View source for Lend-Lease

{{short description|WWII program to provide U.S. allies with free armaments}}
{{About|the World War II program|the Australian company|Lendlease|the Act of Congress in 2022|Ukraine Democracy Defense Lend-Lease Act of 2022}}
{{Use American English|date=June 2025}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2019}}
{{Infobox U.S. legislation
| name = Lend-Lease Act
| othershorttitles = An Act to Promote the Defense of the United States
| fullname = An Act further to promote the defense of the United States, and for other purposes.
| nickname = Lend-Lease
| enacted by = 77th
| effective date = March 11, 1941
| cite public law = {{USPL|77|11}}
| cite statutes at large = {{USStat|55|31}}
| introducedin = House
| introducedbill = H.R. 1776
| introducedby = [[John W. McCormack]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|D]]–[[Massachusetts (state)|MA]])
| introduceddate = January 10, 1941
| committees = [[United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs|House Committee on Foreign Affairs]]
| passedbody1 = House
| passedvote1 = [https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/77-1941/h6 260–135]
| passeddate1 = February 8, 1941
| passeddate2 = March 8, 1941
| passedbody2 = Senate
| passedvote2 = [https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/77-1941/s19 60–31]
| signedpresident = [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]
| signeddate = March 11, 1941
}}
[[File:President Franklin D. Roosevelt-1941.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Franklin D. Roosevelt|President Roosevelt]] signs the Lend-Lease bill to give aid to Britain and China (March 1941).]]
[[File:Ww2-lend-lease-bill-hr-1776-l.jpg|thumb|[[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] bill # 1776, p.1]]
'''Lend-Lease''', formally the '''Lend-Lease Act''' and introduced as '''An Act to Promote the Defense of the United States''' ({{USStatute|77|11|55|31|1941|3|11|H.R.|1776}}),<ref>{{cite book| author1= Ebbert, Jean |author2=Hall, Marie-Beth |author3=Beach, Edward Latimer | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=hUoIaQqipboC&pg=PA28 | title= Crossed Currents| page= 28| isbn= 9781574881936 | year= 1999 |publisher=Brassey's }}</ref><ref name="lend_lease_archives_gov">[https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/lend-lease-act "Lend-Lease Act (1941),"] in ''Milestone Documents,'' [[National Archives of the United States]], Washington, D.C., retrieved February 8, 2024; (notes: ''"Passed on March 11, 1941, this act set up a system that would allow the United States to lend or lease war supplies to any nation deemed 'vital to the defense of the United States.'"''; contains photo of the original bill, H.R. 1776, January 10, 1941, which referred to itself as "''An Act to Promote the Defense of the United States.''" )</ref> was a policy under which the [[United States]] supplied the [[United Kingdom]], the [[Soviet Union]], [[Free France|France]], the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]], and other [[Allies of World War II|Allied nations]] of the [[World War II|Second World War]] with [[food]], [[Petroleum|oil]], and {{not a typo|[[materiel]]}}<!--NOT A TYPO--> between 1941 and 1945. The aid was given free of charge on the basis that such help was essential for the defense of the United States.<ref name="lend_lease_archives_gov" />

The Lend-Lease Act was signed into law on March 11, 1941, and ended on September 20, 1945. A total of [[United States dollar|$]]50.1 billion (equivalent to ${{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US-GDP|50100000000|1945|r=-8}}}} in {{Inflation/year|US-GDP}} when accounting for inflation) worth of supplies was shipped, or 17% of the total war expenditures of the U.S.<ref name="McNeill 778">{{cite book|author= McNeill| title=America, Britain and Russia|page= 778}}</ref> In all, $31.4 billion went to the United Kingdom, $11.3 billion to the Soviet Union, $3.2 billion to France, $1.6 billion to China, and the remaining $2.6 billion to other Allies. Roosevelt's top foreign policy advisor [[Harry Hopkins]] had effective control over Lend-Lease, making sure it was in alignment with Roosevelt's foreign policy goals.<ref name="Christopher D. O'Sullivan 2014 53">{{cite book|author=Christopher D. O'Sullivan|title=Harry Hopkins: FDR's Envoy to Churchill and Stalin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E6mDBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA53|year=2014|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|page=53|isbn=9781442222229}}</ref>

{{not a typo|Materiel}}<!--NOT A TYPO--> delivered under the act was supplied at no cost, to be used until returned or destroyed. In practice, most equipment was destroyed, although some hardware (such as ships) was returned after the war. Supplies that arrived after the termination date were sold to the United Kingdom at a large discount for £1.075 billion, using long-term loans from the United States, which were finally repaid in 2006. Similarly, the Soviet Union repaid $722 million in 1971, with the remainder of the debt written off.

Reverse Lend-Lease to the United States totalled $7.8 billion. Of this, $6.8 billion came from the British and the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]]. [[Canada]] also aided the United Kingdom and other Allies with the [[Billion Dollar Gift and Mutual Aid]] totalling $3.4 billion in supplies and services (equivalent to $61 billion in 2020).{{Sfn|Granatstein|1990|page=315}}<ref name="Crowley, Leo T 1947">Crowley, Leo T. "Lend-Lease". In Walter Yust, ed., ''10 Eventful Years'' (Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 1947), 1:520, 2:858–860.</ref>

Lend-Lease ended the United States' [[Neutrality (international relations)|neutrality]] which had been enshrined in the [[Neutrality Acts of the 1930s]]. It was a decisive step away from [[United States non-interventionism|non-interventionist]] policy and toward open support for the Allies. Lend-Lease's precise significance to Allied victory in World War II is debated. Khrushchev claimed that [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]] told him that Lend-Lease enabled the Soviet Union to defeat Germany.<ref name=":1" />

==History==
===Non-interventionism and neutrality===
[[File:Aid From America- Lend-lease Food, London, England, 1941 D4324.jpg|thumb|British pupils wave for the camera as they receive plates of American bacon and eggs from Lend-Lease]]

The 1930s began with one of the world's [[Great Depression|greatest economic depressions]], and the later [[recession of 1937–1938]] (although minor relative to the Great Depression) was otherwise also one of the worst of the 20th century. In 1934, following the [[Nye Committee]]<ref group=nb>Officially the "Special Committee on Investigation of the Munitions Industry".</ref> hearings, as well as the publication of influential books such as ''[[Merchants of death|Merchants of Death]]'', the [[United States Congress]] adopted several [[Neutrality Acts of the 1930s|Neutrality Acts in the 1930s]], motivated by [[United States non-interventionism|non-interventionism]]—following the aftermath of its costly involvement in [[World War I]] (the war debts were still not paid off), and seeking to ensure that the country would not become entangled in foreign conflicts again. The Neutrality Acts of [[Neutrality Acts of the 1930s#Neutrality Act of 1935|1935]], [[Neutrality Acts of the 1930s#Neutrality Act of 1936|1936]], and [[Neutrality Acts of the 1930s#Neutrality Act of 1937|1937]] intended to keep the United States out of war by making it illegal for Americans to sell or transport arms or other war materials to warring nations, be they aggressors or defenders.<ref name="NARA">{{cite web |title=Congress, Neutrality, and Lend-Lease |url=https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/treasures_of_congress/text/page20_text.html |publisher=U.S. National Archives and Records Administration |access-date=7 May 2019}}{{PD-notice}}</ref>

===Cash and carry===
{{Main|Cash and carry (World War II)}}
In 1939, however—as Germany, Japan, and Italy pursued aggressive, militaristic policies—[[Franklin D. Roosevelt|President Roosevelt]] wanted more flexibility to help contain Axis aggression. He suggested amending the act to allow warring nations to purchase military goods, arms and munitions if they paid cash and bore the risks of transporting the goods on non-American ships, a policy that would favor Britain and France. Initially, this proposal failed, but after [[Invasion of Poland|Germany and the Soviet Union invaded Poland]] in September, Congress passed the [[Cash and carry (World War II)|Neutrality Act of 1939]] ending the munitions embargo on a "cash and carry" basis. The passage of the 1939 amendment to the previous Neutrality Acts marked the beginning of a congressional shift away from isolationism, making a first step toward interventionism.<ref name="NARA"/>

After the [[Battle of France|Fall of France]] during June 1940, the British Commonwealth and Empire were the only forces engaged in war against [[Nazi Germany|Germany]] and [[Kingdom of Italy|Italy]], until the [[Italian invasion of Greece]]. Britain had been paying for its materiel with gold as part of the "cash and carry" program, as required by the U.S. Neutrality Acts of the 1930s, but by 1941 it had liquidated a large part of its overseas holdings and its [[Gold reserves of the United Kingdom|gold reserves]] were becoming depleted in paying for materiel from the United States.<ref>{{harvnb|Allen|1955|pp=807–912}}</ref>

During this same period, the U.S. government began to mobilize for total war, instituting the first-ever peacetime [[Conscription|draft]] and a fivefold increase in the defense budget (from $2&nbsp;billion to $10&nbsp;billion).<ref>"17 Billion Budget Drafted; Defense Takes 10 Billions." ''The New York Times,'' December 28, 1940.</ref> The [[Two-Ocean Navy Act]] of July 1940 set in motion a rapid expansion of the [[United States Navy]]. In the meantime, Great Britain was running out of liquid currency and asked not to be forced to sell off British assets. Hampered by public opinion and the Neutrality Acts, which forbade arms sales on credit or the lending of money to belligerent nations, Roosevelt eventually came up with the idea of "lend–lease". As one Roosevelt biographer has characterized it: "If there was no practical alternative, there was certainly no moral one either. Britain and the Commonwealth were carrying the battle for all civilization, and the overwhelming majority of Americans, led in the late election by their president, wished to help them."<ref>{{harvnb|Black|2003|pp=603–605}}</ref> As the President himself put it, "There can be no reasoning with incendiary bombs."<ref name = 'NYT 30 12 1940'>"Address Is Spur To British Hopes; Confirmation of American Aid in Conflict is Viewed as Heartening, A joining of interests, Discarding of Peace Talks is Regarded as a Major Point in the Speech." ''The New York Times,'' December 30, 1940.</ref>

