musical Instruments: A Comprehensive Dictionary. A complete, authoritative encyclopedia of instruments throughout the world |publisher=Country Life Limited |place=London |date=1966 |page=133 |entry=Cruit}}</ref><ref name=MusicandMusicians>{{cite journal |title= Music and Musicians in Medieval Irish Society |first= Ann |last= Buckley |journal= Early Music |volume= 28 |issue= 2 | publisher= Oxford University Press |url= https://www.jstor.org/stable/3519019 |date= May 2000 |pages= 165–171 |doi= 10.1093/earlyj/XXVIII.2.165 |jstor= 3519019 |quote= cruitire, a player of a lyre or a harp...Irish sources provide many names for musical instruments. Primary among them are cruit or crot, and timpan, both metal-strung instruments. In its earliest period a cruit was probably a lyre...The plucked version was sounded with the fingernails, as were the cruit and later Irish harps.|url-access= subscription }}</ref> crot<ref name=MarcuseChrotta/><ref name=MarcuseCrot>{{cite dictionary |first=Sibyl |last=Marcuse |dictionary=Musical Instruments: A Comprehensive Dictionary. A complete, authoritative encyclopedia of instruments throughout the world |publisher=Country Life Limited |place=London |date=1966 |page=133 |entry=Crot|quote= OIrish syn. of cruit}}</ref><ref name=crotstringedinstruments>{{cite journal |author1= Fabienne Toupin |author2= Ileana Sasu |author3= Vladimir Agrigoroaei |author4= Katarzyna Jasinska |title= The Musical Instruments in the Early Vernacular Translations of the Psalms (3): Collective Research |journal= museIKON A Journal of Religious Art and Culture |date= May 2021|page=100 |url= https://hal.science/hal-03511335/document |quote=  Since the Old Irish word crott is a generic designation of the category of stringed instruments (including ‘harp’ and ‘lyre’)... }}</ref>
*crowd ([[Middle English|MidEng]])<ref name=MarcuseCrowd>{{cite dictionary |first=Sibyl |last=Marcuse |dictionary=Musical Instruments: A Comprehensive Dictionary. A complete, authoritative encyclopedia of instruments throughout the world |publisher=Country Life Limited |place=London |date=1966 |page=133 |entry=Rota|quote= MEngl}}</ref>
*chrotta ([[Old High German|OHGer]], Latin)<ref name=MarcuseChrotta/><ref name=MarcuseChrotta1>{{cite dictionary |first=Sibyl |last=Marcuse |dictionary=Musical Instruments: A Comprehensive Dictionary. A complete, authoritative encyclopedia of instruments throughout the world |publisher=Country Life Limited |place=London |date=1966 |page=99|entry=Chrotta|quote= Chrotta, Lat. equivalent of cruit}}</ref>
*hruozza ([[old High German|OHGer]])<ref name=MarcuseHruozza>{{cite dictionary |first=Sibyl |last=Marcuse |dictionary=Musical Instruments: A Comprehensive Dictionary. A complete, authoritative encyclopedia of instruments throughout the world |publisher=Country Life Limited |place=London |date=1966 |page=248|entry=Hruozza}}</ref>
*lyra, lira, lire ([[Medieval Latin|MedLatin]])<ref name=Steger1971p13-17,plate2>Steger, 1971, pp. 13-17, [[:File:King David with monochord and Germanic lyre, from Koblenz, Staatsarchiv, HS 101, NR 110, f 153.jpg|plate 2]]</ref>
*rota ([[Old Provencal|OProv]])<ref name="rotte"/><ref name=MarcuseRota>{{cite dictionary |first=Sibyl |last=Marcuse |dictionary=Musical Instruments: A Comprehensive Dictionary. A complete, authoritative encyclopedia of instruments throughout the world |publisher=Country Life Limited |place=London |date=1966 |page=447|entry=Rota}}</ref>
*rotta ([[old High German|OHGer]], [[Old Provencal|OProv]], [[medieval Latin|MedLatin]])<ref name="rotte"/><ref name=MarcuseRotta>{{cite dictionary |first=Sibyl |last=Marcuse |dictionary=Musical Instruments: A Comprehensive Dictionary. A complete, authoritative encyclopedia of instruments throughout the world |publisher=Country Life Limited |place=London |date=1966 |page=447|entry=Rotta}}</ref>
*rote ([[Old French|OFr]], [[Middle English|MidEng]])<ref name="rotte"/><ref name=MarcuseRote>{{cite dictionary |first=Sibyl |last=Marcuse |dictionary=Musical Instruments: A Comprehensive Dictionary. A complete, authoritative encyclopedia of instruments throughout the world |publisher=Country Life Limited |place=London |date=1966 |page=447 |entry=Rote|quote= OFr. and MEngl. form of the word cruit.}}</ref>
*rotte ([[Middle High German|MidHGer]])<ref name="rotte"/><ref name=MarcuseRotte>{{cite dictionary |first=Sibyl |last=Marcuse |dictionary=Musical Instruments: A Comprehensive Dictionary. A complete, authoritative encyclopedia of instruments throughout the world |publisher=Country Life Limited |place=London |date=1966 |page=447 |entry=Rotte}}</ref>
*sambuca ([[Medieval Latin|MedLatin]])<ref name=MarcuseSambuca>{{cite dictionary |first=Sibyl |last=Marcuse |dictionary=Musical Instruments: A Comprehensive Dictionary. A complete, authoritative encyclopedia of instruments throughout the world |publisher=Country Life Limited |place=London |date=1966 |page=452|entry=Sambuca 2 |quote= in Med. Europe it denoted a chordophone...glossed in the 10th c. as hruozza, the cruit}}</ref>
|[[File:Trossinger Leier 1 ALM.jpg|thumb|200px|center| Trossingen lyre. Found in a 6th-century grave in Trossingen, Germany.]][[File:King David with a lyre, from the Worms Bible, BL Harley 2804, folio 3v.png|thumb|200px|center|1025-1075 A.D., Germany. Rotte (or Rotta) round lyre.]][[File:Illuminated Initial 'B' with David playing the lyre (CBL W 040, f.7r, detail).jpg|thumb|200px|center|1240 and 1260, Germany.]]
|[[File:Durham Cathedral Library MS B II 30 Cassiodorus on the Psalms folio 81V.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Five-string lyre from the [[Durham Cassiodorus]], 8th-century A.D., England]][[File:Hearpere.jpg|thumb|200px|center|King David with his lyre, [[Vespasian Psalter]], 8th century A.D.]][[File:NF.1904-0194.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Kravic lyre, excavated at the Kravic farm in [[Numedal]], Norway. Made of pine with seven strings. ]][[File:Woman with lyre, Germany circa 1125-1150, from the Zwiefalten Passionale.jpg|thumb|200px|center| Woman with lyre, Germany circa 1125-1150, from the Zwiefalten Passionale]]
|-
|[[Monochord]]
|The monochord was a theoretical instrument illustrated in religious miniatures. A single string zither, which could produce different notes by pressure and plucking.
|
|[[File:Man with monochord and chime bells, from the PSALTERIUM TRIPLEX, St John's College, B.18, folio 1r.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Man with monochord and chime bells, from the PSALTERIUM TRIPLEX, St John's College, B.18, folio 1r]]
|[[File:Boethius.jpeg|thumb|200px|center|Early 12th century A.D. Monochord, illustrated in manuscript of Anicius Manlius Severinus Boëthius, Cambridge, University Library Ii.3.12, fol. 61v.]][[File:Himmel 011.JPG|thumb|200px|center|1473, Germany. Angel with a monochord.]]
|-
|[[Nyckelharpa]]
|Played by bow across strings; keys on the neck raised strings up to be sounded.
|''viola a chiavi'', Italian
|[[File:Viola a chiavi Siena 1408.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1408, [[Siena, Italy]]. Viola a chiavi (key viola).]]
|[[File:Sweden tolfta church angels with nyckelharpa (cropped 1).jpg|thumb|200px|center|1450-1500, Sweden. Nyckelharpa played by angel.]]

|-
|[[Organistrum]] (large form of medieval [[hurdy-gurdy]])

[[Symphonia]]

[[Hurdy-gurdy]]

|Organistrum, an early form of hurdy-gurdy, probable ancestor of later hurdy-gurdies.<ref>{{Cite web|title=www.organistrum.com -- Antonio Poves --|url=http://www.organistrum.com/organistrum_uk.htm|access-date=2020-06-04|website=www.organistrum.com}}</ref> Played in churches and monastic schools until the 13th century A.D.<ref name=MarcuseHurdy-gurdy>{{cite book |first=Sibyl |last=Marcuse |title=A Survey of Musical Instruments |publisher=Harper & Row |place=New York |date=1975 |entry= Hurdy-gurdy|pages=251–252}}</ref> After 13th century the instrument declined, and fell into disuse in the 14th.<ref name=MarcuseHurdy-gurdy/> Outside of the church it was used for popular music and folk music, and later by beggars.<ref name=MarcuseHurdy-gurdy/>

Initially a fiddle shaped instrument with a hand crank, which turned a wheel.<ref name=MarcuseHurdy-gurdy/> The wheel rubbed against all the strings at once making them sound.<ref name=MarcuseHurdy-gurdy/> Strings were sounded simultaneously, with outer strings acting as drones and center strings (which the keys activated) used for melody.<ref name=MarcuseHurdy-gurdy/> 

At first it was played by two individuals: one turned the crank while the other worked "key rods" to change the musical pitch of the strings.<ref name=MarcuseHurdy-gurdy/> As the instrument became a smaller, one-person instrument, key rods became "push levers".<ref name=MarcuseHurdy-gurdy/> The new mechanism required that the instrument be tilted as it was played.<ref name=MarcuseHurdy-gurdy/><ref>{{Cite book|last=Jackson|first=Roland|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QaW0AQAAQBAJ&q=organistrum,+two+players&pg=PA194|title=Performance Practice: A Dictionary-Guide for Musicians|date=2013-10-23|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-76770-8|language=en}}</ref>  

In the 10th century A.D., [[Odo of Cluny]] wrote a work (''Quomodo organistrum construatur'') that helped readers make an instrument.<ref name=MarcuseHurdy-gurdy/> 
|''organae instrumentum'', Latin<ref name=MarcuseOrganistrum>{{cite book |first=Sibyl |last=Marcuse |title=A Survey of Musical Instruments |publisher=Harper & Row |place=New York |date=1975 |entry= Organistrum|page=386}}</ref>

''organistrum'', circa 942 A.D-14th century.<ref name=MarcuseHurdy-gurdy/>

''symphonia'', 12th-16th centuries<ref name=MarcuseHurdy-gurdy/>

''hurdy-gurdy'', starting 18th century<ref name=MarcuseHurdy-gurdy/>

''symphonie'', ''chifonie'', ''armonie'', ''Vielle à roue'', French<ref name=MarcuseHurdy-gurdy/>

''Leier'', German<ref name=MarcuseHurdy-gurdy/>

''gaita del pobre'', ''vihuela de rueda'', ''sinfonía'', ''chifonía'', ''zanfoña'', Spanish<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://dle.rae.es/?id=cL8R9je|title=zanfona|date=12 January 2016|website=Diccionario de la lengua española}} </ref>
|[[File:Organistrum Orense 200708.jpg|thumb|200px|center]][[File:Organistrumsantiago20060414.png|thumb|200px|center|12th century A.D., Spain, Organistrum" of the  Portico of Glory, Santiago de Compostela.]][[File:Organistrum.png|thumb|200px|center|1340, Germany. Organistrum or Leier.]]

|[[File:Viola-de-rueda, detail from the Tríptico-relicario del Monasterio de Piedra, in Zargosa, Spain, 1390 A.D.jpg|thumb|200px|center|14th century A.D., Spain. Organistrum of the Triptych in the Monastery of Piedra, Zaragoza.]][[File:Symphonia Cantigas Sta María 160.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1280 A.D., Spain. Symphonia, a name used for the hurdy-gurdy or organistrum from the 12th century on.<ref name="GroveSymphonia">{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Sadie |editor-first=Stanley |last=Brown|first=Howard Mayer |entry=Symphonia|encyclopedia=The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments |year=1984 |volume=3 |page=483}}</ref>]][[File:Woman sitting with hurdy-gurdy, Luttrell Psalter, England, 1325-40, British Library Add MS 42130, folio 81v.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1325-1340 A.D., England. Woman with symphonia, [[Luttrell Psalter]], Add MS 42130, folio 81v]]
[[File:Himmelkron Engel021.JPG|thumb|200px|center|1473, Germany. Angel with a ''Leier''.]]

