View source for Lighthouse

{{Short description|Structure designed to emit light to aid navigation}}
{{Other uses}}

[[File:NJ LBI Lighthouse 04.JPG|thumb|300px|[[Barnegat Lighthouse]] at the coast of [[Ocean County]], [[New Jersey]], U.S., facing the [[Atlantic Ocean]] at [[sunrise]]]]
[[File:Roman Rock Lighthouse.webm|thumbnail|Aerial drone footage of the [[Roman Rock Lighthouse]] off the southern coast of South Africa.]]

A '''lighthouse''' is a tower, building, or other type of physical structure designed to emit light from a system of lamps and [[lens]]es and to serve as a [[beacon]] for [[navigational aid]] for [[maritime pilot]]s at sea or on inland waterways.

Lighthouses mark dangerous coastlines, hazardous [[shoal]]s, [[reef]]s, rocks, and safe entries to harbors; they also assist in [[aerial navigation]]. Once widely used, the number of operational lighthouses has declined due to the expense of maintenance and the advent of much cheaper, more sophisticated, and more effective electronic navigational systems.

==History==
{{Main|History of lighthouses}}

===Ancient lighthouses===
[[File:Torre de Hércules 2023.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|The [[Tower of Hercules]] lighthouse in north-western Spain]]

Before the development of clearly defined [[port]]s, mariners were guided by fires built on hilltops. Since elevating the fire would improve visibility, placing the fire on a platform became a practice that led to the development of the lighthouse.<ref>Trethewey, K. R.:Ancient Lighthouses, Jazz-Fusion Books (2018), 326pp. {{ISBN|978-0-99265-736-9}}</ref> In antiquity, the lighthouse functioned more as an entrance marker to ports than as a warning signal for [[reef]]s and [[promontory|promontories]], unlike many modern lighthouses. The most famous lighthouse structure from antiquity was the [[Lighthouse of Alexandria|Pharos]] of [[Alexandria]], [[Egypt]], which collapsed following a series of earthquakes between 956 and 1323.

The intact [[Tower of Hercules]] at [[A Coruña]], Spain gives insight into ancient lighthouse construction; other evidence about lighthouses exists in depictions on coins and mosaics, of which many represent the lighthouse at [[Ostia Antica (archaeological site)|Ostia]]. Coins from Alexandria, Ostia, and [[Latakia|Laodicea in Syria]] also exist.

===Modern construction===
The modern era of lighthouses began at the turn of the 18th century, as the number of lighthouses being constructed increased significantly due to much higher levels of [[Atlantic Ocean|transatlantic]] commerce. Advances in structural engineering and new and efficient lighting equipment allowed for the creation of larger and more powerful lighthouses, including ones exposed to the sea. The function of lighthouses was gradually changed from indicating ports to the providing of a visible warning against shipping hazards, such as rocks or reefs.

[[File:Edystone Winstanley lighthouse Smeaton 1813.jpg|thumb|Original [[Eddystone Lighthouse#Winstanley's Lighthouse|Winstanley lighthouse]], Eddystone Rock, by Jaaziell Johnston, 1813.]]
The [[Eddystone Rocks]] were a major shipwreck hazard for mariners sailing through the [[English Channel]].<ref name="smiles">{{citation|first=Samuel|last=Smiles|title=The Lives of the Engineers|year=1861|volume=2|page=16|url=https://archive.org/stream/livesofengineers02smil#page/16/mode/2up}}</ref> The [[Eddystone Lighthouse#Winstanley's lighthouse|first lighthouse built there]] was an octagonal wooden structure, anchored by 12 iron stanchions secured in the rock, and was built by [[Henry Winstanley]] from 1696 to 1698. His lighthouse was the first tower in the world to have been fully exposed to the open sea.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/340721/lighthouse/72148/The-beginning-of-the-modern-era|title=lighthouse|access-date=17 December 2012}}</ref>

The [[civil engineer]] [[John Smeaton]] rebuilt the [[Smeaton's Tower|lighthouse]] from 1756 to 1759;<ref name="MAJ">Majdalany, Fred: ''The Eddystone Light''. 1960</ref> his tower marked a major step forward in the design of lighthouses and remained in use until 1877. He modeled the shape of his lighthouse on that of an [[oak tree]], using [[granite]] blocks. He rediscovered and used "[[hydraulic lime]]", a form of [[concrete]] that will set under water used by the Romans, and developed a technique of securing the granite blocks together using [[dovetail joint]]s and marble [[dowels]].<ref name="TRI">{{cite web|url=http://www.trinityhouse.co.uk/interactive/gallery/eddystone.html |title=Eddystone – Gallery |publisher=Trinity House |access-date=3 May 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060909043743/http://www.trinityhouse.co.uk/interactive/gallery/eddystone.html |archive-date=9 September 2006 }}</ref> The dovetailing feature served to improve the [[structural stability]], although Smeaton also had to taper the thickness of the tower towards the top, for which he curved the tower inwards on a gentle gradient. This profile had the added advantage of allowing some of the energy of the waves to dissipate on impact with the walls. His lighthouse was the prototype for the modern lighthouse and influenced all subsequent engineers.<ref>{{cite book|title=Minutes of proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers|chapter=Note on the Eddystone Lighthouse|author=Douglass, James Nicholas|location=London|publisher=Institution of Civil Engineers|year=1878|volume=53, part 3|pages=247–248|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cx4AAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA247}}</ref>

