View source for Lapis lazuli

{{short description|Metamorphic rock containing lazurite, prized for its intense blue color}}
{{Distinguish|Lazulite}}
{{For-multi|the Fabergé egg|Lapis Lazuli (Fabergé egg)|the transit route|Lapis Lazuli corridor|the ''Steven Universe'' character|List of Steven Universe characters#Lapis Lazuli{{!}}List of ''Steven Universe'' characters § Lapis Lazuli}}
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{{Infobox rock
|name = Lapis lazuli
|type = Metamorphic
|image = Lapis-lazuli hg.jpg
|image_size = 250px
|caption = Lapis lazuli in its natural state, with [[pyrite]] [[inclusion (mineral)|inclusions]] (specimen from [[Afghanistan]])
|composition = [[Lazurite]]
|composition_secondary = A mixture of other minerals, often including pyrite
}}

'''Lapis lazuli''' ({{IPAc-en|UK|ˌ|l|æ|p|ɪ|s|_|ˈ|l|æ|z|(|j|)|ʊ|l|i|,_|ˈ|l|æ|ʒ|ʊ|-|,_|-|ˌ|l|i}}; {{IPAc-en|US|ˈ|l|æ|z|(|j|)|ə|l|i|,_|ˈ|l|æ|ʒ|ə|-|,_|-|ˌ|l|i|,|_|l|æ|ˈ|z|uː|l|i}}) is a deep-blue [[metamorphic rock]] used as a [[Gemstone|semi-precious stone]] that has been prized since [[ancient history|antiquity]] for its intense color. Its name originates from the Persian word for the gem, ''lāžward'',<ref>{{Cite web |title=lapis lazuli |url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/lapis-lazuli?q=lapis+lazuli |access-date=6 April 2024 |website=Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary}}</ref> and serves as the root for the word for "[[blue]]" in several languages, including Spanish and Portuguese ''azul'' and English [[Azure (color)|azure]]. Lapis lazuli is a rock composed primarily of the minerals [[lazurite]], [[pyrite]], [[diopside]], and [[calcite]]. As early as the [[7th millennium BC]], lapis lazuli was mined in the [[Sar-i Sang]] mines,<ref name="Bomford-2009">David Bomford and Ashok Roy, ''A Closer Look- Colour'' (2009), National Gallery Company, London, ({{ISBN|978-1-85709-442-8}})</ref> in [[Shortugai]], and in other mines in [[Badakhshan]] province in modern northeast [[Afghanistan]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Moorey|first=Peter Roger|title=Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: the Archaeological Evidence|year=1999|publisher=Eisenbrauns|isbn=978-1-57506-042-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P_Ixuott4doC&q=Lapis+lazuli+++mines+in+the+Badakhshan&pg=PA86|pages=86–87|access-date=2020-11-08|archive-date=2015-10-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151003232804/https://books.google.com/books?id=P_Ixuott4doC&pg=PA86&dq=Lapis+lazuli+++mines+in+the+Badakhshan&hl=en&ei=sW6_TvWKBIKr8AOTn623BA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&sqi=2&ved=0CDkQ6AEwAQ|url-status=live}}</ref> Lapis lazuli artifacts, dated to 7570 BC, have been found at [[Bhirrana]], which is the oldest site of [[Indus Valley Civilisation]].<ref name="excnagasi-2020">{{Cite web|title=Excavation Bhirrana {{!}} ASI Nagpur|url=http://excnagasi.in/excavation_bhirrana.html|access-date=2020-08-21|website=excnagasi.in|archive-date=2020-08-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804104933/http://excnagasi.in/excavation_bhirrana.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Lapis was highly valued by the Indus Valley Civilisation (3300–1900 BC).<ref name="excnagasi-2020" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sarkar|first1=Anindya|last2=Mukherjee|first2=Arati Deshpande|last3=Bera|first3=M. K.|last4=Das|first4=B.|last5=Juyal|first5=Navin|last6=Morthekai|first6=P.|last7=Deshpande|first7=R. D.|last8=Shinde|first8=V. S.|last9=Rao|first9=L. S.|date=2016-05-25|title=Oxygen isotope in archaeological bioapatites from India: Implications to climate change and decline of Bronze Age Harappan civilization|journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|article-number=26555|doi=10.1038/srep26555|pmid=27222033|pmc=4879637|bibcode=2016NatSR...626555S|s2cid=4425978|issn=2045-2322|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=DIKSHIT|first=K.N.|title=The Rise of Indian Civilization: Recent Archaeological Evidence from the Plains of 'Lost' River Saraswati and Radio-Metric Dates|date=2012|journal=Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute|volume=72/73|pages=1–42|jstor=43610686|issn=0045-9801}}</ref> Lapis beads have been found at [[Neolithic]] burials in [[Mehrgarh]], the [[Caucasus]], and as far away as [[Mauritania]].<ref name=bc1995>{{Harvcolnb|Bowersox|Chamberlin|1995}}</ref> It was used in the [[Tutankhamun's mask|funeral mask of Tutankhamun]] (1341–1323 BC).<ref>Alessandro Bongioanni & Maria Croce</ref>

