View source for Linking and intrusive R

{{Short description|Situational pronunciation of /r/ in non-rhotic varieties of English}}
{{Sound change}}

'''Linking R''' and '''intrusive R''' are [[sandhi]] phenomena<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Trudgill|Gordon|2006|p=236}}</ref> wherein a [[rhotic consonant]] is pronounced between two consecutive vowels with the purpose of avoiding a [[hiatus (linguistics)|hiatus]], that would otherwise occur in the expressions, such as ''tuner amp'', although in isolation ''tuner'' is pronounced the same as ''tuna'' {{IPA|/ˈt(j)uːnə/}} in [[rhoticity in English|non-rhotic]] [[list of dialects of English|varieties of English]]. These phenomena occur in many of these dialects, such as those in most of [[England and Wales]], parts of the [[American English|United States]], and all of the Anglophone societies of the southern hemisphere, with the exception of [[South African English|South Africa]]. In these varieties, {{IPA|/r/}} is pronounced only when it is immediately followed by a vowel.

Linking R and intrusive R may also occur between a root morpheme and certain [[suffix (linguistics)|suffixes]], such as ''-ing'' or ''-al''. For instance, in words such as ''draw(r)ing, withdraw(r)al,'' or ''[[Kafka]](r)esque''.

These phenomena first appeared in English sometime after the year 1700.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Peters|1996|p=49}}</ref>

==Non-rhotic varieties==
{{Main|Rhoticity in English}}

By definition, non-rhotic varieties of English pronounce {{IPA|/r/}}<ref>The rhotic consonant of English is transcribed in various ways depending on dialect, for example {{IPAblink|r}}, {{IPAblink|ɹ}} or {{IPAblink|ɻ}}. For this article, {{IPA|/r/}} is used without regard to the exact realisation of the consonant and without attempting to make any claim about its [[phoneme|phonemic]] status.</ref> only when it immediately precedes a vowel. This is called ''r''-vocalisation, ''r''-loss, ''r''-deletion, ''r''-dropping, ''r''-lessness, or non-rhoticity.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Gick|1999|p=30}}</ref>

For example, even though the word ''tuner'' is spelled with an {{angbr|r}} (which reflects that an {{IPA|/r/}} was pronounced in the past<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Wells|1970|p=240}}</ref>), non-rhotic accents do not pronounce an {{IPA|/r/}} when there is no vowel sound to follow it. In contrast, speakers of rhotic dialects, such as those of Scotland, Ireland, and most of North America (except in some of the [[Northeastern United States]] and [[Southern United States]]), always pronounce an {{IPA|/r/}} in ''tuner'' and never in ''tuna'' so that the two always sound distinct, even when pronounced in isolation.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Wells|1970|p=240}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Trudgill|Gordon|2006|p=236}} lists the distribution of rhotic and non-rhotic dialects more explicitly.</ref> Hints of non-rhoticity go back as early as the 15th century, and the feature was common (at least in [[London]]) by the early 18th century.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Gick|1999|p=31}}</ref>

==Linking R==
In many non-rhotic accents, words historically ending in {{IPA|/r/}} (as evidenced by an {{angbr|r}} in the spelling) may be pronounced with {{IPA|/r/}} when they are closely followed by another morpheme beginning with a vowel sound. So ''tuner amp'' may be pronounced {{IPA|[ˈtjuːnə'''r''' æmp]}}.{{refn|group=nb|It is arguable whether or not the {{IPA|/r/}} is phonetically part of the onset of the following word (a form of [[liaison (linguistics)|liaison]]) {{Harvcoltxt|Gick|1999|p=31}}. {{Harvcoltxt|Vennemann|1972|p=216}}, for example, argues that linking R is an instance of resyllabifying the rhotic phoneme. On the other hand, Wells would argue that it is not necessarily in the onset of the following syllable.}} This is the case in such accents even though ''tuner'' would not otherwise be pronounced with an {{IPA|/r/}}. Here, "closely" means the following word must be in the same [[prosodic unit]] (that is, not separated by a [[pausa]]). This phenomenon is known as '''linking R'''. Not all non-rhotic accents feature linking R. [[South African English]], [[African-American Vernacular English]] and non-rhotic varieties of [[Southern American English]] are notable for not using a linking R.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Thomas|first=Erik R.|date=4 September 2007|title=Phonological and Phonetic Characteristics of African American Vernacular English|url=https://repository.lib.ncsu.edu/bitstream/handle/1840.2/2062/Thomasj.1749-818X.2007.00029.pdf|journal=Language and Linguistics Compass|volume=1|number=5|pages=450–475 [453–454]|doi=10.1111/j.1749-818X.2007.00029.x|access-date=4 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Gick|1999|p=31}}, citing {{Harvcoltxt|Kurath|1964}}</ref>