|-
|[[Psaltery]]
|
|
|[[File:MP Salterio.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1390 A.D., Monastery of Piedra, Spain. Triangular psaltry.]][[File:Musician with psaltery from the Psalterium cum Canticis ('Werdener Psalter') Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin – Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Ms. theol. lat. fol. 561.jpg|thumb|200px|center|circa 1029-1050, Germany. Psaltery played vertically, with musician standing.]][[File:Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, page Bl-2 071V.jpg|thumb|200px|center]][[File:King David and musicians, frescoe at the Philanthropinon monastery,Ioaninna.jpg|thumb|200px|center|King David and musicians, frescoe at the Philanthropinon monastery, Ioaninna.]]
|[[File:B-I-2 260R large psaltery.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1280 A.D. Cantigas de Santa Maria. Psaltery being played with two hands, probably base at bottom to treble strings higher.]]
[[File:Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, page Bl-2 089R.jpg|thumb|200px|center]][[File:Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, page Bl-2 096V.jpg|thumb|200px|center]][[File:Don Simone Camaldolese, circa 1380, David with psaltery.jpg|thumb|center|200px|1380 A.D., Florence, Italy. King David playing psaltery.]]
|-
|[[Rabel (instrument)|Rabel]]
|Fiddle, probably variation of rebec. Survives today in Basque speaking areas; historically had leather soundboard; modern instruments may have wooden soundboard. The instrument traveled to the Spanish colonies in America, where it can be found today in Panama.
|
|[[File:Vielle player with flutist, detail from Glasgow University Library MS Hunter 229 (U.3.2), folio 21V.jpg|thumb|140px|center|1170 A.D. Fiddle player with flutist. Glasgow University Library MS Hunter 229 (U.3.2), folio 21V]][[File:Galician rabel.jpg|thumb|140px|center|Modern [[Galicia, Spain|Galacian]] rabel]]

[[File:Soria santo domingo1.jpg|thumb|140px|center|Musicians from the arch of the 12th entury A.D. West portal of Santo Domingo Church, Soria, Spain]][[File:Rabel 01.jpg|thumb|140px|center|Rabel from Cantabria, at the Ethnographic Museum of Cantabria]]
|[[File:Moradillo Sedano iglesia San Esteban Arquivolta 1 Dovela 7.png|thumb|140px|center|Unnamed fiddle. Possibly rabel or vihuela de arco or rebec. Santiago Catedral Quintana]][[File:Rabel S. XVIII.jpg|thumb|140px|center|18th century,  Cantabria. Rabel constructed in area where tradition still existed.]][[File:Arrabita arrunta.jpg|thumb|140px|center|[[Asturias]]. An ''[[:eu:arrabita|arrabita]]'' or ''rabela'' (Basque) with a wooden resonance box in the shape of a figure 8 and a leather cover. It has three gut strings. The bow has a string of white bristles.]][[File:Museo Etnográfico de Cantabria 131.jpg|thumb|140px|center|Rabel at the Ethnographic Museum of Cantabria]]
|-
|[[Rebab]]

Rabé morisco
|Rebab is a word for various kinds of fiddle in the Muslim world. Spelling is loose, because Arabic does not write down vowels sounds. Rabab, rebab, rubab, ribab have all been used, and some of them are used for plucked instruments in Asia as well.
|
|[[File:Rabel.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Bowed instrument resembling Maghreb rebabs. Spanish and Catalonian names for this include Rebac and Rabel (both are instruments played on the arm, rather than the knee), but its shape closely resembles these.]]
[[File:Zaragoza - Museo - María, Reina de los Cielos - Ángel violín.JPG|thumb|200px|center|circa 1437. Angel performing for [[Mary, Queen of Heaven]] playing a rebab. Panel of the Altarpiece of Santa María la Mayor of Albalate del Arzobispo (province of Teruel). It is preserved in the Museum of Zaragoza.]]
|[[File:Cantiga rabé morisco.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Rebabs from 1280 A.D. that resemble modern [[Maghreb rebab]]s. These have also been called rabé morisco (Moorish rebecs).]]
[[File:Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, page Bl-2 193V cropped.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Instrument seen only in Cantigas de Santa Maria. Resembles guitarra but is played vertically like a rebab or a later viol ([[viola de gamba]] or vihuela de gamba). Unlike these, it is shown played vertically while standing.]]
|-
|[[Rebec]]<ref name="iastate">{{cite web |author=Spohnheimer |title=The Rebec |url=http://www.music.iastate.edu/antiqua/rebec.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160504060028/http://www.music.iastate.edu/antiqua/rebec.htm |archive-date=2016-05-04 |access-date=2016-05-13 |website=Music.iastate.edu}}</ref>
|
|
|[[File:Rebac.jpg|thumb|140px|center|1509, [[Bruges]]. Rebec player with 3-string instrument]][[File:Rei David, Santiago de Compostela.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Rabel or possibly rebec. Line around edge of soundboard indicates this instrument had a skin soundboard.]]
|[[File:Rebec from harley ms 4951 folio 297V.jpg|thumb|200px|center|11th century A.D. Rebec or fiddle from Harley manuscript 4951, folio 297V in the British Library.]][[File:Juan Oliver - The Females Saints at the Tomb and the Resurrection detail of the rebec player 1330.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1330 A.D. [[Pamplona Cathedral]]. Rebec player with 2-string instrument.]]
|-
|[[Rotte (psaltery)|Rotte]]
|The name rotte was used for lyres first; the name began to be applied to a harp-like psaltery about the 12th century A.D.<ref name="rotte1">{{Cite encyclopedia |entry=Rotte (i) |encyclopedia=Grove Music Online |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |date=2002 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.23943 |author=Myrtle Bruce-Mitford|title=Rotte (i) |isbn=978-1-56159-263-0 |quote=triangular psaltery...the 12th century copyist of Notker Balbulus complained that the ancient ten-string psaltery had been adopted by musicians and actors...the musicians applied to the new instrument...the name of one already familiar to them...the Germanic lyre}}</ref>

Often confused with harps in illustrations. Church writers in the Carolingian Empire had limited understanding of earlier instruments, such as the [[angular harp|angular vertical harp]]. Descriptions from the 4th-5th centuries of this instrument caused confusion in the 10th-12th centuries by artists creating minatures in manuscripts. 


|zither harp

triangular psalterium


|[[File:Elders with a psaltery and rota, Santo Domingo de Soria.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Two of the 24 Elders of the Apocalypse with a psaltery and rota, Santo Domingo de Soria]][[File:Elder of the Apocalypse with rota, Santo Domingo de Soria.jpg|thumb|200px|center|One of the 24 Elders of the Apocalypse with a rota, Santo Domingo de Soria]][[File:Digenes Akritas and his wife Eydokia, detail from silver cup, made in Cilician Armenia.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1150-1159 A.D., [[Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia]]. Digenes Akritas and his wife Eydokia, from the romance story ''[[Digenes Akritas]]''.<ref>{{cite web |title= Digenes Akritas and Eydokia / Ο Διγενής Ακρίτας και η Ευδοκία / Digenis Akritas ve Evdokia |publisher= Koç University Digital Collections |url= https://libdigitalcollections.ku.edu.tr/digital/collection/BMI/id/148/ |quote=...Digenes Akritas and Eydokia... The Vilgort Byzantine cup depicts Digenes Akritas holding a triangular psaltery ...date 1150 - 1159}}</ref> Digenes' hand is gripping the instrument on its far side, showing it to be solid,  a psaltery-playing technique. From [[:File:Coppa, argento, dall'armenia cilicia, XII-XIII sec.JPG|silver Byzantine/Armenian bowl]] in the [[Hermitage Museum]].<ref>{{cite web |title = Серебряная византийская (армянская?) чаша из Эрмитажа, XII-XIII вв. |language=ru |trans-title= Silver Byzantine (Armenian?) bowl from the Hermitage, 12th-13th centuries |url= https://ornament-i-stil.livejournal.com/324709.html?}}</ref>]]
|[[File:King David playing rotte, Psalter of Polirone, Mantua, Teresiana Library, ms. 340, f. 1v-2r.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1100 A.D., Italy. King David playing rotte accompanied by a man playing fiddle, from the Psalter of Polirone, Mantua, Teresiana Library, ms. 340, f. 1v-2r.]][[File:Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, page Bl-2 062V.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1280 A.D., Spain. A king and a musician play the Rota. Cantigas de Santa Maria, Codex of the Musicians.]][[File:Obradoiro David 02-01.JPG|thumb|200px|center|13th century, Spain. King David playing a probable rotte, Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela. Harps were stylized at this point; this instrument does not have obvious soundbox as on a harp (either deep or wide to create a sound chamber).]]
|-
|[[Tambouras]]
|
|
|
|[[File:Tambouras and fingerhole trumpet, Byzantine Empire, 11th century AD.jpg|thumb|200px|center|11th century A.D., Byzantium. Tambouras and fingerhole trumpet.]]
|-
|Tromba marina

Trumpet marine
|
|
|[[File:Himmelkron Engel030.JPG|thumb|200px|center]]
|[[File:Trumpet Marine, Die 24 Alten (The 24 Elders), Coburg State Library, Ms Cas 43.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1448 A.D., Germany. Tromba marina.]]
|-
|[[Vielle]]

Vièle
|
|
|[[File:Viella2.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Modern reproduction of vielle.]][[File:Fidulaconfrascos.JPG|thumb|200px|center|Modern reproduction of vielle or viola de arco.]][[File:Taddeo di bartolo, madonna col bambino, angeli e santi, 1400, 05 angelo con viola.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1417 A.D. Italy, Painting ''Madonna of the Belvedere'' by [[Ottaviano Nelli]] ]]
|[[File:Vihuela de arco en las Cantigas de Alfonso X el Sabio.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1280 A.D., Spain. Possible vielles. Could also be vihuela de arco]][[File:Ormesby Psalter Vielle.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1310 A.D., England. Vielle in the Ormesby Psalter.]]
|-
|[[Vihuela]]

Viola

|In the Iberian Peninsula, small lutes are pictured, which have been considered as possible [[cythara]]s and [[citole]]s. In Portugal, the tradition remained into the modern era, [[Viola (disambiguation)|the instruments called violas]]. They were vihuelas in Spain. Vihuela eventually became a large guitar-like instrument of the Renaissance. Violas remained small. The name viola has been reused for a variety of instruments including [[viola da gamba]], [[viola]] (a modern fiddle).
|
|[[File:Rylands Beatus Cythara 2.jpg|thumb|center|150px|1175 A.D., Rylands Beatus]][[File:Viola or vihuela from the Zwiefalten Passionale.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1125-1150,  Zwiefalten Passionale. Two men (troubadours?) with musical instruments: a small figure-8 guitar (right) and a set of panpipes (left).]]
|[[File:Rylands Beatus Cythara 1.jpg|thumb|150px|center|1175 A.D., Rylands Beatus]][[File:Rylands Beatus Cythara 3.png|thumb|150px|center|1175 A.D., Rylands Beatus]]

|-
|Vihuela de arco

Viola de arco

Vihuela de arco pequeña (small bowed vihuela)
|The vihuela de arco may be a variant of the vielle. Spain had a variety of fiddles (which predate the violin) in the cathedral artwork and manuscript [[Miniature (illuminated manuscript)|miniatures]].
|
|[[File:Vihuela de arco y vihuela de péñola en las Cantigas.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Possibly the vihuela de arco (bowed vihuela) and vihuela de penola (quill plucked vihuela) The bowed instrument could be called a [[vielle]]]]
|[[File:Vihuela de arco pequeña en las Cantigas de Alfonso X el Sabio.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Vihuela de arco (bowed vihuela). The downward bowed fiddles came to be called Viols, as in [[Viola de gamba]] (viol of the legs). Vihuela was the Spanish name, and in Spain the vihuelas became plucked more than bowed.]]
[[File:Violas de arco en un manuscrito del año 900 - 950.jpg|thumb|200px|center| '''Spain''', "second third of 10th century".<ref name="Spanishfiddle">{{cite web |url=http://bdh.bne.es/bnesearch/detalle/bdh0000047185 |title=Título uniforme [In Apocalipsin] Title Beati in Apocalipsin libri duodecim  |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date= |website=bdh.bne.es |publisher=BIBLIOTECA DIGITAL HISPÁNICA |access-date=10 December 2016|quote=}}</ref> Vihuelas de arco or [[Viola de arco|Violas de arco]] played with a bow. From Commentary on the Apocalypse, ''Codice VITR 14.1''.<ref name="14-1">{{cite web |url=http://bdh.bne.es/bnesearch/detalle/bdh0000047185 |title=Título uniforme [In Apocalipsin] Title Beati in Apocalipsin libri duodecim  |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |website=bdh.bne.es |publisher=Biblioteca Digital Hispánica |access-date=10 December 2016}}</ref>]]
|-
|[[Zither]]
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|}

== Wind instruments ==
{| class="wikitable" 
! Names and variations
! Description
! Ethnic connections, regions
! Pictures
! Pictures

|-
|Albogón<ref name="Albogon">{{cite web |title=ALBOGÓN. Ms. b.I.2. fol. 268v. RBME. Cantiga de Santa María 388|via=YouTube |author=Centre Int. de la Música Medieval|date=11 February 2023|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R0Y977gENrc |quote=[note: video of a modern recreation of the Albogón }}</ref>
|''See reedpipes below''

Double-reed instrument or type of [[shawm]], possibly adapted from Muslim ''al-buq'' horn.<ref name="Curt" />
|
|
|[[File:Cantiga 15.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1280 A.D., Spain. Two musicians in Muslim clothing play the Albogón (left) and hourglass drum.<ref name="Albogon" /><ref name="Curt">{{cite web |first=Curt |last=Bouterse |title=Medieval Instruments VI: Winds|url=https://curt.bouterse.com/medieval-instruments-vi-a-winds/ |quote=Another unusual instrument depicted in the Cantigas is the albogón. This was derived from the Arabic al-buq, originally a generic word for horns and trumpets, but latterly restricted to horns. Supposedly, in the 10th century, during the reign of the Spanish Umayyad caliph, al-Hakam II, a horn was fitted with a double reed and fingerholes...Cantiga 300 shows a huge one being played, accompanied by an hourglass-shaped drum.}}</ref><ref name=BouterseAlgodonHourglass/> From Cantiga 300 of the Cantigas de Santa Maria, Codex of the Musicians, folio 268v. ]]
|-
|Alboka

[[Hornpipe (instrument)|Hornpipe]]

[[Pibgorn (instrument)|Pibgorn]]

Pinole

[[Zhaleika]]


|''See reedpipes below''

Traditional instruments of shepherds. Reedpipes in which the reed body has been replaced by another material such as wood or bone. The single reed (once part of the body of the reedpipe) is now separated; it is now inserted into the instrument's body. The other end of the reed is inserted into the musicians mouth and blown through to produce sound. Hornpipes have a protective cup over the reed, to blow into. Crumhorns also use this protected reed system, though with double reeds.