[[File:Smeaton's Lighthouse00.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.1|[[John Smeaton]]'s rebuilt version of the [[Eddystone Lighthouse]], 1759. This represented a great step forward in lighthouse design.]]
One such influence was [[Robert Stevenson (civil engineer)|Robert Stevenson]], himself a seminal figure in the development of lighthouse design and construction.<ref name="NLB">{{cite web|url=http://www.nlb.org.uk/HistoricalInformation/StevensonEngineers/Robert-Stevenson/|title=NLB – Robert Stevenson|access-date=28 January 2013}}</ref> His greatest achievement was the construction of the [[Bell Rock Lighthouse]] in 1810, one of the most impressive feats of engineering of the age.{{Citation needed|date=May 2021}} This structure was based upon Smeaton's design, but with several improved features, such as the incorporation of rotating lights, alternating between red and white.<ref>{{citation|title=John Rennie, 1761–1821: The Life and Work of a Great Engineer|first=Cyril Thomas Goodman|last=Boucher|page=61|year=1963|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1wu8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA59}}</ref> Stevenson worked for the [[Northern Lighthouse Board]] for nearly fifty years<ref name="NLB" /> during which time he designed and oversaw the construction and later improvement of numerous lighthouses. He innovated in the choice of light sources, mountings, reflector design, the use of [[Fresnel lens]]es, and in rotation and shuttering systems providing lighthouses with individual signatures allowing them to be identified by seafarers. He also invented the movable jib and the balance-crane as a necessary part for lighthouse construction.
[[File:Marjaniemen majakka.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|[[Marjaniemi Lighthouse]], the 19th-century lighthouse in the [[Hailuoto]] island, neighbouring municipality of [[Oulu]], [[Finland]]]]
[[Alexander Mitchell (engineer)|Alexander Mitchell]] designed the first [[screw-pile lighthouse]] – his lighthouse was built on piles that were [[screw]]ed into the sandy or muddy seabed. Construction of his design began in 1838 at the mouth of the [[Thames]] and was known as the [[Maplin Sands]] lighthouse, and first lit in 1841.<ref name=Tomlinson>{{cite book|title=Tomlinson's Cyclopaedia of Useful Arts|year=1852–1854|publisher=Virtue & Co.|location=London|page=[https://archive.org/details/cyclopdiaofuse02tomlrich/page/177 177]|editor=Tomlinson|url=https://archive.org/details/cyclopdiaofuse02tomlrich|quote=[Maplin Sands] was not, however, the first screw-pile lighthouse actually erected, for during the long preparation process which was carried on at Maplin Sands, a structure of the same principle had been begun and completed at Port Fleetwood...}}</ref> Although its construction began later, the [[Wyre Light (Fleetwood)|Wyre Light]] in Fleetwood, Lancashire, was the first to be lit (in 1840).<ref name=Tomlinson />

===Lighting improvements===
Until 1782 the source of illumination had generally been wood pyres or burning coal. The [[Argand lamp]], invented in 1782 by the Swiss scientist [[Aimé Argand]] revolutionized lighthouse illumination with its steady smokeless flame. Early models used ground glass which was sometimes tinted around the wick. Later models used a [[Gas mantle|mantle]] of [[thorium dioxide]] suspended over the flame, creating a bright, steady light.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.johnmoncrieff.co.uk/shop-2/products.php?cat=32|title=Lamp Glass Replacement Glass Lamp Shades, Oil Lamp Shades, Oil Lamp Chimneys, Oil Lamp Spares|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106160403/http://www.johnmoncrieff.co.uk/shop-2/products.php?cat=32|archive-date=6 January 2014}}</ref> The Argand lamp used [[whale oil]], [[colza]], [[olive oil]]<ref>"Lamp." ''Encyclopædia Britannica: or, a dictionary of Arts, Science, and Miscellaneous Literature.''  6th ed. 1823 [https://books.google.com/books?id=T8wnAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22argand+lamp%22+%22olive+oil%22&pg=PA505 Web.] 5 December 2011</ref> or other [[vegetable oil]] as fuel, supplied by a [[gravity feed]] from a reservoir mounted above the burner. The lamp was first produced by [[Matthew Boulton]], in partnership with Argand, in 1784, and became the standard for lighthouses for over a century.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/technology/lighthouse/Modern-lighthouses#ref668277|title=Modern Lighthouses|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=4 August 2021}}</ref>

[[Souter Lighthouse]] was the first lighthouse to be built for the purpose of electric illumination in 1871.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Souter lighthouse |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-tyne-34307206}}</ref>