In September 1940, during the [[Battle of Britain]] the British government sent the [[Tizard Mission]] to the United States.<ref>{{cite news|last=Hind |first=Angela |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6331897.stm | work=BBC News | title=Briefcase 'that changed the world' | date=February 5, 2007 | access-date=May 25, 2010}}</ref> The aim of the British Technical and Scientific Mission was to obtain the industrial resources to exploit the military potential of the [[research and development]] work completed by the UK up to the beginning of World {{nobr|War II}}, but that Britain itself could not exploit due to the immediate requirements of war-related production. The British shared technology included the [[cavity magnetron]] (key technology at the time for highly effective [[radar]]; the American historian James Phinney Baxter III later called "the most valuable cargo ever brought to our shores"),<ref>James Phinney Baxter III (Official Historian of the Office of Scientific Research and Development), ''Scientists Against Time'' (Boston: Little, Brown, and Co., 1946), p. 142.</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Radar|url=http://www.newsweek.com/radar-169944|work=Newsweek|date= December 1, 1997}}</ref> the design for the [[Proximity fuze|VT fuze]], details of [[Frank Whittle]]'s [[jet engine]] and the [[Frisch–Peierls memorandum]] describing the feasibility of an atomic bomb.<ref>{{Citation |last=Brennen |first=James W. |title=The Proximity Fuze ''Whose Brainchild?'' |publisher=United States Naval Institute Proceedings |date=September 1968 |postscript=.}}</ref> Though these may be considered the most significant, many other items were also transported, including designs for [[rocket]]s, [[supercharger]]s, [[gyro gunsight|gyroscopic gunsights]], submarine detection devices, self-sealing fuel tanks and [[plastic explosive]]s.

On December 7, 1940, British Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]] pressed Roosevelt in a {{nobr|15-page}} letter for American help.<ref group=nb>Churchill called the letter "one of the most important I ever wrote."</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fdrlibraryvirtualtour.org/graphics/07-06/7-5-Churchill-to-FDR_12-7-40.pdf|title=Letter, Winston Churchill to Franklin Roosevelt, December 7, 1940, pp. 14–15 – FDR Library}}</ref> In his December 29, 1940 [[Fireside Chat]] radio broadcast, President Roosevelt proclaimed the United States would be the "[[Arsenal of Democracy]]" and proposed selling munitions to Britain and Canada.<ref name = 'NYT 30 12 1940'/> Isolationists were strongly opposed, warning it would result in American involvement with what was considered by most Americans as an essentially European conflict. In time, opinion shifted as increasing numbers of Americans began to consider the advantage of funding the British war against Germany, while staying free of the hostilities themselves.<ref>Kimball 1969</ref> Propaganda showing the devastation of British cities during [[The Blitz]], as well as popular depictions of Germans as savage also rallied public opinion to the Allies, especially after [[Fall of France|Germany conquered France]].

===Lend-Lease proposal===
After a decade of neutrality, Roosevelt knew that the change to Allied support must be gradual, given the support for isolationism in the country. Originally, the American policy was to help the British but not join the war. During early February 1941, a [[The Gallup Organization|Gallup]] poll revealed that 54% of Americans were in favor of giving aid to the British without qualifications of Lend-Lease. A further 15% were in favor of qualifications such as: "If it doesn't get us into war", or "If the British can give us some security for what we give them". Only 22% were unequivocally against the President's proposal. When poll participants were asked their party affiliation, the poll revealed a political divide: 69% of Democrats were unequivocally in favor of Lend-Lease, whereas only 38% of Republicans favored the bill without qualification. At least one poll spokesperson also noted that "approximately twice as many Republicans" gave "qualified answers as ... Democrats".<ref>"Bill to Aid Britain Strongly Backed". ''The New York Times'', February 9, 1941.</ref>

Opposition to the Lend-Lease bill was strongest among isolationist Republicans in Congress, who feared the measure would be "the longest single step this nation has yet taken toward direct involvement in the war abroad". When the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] finally took a roll call vote on February 8, 1941, the 260 to 165 vote was largely along party lines. Democrats voted 236 to 25 in favor and Republicans 24 in favor and 135 against.<ref>Dorris, Henry. "No Vital Changes". ''The New York Times'', February 9, 1941.</ref>

The vote in the Senate, which occurred on March 8, revealed a similar partisan difference: 49 Democrats (79 percent) voted "aye" with only 13 Democrats (21 percent) voting "nay". In contrast, 17 Republicans (63 percent) voted "nay" while 10 Senate Republicans (37 percent) sided with the Democrats to pass the bill.<ref>Hinton, Harold B. "All Curbs Downed". ''The New York Times'', March 9, 1941.</ref>

President Roosevelt signed the Lend-Lease bill into law on March 11, 1941. It permitted him to "sell, transfer title to, exchange, lease, lend, or otherwise dispose of, to any such government [whose defense the President deems vital to the defense of the United States] any defense article." In April, this policy was extended to China,<ref>{{harvnb|Weeks|2004|p=24}}</ref> and in October to the Soviet Union, which was [[Operation Barbarossa|attacked]] by Germany on 22 June 1941. Roosevelt approved $1&nbsp;billion in Lend-Lease aid to Britain at the end of October 1941.

This followed the 1940 [[Destroyers for Bases Agreement]], whereby 50 US Navy [[destroyer]]s were transferred to the Royal Navy and the [[Royal Canadian Navy]] in exchange for basing rights in the Caribbean. Churchill also granted the US base rights in [[Bermuda]] and [[Dominion of Newfoundland|Newfoundland]] for free; this act allowed their British garrison to be redeployed to more crucial theatres. In 1944, Britain transferred several of the US-made destroyers to the USSR.<ref>{{harvnb|Neiberg|2004|pp=118–119}}</ref>

After the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] and the United States entering the war in December 1941, foreign policy was rarely discussed by Congress, and there was very little demand to cut Lend-Lease spending. In spring 1944, the House passed a bill to renew the Lend-Lease program by a vote of 334 to 21. The Senate passed it by a vote of 63 to 1.<ref>H. G. Nicholas, ed., ''Washington Dispatches 1941–1945: Weekly Political Reports from the British Embassy'' (1981) pp. 113, 148, 238, 262, 338, 351, 359</ref>

===Multilateral Allied support===
In February 1942, the U.S. and Britain signed the Anglo-American Mutual Aid Agreement<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Anglo-American_Mutual_Aid_Agreement|title=Anglo-American Mutual Aid Agreement, February 28, 1942|via=Wikisource}}</ref> as part of a greater multilateral system, developed by the Allies during the war, to provide each other with goods, services, and mutual aid in the widest sense, without charging commercial payments.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Allen |first=R.G.D. |year=1946 |title=Mutual Aid Between the U.S. and The British Empire, 1941–45 |jstor=2981369 |journal=Journal of the Royal Statistical Society |volume=109 |issue=3 |pages=243–277 |doi=10.2307/2981369 }}</ref>