:Alboka, Spanish hornpipe. The musician blowns into a horn cup, which channels his breath through one or more single reeds. Each reed is connected to pipe with fingerholes.

:Gaita (Iberian Peninsula) 

:''Gaita gastore'', Spanish reed pipe, wooden body with single reed (no cover) and horn bell.

:Pibole, French reed pipe, wooden or bone body, single reed (no cover), horn bell

:Muse, French for reed pipes such as the pibole, gaita gastore. Related to musette (bagpipe)

See also ''shephard's horn'' (below)
|
|[[File:Txilibrinek egindako alboka.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Modern alboka. This one was constructed in the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque region]] of Spain or Southern France.]][[File:Albogue.jpg|thumb|200px|center|above: [[Gaita gastoreña|Gaita gastore]]; below: Gaitas serranas. ]][[File:Reeds kataglott anaglott.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Drawings of tubular [[Single-reed instrument|single reeds]] in which the reed is still part of the reed stem.]]
|[[File:Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, page Bl-2 304V.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1280 A.D., folio 304v from the Musician's Codex, Cantigas de Santa Maria. Depiction of alboka (left) and reedpipe.]][[File:Pibole, from Frescoe from the church of Vieux Pouzauges, circa 1220 AD.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Pibole, from a frescoe in the church of Vieux Pouzauges, circa 1220 AD]][[File:Woman playing a pipe organ, psaltery and reed-tipped horn, The Pilgrim's Book of Body and Soul page 183 sharpened.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Illustration of simple hornpipe, a cowhorn with a single reed at the tip, where the musician blows. Simple way to get a noise from a horn.]]
|-
|[[Bagpipes]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jones |first=G. Fenwick |date=1949 |title=Wittenwiler's "Becki" and the Medieval Bagpipe |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27713052 |journal=The Journal of English and Germanic Philology |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=209–228 |jstor=27713052 |issn=0363-6941}}</ref>

[[bagpipes|Bellows pipe]]

|''See article: [[List of bagpipes]]''

''See reedpipes below''

Reedpipes attached to a leather bag to give a continuous air supply.
|''[[baghèt]]'', N. Italy
:''[[Piva (bagpipe)|piva]]''
:''[[zampogna]]'' (Calabria, Sicily, Malta)<ref name=MarcuseZampogna>{{cite dictionary|entry= Zampogna|title= Musical instruments: A comprehensive dictionary |date=1964 |first= Sibyl |last=Marcuse |page=273 }}</ref>

''[[duda]]'', Hungary

[[Gaita (bagpipe)|gaita]] (Iberian Peninsula) 
:''[[gaita asturiana]]'' 
:''[[gaita de boto]]''
:''[[galician gaita]]''
:''[[gaita transmontana]]''
:''[[gaita cabreiresa]]''
:''[[odrecillo]]'', small bagpipe (Old Spanish)<ref name=MarcuseOdrecillo>{{cite dictionary|entry= Odrecillo |title= Musical instruments: A comprehensive dictionary |date=1964 |first= Sibyl |last=Marcuse |page=373 |quote= Latin ''uter'', bag + diminutive ''cillo''}}</ref>
:''[[sac de gemecs]]'', Catalonia

''[[:de:Gajda (Sackpfeife)|gajda]]'', Balkans
:''[[kaba gaida]]'' (Bulgaria)
:''[[:it:Gaida|gaida]]'' (Macedonia)
:''[[cimpoi]]'' (Romania)
:''[[tsampouna]]'' (Greece)
:''[[askomandoura]]'' (Greece)

''[[great Highland bagpipe]]'', Scotland
:''[[Northumbrian smallpipes]]'' (England)
:''[[Welsh bagpipes|pipa cŵd]]'' (Wales)
:''[[uilleann pipes]]'' (Ireland)

''[[huemmelchen]]'', Germany

''[[:fr:Musette (instrument)|musette]]'', France<ref name=MarcuseMusette1>{{cite dictionary|entry= Musette|title= Musical instruments: A comprehensive dictionary |date=1964 |first= Sibyl |last=Marcuse |page=349 }}</ref> 
:''musa'', Latin, ''moúsa'', Greek<ref name=MarcuseMusa>{{cite dictionary|entry= Musa|title= Musical instruments: A comprehensive dictionary |date=1964 |first= Sibyl |last=Marcuse |page=349 }}</ref> 
:''[[Binioù]]'' (Brittany)

''[[Swedish bagpipes|säckpipa]]'', Sweden

''[[torupill]]'', Estonia

''[[xeremia]]'', Mallorca

''[[żaqq]]'', Malta
|[[File:Early bagpipe, circa 1100 AD, Psalter of Polirone.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1100 A.D., Italy. One of the earliest known bagpipe images. Psalter of Polirone]][[File:Canterbury Tales - The Miller - f. 34v detail - Robin with the Bagpype - early 1400s Chaucer.png|thumb|200px|center|1400s, England. Miniature illustration of Robin the Miller, with a 16th-century note "Robin with the Bagpype" from folio 34v of the [[Ellesmere Manuscript]] of Chaucer's ''[[Canterbury Tales]]''.]][[File:Man playing bagpipes, Luttrell Psalter MS 42130, folio 176.jpg|thumb|200px|center|England, circa 1320-1340 A.D. Man playing bagpipes, Luttrell Psalter MS 42130, folio 176.]]
|[[File:Gaita Cantigas 3.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1280 A.D., Spain. Bagpipes in the Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex]][[File:Cantiga bagpipes 2.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1280 A.D., Spain. Bagpipes in the Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, folio 330.]][[File:Cantiga bagpipes 1.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1280 A.D., Spain. Bagpipes in the Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex.]][[File:Askomandoura pipes.jpg |thumb|200px|center|''[[Askomandoura]]'' or tsamboura chanters. ''[[Mandoura]]'' is also the name of a simple mouth-blown reedpipe.]]
|-
|[[Bladder pipe]]
|''See reedpipes below''
Reedpipes in which the player blows into a bag made from a bladder; by puffing their cheeks (to continue air pressure while taking a breath) players could keep a continual air flow going to the reeds.
|
|[[File:Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, page 209R.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1280 A.D., Spain. Bladder pipes in the Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, folio 209R.]][[File:Bladder Pipe, at Karlštejn Castle.jpg|thumb|200px|center|14th century, [[Karlštejn Castle]]. Angle with bladder pipe.]]
|[[File:Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, page Bl-2 227R.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1280 A.D., Spain. Bladder pipes in the Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, folio 277R.]][[File:Bladder Pipe MET 202661.jpg|thumb|100px|center|Circa 1875. Bladder pipe, double reed, wood, leather, pig's bladder.]]
|-
|[[Buisine]]

Anafil

[[Nafir]]

Trompe

|See ''horn'' and ''wooden trumpet'' below.

The nafir was a Muslim instrument, adapted by Europeans and renamed the ''anafil'' in Spain<ref name=MarcuseAnafil>{{cite dictionary|entry= Aňafil|title= Musical instruments: A comprehensive dictionary |date=1964 |first= Sibyl |last=Marcuse |page=15 }}</ref> and the ''buisine'' in France.ú<ref name=MarcuseBuisine>{{cite dictionary|entry= Buisine|title= Musical instruments: A comprehensive dictionary |date=1964 |first= Sibyl |last=Marcuse |pages=70–71 }}</ref>ú 

The ''buisine'' (first mention about 1100 A.D.) was a long, slightly curved horn, used in battle for signaling.<ref name=MarcuseBuisine/> It was replaced by the nafir, the name transferred to the new instrument.<ref name=MarcuseBuisine/> The new buisine was of brass, copper or silver, 4-7 feet long, made in sections that could be assembled with "bosses" covering the joints.<ref name=MarcuseBuisine/>

In 12th century ''trompe'' in French (also Catalan, Spanish and Portuguese variants) is recorded for an instrument that is "long and straight." Used in battles as a signal horn, in tournaments and weddings for atmosphere. By the 17th century the trompe had a single coil.<ref>{{cite dictionary|entry= Trompe |title= Musical instruments: A comprehensive dictionary |date=1964 |first= Sibyl |last=Marcuse |page=535 }}</ref>

Europeans developed the instrument further into the herald trumpet or clarion near the end of the medieval period.
|Initially in Spain (during the [[Reconquista]]), and France and other parts of Europe during the [[Crusades]].
|[[File:Stuttgarter Psalter - Cod.bibl.fol.23, folio 163v cropped for buisine.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 800-850 A.D., [[Carolingian Empire]], Stuttgarter Psalter. Before applying to Saracen instruments, ''buisine'' applied to long horns and trumpets.<ref name=MarcuseBuisine2>{{cite encyclopedia|title= Musical Instruments A Comprehensive Dictionary |first= Syble |last= Marcuse |date= 1964|publisher= Doubleday & Company |place= Garden City, New York |entry= Buisine |page= 70 |quote= "Buisine...[Old French] term for larger horns and trumpets...until the late 12th c. it was a long horn, slightly curved, used as a martial signal instr. By the 13th c. it was supplanted by a straight, long Saracen trumpet to which the name ''buisine'' was transfered [sic]."}}</ref>]][[File:Utrechts-Psalter PSALM-149-PSALM-150 trumpet 2.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 850 A.D., Utrecht Psalter, France/Germany. Wooden trumpets drawn by Anglo-Saxon artists.]][[File:BambergApocalypseFolio019v7AngelsWith7TrumpetsAnd1WithCenser.JPG|thumb|200px|center|1000 A.D. Angels blowing horns for the Apocalypse. Europeans in this era depicted horns as the instruments of war.]]
|[[File:Yahyâ ibn Mahmûd al-Wâsitî 006.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1237, Arabia. Muslim soldiers blowing Nafirs or buqs (warhorns). The Christian world adapted the long trumpets, using them in war and painting them into the hands of angels.]][[File:Cloisters Apocalypse - 1st Trumpet - fire rains on the earth.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1330, France. Angels with {{Not a typo|bui|sines}}; an angel blows [[Seven trumpets#First trumpet|the first trumpet]] of the [[Apocalypse]].]][[File:Anafil players, Cantigas de Santa Maria, Bl-2 286R.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1280 A.D., Spain. Anafils in the Cantigas de Santa Maria.]][[File:Busine player and religious figure, IRHT 062062 2.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1450-1460, France. Man on horseback playing buisine. From the [[Cloisters Apocalypse]].]]
|-
|[[Clarion (instrument)|Clarion]]

:Claretta

[[Fanfare trumpet]]

[[Herald trumpet]]

[[Bugle]]
|Clarion today implies high, angelic, pealing notes. That sound was developed, however, as Europeans began to learn to shape and bend sheet-metal tubes for trumpets. Muslims also had trumpets with clarion notes, as part of a mix of trumpet sounds with tenor and bass.<ref name=MarcuseAnafil/> Horns would change too, becoming metal instruments such as the bugle (Old English word for ox). ''Clarion'' eventually became a range of notes, within the reach of [[natural trumpets]] and bugles. The later medieval and Renaissance [[cornett]]s (fingerhole horns) would also come to hit clarion notes.
|
|[[File:Grotesque with bent trumpet, Hours of Charles the Noble, King of Navarre, 1361-1425, fol. 272r.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Grotesque playing a bent-tube trumpet.]][[File:Grotesque with Nafir, Hours of Charles the Noble, King of Navarre, 1361-1425, fol. 316v.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1405 A.D. Grotesque playing an S-curve trumpet. Europeans began to transform the long buisine into shorter trumpets that were easier to handle.]][[File:Pilaster of Angels Sounding Trumpets from the Parapet of a Pulpit MET DP169514.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1302-1310, Italy. Angels heralding the Last Judgment with trumpets. This artwork once flanked a relief of Christ as Judge. The notes would have been piecing, as shorter trumpets hit higher notes.]]
|[[File:Frères Limbourg - Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry - mois de mai - Google Art Project cropped.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1412, France. Clarion trumpet, buisine trumpet, 2 shawms]][[File:Black Trumpeter at Henry VIII's Tournament.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1511, England. Heralds, including [[John Blanke]], with clarions or herald trumpets.]][[File:Fra Angelico - Angel holding a Trumpet detail from the Linaivoli Triptych cropped, applied chroma.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Fra Angelico - Angel holding a Trumpet detail from the Linaivoli Triptych]][[File:Clarion, by Tobias Stimmer, Kulturgeschichtliches Bilderbuch aus drei Jahrhunderten.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Germany 16th century. In the Renaissance the clarion or claretta (in Germany) would be fully developed, as in this wood engraving.]]
|-
|[[Cornett]]