==Intrusive R<span class="anchor" id="IntrusiveR"></span>==
{{listen|filename=Dr. Anthony Fauci's Intrusive R.flac|type=speech|title=Intrusive R (in NYC)|description=Examples of intrusive R in the speech of a [[New York City English]] speaker (Dr. [[Anthony Fauci]])}}
The phenomenon of '''intrusive R''' is a reinterpretation<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Hartmann|Zerbian|2009|p=136}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Hock|2009|p=172}}</ref> of linking R into an r-insertion rule that affects any word that ends in the non-high vowels {{IPA|/ə/}}, {{IPA|/ɪə/}}, {{IPA|/ɑː/}}, or {{IPA|/ɔː/}};<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Wells|1970|p=241}}. In [[Cockney]], {{IPA|/aʊ/}} is another vowel affected</ref> when such a word is closely followed by another word beginning in a vowel sound, an {{IPA|/r/}} is inserted between them, even when no final {{IPA|/r/}} was historically present.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Gick|1999|pp=31–32}}</ref> For example, the phrase ''bacteria in it'' would be pronounced {{IPA|/bækˈtɪəriərˌɪnɪt/}}. The [[epenthetic]] {{IPA|/r/}} can be inserted to prevent [[hiatus (linguistics)|hiatus]] (two consecutive vowel sounds).<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Wells|1970|p=241}}, citing {{Harvcoltxt|Gimson|1962|p=204}} and {{Harvcoltxt|Jones|1966|pp=§§ 357–366}}</ref>

In extreme cases an intrusive R can follow a reduced schwa, such as for the example ''if you hafta[r], I’ll help'' and in the following examples taken from the native speech of English speakers from Eastern Massachusetts: ''I’m gonna[r]ask Adrian'', ''t[ər]add to his troubles'', ''a lotta[r]apples'' and ''the[r]apples''. A related phenomenon involves the dropping of a consonant at the juncture of two words and the insertion of an r in its place. Sometimes this occurs in conjunction with the reduction of the final vowel in the first word to a schwa: examples of this are ''He shoulda[r]eaten''.<ref>{{Cite journal | url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/hel_0750-8069_1997_num_19_1_2572 | doi=10.3406/hel.1997.2572 | title=Linking r in English : Constraints, principles and parameters, or rules ? | year=1997 | last1=Durand | first1=Jacques | journal=Histoire Épistémologie Langage | volume=19 | pages=43–72 }}</ref>

Other recognizable examples are the [[Beatles]] singing: ''"I saw-'''r'''-a film today, oh boy"'' in the song "[[A Day in the Life]]", from their 1967 album ''[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]]''; in the song "[[Champagne Supernova]]" by [[Oasis (band)|Oasis]]: ''"supernova-'''r'''-in the sky"''; in the song "[[Scenes from an Italian Restaurant]]" by [[Billy Joel]]: ''"Brenda-'''r'''-and Eddie"''; in the song "[[Beauty and a Beat]]" by [[Justin Bieber]] featuring [[Nicki Minaj]]: ''"eye out for [[Selena Gomez|Selena-'''r''']]"''; in the phrases, ''"law-'''r'''-and order"'' and ''"Victoria-'''r'''-and Albert Museum"'', and even in the name ''"[[Maya Angelou|Maya-'''r'''-Angelou]]"''. This is now common enough in parts of [[England]] that, by 1997, the linguist [[John C. Wells]] considered it objectively part of [[Received Pronunciation]], though he noted that "the speech conscious often dislike it and disapprove of it".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/wells/rphappened.htm|title=Whatever happened to Received Pronunciation?|first=J.C.|last=Wells|date=2002-02-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410045613/https://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/wells/rphappened.htm|archive-date=2023-04-10|url-status=live}}</ref> It is or was stigmatised as an incorrect pronunciation in some other standardized non-rhotic accents, too. Wells writes that at least in RP, "linking {{IPA|/r/}} and intrusive {{IPA|/r/}} are distinct only historically and orthographically".<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Wells|1982|p=223}}</ref>

Just as with linking R, intrusive R may also occur between a root morpheme and certain [[suffix (linguistics)|suffixes]], such as ''draw(r)ing'', ''withdraw(r)al'', or ''[[Kafka]](r)esque''.