==Scale, value and economics==
{{further|Military production during World War II}}
[[File:WorldWarII-GDP-Relations-Allies-Axis-simple.svg|thumb|upright=1.45|Ratio of [[gross domestic product]] between Allied and Axis powers, 1938–1945]]
{| class="wikitable sortable floatright"
|+Value of materials supplied by the U.S. to its Allied nations<ref>{{cite book |first=Wolfgang |last=Schumann |display-authors=etal |year=1982 |title=Deutschland im Zweiten Weltkrieg |location=Berlin |publisher=Akademie-Verlag |volume=3 |page=468 |language=de}}</ref>
|-
! No.
! Country
! Continent
! Millions of<br />US dollars
|-
|style="text-align:center"|1
|{{flag|British Empire}}
|style="text-align:center"|Europe
|style="text-align:right"|31,387.1
|-
|style="text-align:center"|2
|{{flag|Soviet Union|1936}}
|style="text-align:center"|Europe
|style="text-align:right"|10,982.1
|-
|style="text-align:center"|3
|{{flag|Free France}}
|style="text-align:center"|Europe
|style="text-align:right"|3,223.9
|-
|style="text-align:center"|4
| {{flag country|Republic of China (1912–1949)}}
|style="text-align:center"|Asia
|style="text-align:right"|1,627.0
|-
|style="text-align:center"|5
|{{flag country|Vargas Era}}
|style="text-align:center"|Americas
|style="text-align:right"|372.0
|-
|style="text-align:center"|6
|{{flag|Netherlands}}
|style="text-align:center"|Europe
|style="text-align:right"|251.1
|-
|style="text-align:center"|7
|{{flag|Belgium}}
|style="text-align:center"|Europe
|style="text-align:right"|159.5
|-
|style="text-align:center"|8
|{{flag country|Kingdom of Greece}}
|style="text-align:center"|Europe
|style="text-align:right"|81.5
|-
|style="text-align:center"|9
|{{flag|Norway}}
|style="text-align:center"|Europe
|style="text-align:right"|47.0
|-
|style="text-align:center"|10
|{{flag|Turkey}}
|style="text-align:center"|Asia
|style="text-align:right"|42.9
|-
|style="text-align:center"|11
|{{flag|Mexico|1934}}
|style="text-align:center"|Americas
|style="text-align:right"|39.2
|-
|style="text-align:center"|12
|{{nowrap|{{flag|Kingdom of Yugoslavia}}}}
|style="text-align:center"|Europe
|style="text-align:right"|32.2
|-
|style="text-align:center"|13
|{{flag|Chile}}
|style="text-align:center"|Americas
|style="text-align:right"|21.6
|-
|style="text-align:center"|14
|{{flag|Saudi Arabia|1938}}
|style="text-align:center"|Asia
|style="text-align:right"|19.0
|-
|style="text-align:center"|15
|{{flag|Peru}}
|style="text-align:center"|Americas
|style="text-align:right"|18.9
|-
|style="text-align:center"|16
|{{flag country|Second Polish Republic}}
|style="text-align:center"|Europe
|style="text-align:right"|12.5
|-
|style="text-align:center"|17
|{{flag|Liberia}}
|style="text-align:center"|Africa
|style="text-align:right"|11.6
|-
|style="text-align:center"|18
|{{flag|Colombia|1861}}
|style="text-align:center"|Americas
|style="text-align:right"|8.3
|-
|style="text-align:center"|19
|{{flag|Ecuador|1900}}
|style="text-align:center"|Americas
|style="text-align:right"|7.8
|-
|style="text-align:center"|20
|{{flag|Uruguay}}
|style="text-align:center"|Americas
|style="text-align:right"|7.1
|-
|style="text-align:center"|21
|{{flag country|Republic of Cuba (1902–1959)}}
|style="text-align:center"|Americas
|style="text-align:right"|6.6
|-
|style="text-align:center"|22
|{{flag|Bolivia}}
|style="text-align:center"|Americas
|style="text-align:right"|5.5
|-
|style="text-align:center"|23
|{{flag country|Pahlavi Iran|1933}}
|style="text-align:center"|Asia
|style="text-align:right"|5.3
|-
|style="text-align:center"|24
|{{flag|Ethiopian Empire}}
|style="text-align:center"|Africa
|style="text-align:right"|5.3
|-
|style="text-align:center"|25
|{{flag|Venezuela|1930}}
|style="text-align:center"|Americas
|style="text-align:right"|4.5
|-
|style="text-align:center"|26
|{{flag country|Kingdom of Iceland}}
|style="text-align:center"|Europe
|style="text-align:right"|4.4
|-
|style="text-align:center"|27
|{{flag|Guatemala|1871}}
|style="text-align:center"|Americas
|style="text-align:right"|2.6
|-
|style="text-align:center"|28
|{{flag|Paraguay|1842}}
|style="text-align:center"|Americas
|style="text-align:right"|2.0
|-
|style="text-align:center"|29
|{{nowrap|{{flag|Dominican Republic}}}}
|style="text-align:center"|Americas
|style="text-align:right"|1.6
|-
|style="text-align:center"|30
|{{flag|Haiti|1859}}
|style="text-align:center"|Americas
|style="text-align:right"|1.4
|-
|style="text-align:center"|31
|{{flag|Kingdom of Iraq}}
|style="text-align:center"|Asia
|style="text-align:right"|0.9
|-
|style="text-align:center"|32
|{{flag|Nicaragua|1908}}
|style="text-align:center"|Americas
|style="text-align:right"|0.9
|-
|style="text-align:center"|33
|{{flag|El Salvador}}
|style="text-align:center"|Americas
|style="text-align:right"|0.9
|-
|style="text-align:center"|34
|{{flag|Czechoslovakia}}
|style="text-align:center"|Europe
|style="text-align:right"|0.6
|-
|style="text-align:center"|35
|{{flag|Honduras|1866}}
|style="text-align:center"|Americas
|style="text-align:right"|0.4
|-
|style="text-align:center"|36
|{{flag|Costa Rica}}
|style="text-align:center"|Americas
|style="text-align:right"|0.2
|- class="sortbottom"
! colspan="2" scope="row" | Total
| style="text-align:center" | '''World'''
| style="text-align:right;" colspan="3"|'''48,395.4'''
|-
|}

A total of [[United States dollar|$]]50.1&nbsp;billion (equivalent to ${{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US-GDP|50100000000|1945|r=-8}}}} in {{Inflation/year|US-GDP}}){{Inflation/fn|US-GDP}} was involved, or 17% of the total war expenditures of the U.S.<ref name="McNeill 778"/> Most, $31.4&nbsp;billion (${{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US-GDP|31400000000|1945|r=-8}}}}), went to Britain and its empire.<ref>The distribution of loans was 90% to the UK, 5% to Australia, 1% to New Zealand, 3% to India, and zero to Canada. Allen (1946) p 252.</ref> Other recipients were led by $11.3&nbsp;billion (${{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US-GDP|11300000000|1945|r=-8}}}}) to the Soviet Union, $3.2&nbsp;billion (${{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US-GDP|3200000000|1945|r=-8}}}}) to France, $1.6&nbsp;billion (${{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US-GDP|1600000000|1945|r=-8}}}}) to China, and the remaining $2.6&nbsp;billion to the other Allies. Reverse Lend-Lease policies comprised services such as rent on bases used by the U.S., and totaled $7.8&nbsp;billion; of this, $6.8&nbsp;billion came from the British and the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]], mostly Australia and India.

The terms of the agreement provided that the U.S. materiel<!--NOT A TYPO--> was to be used until returned or destroyed. In practice, very little equipment was in usable shape for peacetime uses. Supplies that arrived after the termination date were sold to Britain at a large discount for £1.075&nbsp;billion, using long-term loans from the United States. Canada was not a direct recipient of Lend-Lease aid. To address balance of payment issues between the US and Canada, and to prevent the US monopolizing British orders, the Hyde Park Declaration of 20 April 1941<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.utpjournals.press/doi/abs/10.3138/CHR-055-01-03?journalCode=chr | doi=10.3138/CHR-055-01-03 | title=The Hyde Park Declaration 1941: Origins and Significance | year=1974 | last1=Granatstein | first1=J. L. | last2=Cuff | first2=R. D. | journal=Canadian Historical Review | volume=55 | issue=1 | pages=59–80 | s2cid=162515497 | url-access=subscription }}</ref> made weapons and components manufactured in Canada for Britain eligible for Lend-Lease financing as if they had been manufactured in the US.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/lend-lease | title=Lend-Lease |encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia }}</ref> Canada operated a program similar to Lend-Lease called [[Billion Dollar Gift and Mutual Aid|Mutual Aid]] that sent a loan of [[Canadian dollar|C$]]1&nbsp;billion (equivalent to C${{Inflation|CA|1|1945|r=1}}&nbsp;billion in {{Inflation/year|CA}}){{Inflation/fn|CA}} and C$3.4&nbsp;billion (C${{Inflation|CA|3.4|1945|r=1}}&nbsp;billion) in supplies and services to Britain and other Allies.{{Sfn|Granatstein|1990|page=315}}<ref name="Crowley, Leo T 1947"/>

===Administration===
Roosevelt made sure that Lend-Lease policies were supportive of his foreign policy goals by putting his top aide [[Harry Hopkins]] in effective control of the program.<ref name="Christopher D. O'Sullivan 2014 53"/> In terms of administration, the president established the Office of Lend-Lease Administration during 1941, headed by steel executive [[Edward Stettinius, Jr.|Edward R. Stettinius]].<ref>[https://archive.org/details/gov.archives.arc.38937 "America Reports On Aid To Allies etc. (1942)"]. ''[[Universal Newsreel]],'' 1942. Retrieved February 22, 2012.</ref> In September 1943, he was promoted to Undersecretary of State, and [[Leo Crowley]] became director of the [[Foreign Economic Administration]], which was given responsibility for Lend-Lease.

Lend-Lease aid to the USSR was nominally managed by Stettinius. Roosevelt's Soviet Protocol Committee was dominated by Harry Hopkins and General John York, who were totally sympathetic to the provision of "unconditional aid". Few Americans objected to Soviet aid until 1943.<ref>{{harvnb|Weiss|1996|p=220}}</ref>

The program was gradually terminated after [[Victory in Europe Day|V-E Day]]. In April 1945, Congress voted that it should not be used for post-conflict purposes, and in August 1945, after [[Surrender of Japan|Japan surrendered]], the program was ended.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Nhq1g1WYmEC&pg=PA390 |title=Britain in Transition: The Twentieth Century |first=Alfred F. |last=Havighurst |page=390 |date= 1985|publisher=University of Chicago Press |access-date=December 30, 2016|isbn=978-0226319711 }}</ref>
{{clear left}}

==Significance of Lend-Lease==
Even after the United States forces in Europe and the Pacific began to attain full strength during 1943–1944, Lend-Lease continued. Most remaining Allies were largely self-sufficient in frontline equipment (such as tanks and fighter aircraft) by this time{{snd}}though arms shipments continued{{snd}}but Lend-Lease logistical supplies (including motor vehicles and railroad equipment) remained of enormous assistance.<ref name="Weeks 2004, p. 9">{{harvnb|Weeks|2004|p=9}}</ref>
WWII was the first major war in which whole formations were routinely motorized; soldiers were supported with large numbers of all kinds of vehicles, not just for direct combat roles, but for transport and logistics as well.<ref name=Bishop>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MuGsf0psjvcC&pg=PA101 |title=The Encyclopedia of Weapons of World War II|first=Chris|last=Bishop |date=2002|publisher=Sterling Publishing Company, Inc.|via=Google Books|isbn=978-1586637620}}</ref> In spite of this, belligerent powers massively decreased production of non-lethal materiel to focus on weapons production; this inevitably produced shortages of products required for industrial or logistical uses, particularly unarmored vehicles. Thus, the Allies were almost totally reliant on American industrial production for unarmored vehicles, including ones purpose-built for military use.<ref name=Bishop/>