"Proto-cornetts"<ref name=CornettBrassSocJourn/>

Fingerhole trumpets

Fingerhole horns
|See ''horn'', ''shepherd's horn'' and ''wooden trumpet'' below

Best known as a Renaissance instrument (1500s-1600s), cornetts were wooden fingerhole trumpets whose blowhole was so small it required the instrument be played at the side of the mouth. The cornett was likely derived from an animal horn pierced with fingerholes such as the coradoiz.<ref name=MarcuseCornett>{{cite dictionary |entry= Cornett and Coradoiz |title= Musical instruments: A comprehensive dictionary |date=1964 |first= Sibyl |last=Marcuse |pages= 124, 128–129}}</ref> Later cornetts took on a stylized appearance, the curved instruments somewhat resembling an animal horn.  Carved wooden instruments had octagon exterior by the 12th century.<ref name=MarcuseCornett/> 

In artwork, it may be difficult to know whether an instrument is lip-blown (a trumpet) or a reedpipe (sounded by a reed inserted into the tip, held in the player's mouth).<ref name=CornettBrassSocJourn>{{cite journal |title=A medieval wind instrument from Schlettwein, Thuringia |first= Dietrich |last= Hakelberg |journal= Historic Brass Society Journal |volume= 7 |date= 4 December 1990 |pages= 188–189  |url=https://www.historicbrass.org/images/hbj/hbj-1995/HBSJ_1995_JL01_011_Hakelberg.pdf |quote=The author’s intention...might not have been to illustrate the object in “photographic” detail, but rather to use undefined musical instruments as signs or attributes carrying symbolic meaning...Making clear distinctions between lip-vibrated and reed-pipe aerophones in medieval pictorial sources is often quite difficult, because the means of sound-production, i.e., reeds and cup-shaped mouthpieces, are scarcely visible while the instrument is in use. In illuminations of the 11th and 12th centuries, both types of aerophones have been interpreted as fingerhole-horns or even (proto-)"cornetts."}}</ref>
|
|[[File:Shepherd's horn.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Shepherd's horn with fingerholes, carved from wood. Russia. Ganu rags (Latvian)]][[File:Man on stilts playing cornett, from the British Museum, Royal 14 B V, Membrane 1.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1275-1300 A.D. Man on stilts playing early cornett or fingerhole trumpet, from the British Museum, Royal 14 B V, Membrane 1]][[File:Cornett, Die 24 Alten (The 24 Elders), Coburg State Library, Ms Cas 43.jpg|thumb|150px|center|1448, Germany.  Die 24 Alten (The 24 Elders), Coburg State Library, Ms Cas 43]]
|[[File:Ethan playing cornett, Pommersfeld Bible, Gräfl ich Schönbornsche Bibliothek, 334, fol. II 148 sharpened levels crop for cornett.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1050-1100 A.D., Germany. Ethan playing a proto-cornett, Pommersfeld Bible, Gräfl ich Schönbornsche Bibliothek, 334, fol. II 148<ref name=CornettBrassSocJourn/>]][[File:Cornett or fingerhole horn, Winchcombe Psalter (MS Ff.1.23).jpg|thumb|200px|center|11th century A.D., Winchcombe Psalter. Proto-cornett or fingerhole horn.<ref name=CornettBrassSocJourn/>]][[File:Musicians playing bells and horn or cornett, from Harley MS 2804, folio 33, the Worms Bible, Germany 12th century.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1025-1075 A.D., Germany. Trumpeter with cowhorn and proto-cornett (right), and bell-chimes (left).<ref name=CornettBrassSocJourn/>]]

|-
|[[Crumhorn]]

|''See reedpipes below''

A Renaissance/Baroque instrument, the sound mechanism was a bundle of reeds beneath a wooden cap.<ref name=MarcuseCrumhorn>{{cite dictionary |entry= Crumhorn |title= Musical instruments: A comprehensive dictionary |date=1964 |first= Sibyl |last=Marcuse |page= 134}}</ref> The musician blew through the cap.<ref name=MarcuseCrumhorn/>

The instrument likely descended from the medieval bladder pipe.<ref name=MarcuseCrumhorn/>   
|''krumnhorn'', Germany<ref name=MarcuseCrumhorn/>

''cromorne'', ''tournebout'', France<ref name=MarcuseCrumhorn/>
|[[File:Reed f-alto crumhorn.jpg|thumb|200px|center|The reed bundle]][[File:Moderne Krummhoerner.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Modern recreations of crumhorns]]
|[[File:Dettaglio Presentazione di Gesù al Tempio di Vittore Carpaccio (4).JPG|thumb|200px|center|1510, Italy. Angel with crumhorn, detail of [[:File:Accademia - Presentation of Jesus in the Temple by Vittore Carpaccio Cat.44.jpg|Presentation of Jesus in the Temple]] by [[w:Vittore Carpaccio|Vittore Carpaccio]] (1465–1526)]]
|-
|[[Flageolet]]
|Originally a "whistle flute" or duct flute from Asia.<ref name=MarcuseFlageolet>{{cite dictionary |entry= Flageolet|title= Musical instruments: A comprehensive dictionary |date=1964 |first= Sibyl |last=Marcuse |page= 183}}</ref> Used in medieval Europe by the 11th century A.D.<ref name=MarcuseFlageolet/>

In Europe it was a flute of the countryside, made of willow (''see willow flute below'') as late as the mid-13th century.<ref name=Marcuse2Flageolet>{{cite book |first= Sibyl |last= Marcuse |title= A Survey of Musical Instruments |publisher= Harper & Row |place= New York |date= 1975 |page= 557}}</ref> 

It was also made of cane or wood (and in one example, copper) with a [[fipple]] at the top, which musicians blew through to produce sound.<ref name=MarcuseFlageolet/> Later version in 1581 would have 4 fingerholes and 2 thumbholes.<ref name=MarcuseFlageolet/><ref name=Marcuse2Flageolet/> It was characterized in 1640 as being shorter than the recorder.<ref name=MarcuseFlageolet/> One possible version of the instrument was a short four-holed duct flute (Russpfeif), illustrated in 1511 by Virdung.<ref name="GroveFlageolet">{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Sadie |editor-first=Stanley |last=Brown|first=Howard Mayer|entry=Flageolet: History|encyclopedia=The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments |year=1984 |volume=1 |page=763}}</ref>

The flaviol was a flageolet of the Pyrenees, about 6 inches long with one fingerhole and played with one hand with the drum or tabor.<ref name=MarcuseFlaviol>{{cite dictionary |entry= Flaviol|title= Musical instruments: A comprehensive dictionary |date=1964 |first= Sibyl |last=Marcuse |page= 185}}</ref>

Some flaviols may have 3 fingerholes and two vents, one thumbhole and two vents.<ref name=MarcuseFlaviol/> Another, played one-handed with tabor, had a single fingerhole.<ref name=MarcuseFlaviol/>

|''flageol'', French until 13th century<ref name=MarcuseFlageolet/>

''flageolet'', French from 13th century forward<ref name=MarcuseFlageolet/>

''[[Flabiol|flaviol]]'', Catalonian, Provincial
|[[File:Russpfeif, from Musica getutscht und außgezogen by Sebastian Virdung.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1511, Germany. Russpfeif, from ''Musica getutscht und außgezogen'' by Sebastian Virdung.]]
|[[File:Flabiol Sans.png|thumb|150px|center|Modern flabiol from Catalan showing the top with three fingerholes and 2 vents and the bottom with one fingerhole and two vents.]]
|-
|Fife and drum
|The fife is a small transverse flute with 6 fingerholes.<ref name=MarcuseFife>{{cite dictionary|entry= Fife|title= Musical instruments: A comprehensive dictionary |date=1964 |first= Sibyl |last=Marcuse |pages=181–182 }}</ref> Introduced widely to Europe as soldier's instruments during 15th century by Swiss mercenaries.<ref name=MarcuseFife/> Seen in France in 1507 and England in 1510.<ref name=MarcuseFife/>
|French
:''fifre''<ref name=MarcuseFife/>

German
:''Querpfeife''<ref name=MarcuseFife/>
:''Schweizerpfeife'' (Swiss fife)<ref name=MarcuseFife/>

Italian
:''fifjaro''<ref name=MarcuseFife/>

Spanish
:''pífano''<ref name=MarcuseFife/>
|
|[[File:Nuremberg chronicles - Four Couples Dancing (CLXXXVIIv).jpg|thumb|200px|center|1493, Nuremberg, Germany. Two musicians with short flute (fife?) and drum play before dancers).]]
|-
|[[Flute]]
|Flutes in medieval Europe included the [[transverse flute]] and the duct flute. The transverse flute was held horizontally below the musician's head, allowing them to blow air into the top side of the instrument (across the hole's sharp edge). 

Flutes had been known in Europe in prehistoric times but disappeared. The transverse flute had also been seen in Europe as early as the 2nd century B.C. ([[:File:Urnetta etrusca con busto di flautista, età allenistica, dalla tomba degli anani al palazzone.jpg|recorded in Etruscan artwork from a tomb in Perugia]]).<ref name=sachsflute/><ref>{{cite web |first= Rossano |last= Munaretto|website= suoniemozionali.it/|url= https://www.suoniemozionali.it/flauto-etrusco |title= Il flauto, etrusco o greco! |trans-title= The flute, Etruscan or Greek! |language= it |quote= The passion and love for the transverse flute...has been documented through an important engraving...carved on an Etruscan cinerary urn from the 2nd century BC, kept at the Antiquarium of the Ipogeo dei Volumni, in Perugia}}</ref> It also made an appearance on a coin from Syria, circa 169 A.D.<ref name=sachsflute/> These are the only early examples currently known.<ref name=sachsflute/>

The transverse flute which arrived in medieval Europe developed in Asia, where separate traditions existed in [[Bansuri#History|India]] and China.<ref name=sachsflute/> It entered Europe through Byzantium (by way of "North Africa, Hungary, and Bohemia") and Germany.<ref name=pichistory>{{cite book |last= Buchner |first= Alexander |title= Colour Encyclopedia of Musical Instruments |publisher= Hamlyn |place= New York | date= 1980 | isbn= 0-600-36421-6|pages=64–65}}</ref><ref name=sachsflute>{{cite book |title= The History of Musical Instruments |last=Sachs |first= Kurt |publisher= W. W. Norton & Company |place= New York |date= 1940|pages= 142, 144 (plate VIIIa), 159, 178-179, 287–288 }}</ref> 

Curt Sachs saw examples of it in Greek art as early as the 10th century, and said it had been written about "as ''plágioi'' about 800 A.D."<ref name=sachsflute/> Other researchers note the 11th century as the beginning of depictions in European artwork.<ref name=pichistory/>

Transverse flutes became popular in Germany and were known as German flutes as the instruments' use spread.<ref name=sachsflute/> In the early 20th century, it was noted that the countries of Romania, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Bohemia, Austria and Switzerland held a  "predilection" for the transverse flute in the folk music.<ref name=sachsflute/>

|side blown flute

cross flute

German flute (English)<ref name=sachsflute/>

Swegel (German)<ref name=sachsflute/>

flauta alemana (Spanish)<ref name=sachsflute/>

flauste d'Allemand (French)<ref name=sachsflute/>

flauste traversaine (French)<ref name=sachsflute/>

|[[File:David playing flute, Theodore Psalter.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1066, Byzantine Empire. David playing flute, [[Theodore Psalter]].]][[File:Karanlik - Fresko Junge.jpg|thumb|200px|center|11th century A.D., Göreme, Turkey. From a Byzantine church ([[Churches of Göreme#Karanlık Kilise|Karanlık Kilise]]), a fresco of a boy holding a transverse flute.]]
|[[File:Cantiga flute.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1280 A.D., Spain. Transverse flute in the Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex.]][[File:Musicians and acrobats (detail) - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1000 A.D., Kyiv, Ukraine. Musician with transverse flute, part of group of musicians and acrobats.]]
|-
|[[Duct flute]]

[[fipple flute]]
|Duct flute with tapering bore, seen in French art in 11th century A.D., traceable back from modern times into the 12th century.<ref name=MarcuseRecorder>{{cite dictionary |entry= Recorder |title= Musical instruments: A comprehensive dictionary |date=1964 |first= Sibyl |last=Marcuse |pages= 348–349}}</ref> Called the ''recorde'' in England by about 1400.<ref name=MarcuseRecorder/> In 1400s multiple sizes existed. By 1511, sizes included bass, tenor, alto and soprano instruments.<ref name=MarcuseRecorder/>

Recorders are fairly rare in medieval art, the pipe (for pipe and tabor) being more common. Possibly began main start in European music in Northern Italy in the 14th century, and was established at the beginning of the 16th century.<ref name="GroveRecorder">{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Sadie |editor-first=Stanley |last=Hunt|first=Edgar|entry=Recorder: History|encyclopedia=The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments |year=1984 |volume=3 |pages=205–208}}</ref> It is difficult to tell from art if a recorder is presented (with a thumb hole) or a "some kind of folk pipe (without the thumb hole)."<ref name="GroveRecorder" />
In comparison, reed pipes had a very limited range of notes (having only 3-4 holes and being played with one hand). Recorders and pipes with the holes requiring two hands to play had a broader range of notes. Another detail difficult to see is the mechanism of sound; recorders are flutes in which the sound is produced by a fipple.<ref name="GroveRecorder" /> Reed pipes such as aulos used reed bundles like a shawm to produce notes, or single reeds like the zummara.<ref name="GroveRecorder" />

Three and four hole pipes have been excavated in Novgorod, dating to the 11th and 15th centuries A.D. The timeline is not clear for the development into flutes with more holes. It isn't certain whether pipes with 3-4 holes were played alone, with a timbrel or tabor, or in pairs.