[[South Foreland Lighthouse]] was the first tower to successfully use an electric light in 1875. The lighthouse's carbon [[arc lamp]]s were powered by a steam-driven [[magneto (generator)|magneto]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Baird |first=Spencer Fullerton|title=Annual record of science and industry |publisher=Harper & Brothers|location=New York|year=1876|pages=460}}</ref> [[John Richardson Wigham]] was the first to develop a system for [[coal gas|gas]] illumination of lighthouses. His improved gas 'crocus' burner at the [[Baily Lighthouse]] in county Dublin, Ireland, near Dublin city was 13 times more powerful than the most brilliant light then known.<ref name=cil>{{cite journal| title=John Richardson Wigham 1829–1906 | url=http://www.commissionersofirishlights.com/media/35546/Beam_2006.PDF#page=23 | publisher=Commissioners of Irish Lights | journal=BEAM | volume=35 | date=2006–2007 | pages=21–22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312014229/http://www.commissionersofirishlights.com/media/35546/Beam_2006.PDF|archive-date=12 March 2012}}</ref>
[[File:Sumburgh Lighthouse Lamp.jpg|thumb|An {{convert|85|mm|in}} Chance Brothers ''Incandescent Petroleum Vapour Installation'' which produced the light for the [[Sumburgh Head]] lighthouse until 1976. <!-- All text in this caption after this comment should be put somewhere in the article body instead. -->The lamp (made in approx. 1914) burned vaporized [[kerosene]] (paraffin); the vaporizer was heated by a [[denatured alcohol]] (methylated spirit) burner to light. When lit, some of the vaporised fuel was diverted to a [[Bunsen burner]] to keep the vaporizer warm and the fuel in vapor form. The fuel was forced up to the lamp by air; the keepers had to pump the air container up every hour or so, pressurizing the paraffin container to force the fuel to the lamp. The "white sock" pictured is  an unburnt mantle on which the vapor burned.]]
The vaporized oil burner was invented in 1901 by [[Arthur Kitson]], and improved by David Hood at [[Trinity House]]. The fuel was vaporized at high pressure and burned to heat the mantle, giving an output of over six times the luminosity of traditional oil lights.{{cn|date=December 2024}} The use of gas as illuminant became widely available with the invention of the [[Dalén light]] by Swedish engineer [[Gustaf Dalén]]. He used [[Agamassan]] (Aga), a [[Substrate (materials science)|substrate]], to absorb the gas, allowing the gas to be stored, and hence used, safely. Dalén also invented the '[[sun valve]]', which automatically regulated the light and turned it off during the daytime.{{Citation needed paragraph|date=May 2021}} The technology was the predominant light source in lighthouses from the 1900s to the 1960s, when electric lighting had become dominant.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aga.com/web/web2000/com/WPPcom.nsf/pages/History_SunValve|title=The Linde Group - Gases Engineering Healthcare -|access-date=6 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018000926/http://www.aga.com/web/web2000/com/WPPcom.nsf/pages/History_SunValve|archive-date=18 October 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Optical systems===
[[File:Fresnel lighthouse lens diagram.png|thumb|right|Diagram depicting how a spherical [[Fresnel lens]] collimates light]]
With the development of the steady illumination of the Argand lamp, the application of optical lenses to increase and focus the light intensity became a practical possibility. [[William Hutchinson (privateer)|William Hutchinson]] developed the first practical optical system in 1777, known as a [[catoptrics|catoptric]] system.<ref>{{cite web | title=Illumination, Refraction, Fresnel Lens | website=Encyclopedia Britannica | date=9 October 1998 | url=https://www.britannica.com/technology/lighthouse/Optical-equipment#ref593050 | access-date=2 June 2024}}</ref> This rudimentary system effectively collimated the emitted light into a concentrated beam, thereby greatly increasing the light's visibility.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/340721/lighthouse/72152/Oil-lamps|title=Lighthouse|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=6 January 2014}}</ref> The ability to focus the light led to the first revolving lighthouse beams, where the light would appear to the mariners as a series of intermittent flashes. It also became possible to transmit complex signals using the light flashes.

French physicist and engineer [[Augustin-Jean Fresnel]] developed the multi-part [[Fresnel lens]] for use in lighthouses. His design allowed for the construction of lenses of large [[aperture]] and short [[focal length]], without the mass and volume of material that would be required by a lens of conventional design. A Fresnel lens can be made much thinner than a comparable conventional lens, in some cases taking the form of a flat sheet. A Fresnel lens can also capture more oblique light from a light source, thus allowing the light from a lighthouse equipped with one to be visible over greater distances.

The first Fresnel lens was used in 1823 in the [[Cordouan lighthouse]] at the mouth of the [[Gironde estuary]]; its light could be seen from more than {{convert|20|mi|km}} out.<ref>Watson, Bruce. "Science Makes a Better Lighthouse Lens." ''Smithsonian''. August 1999 v30 i5 p30.
produced in ''Biography Resource Center''. Farmington Hills, Mich.: Thomson Gale. 2005.</ref> Fresnel's invention increased the [[luminosity]] of the lighthouse lamp by a factor of four and his system is still in common use.

===Modern lighthouses===
The introduction of electrification and [[automatic lamp changer]]s began to make [[lighthouse keeper]]s obsolete. For many years, lighthouses still had keepers, partly because lighthouse keepers could serve as a [[emergency service|rescue service]], if necessary. Improvements in maritime navigation and safety, such [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS), led to the phasing out of non-automated lighthouses across the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/history/maritime/keep/keep19th.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070915095022/http://www.nps.gov/history/maritime/keep/keep19th.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 15, 2007|title=Maritime Heritage Program - National Park Service|access-date=6 April 2017}}</ref> Although several closed due to safety concerns, Canada still maintains 51 staffed lighthouses, split roughly evenly across east and west coasts, including [[Machias Seal Island]] which is staffed to assert Canadian sovereignty.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Government of Canada |first=Fisheries and Oceans Canada |date=2024-10-09 |title=Lighthouses in Canada |url=https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/otw-am/lighthouses-phares/canada-eng.html |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fogwhistle.ca/bclights|title=Lighthouses of British Columbia|access-date=3 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111103070010/http://www.fogwhistle.ca/bclights/|archive-date=3 November 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=31 July 2024 |title=Staffing at 2 B.C. lighthouses to end following safety concerns |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/lighthouses-vancouver-island-coast-not-staffed-1.7281513 |access-date=13 November 2024 |work=[[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]]}}</ref>