For example, the USSR was very dependent on rail transport, and starting during the latter half of the 1920s<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.americanheritage.com/how-america-helped-build-soviet-machine | title=How America Helped Build the Soviet Machine &#124; American Heritage}}</ref> but accelerating during the 1930s, hundreds of foreign industrial giants such as [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] were commissioned to construct modern dual-purpose factories in the USSR, 16 alone within a week of May 31, 1929.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/ford-signs-agreement-with-soviet-union |title = Ford Motor Company signs agreement with Soviet Union | date=January 27, 2010 }}</ref> However, with the outbreak of war these plants switched from civilian to military production, and locomotive production dropped dramatically. Just 446 locomotives were produced during the war,<ref>{{cite interview |last=Budnitsky |first=Oleg |title=Russian historian: Importance of Lend-Lease cannot be overestimated |work=Russia Beyond the Headlines |url=http://rbth.com/business/2015/05/08/allies_gave_soviets_130_billion_under_lend-lease_45879.html }}</ref> with only 92 of those being built between 1942 and 1945.<ref>{{cite book| author=Hill, Alexander | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=kJCRAgAAQBAJ | title= The Great Patriotic War of the Soviet Union, 1941–45: A Documentary Reader | page= 188| isbn= 978-1135765262 | date= December 10, 2008 | publisher=Routledge }}</ref> In total, 92.7% of the wartime procurement of railroad equipment by the USSR came from Lend-Lease,<ref name="Weeks 2004, p. 9"/> including 1,911 locomotives and 11,225 railcars.<ref>{{harvnb|Weeks|2004|p=146}}</ref> Trucks were also vital; by 1945, nearly a third of the trucks used by the [[Red Army]] were U.S.-built. Trucks such as the [[Dodge WC series#Three-quarter-ton models|Dodge {{frac|3|4}}-ton]] and [[Studebaker US6 2½-ton 6x6 truck|Studebaker {{frac|2|1|2}}-ton]] were easily the best trucks available in their class on either side on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]]. American shipments of telephone cable, aluminum, canned rations and clothing were also critical.<ref>{{harvnb|Weeks|2004|p=107}}</ref>

Lend-Lease also supplied significant amounts of weapons and ammunition. The Soviet air force received 18,200 aircraft, which amounted to about 30 percent of Soviet wartime fighter and bomber production over the course of the war.<ref name="Weeks 2004, p. 9"/> Most tank units were Soviet-built models but about 7,000 Lend-Lease tanks (plus more than 5,000 British tanks) were used by the Red Army, eight percent of war-time production.

A critical aspect of Lend-Lease was the supply of food. The invasion had cost the USSR a huge amount of its agricultural base; during the initial Axis offensive of 1941–42, the total sown area of the USSR fell by 41.9% and the number of collective and state farms by 40%. The Soviets lost a substantial number of draft and farm animals as they were not able to relocate all the animals in an area before it was captured and of those areas in which the Axis forces would occupy, the Soviets had lost 7 million of out of 11.6 million horses, 17 million out of 31 million cows, 20 million of 23.6 million pigs and 27 million out of 43 million sheep and goats. Tens of thousands of agricultural machines, such as tractors and threshers, were destroyed or captured. Agriculture also suffered a loss of labour; between 1941 and 1945, 19.5 million working-age men had to leave their farms to work in the military and industry. Agricultural issues were also compounded when the Soviets were on the offensive, as areas liberated from the Axis had been devastated and contained millions of people who needed to be fed. Lend-Lease thus provided a massive quantity of foodstuffs and agricultural products.<ref>Nikolay Ryzhkov & Georgy Kumanev “Food and other strategic deliveries to the Soviet Union under the Lend-Lease Act, 1941–1945”, pp. 106–124</ref>

According to the Russian historian [[Boris Vadimovich Sokolov]], Lend-Lease had a crucial role in winning the war:
<blockquote>On the whole the following conclusion can be drawn: that without these Western shipments under Lend-Lease the Soviet Union not only would not have been able to win the Great Patriotic War, it would not have been able even to oppose the German invaders, since it could not itself produce sufficient quantities of arms and military equipment or adequate supplies of fuel and ammunition. The Soviet authorities were well aware of this dependency on Lend-Lease. Thus, Stalin told Harry Hopkins [FDR's emissary to Moscow in July 1941] that the U.S.S.R. could not match Germany's might as an occupier of Europe and its resources.<ref name="Weeks 2004, p. 9" /></blockquote>

[[Nikita Khrushchev]], having served as a [[military commissar]] and intermediary between Stalin and his generals during the war, addressed directly the significance of Lend-Lease aid in his memoirs:
<blockquote>I would like to express my candid opinion about Stalin's views on whether the Red Army and the Soviet Union could have coped with Nazi Germany and survived the war without aid from the United States and Britain. First, I would like to tell about some remarks Stalin made and repeated several times when we were "discussing freely" among ourselves. He stated bluntly that if the United States had not helped us, we would not have won the war. If we had had to fight Nazi Germany one on one, we could not have stood up against Germany's pressure, and we would have lost the war. No one ever discussed this subject officially, and I don't think Stalin left any written evidence of his opinion, but I will state here that several times in conversations with me he noted that these were the actual circumstances. He never made a special point of holding a conversation on the subject, but when we were engaged in some kind of relaxed conversation, going over international questions of the past and present, and when we would return to the subject of the path we had traveled during the war, that is what he said. When I listened to his remarks, I was fully in agreement with him, and today I am even more so.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SaIkK868enQC |title=Memoirs of Nikita Khrushchev: Commissar, 1918–1945|last1=Khrushchev|first1=Nikita Sergeevich |last2=Khrushchev|first2=Serge |year=2004|publisher=Penn State Press |isbn=978-0271023328|pages=638–639|language=en}}</ref></blockquote>

In a confidential interview with the wartime correspondent [[Konstantin Simonov]], the Soviet Marshal [[Georgy Zhukov]] was secretly recorded by the KGB saying:

<blockquote>Today [1963] some say the Allies didn't really help us ... But listen, one cannot deny that the Americans shipped over to us material without which we could not have equipped our armies held in reserve or been able to continue the war.<ref>Albert L. Weeks The Other Side of Coexistence: An Analysis of Russian Foreign Policy, (New York, Pittman Publishing Corporation, 1974), p. 94, quoted in Albert L. Weeks, Russia's Life-Saver: Lend-Lease Aid to the U.S.S.R. in World {{nobr|War II}} (New York: Lexington Books, 2010), 1</ref></blockquote>

[[David Glantz]], an American military historian known for his books on the Eastern front, offers a somewhat different view, but still emphasized the significance of Lend-Lease:

<blockquote>Although Soviet accounts have routinely belittled the significance of Lend-Lease in the sustainment of the Soviet war effort, the overall importance of the assistance cannot be understated. Lend-Lease aid did not arrive in sufficient quantities to make the difference between defeat and victory in 1941–1942; that achievement must be attributed solely to the Soviet people and to the iron nerve of [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]], Zhukov, [[Boris Shaposhnikov|Shaposhnikov]], [[Aleksandr Vasilevsky|Vasilevsky]], and their subordinates. As the war continued, however, the United States and Great Britain provided many of the implements of war and strategic raw materials necessary for Soviet victory. Without Lend-Lease food, clothing, and raw materials (especially metals), the Soviet economy would have been even more heavily burdened by the war effort. Perhaps most directly, without Lend-Lease trucks, rail engines, and railroad cars, every Soviet offensive would have stalled at an earlier stage, outrunning its logistical tail in a matter of days. In turn, this would have allowed the German commanders to escape at least some encirclements, while forcing the Red Army to prepare and conduct many more deliberate penetration attacks in order to advance the same distance. Left to their own devices, Stalin and his commanders might have taken twelve to eighteen months longer to finish off the Wehrmacht; the ultimate result would probably have been the same, except that Soviet soldiers could have waded at France's Atlantic beaches.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Glantz |first=David M. |year=1995 |title=When Titans Clashed: How the Red Army Stopped Hitler |others=House, Jonathan M. (Jonathan Mallory) |location=Lawrence|publisher=University Press of Kansas |page=285 |isbn=978-0700607174 |oclc=32859811}}</ref></blockquote>

==Returning goods after the war==
Roosevelt, eager to ensure public consent for this controversial plan, explained to the public and the press that his plan was comparable to lending a garden hose to a neighbor whose house is on fire. "What do I do in such a crisis?" the president asked at a press conference. "I don't say ... 'Neighbor, my garden hose cost me $15; you have to pay me $15 for it' ... I don't want $15—I want my garden hose back after the fire is over."<ref>{{Cite web |title=December, 1940 |url=http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/daybyday/event/december-1940-7/ |access-date=2023-06-27 |website=FDR: Day by Day |language=en-US}}</ref> To which Senator [[Robert A. Taft|Robert Taft]] (R-Ohio), responded: "Lending war equipment is a good deal like lending chewing gum—you certainly don't want the same gum back."