A rhotic speaker may use alternative strategies to prevent the [[Hiatus (linguistics)|hiatus]], such as the insertion of a [[glottal stop]] to clarify the boundary between the two words. Varieties that feature linking R but not intrusive R (that is, ''tuna oil'' is pronounced {{IPA|[ˈtjuːnə (ʔ)ɔɪl]}}), show a clear phonemic distinction between words with and without {{IPA|/r/}} in the syllable coda.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Gick|1999|p=32}}</ref>

[[Margaret Thatcher]] was nicknamed "Laura Norder" because of her references during her period of office to "law and order" with an intrusive /r/.<ref>Collins, B., & Mees, I. (2003). ''The Phonetics of English and Dutch'' (3rd ed.). Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.</ref>

==Prevalence==
{{More science citations needed|section|date=August 2019}}
A 2006 study at the [[University of Bergen]] examined the pronunciation of 30 British newsreaders on nationally broadcast newscasts around the turn of the 21st century speaking what was judged to be "mainstream RP". The data used in the study consisted mostly of the newsreaders reading from prepared scripts, but also included some more informal interview segments. It was found that all the newsreaders used some linking R and 90% (27 of 30) used some intrusive R.<ref name="Hannisdal">{{cite thesis |title=Variability and change in received pronunciation: a study of six phonological variables in the speech of television newsreaders |first=Bente Rebecca |last=Hannisdal |year=2006 |publisher=University of Bergen |chapter-url=https://bora.uib.no/bora-xmlui/bitstream/handle/1956/2335/Dr.Avh.Bente%20Hannisdal.pdf |pages=158–181 |chapter=R-sandhi}}</ref>

Overall, linking R was used in 59.8% of possible sites and intrusive R was used in 32.6% of possible sites. The factors influencing the use of both linking and intrusive R were found to be the same. Factors favouring the use of R-sandhi included adjacency to short words, adjacency to [[Function word|grammatical]] or otherwise non-lexical words, and informal style (interview rather than prepared script). Factors disfavouring the use of R-sandhi included adjacency to proper names; occurrence immediately before a stressed syllable; the presence of another /r/ in the vicinity; and more formal style (prepared script rather than interview). The following factors were proposed as accounting for the difference between the frequency of linking and intrusive R:{{r|Hannisdal}}
* overt stigmatization of intrusive R
* the speakers being professional newsreaders and thus, presumably, speech-conscious professionals
* the speakers (in most cases) reading from a written script, making the orthographic distinction between linking and intrusive R extremely salient
* the disparity between the large number of short grammatical words that end in possible linking R (e.g. "for", "or", "are", etc.) and the absence of such words that end in possible intrusive R.