Double flutes in Eastern Europe date back to the 12th-13th centuries.<ref name="RussEncy">{{cite encyclopedia |entry=Flute |title=Музыкальная энциклопедия. Том 4. — М (Musical Encyclopedia. Volume 4. - M.): Советская энциклопедия (Soviet Encyclopedia) |date=1978 |pages=884–976}}</ref> Used in Russia, Belarus, western Ukraine, Serbia, Bosnia and Croatia.<ref name="RussEncy" />

|''[[Recorder (musical instrument)|recorder]]'', English, late 14th century<ref name=MarcuseRecorder/>

''flûte à bec'', French<ref name=MarcuseRecorder/>

''Blockflöte'', German<ref name=MarcuseRecorder/>

''flauto dritto'', Italian<ref name=MarcuseRecorder/>

''flauta de pico'', Spanish<ref name=MarcuseRecorder/>

[[Svirel]]
:[[dudka]]
:dudka-dvoychatka
:sopel
:[[Double flute|solpilka]]
:[[pyzhatka]]
|[[File:Sopel from Novgorod (RNMM).jpg|thumb|200px|center|Sopel from Novgarod]][[File:Dudka, dudka dvoychatka, pyzhatka or pyzhatka (all can be categorized svirel).jpg|thumb|200px|center|From the left dudka, dudka dvoychatka (a pair), and pyzhatka  (all can be categorized svirel, flutes)]]
|[[File:The Mocking of Jesus scene of the musicians ca 1315-1317 A.D., Recorder.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1315 A.D., Macedonia. Possibly a recorder. Otherwise a folk pipe or reed pipe.]][[File:Sopilka "Dvodentsivka" XIX.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Solpilka double flute]][[File:Akkordflute and dvojnice.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Dvojnice double flute from former Yugoslavia.]]  


|-
|Double flutes

[[Recorder (instrument)#"Double recorder"|Double recorder]]
|''See: tabor pipe, below''
Uses a [[fipple]] (hole to blow through, combined with sound producing hole) as on a recorder. Similar to double reedpipes, in that each flute was played with one hand. Some were three hole flutes. Other flutes existed with more holes, still played with one hand, including the [[Flabiol]].
|
|[[File:Double flute player, detail from Francesco del Cossa's fresco "Allegory of April, Triumph of Venus", at the Palazzo Schifanoia, painted 1469-70.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1469-1470, Italy. Double flute player, detail from [[Francesco del Cossa]]'s fresco "Allegory of April, Triumph of Venus".]][[File:Double fipple flute played side-by-side, detail from a painting The Concert of Angels by Gaudenzio Ferrari.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1534-1536, Italy. Double fipple flute played side-by-side, detail  from a painting The Concert of Angels by Gaudenzio Ferrari. Appears to be three-hole pipes.]]
|[[File:Simone Martini 037.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1312-1317 A.D., Italy. Double flutes and a gittern. The flutes are played like the [[flabiol]], with the pinky finger possibly pressing on holes from the underside and supporting the instrument.]][[File:Double fipple flutes, detail of painting The Concert of Angels by Gaudenzio Ferrari.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1534-1536, Italy. Double fipple flutes, three-hole pipes.]][[File:Double flutes from "The Assumption of the Virgin" by Matteo di Giovanni.jpg|thumb|150px|center|Circa 1474, Italy. Double flute, each with full set of fingerholes. From [[Matteo di Giovanni]], Assunzione Della Vergine.]]
|-
|[[Gemshorn]]
|A recorder made from horn.<ref name="GroveGemshorn">{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Sadie |editor-first=Stanley |last=FitzPatrick|first=Horace|entry=Gemshorn |encyclopedia=The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments |year=1984 |volume=2 |page=33}}</ref>It was originally made from [[chamois]] horn, but in later music, the an ox-horn version filled the gap between the [[flageolet]] and the [[Recorder (musical instrument)|recorder]].<ref name="GroveGemshorn" /> It became common to use ox horn after 1375 A.D.<ref name="GroveGemshorn" /> The instrument's popularity in the 15th century led to an organ stop being created by 1511 with the name ''gemshorn'' or ''cor de chamois''.<ref name=Marcuse2Gemshorn>{{cite book |first= Sibyl |last= Marcuse |title= A Survey of Musical Instruments |publisher= Harper & Row |place= New York |date= 1975 |page= 573}}</ref> It was illustrated by [[Sebastian Virdung|Virdung]] in 1511, and [[Martin Agricola|Agricola]] in 1528, but may have been in decline in the 16th century.<ref name=Marcuse2Gemshorn/><ref name=gems1/>

The mouthpiece of the instrument is at the top of the wide end of the horn; the large hole has been filled in with a blowing hole left at the top, creating a [[fipple]].<ref name=Marcuse2Gemshorn/> A sound hole to create the sound is cut into the sidewall of the horn, along with fingerholes.<ref name=Marcuse2Gemshorn/>

Artwork showing the instrument shows three or four fingerholes on the top.<ref name=gems1>{{cite web |first= Larry D. |last= Brown|title= The Medieval Gemshorn |url= https://www.cincinnatiearlymusic.com/gemshorn.html}}</ref> Three fingerholes and a thumb hole will play an octave.<ref name=gems1/> Modern builders have added soundholes.<ref name=gems1/>
|Scottish-English
:''gait horn'' (goat horn)<ref name=Marcuse2Gemshorn/>

French
:''cor de chamois'', ''flûte en corne''

German
:''Gams'' or ''Gems'' (for chamois) + ''horn''

Italian
:''Corno di camoscio''

Spanish
:''gemscorno''
|[[File:Musikinstrumenten-Museum Berlin - Gemshorn - 1106972.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1500-1700 A.D., Germany. Gemshorn with 6 finger holes. Fits description of instrument examined by [[Curt Sachs|Sachs]], a six holed instrument with a vent in the tip, about 13 inches long.<ref name=Marcuse2Gemshorn/>]]
|[[File:GemshornMusicaGetutscht1511.gif|thumb |200px|center|Gemshorn in 1511 book, ''Musica Getutscht'', by Sebastian Virdung. Three fingerholes with "dorsal thumbhole".<ref name=Marcuse2Gemshorn/> ]][[File:Gemshorn Alt.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Modern gemshorn.]]
|-
|[[Horn (instrument)|Horn]]

Bockhorn or [[Bukkehorn]]

[[Blowing horn]]

[[Hunting horn]]

[[Signal horn]]

Battle horn

[[Olifant (instrument)|Olifant]]

[[Swedish cowhorn]]

[[Shofar]]

War horn
|Trumpets made from cattle horns<ref>{{cite dictionary |dictionary =Oxford English Dictionary |entry= Bugle |quote= 1.a1375–Originally: a simple wind instrument made from the horn of a wild ox and used for signalling in battle or during hunting. |url= https://www.oed.com/dictionary/bugle_n2?tl=true}}</ref> (the name ''bugle'' from Latin, for ''buculus'' or bullock<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia = Britannica |entry = Bugle |url= https://www.britannica.com/art/bugle|quote= English light infantry...taking the name bugle horn (from Old French bugle, derived from the Latin buculus, “bullock”) |title = Bugle &#124; History, Types & Uses &#124; Britannica }}</ref>), from other materials and shaped like cattle horns, and other animal horns such as goats (bukkehorn) or sheep (shofar). Carved ivory horns of this style were called oliphants. Words in English: ''cowhorn'', ''bullhorn'', ''oxhorn'', ''steerhorn''.

''Horn'' in English was used in Old English as well; in [[Beowulf]] a leader calls his men to battle with a horn.<ref name=BeowulfHorn&Bym>{{cite book |title= I. Beowulf: an Anglo-Saxon poem. II. The fight at Finnsburh: a fragment.|editor1=James Albert Harrison |editor2= Robert Sharp |date=1893 |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/9701/pg9701-images.html|quote= [Line:] 2940...syððan hīe Hygelāces horn and bȳman gealdor ongeāton}}</ref>

Among peaceful uses of these horns was for farmers to call to their cattle herds to bring them in.<ref name="GroveBockhorn">{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Sadie |editor-first=Stanley |last=Kjellström|first=Birgit |entry=Bockhorn|encyclopedia=The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments |year=1984 |volume=1 |page=242}}</ref> Could be drilled with as many as three or four fingerholes.<ref name="GroveBockhorn" /> Bockhorns have been found with fingerholes as far back as the [[Iron Age]].<ref name="GroveBockhorn" />
|Old English: ''horn'' used in [[Beowulf]]<ref name=BeowulfHorn&Bym/>

Norway/Sweden
:vallhorn, tuthorn, tjuthorn, björnhorn<ref name="GroveBockhorn" />
:fingerhole version låthhorn, spelhorn, prillarhorn<ref name="GroveBockhorn" />
|[[File:Hunter blowing horn, from the Bayeux Tapestry Scene 12.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1066-1883 A.D., Normandy. Hunter blowing horn, from the [[Bayeux Tapestry]]]][[File:Le Musée Paul Dupuy - Olifant dit Cor de Roland, XIe siècle 9.5x52 Inv.18036.jpg|thumb|200px|center|11th century A.D., Italy. Olifant, ivory hunting horn.]][[File:Bockhorn - SMV - X22 01.tif|thumb|200px|center|Bockhorn made from goat's horn, traditional to Norway and Sweden. Could also be made of ram's horn or cow horn.<ref name="GroveBockhorn" />]][[File:Hasid-Uman (6).JPG|thumb|200px|center|Man playing a shofar in Ukraine.]]
|[[File:Nörstmo Halvar Halvarson - SMV - MM 0290 cropped.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1910, Nörstmo Halvar Halvarson, a Swedish man, playing a kohorn (cowhorn). Placing the hand over the end gives some pitch control.]][[File:Baby Sommer 04.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Günter Sommer, German man playing a cowhorn. His horn has a mouthpiece, giving him more control of pitch.]][[File:Grosen adarra jotzen.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Basque blowing a horn.]]
|-
|[[Olifant (instrument)|Olifant]]
|Hunting or war horns carved from ivory
|
|[[File:Hruotlands legendäres Horn Olifant.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Oliphant displayed as belonging to [[Roland]], (died 778 A.D., hero of the French epic ''[[Chanson de Roland]]'').]]
|[[File:Oliphant (Signal Horn) Ivory with silver mounts Carved about 1000-1100 CE in southern Italy Possbily Amalfi (1350430173).jpg|thumb|200px|center|Ivory olifant hunting horn]]
|-
|Medieval trumpet

Iberian trumpet
|See ''shepherd's horn'' and ''wooden trumpet'' below
|
|[[File:Angels receiving seven trumpets - Apocalypse Picture Book, Pierpont Morgan.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Circa 1255 A.D., England or France. Apocalypse Picture Book. The top trumpets have texture like [[birch trumpet]]s. They have fingerholes and narrow mouthpieces and could be [[cornett]]s.]][[File:Lip vibration aerophones (Trumpet) - Soinuenea.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Picture with a variety of medieval, Renaissance and modern trumpets. The black trumpet from Slovakia (center) is a wood trumpet (two halves carved and glued together), apparently covered with bark like a birch trumpet.]]
|[[File:Instrumento de viento ibero.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Modern re-creation of Iberian style trumpet, in brass.]][[File:Harley Psalter folio 24v instruments.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1000-1050 A.D., Harley Psalter, England. From the left a fingerhole horn/trumpet, harp, fingerhole horn/trumpet, lute. [[Harley Psalter]]; art copied or inspired from earlier [[Utrecht Psalter]].]]
|-
|[[Organ (music)|Organ]]

[[Pipe organ]]
|Organs invented in antiquity, but not common in Europe.<ref name="TheOrganEncy">{{cite web |first=Johann |last=von Katzenelnbogen |website= |title=The Utrecht Psalter and its Furnishings - Part IV |date=23 April 2017 |url=https://johanninternational.blogspot.com/2017/04/the-utrecht-psalter-and-its-furnishings.html |quote=According to ''The Organ; An Encyclopedia'', the organ was "re-introduced" into Western Europe from Byzantium in the time of Pepin the Short, (in 757 AD) and Charlemagne. While these two incidents are recorded and thus textual evidence for actual events, the fact that they are illustrated in the Utrecht Psalter and the Stuttgart Psalter testify to them being fairly commonplace at the beginning of the 9th century. }}</ref> Under reigns of [[Pepin the short]] and [[Charlemagne]], the organ was re-introduced to Europe, starting in about 757 A.D.<ref name="TheOrganEncy" />
Theophilus's organ in the 11th century A.D., used bellows activated by body weight.<ref name="GrovePortOrg">{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Sadie |editor-first=Stanley |entry=Organ: Construction, 2: Medieval Chest and 3: Medieval bellows |encyclopedia=The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments |year=1984 |volume=2 |pages=839–840}}</ref> That was refined to make all air from three bellows enter into a common channel.<ref name="GrovePortOrg" />