In practice, very little was returned except for a few unarmed transport ships. Surplus military equipment was of no value in peacetime. The Lend-Lease agreements with 30 countries provided for repayment not in terms of money or returned goods, but in "joint action directed towards the creation of a liberalized international economic order in the postwar world." That is, the U.S. would be "repaid" when the recipient fought the common enemy and joined the world trade and diplomatic agencies, such as the United Nations.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1937-1945/lend-lease |title=Lend-Lease and Military Aid to the Allies in the Early Years of World {{nobr|War II}} |website=Office of the Historian | publisher=United States Department of State|language=en |access-date=March 9, 2018}}</ref>

==Deliveries to the Soviet Union==

=== United States ===
{| class="wikitable floatright"
|+Allied shipments to the Soviet Union<ref>Hans-Adolf Jacobsen: ''1939–1945, Der Zweite Weltkrieg in Chronik und Dokumenten''. Darmstadt 1961, p. 568. (German Language)</ref>
|-class="hintergrundfarbe6"
!Year
!Amount <br />(tons)
!%
|-class="hintergrundfarbe2"
|align="left"|1941
|align="right"|360,778
|align="right"|2.1
|-class="hintergrundfarbe2"
|align="left"|1942
|align="right"|2,453,097
|align="right"|14
|-class="hintergrundfarbe2"
|align="left"|1943
|align="right"|4,794,545
|align="right"|27.4
|-class="hintergrundfarbe2"
|align="left"|1944
|align="right"|6,217,622
|align="right"|35.5
|-class="hintergrundfarbe2"
|align="left"|1945
|align="right"|3,673,819
|align="right"|21
|-class="hintergrundfarbe2"
|align="left"|'''Total'''
|align="right"|'''17,499,861'''
|align="right"|'''100'''
|}
[[File:Moscow Mission.png|left|thumb|178x178px|Moscow Mission Patch]]
If Germany defeated the Soviet Union, the most significant front in Europe would be closed. Roosevelt believed that if the Soviets were defeated the Allies would be far more likely to lose. Roosevelt concluded that the United States needed to help the Soviets fight against the Germans.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://notevenpast.org/lend-lease/|title=Lend-Lease|date=September 21, 2011|website=Not Even Past}}</ref> Because of its utmost importance, Roosevelt directed his subordinates to emphasis shipments of aid to the Soviet Union above most other uses of available shipping.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Herring, Jr. |first1=George C. |date=June 1969 |title=Lend-Lease to Russia and the Origins of the Cold War, 1944–1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1902065 |journal=[[The Journal of American History]] |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=93–114 |doi=10.2307/1902065 |jstor=1902065 |access-date=18 March 2023|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The Soviet Ambassador, [[Maxim Litvinov]], significantly contributed to the Lend-Lease agreement of 1941. In the fall of 1941, the US Army set up the United States Military Mission to Moscow to help the flow of Lend-Lease material into Russia.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=July 2, 2007 |title=U.S. Mission To Moscow bullion |url=https://www.usmilitariaforum.com/forums/index.php?/topic/6920-us-mission-to-moscow-bullion/ |website=US Militaria Forum}}</ref>  In 1943, Major General [[John R. Deane]] was made commander of the Moscow Mission and to brief [[Joseph Stalin]] on [[Operation Overlord]].  American deliveries to the Soviet Union can be divided into the following phases:
* "Pre-Lend-Lease" June 22, 1941, to September 30, 1941 (paid for in [[gold]] and other minerals)
* First protocol period from October 1, 1941, to June 30, 1942 (signed October 7, 1941), these supplies were to be manufactured and delivered by the British with US credit financing.<ref>{{Cite report |date=1946 |title=The United States at war; development and administration of the war program by the federal government. |url=http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015004950914;view=1up;seq=1 |publisher=Bureau of the Budget |page=82 |access-date=May 29, 2015 |quote=On October 7, 1941, the President approved the Moscow Protocol under which it was agreed to furnish certain materials to Russia.}}</ref>
* Second protocol period from July 1, 1942, to June 30, 1943 (signed October 6, 1942)
* Third protocol period from July 1, 1943, to June 30, 1944 (signed October 19, 1943)
* Fourth protocol period from July 1, 1944 (signed April 17, 1945), formally ended May 12, 1945, but deliveries continued for the duration of the war with Japan (which the Soviet Union entered on August 8, 1945) under the "Milepost" agreement until September 2, 1945, when Japan capitulated. On September 20, 1945, all Lend-Lease to the Soviet Union was terminated.

[[File:Cincinnati, Ohio. Preparing canned pork (Russian- "svinaia tushonka") for lend-lease shipment to the USSR at the Kroger grocery and baking company. Inspectors see each can after it comes out of the LCCN2017856951.tif|thumb|left|Women at the [[Kroger]] grocery and baking company in Cincinnati prepare canned pork for shipment to the USSR, June 1943]]

Delivery was via the [[Arctic convoys of World War II|Arctic Convoys]], the [[Persian Corridor]], and the [[Pacific route (Lend-Lease)|Pacific Route]].
The Arctic route was the shortest and most direct route for Lend-Lease aid to the USSR, though it was also the most dangerous as it involved sailing past German-occupied Norway. Some 3,964,000 [[Long ton|tons]] of goods were shipped by the Arctic route; 7% was lost, while 93% arrived safely.<ref name="Kemp">Kemp p. 235</ref>

The Persian Corridor was the longest route, and was not fully operational until mid-1942. Thereafter it saw the passage of 4,160,000 tons of goods, 27% of the total.<ref name="Kemp"/>

The Pacific Route opened in August 1941, but was affected by the [[Japanese invasion of Malaya|start of hostilities]] between Japan and the U.S.; after December 1941, only Soviet ships could be used, and, as Japan and the USSR observed a strict neutrality towards each other, only non-military goods could be transported.<ref>[http://english.ruvr.ru/2007/12/19/168522.html Sea routes of Soviet Lend-Lease:Voice of Russia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120401192603/http://english.ruvr.ru/2007/12/19/168522.html |date=April 1, 2012 }} ''Ruvr.ru.'' Retrieved: December 16, 2011</ref> Nevertheless, some 8,244,000 tons of goods went by this route, 50% of the total.<ref name="Kemp"/>

In total, the U.S. deliveries to the USSR through Lend-Lease amounted to $11 [[1,000,000,000 (number)|billion]] in materials (equivalent to ${{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US-GDP|11000000000|1945|r=-8}}}} in {{Inflation/year|US-GDP}}):<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ru.usembassy.gov/world-war-ii-allies-u-s-lend-lease-to-the-soviet-union-1941-1945/|title=World War II Allies: U.S. Lend-Lease to the Soviet Union, 1941-1945|date=May 10, 2020|work=[[Embassy of the United States, Moscow|United States Embassy in Russia]]}}</ref> over 400,000 [[jeep]]s and trucks; 12,000 [[armored vehicle]]s (including 7,000 tanks, about 1,386<ref>Zaloga (Armored Thunderbolt) pp. 28, 30, 31</ref> of which were [[M3 Lee]]s and 4,102 [[Lend-Lease Sherman tanks|M4 Shermans]]);<ref>''Lend-Lease Shipments: World {{nobr|War II}}'', Section IIIB, Published by Office, Chief of Finance, War Department, December 31, 1946, p. 8.</ref> 11,400 aircraft (of which 4,719 were [[Bell P-39 Airacobra]]s, 3,414 were [[Douglas A-20 Havoc]]s and 2,397 were [[Bell P-63 Kingcobra]]s)<ref>{{harvnb|Hardesty|1991|p=253}}</ref> and 1.75&nbsp;million tons of food.<ref>[http://www.history.army.mil/books/AMH-V2/PDF/Chapter05.pdf ''World {{nobr|War II}} The War Against Germany And Italy''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170506174749/http://www.history.army.mil/books/AMH-V2/PDF/Chapter05.pdf |date=May 6, 2017 }}, US Army Center of Military History, p. 158.</ref>

[[File:Map US Lend Lease shipments to USSR-WW2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6]]

Roughly 17.5&nbsp;million tons of military equipment, vehicles, industrial supplies, and food were shipped from the Western Hemisphere to the USSR, 94% coming from the US. For comparison, a total of 22 million tons landed in Europe to supply American forces from January 1942 to May 1945. It has been estimated that American deliveries to the USSR through the Persian Corridor alone were sufficient, by US Army standards, to maintain sixty combat divisions in the line.<ref>{{cite web|title=The five Lend-Lease routes to Russia |url=http://www.o5m6.de/Routes.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031212063805/http://www.o5m6.de/routes.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=December 12, 2003 |website=Engines of the Red Army |access-date=July 12, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Motter |first1=T.H. Vail |title=The Persian Corridor and Aid to Russia |date=1952 |publisher=Center of Military History |pages=4–6 |url=https://history.army.mil/books/wwii/persian/index.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071224152307/http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/persian/index.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=December 24, 2007 |access-date=July 12, 2014}}</ref>