By the end of the [[Middle Ages]], Europe began importing lapis lazuli to grind it into powder and make [[ultramarine]] pigment. Ultramarine was used by some of the most important artists of the [[Renaissance]] and [[Baroque]], including [[Masaccio]], [[Perugino]], [[Titian]] and [[Vermeer]]; it was often reserved for the clothing of the central figures of their paintings, especially the [[Virgin Mary]]. Ultramarine has also been found in [[dental tartar]] of [[Middle Ages|medieval]] [[nuns]] and [[scribes]], perhaps as a result of licking their painting brushes while producing medieval texts and [[Illuminated manuscript|manuscripts]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Why a Medieval Woman Had Lapis Lazuli Hidden in Her Teeth |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2019/01/the-woman-with-lapis-lazuli-in-her-teeth/579760/ |first=Sarah |last=Zhang |publisher=[[The Atlantic]] |date=January 9, 2019 |access-date=May 9, 2020 |archive-date=May 8, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200508110154/https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2019/01/the-woman-with-lapis-lazuli-in-her-teeth/579760/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==History==
Excavations from [[Tepe Gawra]] show that lapis lazuli was introduced to [[Mesopotamia]] approximately in the late [[Ubaid period]], c. 4900–4000 BCE.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Herrmann |first=Georgina |date=April 1968  |title=Lapis Lazuli: The Early Phases of its Trade |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/iraq/article/abs/lapis-lazuli-the-early-phases-of-itstrade/56AE13DC2B65517140129A493FED4335 |journal=IRAQ |language=en |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=21–57 |doi=10.2307/4199836 |jstor=4199836 |issn=0021-0889|url-access=subscription }}</ref> A traditional understanding was that the Lapis lazuli was mined some 1,500 miles to the east {{Ndash}} in [[Badakhshan]]. Indeed, the [[Persian language|Persian]] {{lang|fa|لاژورد}} {{Transliteration|fa|lāžavard/lāževard}}, also written {{lang|fa|لاجورد}} {{Transliteration|fa|lājevard}}, is commonly interpreted as having an origin in a local place name.

From the Persian, the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] {{lang|ar|لازورد}} {{Transliteration|ar|lāzaward}} is the etymological source of both the English word ''azure'' (via Old French ''azur'') and [[Medieval Latin]] {{lang|la|lazulum}}, which came to mean 'heaven' or 'sky'. To disambiguate, {{lang|la|lapis lazulī}} ("stone of {{lang|la|lazulum}}") was used to refer to the stone itself, and is the term ultimately imported into [[Middle English]].<ref name="Senning-2007">{{cite book |last=Senning |first=Alexander |url=https://archive.org/details/elseviersdiction00senn |title=Elsevier's Dictionary of Chemoetymology |publisher=Elsevier |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-444-52239-9 |location=Amsterdam |page=[https://archive.org/details/elseviersdiction00senn/page/n232 224] |chapter=lapis lazuli (lazurite) |url-access=limited}}</ref> {{lang|la|Lazulum}} is used as a root for the word for blue in several languages, including Spanish and Portuguese {{lang|es|azul}}.<ref name="Senning-2007" /><ref name="Weekley-1967">{{cite book |last=Weekley |first=Ernest |url=https://archive.org/details/etymologicaldict00week |title=An Etymological Dictionary of Modern English |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1967 |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/etymologicaldict00week/page/n50 97] |chapter=azure |url-access=registration}}</ref>