Smaller organs are illustrated that are now called [[portative organ]]s and [[positive organ]]s.
|
|[[File:Utrechts-Psalter PSALM-149-PSALM-150 organ.jpg|thumb|200px|center|850 A.D., Utrecht Psalter.]]
|[[File:Jeduthun playing rebec, Pommersfeld Bible, Gräflich Schönbornsche Bibliothek, 334, fol. II 148.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1050-1100 A.D., Germany. Jeduthun playing rebec. The instrument here was played by pushing and pulling slats to open the pipes. Pommersfeld Bible, Gräflich Schönbornsche Bibliothek, 334, fol. II 148]][[File:Salterio de Rutland ('The Rutland Psalter'), c. 1260, el rey David tocando el órgano, F. 97v, Add MS 62925, British Library, detalle.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1260 A.D.]]
|-
|[[Portative Organ]]
|
|
|[[File:Augustins - Ange jouant de l'orgue - 49 6 124.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1401–1500 A.D.]]
|[[File:Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, page Bl-2 185V.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1280 A.D., Spain. Portative organ in the Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, folio 185V]][[File:Memling - The reliquary of Saint Ursula, 0040147060.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1489, [[St. Ursula Shrine]], Belgium.]]
|-
|[[Positive organ]]
|A tabletop pipe organ
|
|[[File:(Toulouse) L'Ouïe (La Dame à la licorne) - Musée de Cluny Paris cropped for musicians.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1484–1500, France. One lady plays the pipe organ, with assistance from another on bellows.]] The instrument also made it into artwork on the [[Silk Road]] near China. 
|[[File:DufayBinchois.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1451 A.D.]]
|-
|[[Panpipes]]

Panflute
|An instrument of shepherds in the late Roman Empire, [[:File:Shepherd with panpipes, from plate 124 of "Die Malereien der Katakomben Roms", Joseph Wilpert (editor), 1903.jpg|seen in 3rd century A.D. Christian art]]. The instrument was widespread, [[:File:Tang Sancai Camel & Musicians (47489638351).jpg|appearing in Chinese art]] from the [[Tang dynasty]] featuring men on the Silk Road.
|
|[[File:Panpipes from the Benedictine Psalter.jpg|thumb|200px|center|842–850 A.D., Carolingian Empire. Panpipes in the Benedictine Psalter.]][[File:Panpipes in the Panteón de la Real Colegiata de San Isidoro de León.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1180 A.D., Spain. Shepherd playing panpipes. This style of panpipe is a solid block of wood with drilled holes for the flute's tubes.]][[File:Harp, panpipes, horn, from the PSALTERIUM TRIPLEX (RHEIMS?), MS B.18 f.1r.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Early 12th century, Rheims, France. King David playing harp, accompanied by panpipes, singing (psalms?) and cowhorn.  ]]
|[[File:Aquileia, buon pastore, pavimento della basilica, 1a metà del IV secolo.jpg|thumb|200px|center|4th century A.D., Aquileia, Italy. Christian artwork of the [[Good Shepherd]] theme with panflutes.]][[File:Panpipes, Passionale, pars hiemalis - Cod.bibl.fol.57 number 520-257v.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Panpipes, circa 1125–1150, from Passionale, pars hiemalis - Cod.bibl.fol.57 number 520-257v]][[File:Pibole and panpipe, from 1220 fresco, "The Annunciation to Joachim" in the church of Vieux-Pouzauges, France, sharpened tight crop.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Panpipes (right) and ''pibole'' (reed pipe with single reed, bone body and horn bell).]][[File:Panpipes, detail from “A Pastoral Landscape with Shepherds Playing a Viola and Panpipes” by Albrecht Dürer.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1496, Germany. Shepherds playing panpipes, in detail of painting by [[Albrecht Dürer]]. Pipers are made individually and assembled into a group.]]
|-
|Pipes
|English word for a variety of instruments.<ref name=MarcusePipe/> Tube of wood, reed or other material through which air is blown.<ref name=MarcusePipe/> Sound occurs from interaction of air with a  sharp edge, notch, a duct, reed or some other form of mouthpiece.<ref name=MarcusePipe/>

In European instruments the name "pipes" includes:
:*duct flutes, recorders and three-hole pipes (or tabor pipes)
:*reedpipes and bagpipes
:*bladder pipes
:*organ pipes
:*panpipes
:*willow pipes

|Word used in English and Old French<ref name=MarcusePipe>{{cite dictionary |entry= Pipe|title= Musical instruments: A comprehensive dictionary |date=1964 |first= Sibyl |last=Marcuse |page= 412}}</ref>

German
:Pfeife<ref name=MarcusePipe/>
|
|
|-
|Reedpipe<ref name=MarcuseReedpipe>{{cite dictionary |entry= Reedpipe |title= Musical instruments: A comprehensive dictionary |date=1964 |first= Sibyl |last=Marcuse |page= 441}}</ref>

[[Clarinet]]

[[Launeddas]]

[[Mantura]]

[[Sipsi]]

[[Zhaleika]]

[[Zummara]]

|See also ''alboka'', in above in this table.

An aerophone in the form of a tube with "vibrating reed" inserted, either at the tip (as in launeddas) or inside the interior (as in a crumhorn or alboka).<ref name=MarcuseReedpipe/> Reeds such as on the launeddas are single reeds; reeds on the shawm are double reeds. Includes bagpipes and bladder pipes (both with internal reeds).

Europeans made pipes out of reeds, splitting a reed to make a single reed. A single 3-hole reed pipe could be used for the pipe and tabor. The Launeddas was a more elaborate reed pipe, with multiple pipes; each might have its own reed or one reed might sound multiple pipes. These are more common in medieval art than the recorder (which has more holes and requires both hands to play).

Reed pipe traditions around the world include Asia, Southeast Asia, the Middle East and Africa.
|
|[[File:Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, page Bl-2 201V.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1280 A.D., Spain. Single-reed pipes, held together as a pair, called [[zummara]]. Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, folio 350R.]][[File:Jeduthun, playing a musical instrument with King David, from the Vivian Bible, Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, Latin 1, folio 215v.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 845 A.D., France. [[Jeduthun]] was depicted playing the [[tibia curva]], a reedpipe shaped like an Iberian trumpet. No fingerholes visible.]][[File:Single-reed aerophone (fixed) - Soinuenea.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Examples of single-reed reedpipes.]]
|[[File:CantigasDeSantaMariaPanPipes.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1280 A.D., Spain. Reed pipes, possibly a launeddas, in the Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex. The illustration shows multiple pipes sounded by a single reed.]][[File:Double Zhaleika or Zhaleyka reed pipes, Russia and Belorussia.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Double Zhaleika or Zhaleyka reed pipes, Russia and Belorussia. Pipes have a split in the sidewall at the top, going with the grain to create a reed.]][[File:Sipsi.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Sipsi, reedpipe or clarinet of Aegean region of Greece and Turkey.]][[File:Launeddas llengüeta.JPG|thumb|200px|center|Single-reed tips, these from a launeddas. Splits in the tubes are visible that create the reed.]][[File:Mantoura03.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Mantoura, a mouth-blown reedpipe from Crete; other mantouras are attached to bags on bagpipes.]]
|-
|Double reedpipes

double clarinet
[[diplica]]
|Reedpipes played in sets, one in each hand. In ancient Greece, the [[aulos]] were double reedpipes.
|
|[[File:Cantiga Santa Maria.jpg|thumb|center|200px|1280 A.D., Spain. Double reedpipes from the Cantigas de Santa Maria, Codex of the musicians.]][[File:Banquet Euaion Louvre G467 n2 cropped.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Greece, 460 BC–450 BC. Double-reedpipe tradition predates medieval Europe; ancient Greeks used Aulos.]]
|[[File:Diplice1.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Set of diplica double reedpipes or clarinets from the Balkans.]][[File:Saronno, Santuario della Beata Vergine dei Miracoli 45 levels, sharpened.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1534-1536, Italy. Double reedpipes, incorporated into a bagpipe.]]
|-
|[[Triple pipes]]

Cumbrian pipes 

cuisle

triple reedpipes

|
|
|[[File:Cross of the Scriptures, north panel.jpg|thumb |200px|center |Circa 900 A.D., [[Clonmacnoise]], Ireland. Triple pipes, carved onto the Cross of Scriptures.]][[File:Launeddas.JPG|thumb|200px|center|[[Launeddas]] triple-reed pipes]]
|[[File:Triple pipes, Hunterian Psalter (Glasgow University Library MS Hunter 229 (U.3.2), folio 21V).jpg|thumb|200px|center|1170 A.D., Scotland. Triple pipes from the Hunterian Psalter.]][[File:Triple pipes, Ms. Ludwig III 1 (83.MC.72), fol. 17v.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1255-1260 A.D., England. Triple pipes, detail from Dyson Perrins Apocalypse, Ms. Ludwig III 1 (83.MC.72), fol. 17v]]
|-
|[[Sackbut]]<ref name="iastate2">{{cite web |author=Spohnheimer |title=The Sacbut |url=http://www.music.iastate.edu/antiqua/sacbut.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160504052436/http://www.music.iastate.edu/antiqua/sacbut.htm |archive-date=2016-05-04 |access-date=2016-05-13 |website=Music.iastate.edu}}</ref>
|Renaissance instrument, ancestor of the [[trombone]]. Medieval variant was [[clarion (instrument)|clarion]] or [[slide trumpet]].
|
|[[File:African-heritage musicians in Portugal, 16th century A.D., from reproduction of painting Retablo di Sant'auta, circa 1522-25.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1522–1525, Portugal, African-heritage musicians in Portugal playing shawms and a sackbut.]]
|[[File:Buisine player and clarion player at religious ceremony, Manuscript of Saint-Esprit IRHT 062067 2.jpg|thumb|200px|center|A forerunner of the sackbut-trombone was the [[buisine]] with an s-curve.]]
|-
|[[Shawm]]<ref name="iastate3">{{cite web |author=Spohnheimer |title=The Renaissance Shawm |url=http://www.music.iastate.edu/antiqua/renshawm.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160525065002/http://www.music.iastate.edu/antiqua/renshawm.htm |archive-date=2016-05-25 |access-date=2016-05-13 |website=Music.iastate.edu}}</ref>

''[[Bombard (music)|bombard]]''
:''[[pommer]]''

[[piccolo oboe]] or [[:fr:Musette (instrument)|musette]]

oboe
|''See reedpipes above''

Double-reed instruments. The reed bundle is inserted through a disk (used for breath control, for uninterrupted sound, playing while the musician breathes.)
In France, ''musettes'' were small oboes until the 16th century, when they became [[Musette de cour|bagpipes]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Georgina |last=Letourmy |title=Le 11e arrondissement. Itinéraires d'histoire et d'architecture, Action Artistique Ville Paris, coll. " Paris en 80 quartiers " |date=2000 |publisher=FeniXX réédition numérique |isbn=9782402071420}}</ref> The musette was a small keyless double-reed [[chalumeau]], with a visibly conical bore and a pear-shaped bell. 
|England (Middle English, from French)
:schallemelem
:shalemeyes
:calmuse 

France (Old French)
:chalemel
:chalemie
:chalemeaux 
:from: calamus (Latin), from [[wikt:κάλαμος|κάλαμος]] (kálamos, Ancient Greek)
:''[[bombard (music)|bombard]]'' (Brittany)
:''[[pommer]]''

German
:''Schalmei''

Iberian Peninsula
:[[Dulzaina]] or ''dolçaina''
:''xirimita''
:''bolin-gozo'' (Basque)

:[[Gaita navarra]]

:[[Gralla (instrument)|gralla]]
:''xaramita ''
:''xirimita''
:''grall de pastor''

:[[chirimia]]<ref name=MarcuseChirimia>{{cite dictionary |entry= Chirimía |title= Musical instruments: A comprehensive dictionary |date=1964 |first= Sibyl |last=Marcuse |page= 95}}</ref>


|[[File:Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, page Bl-2 350R cropped.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Musettes (chirimia?, xirimia?) in the Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, folio 350R.]][[File:Cantiga 330 Cantigas de santa maria.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Musettes (chirimia?, xirimia?) and clappers in the Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, folio 330.]][[File:Asaph, serving King David, from the Vivian Bible, Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, Latin 1, folio 215v.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 845 A.D., France. Clappers and a horn with a very sharp tip to blow through. Possibly could be blown like a cornet or shofar (also have narrow opening), or it could be a reed horn (an oboe with a single reed or shawm/oboe with a double reed).]]
|[[File:Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, page Bl-2 276V.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Musettes (chirimia?, xirimia?) in the Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, folio 276V.]][[File:Shawm in the Codex Manesse, written by Heinrich Frauenlob.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1305-1340, Germany. Shawm with reed bundle visible. From the [[Codex Manesse]].]][[File:Shawm, cymbals, horn from Matteo di giovanni, assunzione della vergine, 1474 ca.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1474 A.D., Italy. Shawm, cymbals, sackbut (?), from Matteo di giovanni, assunzione della vergine.]]

|-
|Shepherd's horn<ref name="Grey" />

[[w:Näverlur|Näverlur]]