In the first weeks and months of the German–Soviet war, the USSR lost a huge number of military aircraft. Some of them were lost at airfields in the first days of the fighting, some were abandoned for various reasons, and some were lost in air battles. The losses of Soviet aviation in 1941 is one of the most controversial topics for military historians and publicists. The situation was aggravated by the loss of many aircraft factories that produced aircraft and components for them, which remained in the territory occupied by the Germans. Some of the factories were hastily evacuated to the east of the country, but it took time to resume production and reach its maximum capacity. In December 1941, all aircraft factories of the Soviet Union produced only 600 aircraft of all types. This was the reason that the supply of aircraft, primarily fighters and bombers, became the main topic in the negotiations between the top leadership of the USSR, Great Britain and the United States. The vast majority of the total number of aircraft received by the USSR under the Lend-Lease program was made up of British [[Supermarine Spitfire|Spitfire]] and [[Hawker Hurricane|Hurricane fighters]], American P-39 Airacobra, [[Curtiss P-40 Warhawk|P-40 fighters]], known in Russia under the names "Tomahawk" and "Kittyhawk", P-63 Kingcobra, American bombers A-20 Havoc, [[North American B-25 Mitchell|B-25 Mitchell]]. A significant amount of [[Douglas C-47 Skytrain|C-47 Skytrain]] transport aircraft and [[Consolidated PBY Catalina|PBY Catalina]] flying boats were also delivered.{{sfn|Котельников|2015|p=58—59}} For the needs of the [[Soviet Navy]], 2,141 aircraft were delivered to the USSR.<ref>''Федулов&nbsp;С.&nbsp;В., Лосик&nbsp;А.&nbsp;В.'' «Такие виды вооружения… дали возможность не только решать ряд боевых задач, но и создавать образцы этих видов вооружения». Деятельность Отдела внешних заказов Наркомата Военно-морского флота СССР в годы Великой Отечественной войны. // [[Военно-исторический журнал]].&nbsp;— 2017.&nbsp;— №&nbsp;3.&nbsp;— С.24.</ref> Not all of the delivered aircraft could be fully called modern models. But even those that could be called obsolete (the English Hurricane and the American Tomahawk) were more advanced and superior in most characteristics than the [[Polikarpov I-153|I-153]] and [[Polikarpov I-16|I-16]] aircraft that made up the basis of Soviet fighter aviation in the most difficult first months of the war. The superiority in high-altitude characteristics of American and British aircraft, powerful armament and the provision of communications ensured their use in the air defense forces – out of 10 thousand aircraft received by the USSR during the war, 7 thousand were from received via Lend-Lease.{{sfn|Котельников|2015|p=58—59}}

From October 1, 1941, to May 31, 1945, the United States delivered to the Soviet Union 427,284 trucks, 13,303 combat vehicles, 35,170 motorcycles, 2,328 ordnance service vehicles, 2,670,371 tons of petroleum products (gasoline and oil) or 57.8 percent of the aviation fuel including nearly 90 percent of high-octane fuel used,<ref name="Weeks 2004, p. 9"/> 4,478,116 tons of foodstuffs (canned meats, sugar, flour, salt, etc.), 1,911 steam locomotives, 66 diesel locomotives, 9,920 flat cars, 1,000 dump cars, 120 tank cars, and 35 heavy machinery cars. Ordnance goods (ammunition, artillery shells, mines, assorted explosives) provided amounted to 53 percent of total domestic consumption.<ref name="Weeks 2004, p. 9"/> One item typical of many was a tire plant that was lifted bodily from the Ford Company's River Rouge Plant and transferred to the USSR. The 1947 money value of the supplies and services amounted to about $11.3 billion.<ref>Deane, John R. 1947. The Strange Alliance, The Story of Our Efforts at Wartime Co-operation with Russia. The Viking Press.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://ru.usembassy.gov/world-war-ii-allies-u-s-lend-lease-to-the-soviet-union-1941-1945/|title=World War II Allies: U.S. Lend-Lease to the Soviet Union, 1941-1945|date=May 10, 2020|work=[[Embassy of the United States, Moscow|United States Embassy in Russia]]}}</ref> Unlike the other allies, the Soviets believed these supplies to be gifts to their war effort and even items that were to be returned to the US after the war, such as ships, were sent back as completely stripped hulls.<ref name=":2" />  

<gallery mode="packed" heights="160">
File:Aleje Jerozolimskie waf-2072-1002-40 (1945).jpg|Warsaw 1945: [[Willys MB|Willys jeep]] used by the [[First Polish Army (1944–1945)|Polish First Army]] as part of U.S. Lend-Lease program
File:Defense.gov photo essay 060827-F-0193C-028.jpg|The Lend-Lease Memorial in [[Fairbanks, Alaska]], commemorates the shipment of U.S. aircraft to the Soviet Union along the [[Northwest Staging Route]]
File:Verkhnyaya Pyshma Tank Museum 2011 029.jpg|BM-13N [[Katyusha rocket launcher|Katyusha]] on a Lend-Lease [[Studebaker US6]] truck, at the [[UMMC Museum Complex]], [[Verkhnyaya Pyshma]], Russia
</gallery>

=== Great Britain ===
[[File:Britain Has Sent to Russia…Our Products Fight on Russian Fronts - DPLA - 66c8ac9de0e377888aea261d43095dd4.jpg|thumb|upright|Poster advertising British aid to the Soviet war effort]]
On 12 July 1941, within weeks of the German invasion of the USSR, the [[Anglo-Soviet Agreement]] was signed and the first British aid convoy set off along the dangerous [[Arctic Sea]] route to [[Murmansk]], arriving in September. It carried 40 [[Hawker Hurricanes]] along with 550 mechanics and pilots of [[No. 151 Wing RAF|No. 151 Wing]] in [[Operation Benedict]], to provide air defence of the port and to train Soviet pilots. The convoy was the first of many convoys to Murmansk and [[Arkhangelsk]] in what became known as the [[Arctic convoys of World War II|Arctic convoys]], the returning ships carried the gold that the USSR was using to pay the US.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.warhistoryonline.com/instant-articles/hms-edinburgh.html|title = $220 Million in Gold Bullion was Recovered from HMS Edinburgh| newspaper=Warhistoryonline |date = July 27, 2020}}</ref>

By the end of 1941, early shipments of [[Matilda II|Matilda]], [[Valentine tank|Valentine]] and [[Light Tank Mk VII Tetrarch|Tetrarch]] tanks represented only 6.5% of total Soviet tank production but over 25% of medium and heavy tanks produced for the Red Army.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses in the Twentieth Century |last=Krivosheev |first=G. F. |publisher=Greenhill Books |year=1997 |isbn=978-1853672804 |location=London |page=252}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Ленд-лиз и северные конвои (Lend-Lease and Northern Convoys), 1941–1945 |last=Suprun |first=Mikhail |publisher=Андреевский флаг |year=1997 |isbn=978-5-85608-081-9 |location=Moscow |page=358}}</ref> The British tanks first saw action with the 138 Independent Tank Battalion in the [[Battle of Moscow|Volga Reservoir]] on November 20, 1941.<ref>Secret Cipher Telegram. From: 30 Military Mission. To: The War Office. Recd 11/12/41. TNA WO 193/580</ref> Lend-Lease tanks constituted 30 to 40 percent of heavy and medium tank strength before Moscow at the beginning of December 1941.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hill |first=Alexander |year=2006 |title=British "Lend-Lease" Tanks and the Battle for Moscow, November–December 1941 |journal=The Journal of Slavic Military Studies |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=289–294 |doi=10.1080/13518040600697811 |s2cid=144333272 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Tanki – frontu! Zapiski sovetskogo generala |trans-title=Tanks-front! Notes of a Soviet General |last=Biriukov |first=Nikolai |publisher=Rusich |year=2005 |isbn=978-5813806612 |location=Smolensk |page=57}}</ref>

Significant numbers of British [[Churchill tank|Churchill]], Matilda and Valentine tanks were shipped to the USSR.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hill |first=Alexander |year=2007 |title= British Lend Lease Aid and the Soviet War Effort, June 1941 – June 1942|jstor= 30052890 |journal=The Journal of Military History |volume=71 |issue=3 |pages=773–808 |doi=10.1353/jmh.2007.0206 |s2cid=159715267 }}</ref>

Between June 1941 and May 1945, Britain delivered to the USSR:
* 7,411 aircraft (>3,000 Hurricanes and >4,000 other aircraft)
* 28 naval vessels:
** 1 Battleship. ([[HMS Royal Sovereign (05)|HMS Royal Sovereign]])
** 9 Destroyers.
** 4 Submarines.
** 5 Motor mine-sweepers.
** 9 Mine-sweeping trawlers.
* 5,218 tanks (including 1,388 Valentines from Canada)
* >5,000 anti-tank guns 
** 1,000 [[PIAT|P.I.A.T's]]
** 636 [[2-pounder gun|2-Pdr's]]
** 96 [[6-pounder gun|6-Pdr's]]
** 3,200 [[Boys anti-tank rifle|Boys anti-tank rifles]]
* 4,020 ambulances and trucks
* 323 machinery trucks (mobile vehicle workshops equipped with generators and all the welding and power tools required to perform heavy servicing)
* 1,212 [[Universal Carrier]]s and [[Loyd Carrier]]s (with another 1,348 from Canada)
* 1,721 motorcycles
* £1.15bn ($1.55bn) worth of aircraft engines
* 1,474 radar sets
* 4,338 radio sets
* 600 naval radar and sonar sets
* Hundreds of naval guns
* 15&nbsp;million pairs of boots
In total 4&nbsp;million tonnes of war material including food and medical supplies were delivered. The munitions totaled £308m (not including naval munitions supplied), the food and raw materials totaled £120m in 1946 index. In accordance with the Anglo-Soviet Military Supplies Agreement of June 27, 1942, military aid sent from Britain to the Soviet Union during the war was entirely free of charge.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vif2ne.org/nvk/forum/arhprint/1885711 |title=ВИФ2 NE : Ветка : Re: А разве |website=Vif2ne.org |access-date=December 30, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{citation |url=https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1946/apr/16/russia-british-empire-war-assistance |title=Russia (British Empire War Assistance) |date=April 16, 1946 |volume=421 |at=cc2513-9 |work=[[Hansard|Parliamentary Debates (Hansard)]] |access-date=December 30, 2016 |archive-date=September 26, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120926224154/http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1946/apr/16/russia-british-empire-war-assistance |url-status=live }}</ref>