The remaining modern lighthouses are usually illuminated by a single stationary flashing light powered by solar-charged batteries and mounted on a steel skeleton tower.<ref name="Crompton"/> Where the power requirement is too great for solar power alone, ''cycle charging'' of the battery by a Diesel generator is provided. The generator only comes into use when the battery needs charging, saving fuel and increasing periods between maintenance.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nicholson |first1=Christopher |title=Rock lighthouses of Britain: The end of an era? |date=2000 |publisher=Whittles |location=Caithness, Scotland |isbn=978-1870325417 |page=126}}</ref>

===Famous lighthouse builders===
[[John Smeaton]] is noteworthy for having designed the third and most famous [[Eddystone Lighthouse]], but some builders are well known for their work in building multiple lighthouses. The Stevenson family ([[Robert Stevenson (civil engineer)|Robert]], [[Alan Stevenson|Alan]], [[David Stevenson (engineer)|David]], [[Thomas Stevenson|Thomas]], [[David Alan Stevenson|David Alan]], and [[Charles Alexander Stevenson|Charles]]) made lighthouse building a three-generation profession in Scotland. 
[[Richard Henry Brunton]] designed and built 26 [[Template:Lighthouses of Japan|Japanese lighthouses]] in [[Meiji era]] Japan, which became known as Brunton's "children".<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.icevirtuallibrary.com/doi/abs/10.1680/imotp.1901.18577 |title=Obituary - Richard Henry Brunton | work=Minutes of the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers |volume=145 |issue=1901 |year=1901 |pages=340–341 |doi=10.1680/imotp.1901.18577 |access-date=20 April 2018}}</ref> Blind Irishman [[Alexander Mitchell (engineer)|Alexander Mitchell]] invented and built a number of screw-pile lighthouses. Englishman [[James Nicholas Douglass|James Douglass]] was knighted for his work on the fourth Eddystone Lighthouse.<ref>{{cite DNBSupp|title=Douglass, James Nicholas |first=Thomas Hudson|last=Beare}}</ref>

[[United States Army Corps of Engineers]] Lieutenant [[George Meade]] built numerous lighthouses along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts before gaining wider fame as the winning general at the [[Battle of Gettysburg]].  Colonel [[Orlando M. Poe]], engineer to [[General William Tecumseh Sherman]] in the siege of Atlanta, designed and built some of the most exotic lighthouses in the most difficult locations on the U.S. [[Great Lakes]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/history/maritime/keep/architect.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120805090033/http://www.nps.gov/history/maritime/keep/architect.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=August 5, 2012|title=Maritime Heritage Program - National Park Service|access-date=6 April 2017}}</ref>

French merchant navy officer [[Marius Michel Pasha]] built almost a hundred lighthouses along the coasts of the [[Ottoman Empire]] in a period of twenty years after the [[Crimean War]] (1853–1856).<ref name="hnet">{{cite web |url=http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=11049 |publisher=Humanities and Social Sciences Net Online |title=Review of Thobie, Jacques, L'administration generale des phares de l'Empire ottoman et la societe Collas et Michel, 1860–1960. H-Mediterranean, H-Net Reviews. January, 2006 | author=Guigueno, Vincent |date=January 2006 |access-date=20 September 2010}}</ref>

==Technology==

In a lighthouse, the source of light is called the "lamp" (whether electric or fuelled by oil) and the light is concentrated, if needed, by the "lens" or "optic". Power sources for lighthouses in the 20th–21st centuries vary.

===Power===
Originally lit by open fires and later candles, the [[Argand lamp|Argand hollow wick lamp]] and [[parabolic reflector]] were introduced in the late 18th century.

[[Whale oil]] was also used with wicks as the source of light. [[Kerosene]] became popular in the 1870s and electricity and [[acetylene]] gas derived on-site from [[calcium carbide]] began replacing kerosene around the turn of the 20th century.<ref name="Crompton"/> Carbide was promoted by the [[Dalén light]], which automatically lit the lamp at nightfall and extinguished it at dawn.

In the second half of the 20th century, many remote lighthouses in [[Russia]] (then [[Soviet Union]]) were powered by [[radioisotope thermoelectric generator]]s (RTGs). These had the advantage of providing power day or night and did not need refuelling or maintenance. However, after the collapse of the Soviet government in 1990s, most of the official records on the locations, and condition, of these lighthouses were reportedly lost.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bellona.org/english_import_area/international/russia/nuke-weapons/nonproliferation/28067|title=Nuclear lighthouses to be replaced - Bellona|date=June 23, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110623055427/http://www.bellona.org/english_import_area/international/russia/nuke-weapons/nonproliferation/28067 |archive-date=2011-06-23 }}</ref> Over time, the condition of RTGs in Russia degraded; many of them fell victim to vandalism and scrap metal thieves, who may not have been aware of the dangerous radioactive contents.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bellona.no/bellona.org/english_import_area/international/russia/navy/northern_fleet/incidents/37598|title=Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators - Bellona|date=March 15, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110315151209/http://www.bellona.no/bellona.org/english_import_area/international/russia/navy/northern_fleet/incidents/37598 |archive-date=2011-03-15 }}</ref>

Energy-efficient LED lights can be powered by [[solar panel]]s, with batteries instead of a Diesel generator for backup.<ref name=baraniuk/>

===Light source===
Many Fresnel lens installations have been replaced by rotating [[aerobeacon]]s, which require less maintenance.