[[Birch trumpet]]
|Wooden trumpets, conical tube about 4 ft long with mouthpiece; made of separate sections of hollowed out wood, glued together; bound with bark.<ref name=LurAksdal/><ref name=MarcuseLur>{{cite dictionary |entry= Lur (2) |title= Musical instruments: A comprehensive dictionary |date=1964 |first= Sibyl |last=Marcuse |page= 316}}</ref> In Norway [and Sweden] used by shepherds in mountain pasturage to call to livestock, frighten predators and call signals to surrounding communities.<ref name=LurAksdal/> Shorter lurs could also be used as megaphones.<ref name=LurAksdal/> 

Horns constructed of strips of birchbark or alder bark rolled into tubes, or into cups to fit onto the end of flutes or reedpipes. Also fingerhole horn carved of wood. A mouthpiece is inserted; they may have reed tongues (making them reed horns, shawms or obes) a trumpet mouthpiece, or a tip to make them into flutes. Holes may be cut into the bark tube as well.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Финченко А. Е. (Finchenko A. E.) |title=Восточнославянские народные музыкальные инструменты в собрании МАЭ |trans-title=East Slavic Folk Musical Instruments in the MAE Collection Archive |language=ru |archive-date=5 October 2021 |journal=Памятники культуры народов Европы и европейской части СССР (Cultural Monuments of the Peoples of Europe and the European Part of the USSR) |volume=38 |place=Ленинград (Leningrad) |publisher=Наука (Nauka) |date=1982 |pages=86, 89 |url=https://lib.kunstkamera.ru/files/lib/mae_xxxviii/mae_xxxviii_07.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211005111053/https://lib.kunstkamera.ru/files/lib/mae_xxxviii/mae_xxxviii_07.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Рог пастушеский. Русские. Россия, Архангельская область (Архангельская губ.). Конец XIX - начало XX вв.|trans-title=Shepherd's horn. Russians. Russia, Arkhangelsk region (Arkhangelsk province). Late 19th - early 20th centuries. |language=ru |url=https://collection.kunstkamera.ru/entity/OBJECT/326218 |quote=[museum exhibit information for birchbark trumpet:] Museum room MAE No. 1877-5<br> Name, title Shepherd's horn <br> Ethnicity Russians<br> Place of creation Russia, Arkhangelsk region (Arkhangelsk province)<br> Geographic localization of the place of creation East Europe<br> Time of creation Late 19th - early 20th centuries<br> Collector - private individual Zhuravsky Andrey Vladimirovich<br> Material birch bark, wood, fabric<br> Size Overall length - 17.5; circumference length at the bell - 32.0; bell diameter - 10.0; mouthpiece diameter - 9.0; circumference length at the mouthpiece - 3.5}}</ref><ref name="Grey">{{cite web |author=Antykova N.I |title=Исторические аспекты развития народных инструментов в Оренбургской области |language=ru |trans-title=Historical aspects of the development of folk instruments in the Orenburg region |website=Greyish.ru |url=http://greyish.ru/?p=1429|quote=...settlers from the Tver region brought a horn (a shepherd's instrument)...belongs to reed aerophones, the sound in which occurs from the vibration of...an oscillating reed. The material for the horn is exclusively alder. The pipe is made from an alder shoot, about a finger thick (12-14 mm).<br><br>[source cited at end of article:] The Fifth Lazarev Readings: “Faces of Traditional Culture”: Proc. of the International Scientific Conf. Chelyabinsk, February 25–26, 2011: in 2 parts / Chelyabinsk State Academy of Culture and Arts; ed. by prof. N. G. Apukhtin. – Chelyabinsk, 2011. – Part II. – 350 p.]}}</ref> Instruments may also be built with a mouthpiece resembling a cup or funnel, in which the player uses his lips to create the sound.<ref>{{cite web |title=Пастушеский рожок |trans-title=Shepherd's Horn |language=ru |website=spacenation.info|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316171557/http://spacenation.info/pastusheskii.html |archive-date=16 March 2016 |url=http://spacenation.info/pastusheskii.html |quote=[Talking about the lip-activated trumpet:] instead of a squeaker or whistle, this instrument has a mouthpiece that resembles a cup or funnel, and the sound is produced by contact with the lips, folded in a special way. The instruments differ in the length of the barrel and the number of holes (from three to six). The sound resembles a human voice.}}</ref>
|Sweden, Russia, Karelia, Belarus, Ukraine, former Yugoslavia

Pastusheskiy rog (Пастушеский рог)
:kugikly (кугиклы)<ref name="Grey" />
:dudki (дудки)<ref name="Grey" />
:manki (манки)<ref name="Grey" />

Old Norse ''lúðr''<ref name=LurAksdal>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Store Norske Leksikon |entry= Lur |first= Bjørn |last= Aksdal|date= 25 November 2024 |url= https://snl.no/lur |quote= The lur is a wind instrument in the horn family. It can be made of wood, bark or metal, and is played in the same way as a trumpet by vibrating the lips against the blow end, which can sometimes be shaped like a mouthpiece...ETYMOLOGY Old Norse lúðr...Lures made of bark (for example, alderlur), wood covered with willow bark (neverlur) or grass (tåger) have been used in Norwegian saddle farming since the 9th century}}</ref>

Norwegian
[[:no:Lur|Lur]]<ref name=LurAksdal/>
:Neverlur (willow bark trumpet)<ref name=LurAksdal/>
:Alderlur (alder bark trumpet)<ref name=LurAksdal/>
:tåger (grass trumpet)<ref name=LurAksdal/>
:Langlur (long trumpet)<ref name=LurAksdal/>
:Galdrelur (shorter lur)<ref name=LurAksdal/>
|[[File:Рог из бересты.svg|thumb|200px|center|Birch bark reed horn with double reeds visible.]][[file:Kalyada KR 2012 699.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Belgorod region, Russia. Reed horn (a toy?) made for a holiday celebration; double reeds that vibrate when blown are inserted at the narrow end.]][[File:Neverlur.JPG|thumb|200px|center|Birchbark trumpet or ''näverlur''.]]
|[[File:A young Swedish women playing a birch trumpet around 1930 (cropped).jpg|thumb|200px|center|1930, Sweden. Young woman playing a birch trumpet.]][[File:Карельские пастушечьи дудки.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Horns constructed by shepherds in [[Karelia]]. Part of culture of [[Karelians]]. Some of these have been built with fingerholes.]]
|-
|Clay trumpet
|Horns of clay
|
|
|[[File:Botzina, segles XII - XIII, carrer dels Juristes, 9, SIAM València.jpg|thumb|200px|center|12th–13th century, Valencia. Horn made from clay.]]
|-
|[[Three-hole pipe|Tabor Pipe]]

[[Three-hole pipe]]

[[:fr:Galoubet|Galoubet]]
|A [[duct flute]] with three-holes (or two holes and a thumbhole), with a body of wood or reed. Played with other instruments such as the tabor, tambourin à cordes, handbell, or with a second pipe (see double pipes above). Other recorder variants have been used in this manner including the full-sized recorder and the flageolet or flaviol (see above in table).
|French
:Galoubet (from Old Provençal, ''galaubiar'', to play superbly)<ref name=MarcuseGaloubet>{{cite dictionary |entry= Galoubet|title= Musical instruments: A comprehensive dictionary |date=1964 |first= Sibyl |last=Marcuse |pages= 198}}</ref>
|[[File:One-handed tabor pipes - Soinuenea.jpg|thumb|200px|center|One handed pipes suitable for accompanying the tabor.]]
|[[File:Pipeandbelldavid.png|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1240s. The Morgan Bible, Folio 25. Pipe and bell. Like the tabor pipe, this is played with one hand, while the other hand plays a different instrument.]][[File:Peterborough Psalter drum page 154.png|thumb|200px|center|1320 A.D.,  Peterborough Psalter (Brussels copy). Pipe and tabor]]
|-

|[[Willow flute]]

[[Stabule]]
|These instruments are commonly called willow whistles because they use the bark of a willow tree (the tube created when the center is pulled from inside the bark) to make a whistle. The Russian kalyuka also makes a tube for a whistle, often out of thistle. The two instruments are played the same way, by varying the force of the air blown into the mouthpiece, with the end of the tube being covered by the finger or left open.
|Norway
:[[:no:Seljefløyte|Seljefløyte]]

Sweden
:[[:sv:Sälgflöjt|Sälgflöjt]]

Finland
:[[:fi:Pitkähuilu|Pitkähuilu]]

[[Karelia]]

Latvia
:[[Stabule]]

Lithuania
:[[:lt:Švilpynė|Švilpynė]]

Romania
:telincă

Russia
:[[:ru:Калюка|Kalyuka]]

Ukraine
|[[File:Willow whistle.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Norwegian willow whistle (''Seljefløyte'')]]
|[[File:Калюка, сделанная из борщевика.png|thumb|200px|center|Kalyuka]][[File:Fujarka 0211.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Three willow pipes or stabules of the Polish people from a music exhibition in Warsaw in 1888. Two are cut with [[fipple]]s, one is cut as a transverse flute.]]
|-
|Wooden trumpet

|After the fall of the Roman Empire, trumpets of metal were relatively rare in Europe. Europeans used horns (from goats, sheep and cattle) or carved them from wood.

The wooden trumpet was illustrated by Anglo Saxon artists in France in the Utrecht Psalter, circa 850 A.D. They drew long wooden horns with thick metal bands to hold the separate halves of the instrument together. Examples of surviving wooden instruments made in this fashion include the ''lur'' found in the [[Oseberg]] ship (two hollowed out halves held together with 5 rings or bands<ref name=LurAksdal/>) and also the Irish wooden trumpet. 

In Ireland, a wooden trumpet was found in the Erne River and attributed to the "early Christian Period...8th-10th century."<ref name="ErneHorn">{{cite journal |journal=Ulster Journal of Archaeology |volume=32 |date=1969 |title=An Early Medieval Horn from the River Erne |first=D. M. |last=Waterman|pages=101–104 |jstor=20567644 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20567644}}</ref> The yew-wood trumpet was carved in two halves lengthwise and bound together with strips of bronze, with a bronze mouthpiece.<ref name="ErneHorn" /><ref name="ErneRecon" />   This Irish trumpet has resembles trumpets illustrated in the Vespasian Psalter.<ref name="ErneRecon">{{cite journal|journal=Ulster Journal of Archaeology |volume=61 |date=2002 |title=Reconstructing the River Erne Horn |first=John |last=Purse |pages=17–25 |jstor=20568294 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20568294}}</ref>

In literature, the instrument was the beme (byme, bemastocc) in Old English.<ref name=MarcuseBeme>{{cite dictionary |entry= Beme|title= Musical instruments: A comprehensive dictionary |date=1964 |first= Sibyl |last=Marcuse |pages= 51–52|quote= Beme (OEngl.) med  trumpet mentioned in OEngl. and MEngl. literature...}}</ref><ref name=MarcuseByme>{{cite dictionary |entry= Byme|title= Musical instruments: A comprehensive dictionary |date=1964 |first= Sibyl |last=Marcuse |page= 74 |quote= Byme, var of Beme.}}</ref><ref name=MarcuseBemastocc>{{cite dictionary |entry= Bemastocc, bemalstocc|title= Musical instruments: A comprehensive dictionary |date=1964 |first= Sibyl |last=Marcuse |page= 51 |url= https://rme.rilm.org/article?id=mcd00741&v=1.0&rs=mcd00741}}</ref> Hygelac (in the late 10th century epic poem [[Beowulf]] calls soldiers to battle with "horn and bȳman".<ref name=BeowulfHorn&Bym/> It was the ''buisine'' to the French in the epic ''[[Chanson de Roland]]'' (circa 1100-1120), and the word was used for this instrument until transferred to the later metal instrument in the late 12th century.<ref name=MarcuseBuisine2/>
 
|''Bemastocc'' (Old-English ''bem'' trumpet + ''stocc'' wood)<ref name=MarcuseBemastocc/>