Some of the 3,000 Hurricanes given to Soviets were broken up & buried after the war to avoid paying US back under the Lend-Lease legislation.<ref>[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-65955365 Ukraine finds British WW2 Hurricane planes outside Kyiv]</ref> In 2023 eight broken up planes were found buried together in a forest south of Kyiv and were excavated in an archaeological dig by the State Aviation Museum of Ukraine.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://the-past.com/news/new-pictures-show-remains-of-rare-wwii-hurricanes-found-in-ukraine/#:~:text=New%20photographs%20have%20been%20released,been%20described%20as%20exceptionally%20rare. | title=New pictures show remains of rare WWII Hurricanes found in Ukraine &#124; the Past | date=September 12, 2023 }}</ref>

<gallery mode=packed heights=160>
File:Lend-Lease x Universal Carrier x Intrarea Armatei Sovietice in Bucuresti - Bulevardul Carol.jpg|The [[Red Army]] in Bucharest near Boulevard of [[Carol I of Romania|Carol I.]] with British-supplied [[Universal Carrier]]
File:Valentine-tank-Stalin.jpg|alt=A Valentine tank destined for the Soviet Union leaves the factory in the United Kingdom.|A [[Valentine tank]] destined for the Soviet Union leaves a factory in Britain
File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-277-0850-11, Russland, zerstörter russischer Panzer.jpg|British [[Valentine tank|Mk III 'Valentine']] destroyed in the [[Soviet Union]], January 1944
</gallery>

==Reverse Lend-Lease==<!--[[Reverse Lend-Lease]] redirects here-->

{| class="wikitable floatright" style=text-align:right;
|+USSR exports to USA: Reverse Lend-Lease<ref name=RGAE>Russian State archive of Economics RGAE: Fu.413, inv.12, f.10949, page 480.</ref>
!Chrome ore
!Manganese ore
!Platinum
|-
|429,138 ton
|204,386 ton
|301,469 oz
|}
''Reverse Lend-Lease'' was the supply of equipment and services to the United States. Nearly $8&nbsp;billion (equivalent to $124&nbsp;billion today) worth of war material was provided to U.S. forces by its allies, 90% of this sum coming from the British Empire.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Schreiber|first=O.|date=Sep 1951|title=Tenth Anniversary of Lend-Lease: How America Gave Aid to Her Allies|jstor=20633372|journal=The Australian Quarterly|volume=23|issue=3|pages=64–67|doi=10.2307/20633372}}</ref> Reciprocal contributions included the [[Austin K2/Y]] military ambulance, British aviation spark plugs used in [[Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress|B-17 Flying Fortresses]],<ref name=":0" /> Canadian-made [[Fairmile B motor launch|Fairmile launches]] used in anti-submarine warfare, [[de Havilland Mosquito|Mosquito]] photo-reconnaissance aircraft, and Indian petroleum products.<ref name="FDR-1943">{{cite web|url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/report-congress-reverse-lend-lease|title=Report to Congress on Reverse Lend-Lease.|date=November 11, 1943|website=American Presidency Project |access-date=April 2, 2021}}</ref> Australia and New Zealand supplied the bulk of foodstuffs to United States forces in the South Pacific.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2Econ-c6-17.html|title=War Economy|last=Baker|first=J. V. T.|publisher=Historical Publications Branch|year=1965|location=Wellington}}</ref>

Though diminutive in comparison, the Soviet Union supplied the United States with [[chromite|chrome]] and [[manganese]] ore, [[platinum]], [[gold]] and wood.<ref name=RGAE/>
{{clear}}
In a November 1943 report to Congress, President Roosevelt said of Allied participation in reverse Lend-Lease:

{{quote|... the expenditures made by the British Commonwealth of Nations for reverse lend-lease aid furnished to the United States, and of the expansion of this program so as to include exports of materials and foodstuffs for the account of United States agencies from the United Kingdom and the British colonies, emphasizes the contribution which the British Commonwealth has made to the defense of the United States while taking its place on the battle fronts. It is an indication of the extent to which the British have been able to pool their resources with ours so that the needed weapon may be in the hands of that soldier—whatever may be his nationality—who can at the proper moment use it most effectively to defeat our common enemies.<ref name="FDR-1943" />}}

While in April 1944 Congress were briefed by the Foreign Economic Administrator, Leo T Crowley:

{{quote|Just as the RAF's operations against Germany and the invasion coasts would not have been possible on their present scale without lend-lease so the United States Eighth and Ninth air forces daylight missions from Britain would not have been possible without reverse lend-lease. Our Fortresses and Liberators take off from huge air bases built, equipped and serviced under reverse lend-lease at a cost to them of hundreds of millions of dollars. Many of our pilots fly Spitfires built in England, many more are flying American fighter planes powered by British Rolls-Royce Merlin engines, turned over to us by the British. And many of the supplies needed by our Air Force are procured for us without cost by reverse lend-lease. In fact our armed forces in Britain, ground as well as air, receive as reverse lend-lease, with no payment by us, one third of all the supplies and equipment they currently require, Britain furnishes 90% of their medical supplies and in spite of her food shortage, 20% of their food.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951d02094618u;view=1up;seq=6;size=125 |title=Extension of Lend-Lease Act : hearings before the United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Seventy-Eighth Congress, second session |date=1944-04-26 |publisher=Government Printing Office |page=2}}</ref>}}

In 1945–46, the value of Reciprocal Aid from New Zealand exceeded that of Lend-Lease, though in 1942–43, the value of Lend-Lease to New Zealand was much more than that of Reciprocal Aid. Britain also supplied extensive material assistance to American forces stationed in Europe, for example the USAAF was supplied with hundreds of Spitfire Mk V and Mk VIII fighter aircraft.

{{blockquote|The cooperation that was built up with Canada during the war was an amalgam compounded of diverse elements of which the air and land routes to Alaska, the [[Canol Road|Canol]] project, and the CRYSTAL and CRIMSON activities were the most costly in point of effort and funds expended.

... The total of defense materials and services that Canada received through lend-lease channels amounted in value to approximately $419,500,000.

... Some idea of the scope of economic collaboration can be had from the fact that from the beginning of 1942 through 1945 Canada, on her part, furnished the United States with $1,000,000,000 to $1,250,000,000 in defense materials and services.

... Although most of the actual construction of joint defense facilities, except the Alaska Highway and the Canol project, had been carried out by Canada, most of the original cost was borne by the United States. The agreement was that all temporary construction for the use of American forces and all permanent construction required by the United States forces beyond Canadian requirements would be paid for by the United States, and that the cost of all other construction of permanent value would be met by Canada. Although it was not entirely reasonable that Canada should pay for any construction that the Canadian Government considered unnecessary or that did not conform to Canadian requirements, nevertheless considerations of self-respect and national sovereignty led the Canadian Government to suggest a new financial agreement.

... The total amount that Canada agreed to pay under the new arrangement came to about $76,800,000, which was some $13,870,000 less than the United States had spent on the facilities.<ref>Conn, Stetson and Byron Fairchild. [http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/Framework/ch15.htm "Chapter XIV: The United States and Canada: Copartners in Defense."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101231112404/http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/Framework/ch15.htm |date=December 31, 2010 }} ''United States Army in World {{nobr|War II}} – The Western Hemisphere – The Framework of Hemisphere Defense'', The [[United States Army Center of Military History]]. Retrieved: 9 December 2010.</ref>}}

==Repayment==
{{Main|Anglo-American loan}}

Congress had not authorized the gift of supplies delivered after the cutoff date, so the U.S. charged for them, usually at a 90% discount. Large quantities of undelivered goods were in Britain or in transit when Lend-Lease was ended on September 2, 1945, following the [[surrender of Japan]]. Britain wished to retain some of this equipment in the immediate post-war period. In 1946, the post-war [[Anglo-American loan]] further indebted Britain to the United States. Lend-Lease items retained were sold to Britain at 10% of nominal value, giving an initial loan value of £1.075&nbsp;billion for the Lend-Lease portion of the post-war loans. Payment was to be stretched out over 50 annual payments, starting in 1951 and with five years of deferred payments, at 2% interest.<ref>{{harvnb|Kindleberger|1984|p=415}}</ref> During the war, the US lent Britain {{convert|88|e6oz|e6kg|abbr=off}} of silver. In 1946, Britain switched its coinage from silver to [[cupronickel]] as the price of silver had risen by 250% during the war due to its market scarcity, while the price of nickel matched the stamped coinage value; this recovered 20m ounces of silver per year for five years as the old coinage was progressively retired, generating a £30m net financial surplus after the US silver loan had been repaid.<ref>{{cite Hansard |jurisdiction=United Kingdom |title=Coinage Bill |url=https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1946/oct/15/coinage-bill |house=House of Commons |date=15 October 1946 |column_start=802 |column_end=845}}</ref>

The final payment of $83.3&nbsp;million (£42.5&nbsp;million), due on December 31, 2006 (repayment having been deferred in the allowed five years and during a sixth year not allowed), was made by Britain on December 29, 2006 (the last working day of the year). After this final payment, [[Ed Balls]], Britain's [[Economic Secretary to the Treasury]], formally issued thanks to the U.S. for its wartime support.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/news/britain-pays-off-final-instalment-of-us-loan-after-61-years-430118.html|first=Philip |last=Thornton|title=Britain pays off final instalment of US loan – after 61 years|date=December 29, 2006|work=The Independent|access-date=February 16, 2018|language=en-GB}}</ref>