Mines in northeast Afghanistan continue to be a major source of lapis lazuli. Important amounts are also produced from mines west of [[Lake Baikal]] in Russia, and in the [[Andes]] mountains in Chile which is the source that the [[Inca]] used to carve artifacts and jewelry. Smaller quantities are mined in Pakistan, Italy, Mongolia, the United States, and Canada.<ref name="ICGA">{{Cite web|url=https://www.gemstone.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=117:sapphire&catid=1:gem-by-gem&Itemid=14|title=Lapis Lazuli|publisher=International Colored Gemstone Association|website=www.gemstone.org|access-date=2020-02-13|archive-date=2020-03-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200321162641/https://www.gemstone.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=117%3Asapphire&catid=1%3Agem-by-gem&Itemid=14|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Science and uses==
===Composition===
The most important mineral component of lapis lazuli is [[lazurite]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mindat.org/min-2330.html|title=Lapis lazuli: Mineral information, data and localities.|website=www.mindat.org|access-date=2020-02-13|archive-date=2020-01-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129083053/https://www.mindat.org/min-2330.html|url-status=live}}</ref> (25% to 40%),{{citation needed|date=August 2024}} a blue [[feldspathoid]] [[silicate mineral]] of the sodalite family, with the formula Na<sub>7</sub>Ca(Al<sub>6</sub>Si<sub>6</sub>O<sub>24</sub>)(SO<sub>4</sub>)(S<sub>3</sub>) ·H<sub>2</sub>O .<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mindat.org/min-2357.html|title=Lazurite: Mineral information, data and localities.|website=www.mindat.org|access-date=2020-02-13|archive-date=2020-04-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200403042835/https://www.mindat.org/min-2357.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Most lapis lazuli also contains [[calcite]] (white), and [[pyrite]] (metallic yellow). Some samples of lapis lazuli contain [[augite]], [[diopside]], [[enstatite]], [[mica]], [[hauynite]], [[hornblende]], [[nosean]], and sulfur-rich [[löllingite]] ''geyerite''.

Lapis lazuli usually occurs in crystalline [[marble]] as a result of [[contact metamorphism]].

===Color===

[[File:Lapis-Lazuli microscope x240.jpg|thumb|upright|Lapis lazuli seen through a microscope (x240 magnification)]]