''Buisine''<ref name=MarcuseBuisine2/>

''Lúðr'' (Old Norse<ref name=LurAksdal/>)


|[[File:Utrechts-Psalter PSALM-149-PSALM-150 trumpet.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Utrecht Psalter, 9th century, France. [[Horn (instrument)|Horn]]s showing signs of assembly (bands around outside) into the shape of cows horns.]][[File:Tiberius Psalter-David wood trumpet.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Musician plays a wooden trumpet in the Tiberius Psalter, circa 1075–1250 A.D.]][[File:Wooden trumpets from Vespasian-psalter-122 cotton ms vespasian A I.jpg|thumb|200px|center|8th century A.D., England. Wooden trumpets from Vespasian Psalter (Canterbury Psalter, MS Cotton Vespasian A.I, fol. 30v).]][[File:Faras - Archangel Michael with a horn trumpet and an orb - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|200px|center|9th century A.D., [[Makuria]]. [[St. Michael]] holding an orb and a trumpet. The trumpet has bands around it. Example of cross-Mediterranean medieval culture, part of [[Coptic Church]] in [[Faras]]. Some Irish clergy met Coptic ideas when they studied at [[Lérins Abbey]].<ref>{{cite web |title =Coptic influence in the Early British Church|date=30 January 2018 |url=http://www.stgeorgeministry.com/coptic-influence-early-british-church/}}</ref>]]

|[[File:Horn with bands from Southern portal of the Abbey of Saint-Pierre de Beaulieu, Beaulieu-sur-Dordogne.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1225 A.D. Horn with bands from Southern portal of the [[:fr:Abbaye Saint-Pierre de Beaulieu-sur-Dordogne|Abbey of Saint-Pierre de Beaulieu]], Beaulieu-sur-Dordogne]][[File:Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, page Bl-2 243V.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1280 A.D., Spain. Horns in the Cantigas de Santa Maria. Bands around horn. Horns appear to have mouthpieces; these may be an unknown shawms (with a disk at the mouth, where a reed goes into the mouth), but shawms would have fingerholes.<ref name="Curt2">{{cite web |first=Curt |last=Bouterse |title=Medieval Instruments VI: Winds|url=https://curt.bouterse.com/medieval-instruments-vi-a-winds/}}</ref> Disk similar to mouthpiece on [[:File:Pilaster of Angels Sounding Trumpets from the Parapet of a Pulpit MET DP169508.jpg|trumpet from 14th century]].]][[File:The Mocking of Jesus scene of the musicians ca 1315-1317 A.D., wooden trumpet.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1315, Macedonia. Trumpet, possibly wood.]][[File:StrasbourgCath CroisS 20.JPG|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1235 A.D., France. Horn with bulging section where two shorter sections were merged to make long horn. No bands, unlike the wooden horns. but has bosses like the buisine; possibly represents a metal horn.]][[File:Pilaster of Angels Sounding Trumpets from the Parapet of a Pulpit MET DP169508.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Early 14th century, Italy. Angels with constructed horns in two joints (indicated by the boss in the center of the instrument).]]
|}

== Groups of musicians ==
<gallery widths="220">
File:Hama museum 4423pc.jpg|4th century A.D., [[Maryamin, Homs|Mariamin]]. Instruments of the late Roman Empire, some that would be seen in the Carolingian Empire: crotala (clappers), pipe organ with bellows to power it, double pipes, Oxyvaphi (water-filled metal bowls), [[kithara]], cymbala (castanets).

File:David, Musée du Louvre Objets d'art MR 370.jpg|Circa 795 A.D., [[Carolingian Empire]]. Probably from [[Aachen]]. Crotala (clappers), harp and fiddle.

File:Vespasian-psalter-122 cotton ms vespasian A I.jpg|8th century A.D., England. Vespasian Psalter (Canterbury Psalter, MS Cotton Vespasian A.I, fol. 30v). King David playing the lyre with players on wooden trumpets and horns, and gleomen clapping and dancing,

File:Valcavado Beatus, fol. 199v musical band playing for evil.jpg|970 A.D. Spain. Medieval band plays for evil being, from the Valcavado Beatus, folio 199v. From left: trumpet or reedpipe (cowhorn attached to reed body), cymbals, hourglass drum, double reedpipes, cythara, wooden trumpet.

File:King David, Asaph, Heman, Ethan and Jeduthun, Winchcombe Psalter, Cambridge University Library, Ff.1.23, folio 4v.jpg|Circa 1025-1050, England, Winchcombe Psalter. King David plays [[medieval harp]] surrounded by musicians playing [[rotte (lyre)|rotte]], [[crwth]], [[cornett]] (fingerhole horn), and [[Crotalum|crotals]] (clappers/cymbals on sticks). 
File:Musicians with bowed lyre, psaltery, monchord, and dancers, from the Psalterium cum Canticis ('Werdener Psalter') Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin – Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Ms. theol. lat. fol. 561.png|Circa 1029-1050 A.D., Germany. Musicians with bowed lyre, psaltery, monchord, and dancers, from the  Psalterium cum Canticis ('Werdener Psalter') Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin – Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Ms. theol. lat. fol. 561.

File:Tiberius Psalter f30v.png|Circa 1075 A.D., England. [[Alfred the Great|King Alfred]] poses as [[David|King David]].<ref name=Southworth>{{cite book |title= The English Medieval Minstrel |first=John |last= Southworth |publisher= Boydell Press |date= 1989 |place= Suffolk, Great Britain|isbn= 0851155367|page=24 |quote= He is frequently pictured in tenth and eleventh-century manuscripts in the likeness of David...in this one...he appears as a divinely-inspired harper accompanied by three musicians and a juggler.}}</ref> The dove brings the holy spirit; a juggler and a fiddler perform at top; at bottom a wooden trumpet and cowhorn.

File:David and his musicians, Paris, Bibliotheque nationale, f latin 11550, folio 7v.jpg|11th century A.D., France David playing lyre with his and his musicians (playing coradoiz, harp, panpipes and rebec.

File:Roma, Bibl. Apostolica Vaticana, Pal. lat. 39, f. 44v sharpened cropped.jpg|Circa 1050 A.D., Germany. Detail from Heidelberg Psalter. Double pipes, cymbala (bells), psaltery, [[rotte (lyre)|rotte]], viola.

File:Musicians and acrobats (detail) - Google Art Project (uAFjc0uBsD FRA).jpg|Circa 1000 A.D., Kyiv, Ukraine. Musicians in the [[Saint Sophia Cathedral, Kyiv|Saint Sophia Cathedral]] with wooden trumpets, a [[kobza]] and a psaltery played upright as a harp.

File:Musicians from the "De rerum naturis" manuscript, Monte Cassino MS Casin 132.jpg|1022-1032, [[Monte Casino]]. Musicians from the "De rerum naturis" manuscript, Monte Cassino MS Casin 132; from left cymbals, psaltery, harp or rotte, lute.

File:Jaca - Catedral, Pórtico sur 03.jpg|Last third of 11th century, Spain. Three instruments in the Jaca Cathedral Portico; far left the ''psalterium quadratum''; center, David playing the Byzantine lira; right, a musician with a triangular harp (not a rota, because the curved right side is shaped as a harp's forpost). The ''psalterium quadratum'' is one of Jerome's instruments; see [[bumbulum]] above.

File:"Expositio in Psalmos" by Odon d'Asti, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Latin 2508, page IIv.jpg|Circa 1125, Italy. Bottom, King David plays rotte; around him are a tabor (frame drum), horn or trumpet, and crwth or fiddle

File:Musicians from the Psalter of Polirone.jpg|Circa 1100 A.D., [[Polirone Abbey]], San Benedetto Po, Italy. King David playing a [[rotte (psaltery)]], with other musicians on fiddle, bell, bagpipe and horn, from the Musicians from the Psalter of Polirone.

File:David playing lyra, Saint Alban's Psalter.jpg|12th century A.D., England. David playing lyra (center), surrounded by (top) musicians with wooden trumpets and nakers, (center) musicians with harps, (bottom) musicians with cymbala (bell chimes), from the [[St. Albans Psalter|Saint Alban's Psalter]].

File:Musicians from The Book of Divine Works - Liber divinorum operum, written by Hildegard of Bingen.jpg|1172–1174 A.D., Germany.  Musicians from The ''Book of Divine Works'' by [[Hildegard of Bingen]]. From left: harp, flute or recorder, unknown, vielle (with 2 drone strings), panpipes, portative organ.

File:De cantu et musica sacra, showing musicians playing monchord, rotte lyre and cymbala bells.jpg|12th century A.D., Germany, copy printed in 1774. [[Martin Gerber]] made tracings of this image from a 12th c. manuscript. The original manuscript burned in 1768 with the abbey. Monochord, rotte and cymbala are illustrated.

File:B.18, f.1r, PSALTERIUM TRIPLEX, St John's College Cambridge modified (light sharpen, levels, exposure).jpg|Early 12th century A.D. Top, spiritual music, King David surrounded by musicians. Bottom, carnal or secular music, the devil surrounded by dancers and musicians. From PSALTERIUM TRIPLEX, B.18, f.1r, St John's College Cambridge

File:Santo Domingo, Soria (21750579249).jpg|12th century A.D., Spain. Some of the [[24 Elders of the Apocalypse]] on the [[Church of Saint Dominic, Soria]]. Instruments include rebecs and rabels (both plucked and bowed), rottes, psalteries and a organistrum.

File:St. Elizabeth’s Psalter, MS CXXXVII folio 149r, King David holding the rotte (lyre) and musicians playing chime bells, vielle, pipe organ and long horn.jpg|1201–1208 A.D. Germany, St. Elizabeth's Psalter. King David holding the [[rotte (lyre)]] and musicians playing chime bells, vielle, pipe organ and long wooden horn

File:Skylitzes Manuscript, Madrid, National Library, codex vitr. 26-2, page 173 (folio 78r), cropped for musicians, medium sharpening.jpg|12th-13th century A.D., Palermo, Sicily. Byzantine musical instruments: lute, trumpet or shawm, cymbals, [[Rotte (psaltery)|rota]]. Skylitzes Manuscript, Madrid, National Library, codex vitr. 26-2, page 173 (folio 78r).

File:King David plays hurdy-gurdy, from Simonovskaya Psalter, State Historical Museum, Moscow, Russia.jpg|13th century, Russia. King David (center) plays organstrum or hurdy-gurdy. To David's right (our left) man playing naker (drum with snare), probable oboe, cowhorn, gusli (or [[rotte (lyre)|rotte]]). To David's left, one man plays cymbals, while another man holds a psaltery. Bottom left corner (our left), a man plays a bowed lyre. Bottom right, a man with drum and curved drumstick. Simonovskaya Psalter, State Historical Museum, Moscow, Russia.

File:King David playing harp with Asaph, Aeman, Ethan and Jeduthun, Bout Psalter Book of Hours.jpg|1200-1250, France. King David playing harp with Asaph (panpipe and [[shofar]]), Aeman ([[cymbala]]), Ethan (viol) and Jeduthun ([[rebec]]), Bout Psalter Book of Hours

File:Musicians from Ms. Ludwig III 1 (83.MC.72), fol. 17v cropped.jpg|1255–1260 A.D., England. Celebrations with musicians in work titled "The Unburied Bodies of the Two Witnesses and the Rejoicing People", Ms. Ludwig III 1 (83.MC.72), fol. 17v. From left: vielle, triple pipes, tabor or drum, cymbals.

File:Meister der Weltchronik des Rudolf von Ems 001.jpg|1340 A.D., Germany. King David with scribes and musicians, detail from World Chronicle of Rudolf von Ems.

File:Codex Manesse Heinrich von Meißen (Frauenlob).jpg|1305–1340 A.D., Zurich, Switzerland. [[Heinrich Frauenlob]], a [[Minnesinger]] (seated, top) in the [[Codex Manesse]]. From bottom left: Tabor, recorder, shawm, vielle, vielle, psaltery, bagpipe.

File:F107v b.png|1310, England. Gorleston psalter, folio 107v. Instruments from left: castagnette, harp, singing, rebec, citole, psaltery, tambourine.


File:Miriam, the golden Haggadah.jpg|Circa 1320–1330, Catalonia. Women playing instruments from the [[Golden Haggadah]]; (from left) cymbals, adufe, lute, timbrel, women dancing.

File:King David, wife Musica and musicians.jpg|14th century A.D., Italy. King David, his wife Musica and their children. From manuscript of Manlius Severinus Boethius's ''De Musica'', Naples, Biblioteca Nazionale, Ms. VA 14, fol. 47

File:Meister der Manessischen Liederhandschrift 004.jpg|1305 and 1340 A.D., Zurich, Switzerland. [[Codex Manesse]] showing [[Otto IV, Margrave of Brandenburg-Stendal|King Otto IV]] of Brandenburg playing chess with a woman. Below are [[busine]]s, tabor drum with two drumsticks, and bagpipes.

File:Charivari.jpg|14th century, France. In this illustration from the satirical collection of music and poetry ''Roman de Fauvel'', the horse Fauvel is about to join Vainglory in the bridal bed and the people (dressed as [[mummers]]) form a [[charivari]] in protest.

File:Matteo di Giovanni - The Assumption of the Virgin - 1474FXD.jpg|1474 A.D., Italy. The Assumption of the Virgin by Matteo di Giovanni.
File:Angels Melozzo (Pinacoteca Vaticano) 1.jpg|1480 A.D., Italy. Remnants of a fresco from [[Santi Apostoli, Rome#Frescoes of Melozzo da Forlì|Santi Apostoli, Rome]], damaged during renovation in 1711. Triangle,pipe and tabor, vielle, lute, tambourine.


File:Noia 2010-06-10-16.jpg|Circa 1434, Spain. Jesus Christ surrounded by twelve men with instruments and wearing crowns, above the main entrance of the [[:es:Iglesia de San Martín (Noya)|Church of San Martiño de Noia]].

File:King David and musicians from Olomouc Bible, folio 276R- lute bagpipes triangle horn viola and nakers (drums).jpg|1417 A.D., [[Olomouc]], [[Moravia]]. David (sitting) surrounded by musicians or troubadours in a picture from the Olomouc Bible. From left: nakers, vielle, horn, triangle, lute, bagpipes

File:Hans Memling - Christ with Singing and Music-Making Angels - KMSKA 778-780.jpg|1480s, Germany. Christ with Singing and Music-Making Angels by Hans Memling.
</gallery>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Medieval music}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Medieval musical instruments}}
[[Category:Lists of musical instruments|Medieval]]
[[Category:Medieval musical instruments| ]]
[[Category:Middle Ages-related lists]]