In modern automated lighthouses, the system of rotating lenses is often replaced by a high intensity light that emits brief omnidirectional flashes, concentrating the light in time rather than direction. These lights are similar to obstruction lights used to warn aircraft of tall structures. Later innovations were "Vega Lights", and experiments with [[light-emitting diode]] (LED) panels.<ref name="Crompton"/>

LED lights, which use less energy and are easier to maintain, had come into widespread use by 2020. In the United Kingdom and Ireland about a third of lighthouses had been converted from filament light sources to use LEDs, and conversion continued with about three per year. The light sources are designed to replicate the colour and character of the traditional light as closely as possible. The change is often not noticed by people in the region, but sometimes a proposed change leads to calls to preserve the traditional light, including in some cases a rotating beam. A typical LED system designed to fit into the traditional 19th century Fresnel lens enclosure was developed by Trinity House and two other lighthouse authorities and costs about [[Euro|€]]20,000, depending on configuration, according to a supplier; it has large fins to dissipate heat. Lifetime of the LED light source is 50,000 to 100,000 hours, compared to about 1,000 hours for a filament source.<ref name="baraniuk">{{Cite web|author=Baraniuk|first=Chris|date=15 September 2020|title=When changing a light bulb is a really big deal|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-53756582|url-status=live|website=BBC News|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230619143546/https://www.bbc.com/news/business-53756582|archive-date=Jun 19, 2023}}</ref>

====Laser light====
[[File:Point Danger lighthouse.jpg|thumb|upright 0.6|[[Point Danger Light|Point Danger lighthouse]], [[Queensland]], 1971]]
Experimental installations of [[laser]] lights, either at high power to provide a "line of light" in the sky or, utilising low power, aimed towards mariners have identified problems of increased complexity in installation and maintenance, and high power requirements. The first practical installation, in 1971 at [[Point Danger Light|Point Danger lighthouse]], [[Queensland]], was replaced by a conventional light after four years, because the beam was too narrow to be seen easily.<ref>{{cite web |title=Point Danger Lighthouse |url=https://lighthouses.org.au/qld/point-danger-lighthouse/ |publisher=Lighthouses of Australia Inc. |access-date=11 August 2020 |language=en-AU |date=26 January 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Lasers |journal=Aids to Navigation Manual |date=March 2010 |page=43 |publisher=[[International Association of Marine Aids to Navigation and Lighthouse Authorities]] |location=St Germain en Laye, France}}</ref>

====Light characteristics====
{{see also|Light characteristic}}
In any of these designs an observer, rather than seeing a continuous weak light, sees a brighter light during short time intervals. These instants of bright light are arranged to create a [[light characteristic]] or pattern specific to a lighthouse.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Aids To Navigation Abbreviations |url=http://www.uscgboating.org/safety/aton/abbreviations.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080925160404/http://www.uscgboating.org/safety/aton/abbreviations.htm |archive-date=September 25, 2008}}</ref> For example, the [[Scheveningen Lighthouse]] flashes are alternately 2.5 and 7.5&nbsp;seconds. Some lights have sectors of a particular color (usually formed by colored panes in the lantern) to distinguish safe water areas from dangerous shoals. Modern lighthouses often have unique reflectors or [[Radar beacon|racon transponders]] so the radar signature of the light is also unique.

===Lens===
{{see also|Fresnel lens}}
[[File:Cape Meares Lighthouse lens - Oregon.jpg|thumb|[[Cape Meares Lighthouse]] in Oregon; first-order Fresnel lens]]
Before modern [[strobe light]]s, [[Lens (optics)|lenses]] were used to concentrate the light from a continuous source.  Vertical light rays of the lamp are redirected into a horizontal plane, and horizontally the light is focused into one or a few directions at a time, with the [[light beam]] swept around. As a result, in addition to seeing the side of the light beam, the light is directly visible from greater distances, and with an identifying [[light characteristic]].

This concentration of light is accomplished with a rotating lens assembly. In early lighthouses, the light source was a [[kerosene lamp]] or, earlier, an animal or vegetable oil Argand lamp, and the lenses rotated by a weight driven clockwork assembly wound by lighthouse keepers, sometimes as often as every two hours. The lens assembly sometimes floated in [[mercury (element)|liquid mercury]] to reduce friction.  In more modern lighthouses, electric lights and motor drives were used, generally powered by diesel electric generators. These also supplied electricity for the lighthouse keepers.<ref name="Crompton"/>

Efficiently concentrating the light from a large omnidirectional light source requires a very large diameter lens. This would require a very thick and heavy lens if a conventional lens were used.  The [[Fresnel lens]] (pronounced {{IPAc-en|f|r|eɪ|ˈ|n|ɛ|l}}) focused 85% of a lamp's light versus the 20% focused with the parabolic reflectors of the time. Its design enabled construction of lenses of large size and short focal length without the weight and volume of material in conventional lens designs.<ref name=mhp/>

Fresnel lighthouse lenses are ranked by <!-- "order" should be linked somewhere useful -->''order'', a measure of refracting power, with a first order lens being the largest, most powerful and expensive; and a sixth order lens being the smallest.  The order is based on the focal length of the lens. A first order lens has the longest focal length, with the sixth being the shortest. Coastal lighthouses generally use first, second, or third order lenses, while harbor lights and beacons use fourth, fifth, or sixth order lenses.<ref name="nps"/>

Some lighthouses, such as those at [[Cape Race Lighthouse|Cape Race]], Newfoundland, and [[Makapuu Point Light|Makapuu Point]], Hawaii, used a more powerful [[hyperradiant Fresnel lens]] manufactured by the firm of [[Chance Brothers]].

==Building==
===Components===
[[File:Lighthouse lantern room with Fresnel lens.png|thumb|Lighthouse lantern room from mid-1800s]]

While lighthouse buildings differ depending on the location and purpose, they tend to have common components.