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
*[[Diaeresis (diacritic)]]
*[[Hiatus (linguistics)]]
*[[Pausa]]
*[[Liaison (French)]]
*[[Sandhi]]
*[[R-colored vowel]]
*[[Movable nu]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=nb}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin|2}}
* {{cite journal
  | last         = Gick
  | first        = Bryan
  | year         = 1999
  | title        = A gesture-based account of intrusive consonants in English
  | journal      = Phonology
  | volume       = 16
  | issue        = 1
  | pages        = 29–54
  | url          = http://idiom.ucsd.edu/~bakovic/camba_files/phonoloblog/gick-intrusive-consonants-ph99.pdf
  | doi          = 10.1017/s0952675799003693
  | s2cid        = 61173209
  | url-status   = dead
  | archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20130412043850/http://idiom.ucsd.edu/~bakovic/camba_files/phonoloblog/gick-intrusive-consonants-ph99.pdf
  | archive-date = 2013-04-12
  }}
* {{cite book
  | last       = Gimson
  | first      = A.C.
  | year       = 1962
  | title      = An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English
  | url        = https://archive.org/details/introductiontopr0000gims
  | url-access = registration
  | place      = London
  | publisher  = Edward Arnold
  }}
* {{cite journal
  | last1   = Hartmann
  | first1  = D.
  | last2   = Zerbian
  | first2  = S.
  | year    = 2009
  | title   = Rhoticity in Black South African English – A sociolinguistic study
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  | issue   = 2
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  | doi     = 10.2989/salals.2009.27.2.2.865
  | s2cid   = 143375531
  }}
* {{cite book
  | first     = Hans Henrich
  | last      = Hock
  | year      = 2009
  | title     = Language History, Language Change, and Language Relationship: An Introduction to Historical and Comparative Linguistics
  | publisher = Mouton de Gruyter
  | isbn      = 978-3-11-021842-8
  }}
* {{cite book
  | last      = Jones
  | first     = Daniel
  | year      = 1966
  | title     = The Pronunciation of English
  | edition   = 4th
  | place     = Cambridge
  | publisher = Cambridge University Press
  }}
* {{cite book
  | last      = Kurath
  | first     = H.
  | year      = 1964
  | title     = A Phonology and Prosody of Modern English
  | place     = Heidelberg
  | publisher = Carl Winter
  }}
* {{cite journal
  | last    = Peters
  | first   = Robert
  | year    = 1996
  | title   = Early Modern English consonants
  | journal = Journal of English Linguistics
  | volume  = 24
  | pages   = 45–51
  | doi     = 10.1177/007542429602400104
  | s2cid   = 144814014
  }}
* {{cite journal
  | last1   = Trudgill
  | first1  = Peter
  | last2   = Gordon
  | first2  = Elizabeth
  | year    = 2006
  | title   = Predicting the past: Dialect archaeology and Australian English rhoticity
  | journal = English World-Wide
  | volume  = 27
  | issue   = 3
  | pages   = 235–246
  | doi     = 10.1075/eww.27.3.02tru
  }}
* {{cite journal
  | last    = Vennemann
  | first   = T.
  | year    = 1972
  | title   = Rule inversion
  | journal = Lingua
  | volume  = 29
  | pages   = 209–242
  | doi     = 10.1016/0024-3841(72)90025-3
  }}
* {{citation
  | last    = Wells
  | first   = J.C.
  | year    = 1970
  | title   = Local accents in England and Wales
  | journal = Journal of Linguistics
  | volume  = 6
  | issue   = 2
  | pages   = 231–252
  | doi     = 10.1017/S0022226700002632
  | s2cid   = 143523909
  }}
* {{cite book
  | last      = Wells
  | first     = J.C.
  | year      = 1982
  | title     = Accents of English 1: An Introduction
  | publisher = Cambridge University Press
  | isbn      = 0-521-29719-2
  | url       = https://books.google.com/books?id=UJQwf05yzqYC
  }}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|2}}
* {{cite book
  | last1        = Halle
  | first1       = Morris
  | author-link  = Morris Halle
  | last2        = Idsardi
  | first2       = William
  | editor-last  = Roca
  | editor-first = Iggy
  | year         = 1997
  | chapter      = r, hypercorrection, and the Elsewhere Condition
  | title        = Derivations and Constraints in phonology
  | place        = Oxford
  | publisher    = Oxford University Press
  | pages        = 331–348
  }}
* {{cite book
  | last    = Heselwood
  | first   = Barry
  | year    = 2006
  | chapter = Final schwa and R-sandhi in RP English
  | title   = Leeds Working Papers in Linguistics and Phonetics
  | volume  = 11
  | pages   = 78–95
  }}
* {{cite journal
  | last1   = Mompean
  | first1  = Jose A.
  | last2   = Mompean-Guillamón
  | first2  = Pilar
  | year    = 2009
  | title   = /r/-liaison in English: An empirical study
  | journal = Cognitive Linguistics
  | volume  = 20
  | issue   = 4
  | pages   = 733–776
  | doi     = 10.1515/cogl.2009.031
  | s2cid   = 146163838
  | url     = https://zenodo.org/record/894800
  }}
* {{cite journal
  | last       = Mompean
  | first      = Jose A.
  | year       = 2021
  | title      = /r/-sandhi in the speech of Queen Elisabeth II
  | journal    = Journal of the International Phonetic Association
  | volume     = 52
  | issue      = 2
  | pages      = 1–32
  | doi        = 10.1017/S0025100320000213
  | doi-access = free
  }}
* {{cite book
  | last      = Trudgill
  | first     = Peter
  | year      = 1986
  | title     = Dialects in Contact
  | place     = Oxford
  | publisher = Blackwell
  }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0SPArSawsGQ A century of "intrusive" R in English] — video by the British linguist [[Geoff Lindsey]]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mttg4EPZbDs The Intrusive /r/ and Linking /r/ - British English Pronunciation & Connected Speech]

{{LetterR}}

[[Category:English phonology]]
[[Category:Phonetics]]
[[Category:Phonotactics]]