While repayment of the interest-free loans was required after the end of the war under the act, in practice the U.S. did not expect to be repaid by the USSR after the war. The U.S. received $2 million in reverse Lend-Lease from the USSR. This was mostly in the form of landing, servicing, and refueling of transport aircraft; some industrial machinery and rare minerals were sent to the U.S. The U.S. asked for $1.3 billion at the cessation of hostilities to settle the debt, but was only offered $170 million by the USSR. The dispute remained unresolved until 1972, when the U.S. accepted an offer from the USSR to repay $722 million linked to grain shipments from the U.S., representing 25% of the initial debt with [[inflation]] taken into account, with the remainder being written off. During the war the USSR provided an unknown number of shipments of rare minerals to the US Treasury as a form of cashless repayment of Lend-Lease. This was agreed upon before the signing of the first protocol on October 1, 1941, and extension of credit. Some of these shipments were intercepted by the Germans. In May 1942, {{HMS|Edinburgh|16|6}} was sunk while carrying 465 ingots (4.5 tonnes) of Soviet gold intended for the U.S. Treasury. Of these ingots, 431 were salvaged in 1981 and a further 29 in 1986, leaving five that are not economically feasible to salvage.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.warhistoryonline.com/instant-articles/hms-edinburgh.html |title=$220 Million in Gold Bullion was Recovered From HMS Edinburgh |date=July 27, 2020 |first=Ian |last=Harvey |work=War History Online |access-date=26 December 2024}}</ref> In June 1942, {{SS|Port Nicholson|1918|6}} was sunk en route from [[Halifax, Nova Scotia|Halifax]] to New York, allegedly with Soviet [[platinum]], gold, and diamonds aboard; the wreck was discovered in 2008.<ref>{{Cite news |author1=Henderson, Barney |author2=agencies |date=February 2, 2012 |title=Treasure hunters 'find $3&nbsp;billion in platinum on sunken WW2 British ship' |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/history/world-war-two/9056233/Treasure-hunters-find-3-billion-in-platinum-on-sunken-WW2-British-ship.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314010303/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/history/world-war-two/9056233/Treasure-hunters-find-3-billion-in-platinum-on-sunken-WW2-British-ship.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=March 14, 2012 |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |location=London |access-date=January 12, 2017}}</ref> However, none of this cargo has been salvaged, and no documentation of its treasure has been produced.<ref name=AP>{{cite news|url=http://www.metrowestdailynews.com/news/x2124807137/British-cast-doubt-on-treasure-find|title=British cast doubt on treasure find|agency=Associated Press|date=5 February 2012|access-date=6 February 2012}}</ref>

==Legacy==
In 2022—citing the precedent set by the 1941 Lend-Lease program (and its extensions) for U.S. World War II aid to Britain and others in Europe—the U.S. Congress passed, and President [[Joe Biden]] signed, the [[Ukraine Democracy Defense Lend-Lease Act of 2022]], to supply military, economic and humanitarian aid to Ukraine in its defense against the [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]].<ref name="congress_2022_04_28_reuters">Zengerle, Patricia: [https://www.reuters.com/world/us-congress-revives-world-war-two-era-lend-lease-program-ukraine-2022-04-28/  "U.S. Congress revives World War Two-era "Lend-Lease" program for Ukraine,"] April 28, 2022, [[Reuters]], retrieved February 8, 2024</ref><ref name="biden_2022_05_09_wapo">Wang, Amy B.: [https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2022/05/09/president-biden-ukraine-lend-lease-signing/ "Biden signs Ukraine lend-lease act into law, expediting military aid,"] May 9, 2022, ''[[Washington Post]],'' retrieved February 8, 2024</ref><ref name="defense_gov">Vergun, David: [https://www.defense.gov/News/News-Stories/Article/Article/3025302/biden-signs-lend-lease-act-to-supply-more-security-assistance-to-ukraine/ "Biden Signs Lend-Lease Act to Supply More Security Assistance to Ukraine,"] May 9, 2022, ''[[DOD News]]'', [[U.S. Department of Defense]], retrieved February 8, 2024</ref>

==See also==
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Allied technological cooperation during World War II]]
* [[ALSIB]]
* [[Arctic convoys of World War II]]
* [[Arms Export Control Act]]
* [[Billion Dollar Gift and Mutual Aid]]
* [[Banff-class sloop|''Banff''-class sloop]]
* [[Battle of the Atlantic]]
* [[Cash and carry (World War II)]]
* [[Destroyers for Bases Agreement]]
* [[Houses for Britain]]
* [[Lend-Lease Sherman tanks]]
* [[Military production during World War II]]
* [[Northwest Staging Route]]
* [[Operation Cedar]]
* [[Persian Corridor]]
* [[Project Hula]]
* [[Tizard Mission]]
* [[Ukraine Democracy Defense Lend-Lease Act of 2022]]
{{Div col end}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=nb}}

==References==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
{{Refbegin}}
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* ''Twenty-first Report to Congress on Lend-Lease Operations,'' p.&nbsp;25.
* {{citation |last=Weeks |first=Albert L. |title=Russia's Life-Saver: Lend-Lease Aid to the U.S.S.R. in World War II |location=Lanham, Maryland |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-7391-0736-2}}.
* {{citation |last=Weiss |first=Stuart L |url=https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=10773673 |title=The President's Man: Leo Crowley and Franklin Roosevelt in Peace and War |location=Carbondale, Illinois |publisher=Southern Illinois University Press |year=1996 |isbn=0-8093-1996-9 |access-date=September 2, 2017 |archive-date=January 5, 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130105102758/http://www.questia.com/read/10773673/the-president-s-man-leo-crowley-and-franklin-roosevelt |url-status=dead }}
* Woods, Randall Bennett. [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=51917949 ''A Changing of the Guard: Anglo-American Relations, 1941–1946.''] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130104135459/http://www.questia.com/read/51917949/a-changing-of-the-guard-anglo-american-relations |date=January 4, 2013 }} Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990. {{ISBN|0-8078-1877-1}}.
* {{cite book |last=Котельников |first=В.Р. |url=https://www.labirint.ru/books/491223/ |title=Авиационный ленд-лиз |trans-title=Aviation Lend-Lease |publisher=Фонд «Русские Витязи» |date=2015 |isbn=978-5-9906036-3-9}}
{{Refend}}

===Primary sources===
*  Central Statistical Office. ''Statistical digest of the war'' (1951) official homefront data, social and economic, as well as war production, 1939–1945. [https://archive.org/details/b32184311/page/n6/mode/1up online; can be downloaded]; Lend-Lease on pp.&nbsp;71–72, 198

==External links==
{{Wikisource|Lend-Lease Acts|Lend-Lease}}
{{Commons category|Lend-Lease}}
* [http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/ref/LL-Ship/index.html ''Lend-Lease Shipments, World {{nobr|War II}}''] (Washington: War Department, 1946)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120512142818/http://lend-lease.airforce.ru/english/index.htm Lend-Lease to the Soviet Union]
* [https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2Econ-c6-17.html Official New Zealand war history of Lend-lease, from ''War Economy'']
* [https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2Econ-c19-25.html Official New Zealand war history; termination of Mutual Aid from 21 December 1945, from ''War Economy'']
* [http://www.lend-lease.ru Allies and Lend-Lease Museum, Moscow] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090808063640/http://www.lend-lease.ru/ |date=August 8, 2009 }}
* [http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1944/1944%20-%201123.html "Reverse Lend-Lease"] a 1944 ''Flight'' article reporting a speech by President Roosevelt
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20031212063805/http://www.o5m6.de/routes.html Lend lease routes] – map and summary of quantities of LL to USSR
* {{cite web |url=https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/treasures_of_congress/page_20.html |title=Congress, Neutrality, and Lend-Lease |website=Treasures of Congress |publisher=U.S. National Archives and Records Administration}}
* [https://www.historians.org/about-aha-and-membership/aha-history-and-archives/gi-roundtable-series/pamphlets/em-13-how-shall-lend-lease-accounts-be-settled-(1945)/how-much-of-what-goods-have-we-sent-to-which-allies How Much of What Goods Have We Sent to Which Allies ?] on the [[American Historical Association]]
* [http://cgsc.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p4013coll8/id/2421 United States Army in World War II, Statistics: Lend-Lease – World {{nobr|War II}} Operational Documents]
** [http://cgsc.contentdm.oclc.org/utils/getdownloaditem/collection/p4013coll8/id/2421/filename/2410.PDF/mapsto/pdf/type/singleitem U.S. Army in WW II, Statistics: Lend-Lease – Chief of Military History, 15 Dec 1952] — pdf. direct download link

{{World War II}}
{{USWWII}}
{{Soviet Union–United States relations|state=collapsed}}
{{Franklin D. Roosevelt}}
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[[Category:1941 in international relations]]
[[Category:1940s in economic history]]
[[Category:1941 in the United States]]
[[Category:British Empire in World War II]]
[[Category:Economic aid during World War II]]
[[Category:Foreign trade of the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Foreign trade of Russia]]
[[Category:Military history of the United States during World War II]]
[[Category:Military logistics of World War II]]
[[Category:Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt]]
[[Category:Soviet Union–United States relations]]
[[Category:United Kingdom in World War II]]
[[Category:United Kingdom–United States relations]]
[[Category:United States federal commerce legislation]]
[[Category:United States foreign relations legislation]]
[[Category:United States military aid]]