A light station comprises the lighthouse tower and all outbuildings, such as the keeper's living quarters, fuel house, boathouse, and [[Foghorn|fog-signaling]] building. The Lighthouse itself consists of a tower structure supporting the lantern room where the light operates.

The lantern room is the glassed-in housing at the top of a lighthouse tower containing the lamp and lens. Its glass storm panes are supported by metal [[muntin]]s (glazing bars) running vertically or diagonally. At the top of the lantern room is a stormproof ventilator designed to remove the smoke of the lamps and the heat that builds in the glass enclosure. A [[lightning rod]] and grounding system connected to the metal cupola roof provides a safe conduit for any lightning strikes.

Immediately beneath the lantern room is usually a Watch Room or Service Room where fuel and other supplies were kept and where the keeper prepared the lanterns for the night and often stood watch. The clockworks (for rotating the lenses) were also located there. On a lighthouse tower, an open platform called the gallery is often located outside the watch room (called the Main Gallery) or Lantern Room (Lantern Gallery). This was mainly used for cleaning the outside of the windows of the Lantern Room.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nps.gov/history/maritime/ltcomp.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703130301/http://www.nps.gov/history/maritime/ltcomp.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=July 3, 2007 |title=Light Station Components |publisher=nps.gov }}</ref>

Lighthouses near to each other that are similar in shape are often painted in a unique pattern so they can easily be recognized during daylight, a marking known as a [[daymark]]. The black and white barber pole spiral pattern of [[Cape Hatteras Lighthouse]] is one example. [[Race Rocks Light]] in western Canada is painted in horizontal black and white bands to stand out against the horizon.

===Design===

For effectiveness, the lamp must be high enough to be seen before the danger is reached by a mariner. The minimum height is calculated by trigonometry (see [[Horizon#Distance to the horizon|Distance to the horizon]]) as <math alt="D is 1.22 times the square root of H"> D = 1.22 \sqrt {H} </math>, where ''H'' is the height above water in feet, and ''D'' is the distance from the lighthouse to the horizon in nautical miles, the '''lighthouse range'''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How to Calculate the Distance to the Horizon |url=https://www.boatsafe.com/calculate-distance-horizon/}}</ref>

Where dangerous shoals are located far off a flat sandy beach, the prototypical tall masonry coastal lighthouse is constructed to assist the navigator making a landfall after an ocean crossing.  Often these are cylindrical to reduce the effect of wind on a tall structure, such as [[Cape May Light]]. Smaller versions of this design are often used as harbor lights to mark the entrance into a harbor, such as [[New London Harbor Light]].

Where a tall cliff exists, a smaller structure may be placed on top such as at [[Horton Point Light]]. Sometimes, such a location can be too high, for example<!-- Should this be "too high; for example,"? --> along the west coast of the United States, where frequent low clouds can obscure the light. In these cases, lighthouses are placed below the clifftop to ensure that they can still be seen at the surface during periods of fog or low clouds, as at [[Point Reyes Lighthouse]]. Another example is in [[San Diego]], [[California]]: the [[Old Point Loma lighthouse]] was too high up and often obscured by fog, so it was replaced in 1891 with a lower lighthouse, [[New Point Loma lighthouse]].{{Citation needed paragraph|date=May 2021}}

As technology advanced, prefabricated skeletal iron or steel structures tended to be used for lighthouses constructed in the 20th century. These often have a narrow cylindrical core surrounded by an open lattice work bracing, such as [[Finns Point Range Light]].

Sometimes a lighthouse needs to be constructed in the water itself.  Wave-washed lighthouses are masonry structures constructed to withstand water impact, such as [[Eddystone Lighthouse]] in Britain and the [[St. George Reef Light]] of California.  In shallower bays, [[Screw-pile lighthouse]] ironwork structures are screwed into the seabed and a low wooden structure is placed above the open framework, such as [[Thomas Point Shoal Lighthouse]]. As screw piles can be disrupted by ice, steel caisson lighthouses such as [[Orient Point Light]] are used in cold climates.  [[Orient Long Beach Bar Light]] (Bug Light) is a blend of a screw pile light that was converted to a caisson light because of the threat of ice damage.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/history/maritime/constype/constype.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703164106/http://www.nps.gov/history/maritime/constype/constype.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 3, 2007|title=Maritime Heritage Program - National Park Service|access-date=6 April 2017}}</ref> Skeletal iron towers with screw-pile foundations were built on the [[Florida Reef#Shipwrecks and lighthouses|Florida Reef]] along the Florida Keys, beginning with the [[Carysfort Reef Light]] in 1852.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dean|first=Love|title=Reef Lights|publisher=The Historic Key West Preservation Board|year=1982|isbn=0-943528-03-8|location=Key West, Florida}}</ref>

In waters too deep for a conventional structure, a [[Lightvessel|lightship]] might be used instead of a lighthouse, such as the former [[United States lightship Columbia (WLV-604)|lightship ''Columbia'']].  Most of these have now been replaced by fixed light platforms (such as [[Ambrose Light]]) similar to those used for offshore [[oil exploration]].<ref name="nps">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/maritime/index.htm|title=Maritime Heritage Program &#124; National Park Service|website=www.nps.gov}}</ref>

===Range lights===
{{main|Range lights}}
[[File:Margaree Harbour Range Lights.jpg|right|thumb|Range Lights in [[Margaree Harbour, Nova Scotia]]. When a vessel is on the correct course, the two lights align one above the other.]]
Aligning two fixed points on land provides a navigator with a [[line of position]] called a range in North America and a [[navigational transit|transit]] in Britain. Ranges can be used to precisely align a vessel within a narrow channel such as a river. With landmarks of a range illuminated with a set of fixed lighthouses, nighttime navigation is possible.