The intense blue color is due to the presence of the [[trisulfur]] [[radical anion]] ({{chem|S|3|•−}}) in the crystal.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Boros | first1 = E. | last2 = Earle | first2 = M. J. | last3 = Gilea | first3 = M. A. | last4 = Metlen | first4 = A. | last5 = Mudring | first5 = A.-V. | last6 = Rieger | first6 = F. | last7 = Robertson | first7 = A. J. | last8 = Seddon | first8 = K. R. | last9 = Tomaszowska | first9 = A. A. | last10 = Trusov | first10 = L. | last11 = Vyle | first11 = J. S. | year = 2010 | title = On the dissolution of non-metallic solid elements (sulfur, selenium, tellurium and phosphorus) in ionic liquids | url = https://works.bepress.com/anja_mudring/33/download/ | journal = Chem. Comm. | volume = 46 | issue = 5 | pages = 716–718 | doi = 10.1039/b910469k | pmid = 20087497 | access-date = 2018-04-20 | archive-date = 2017-09-22 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170922042128/https://works.bepress.com/anja_mudring/33/download/ | url-status = live | url-access = subscription }}</ref> The presence of disulfur ({{chem|S|2|•−}}) and tetrasulfur ({{chem|S|4|•−}}) radicals can shift the color towards yellow or red, respectively.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ganio |first1=Monica |last2=Pouyet |first2=Emeline S. |last3=Webb |first3=Samuel M. |last4=Patterson |first4=Catherine M. Schmidt |last5=Walton |first5=Marc S. |date=2018-03-01 |title=From lapis lazuli to ultramarine blue: investigating Cennino Cennini's recipe using sulfur K-edge XANES |journal=Pure and Applied Chemistry |language=en |volume=90 |issue=3 |pages=463–475 |doi=10.1515/pac-2017-0502 |s2cid=102593589 |issn=1365-3075 |doi-access=free }}</ref> These radical anions substitute for the chloride anions within the [[sodalite]] structure.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Reinen |first1=Dirk |last2=Lindner |first2=Gottlieb-Georg |date=1999-01-01 |title=The nature of the chalcogen colour centres in ultramarine-type solids |url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/1999/cs/a704920j |journal=Chemical Society Reviews |language=en |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=75–84 |doi=10.1039/A704920J |issn=1460-4744 |access-date=2022-06-16 |archive-date=2022-06-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220616174412/https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/1999/CS/a704920j |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> The {{chem|S|3|•−}} radical anion exhibits a visible absorption band in the range 595–620&nbsp;nm with high molar absorptivity, leading to its bright blue color.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chivers |first1=Tristram |last2=Elder |first2=Philip J. W. |date=2013-06-21 |title=Ubiquitous trisulfur radical anion: fundamentals and applications in materials science, electrochemistry, analytical chemistry and geochemistry |url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2013/cs/c3cs60119f |journal=Chemical Society Reviews |language=en |volume=42 |issue=14 |pages=5996–6005 |doi=10.1039/C3CS60119F |pmid=23628896 |issn=1460-4744 |access-date=2022-06-16 |archive-date=2022-06-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220616174349/https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2013/cs/c3cs60119f |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

===Sources===
Lapis lazuli is found in limestone in the [[Kokcha River]] valley of [[Badakhshan]] province in north-eastern Afghanistan, where the [[Sar-i Sang]] mine deposits have been worked for more than 6,000 years.<ref name="Oldershaw-2003">{{Harvcolnb|Oldershaw|2003}}</ref> Afghanistan was the source of lapis for the ancient Persian, Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations, as well as the later Greeks and Romans. Ancient Egyptians obtained the material through trade with Mesopotamians, as part of [[Egypt–Mesopotamia relations]] and from ancient [[Ethiopia]] . During the height of the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]], approximately 2000 BC, the Harappan colony, now known as [[Shortugai]], was established near the lapis mines.<ref name=bc1995/>

In addition to the Afghan deposits, lapis is also extracted in the [[Andes]] (near [[Ovalle, Chile|Ovalle]], [[Chile]]); and to the west of [[Lake Baikal]] in Siberia, Russia, at the Tultui lazurite deposit. It is mined in smaller amounts in [[Angola]], Argentina, [[Burma]], [[Ethiopia]], Pakistan, Canada, Italy, India, and in the United States in [[California]] and [[Colorado]].<ref name="ICGA"/>

===Uses and substitutes===
Lapis takes an excellent polish and can be made into jewellery, carvings, boxes, [[mosaic]]s, ornaments, small statues, and vases. Interior items and finishing of buildings can be also made with lapis. During the [[Renaissance]], lapis was ground and processed to make the [[pigment]] [[ultramarine]] for use in [[fresco]]es and [[oil painting]]. Its usage as a pigment in oil paint largely ended during the early 19th century, when a chemically identical synthetic variety became available.