Such paired lighthouses are called [[Leading lights|range lights]] in North America and [[leading lights]] in the United Kingdom. The closer light is referred to as the beacon or front range; the further light is called the rear range. The rear range light is almost always taller than the front.

When a vessel is on the correct course, the two lights align vertically, but when the observer is out of position, the difference in alignment indicates the direction of travel to correct the course.

===Location===
[[File:Faro Les Éclaireurs, Ushuaia 11.JPG|thumb|The [[Les Eclaireurs Lighthouse]] in [[Ushuaia]], [[Argentina]].]]
[[File:Kapu Beach Lighthouse .jpg|thumb|[[Kapu, Karnataka|Lighthouse]] located on a higher mound in India<!-- Replace caption with location and name of lighthouse -->]]
[[File:Europa Point Lighthouse.jpg|thumb|Lighthouse at [[Europa Point]], [[Gibraltar]]]]
There are two types of lighthouses: ones that are located on land, and ones that are offshore. <!-- A ''land lighthouse'' is simply a lighthouse constructed to aid navigation over land, rather than water. Historically, they were constructed in areas of flatland where the featureless landscape and prevailing weather conditions (e.g. winter [[fog]]) might cause travelers to become easily disorientated and lost. In such a landscape a high tower with a bright lantern could be visible for many miles.

One example of such a structure is [[Dunston Pillar]], an 18th-century tower built to help travelers crossing the [[heathland]] of mid-[[Lincolnshire]] and to lessen the danger to them from [[highwayman|highwaymen]]. Due to general improvements in transport and navigation throughout the 19th century, land lighthouses became almost totally obsolete as aids to travelers in remote places. In 1940, Dunston Pillar was truncated by 40 feet to preserve low-flying RAF planes.

NOTE: These two paragraphs are unsourced and very misleading. Many, if not most, lighthouses erected to warn watercraft of hazards are built on land. Lighthouses intended to aid navigation on land appear to be very rare. The Dunston Pillar may be unique. -->

''Offshore Lighthouses'' are lighthouses that are not close to land.<ref name="SeaGirt">{{Citation | title     = Lighthouse Terminology Part 2 | work     = Sea Girt Lighthouse | url     = http://www.seagirtlighthouse.com/page/Lighthouse-Terminology-Part-2.aspx | postscript     = . | quote     = A lighthouse located offshore, built on a foundation of pilings, rocks or caissons. | access-date     = 15 February 2013 | archive-date     = 4 April 2013 | archive-url     = https://web.archive.org/web/20130404003030/http://www.seagirtlighthouse.com/page/Lighthouse-Terminology-Part-2.aspx | url-status     = dead }}</ref> There can be a number of reasons for these lighthouses to be built. Offshore lighthouses are commonly used to project sovereignty or territorial assertions over maritime claims, often having manifested as early public services and state building.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Miller |first=Allen S. |date=2010 |title="The Lighthouse Top I See": Lighthouses as Instruments and Manifestations of State Building in the Early Republic |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20839333 |journal=Buildings & Landscapes: Journal of the Vernacular Architecture Forum |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=13–34 |issn=1936-0886}}</ref> Examples of such lighthouses include the [[Raffles Lighthouse]] which asserts Singapore's southern maritime claims, the [[Subi Reef]] lighthouse which asserts the disputed Chinese claim over the South China Seas, and [[Machias Seal Island]] lighthouse which affirms Canada's disputed claim in its boundary dispute with the United States of America in the Gulf of Maine and the Bay of Fundy. There can be a [[shoal]], [[reef]] or submerged [[island]] several miles from land.

The current [[Cordouan Lighthouse]] was completed in 1611, {{convert|7|km|mi}} from the shore on a small islet, but was built on a previous lighthouse that can be traced back to the 880s and is the oldest surviving lighthouse in [[France]]. It is connected to the mainland by a causeway. The oldest surviving oceanic offshore lighthouse is [[Bell Rock Lighthouse]] in the [[North Sea]], off the coast of [[Scotland]].<ref name="Cadbury2012">{{Citation | last1     = Cadbury | first1    = Deborah | title     = Seven Wonders of the Industrial World | edition   = Text only | publisher = HarperCollins UK | page      = 106 | year      = 2012 | isbn      = 978-0007388929 | url       = https://books.google.com/books?id=KHhkY0XVXFwC&pg=PA106 | postscript= .}}</ref>

==Maintenance==
{{see also|Lighthouse keeper}}

===Asia and Oceania===
In [[Australia]], lighthouses are conducted by the [[Australian Maritime Safety Authority]].

In [[India]], lighthouses are maintained by the Directorate General of Lighthouses and Lightships, an office of the [[Ministry of Ports, Shipping and Waterways]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dgll.nic.in/WriteReadData/Publication/Publication_Pdf_File/LighthousesofIndia(2).pdf|title =Indian Lighthouses - An Overview|access-date=27 November 2019 |publisher=Directorate General of Lighthouses and Lightships|author =R.K. Bhanti}}</ref>
===Europe===
The former Soviet government built a number of automated lighthouses powered by [[radioisotope thermoelectric generator]]s in remote locations in northern Russia. They operated for long periods without external support with great reliability.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.atomicinsights.com/sep96/materials.html|title=RTG Heat Sources: Two Proven Materials - Atomic Insights|date=1 September 1996|access-date=6 April 2017}}</ref> However, numerous installations deteriorated, were stolen, or vandalized. Some cannot be found due to poor record-keeping.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators – Bellona<!-- Bot generated title --> |url=http://www.bellona.no/en/international/russia/navy/northern_fleet/incidents/37598.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060613062909/http://bellona.no/en/international/russia/navy/northern_fleet/incidents/37598.html |archive-date=June 13, 2006}}</ref>

The [[United Kingdom]] and the [[Republic of Ireland]] together have three bodies: lighthouses around the coasts of England and Wales are looked after by [[Trinity House]], those around Scotland and the Isle of Man by the [[Northern Lighthouse Board]] and those around Ireland by the [[Commissioners of Irish Lights]].

===North America===
In Canada, lighthouses are managed by the [[Canadian Coast Guard]].

In the United States, lighthouses are maintained by the [[United States Coast Guard]], into which the [[United States Lighthouse Service]] was merged in 1939.<ref name="nps"/>
==Preservation==
As lighthouses became less essential to navigation, many of their historic structures faced demolition or neglect. In the United States, the [[National Historic Lighthouse Preservation Act]] of 2000 provides for the transfer of lighthouse structures to local governments and private non-profit groups, while the USCG continues to maintain the lamps and lenses. In Canada, the [[Nova Scotia Lighthouse Preservation Society]] won heritage status for [[Sambro Island Lighthouse]], and sponsored the [[Heritage Lighthouse Protection Act]] to change Canadian federal laws to protect lighthouses.<ref>{{cite web
 |url         = http://www.heritagecanada.org/eng/featured/current.html
 |title       = Lighthouse Bill Protecting Our Lighthouses&nbsp;– The Icons of Canada's Maritime Heritage
 |publisher   = Canadian Heritage Foundation
 |work        = Featured Heritage Buildings
 |author      = Douglas Franklin
 |access-date  = 10 June 2008
 |url-status     = dead
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20080513182532/http://www.heritagecanada.org/eng/featured/current.html
 |archive-date = 13 May 2008
}}</ref>

Many groups formed to restore and save lighthouses around the world, including the [[World Lighthouse Society]] and the [[United States Lighthouse Society]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://uslhs.org/|title=Home &#124; United States Lighthouse Society|website=uslhs.org}}</ref> as well as the [[Amateur Radio Lighthouse Society]], which sends amateur radio operators to publicize the preservation of remote lighthouses throughout the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://arlhs.com/|title=Amateur Radio Lighthouse Society – Contacting the Light Beacons of the World|access-date=6 April 2017}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Oceans}}
*[[Marine navigation]]
*[[Aviation obstruction lighting]]
*[[Crib lighthouse]]
*[[Day beacon]]
*[[Foghorn]]
*[[Fresnel lens#Lighthouse lens sizes|Fresnel lens sizes (orders)]]
*[[Lens lantern]]
*[[Lighthouse keeper]]
*[[Lists of lighthouses]]
*[[Lists of lightvessels]]
*[[Pharology]]
*[[Pintsch gas]]
*[[Sea mark]]

==References==
;Notes
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="Crompton">Crompton & Rhein (2002)</ref>
<ref name=mhp>{{cite web
 | url = https://www.nps.gov/history/maritime/light/admin.htm
 | title = Lighthouses: An Administrative History
 | work = Maritime Heritage Program&nbsp;– Lighthouse Heritage
 | publisher = U.S. National Park Service
 | access-date = 10 June 2008
}}</ref>
}}

;Bibliography
* Bathurst, Bella. ''The lighthouse Stevensons''. New York: Perennial, 2000. {{ISBN|0-06-093226-0}}
* Beaver, Patrick. ''A History of Lighthouses''. London: Peter Davies Ltd, 1971. {{ISBN|0-432-01290-7}}.
* Crompton, Samuel, W; Rhein, Michael, J. ''The Ultimate Book of Lighthouses''. San Diego, CA: Thunder Bay Press, 2002. {{ISBN|1-59223-102-0}}.
* Jones, Ray; Roberts, Bruce. ''American Lighthouses''. Globe Pequot, 1998. 1st ed. {{ISBN|0-7627-0324-5}}.
* Stevenson, D. Alan. ''The world's lighthouses before 1820''. London: [[Oxford University Press]], 1959.

== Further reading ==
* Noble, Dennis. ''Lighthouses & Keepers: U. S. Lighthouse Service and Its Legacy''. Annapolis: U.S. Naval Institute Press, 1997. {{ISBN|1-55750-638-8}}.
* Putnam, George R. ''Lighthouses and Lightships of the United States''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1933.
* Rawlings, William. 2021. ''Lighthouses of the Georgia Coast.''  Macon, GA: Mercer University Press.
* Weiss, George. ''The Lighthouse Service, Its History, Activities and Organization''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1926.

==External links==
{{Wikiquote|Lighthouses}}
{{Wiktionary|lighthouse}}
{{Commons}}
{{Wikivoyage|Lighthouses}}
*[http://unitedstateslighthouses.com United States Lighthouses]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=sygDAAAAMBAJ&dq=Popular+Science+1931+plane&pg=PA66 "Lighthouses Of Strange Designs, December 1930, Popular Science]
*{{cite rowlett|index}} Research tool with details of over 14,700 lighthouses and navigation lights around the world with photos and links.
*Pharology Website: [http://www.pharology.eu Pharology: The Study of Lighthouses] . Reference source for the history and development of lighthouses of the world.
*{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Lighthouse |volume=16 |pages=627–651 |first1=W. T. |last1=Douglass |first2=N. G. |last2=Gedye |short=1}} Includes 54 diagrams and photographs.

{{Lighthouses}}
{{Lightvessels}}

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