Lapis lazuli is commercially synthesized or simulated by the Gillson process, which is used to make artificial [[ultramarine]] and [[Hydrate|hydrous]] [[zinc phosphate]]s.<ref>Read, Peter (2005). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=t-OQO3Wk-JsC&pg=PA185 Gemmology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161124003535/https://books.google.com/books?id=t-OQO3Wk-JsC&pg=PA185 |date=2016-11-24 }}'', Elsevier, p. 185. {{ISBN|0-7506-6449-5}}.</ref> [[Spinel]] or [[sodalite]], or dyed [[jasper]] or [[howlite]], can be substituted for lapis.<ref>[http://www.gemstonebuzz.com/lapis-lazuli Lapis lazuli] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191027192333/http://www.gemstonebuzz.com/lapis-lazuli |date=2019-10-27 }}, Gemstone Buzz.</ref>

<gallery>
File:Lazurite.jpg|Crystals of lazurite (the main mineral in lapis lazuli) from the Sar-i Sang Mining District in Afghanistan
File:Lapis lazuli block.jpg|A polished block of lapis lazuli
File:Natural ultramarine pigment.jpg|Natural ultramarine pigment made from ground lapis lazuli. During the [[High Middle Ages|Middle Ages]] and [[Renaissance]] it was the most expensive pigment available (gold being second) and was often reserved for depicting the robes of [[Angels]] or the [[Virgin Mary]]
File:19th Century lapis lazuli and diamond pendant.jpg|19th-century lapis lazuli and diamond pendant
</gallery>

==History and art==
===In the ancient world===
{{Further information|Art of ancient Egypt#Lapis lazuli}}
Lapis lazuli has been mined in Afghanistan and exported to the Mediterranean world and South Asia since the [[Neolithic]] age,<ref name="Moorey-1999">{{cite book|last=Moorey|first=Peter Roger|title=Ancient mesopotamian materials and industries: the archaeological evidence|year=1999|publisher=Eisenbrauns|isbn=978-1-57506-042-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P_Ixuott4doC&q=Lapis+lazuli+++mines+in+the+Badakhshan&pg=PA86|pages=86–87|access-date=2020-11-08|archive-date=2015-10-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151003232804/https://books.google.com/books?id=P_Ixuott4doC&pg=PA86&dq=Lapis+lazuli+++mines+in+the+Badakhshan&hl=en&ei=sW6_TvWKBIKr8AOTn623BA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&sqi=2&ved=0CDkQ6AEwAQ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.jewellerymonthly.com/what-is-a-gemstone/|title=A complete guide to Gemstones|last=Monthly|first=Jewellery|date=2015-04-02|work=Jewellery & Watch Magazine {{!}} Jewellery news, jewellery fashion and trends, jewellery designer reviews, jewellery education, opinions {{!}} Wrist watch reviews|access-date=2017-08-28|language=en-GB|archive-date=2017-08-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828191332/http://www.jewellerymonthly.com/what-is-a-gemstone/|url-status=live}}</ref> along the ancient trade route between Afghanistan and the [[Indus Valley]] dating to the 7th millennium BC. Quantities of these beads have also been found at 4th millennium BC settlements in Northern [[Mesopotamia]], and at the [[Bronze Age]] site of [[Shahr-e Sukhteh]] in southeast Iran (3rd millennium BC). A dagger with a lapis handle, a bowl inlaid with lapis, amulets, beads, and inlays representing eyebrows and beards, were found in the Royal Tombs of the Sumerian city-state of [[Ur]] from the 3rd millennium BC.<ref name="Moorey-1999"/>

Lapis was also used in ancient Persia, Mesopotamia by the [[Akkadians]], [[Assyria]]ns, and [[Babylonians]] for [[Cylinder seal|seals]] and jewelry. It is mentioned several times in the Mesopotamian poem, the [[Epic of Gilgamesh]] (17th–18th century BC), one of the oldest known works of literature. The [[Statue of Ebih-Il]], a 3rd millennium BC statue found in the ancient city-state of [[Mari, Syria|Mari]] in modern-day [[Syria]], now in the [[Louvre]], uses lapis lazuli inlays for the irises of the eyes.<ref name="Claire">{{cite web|url=http://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/ebih-il-superintendent-mari|title=Ebih-Il, the Superintendent of Mari|last=Claire|first=Iselin|publisher=[[Musée du Louvre]]|access-date=10 October 2012|archive-date=30 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121230075703/http://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/ebih-il-superintendent-mari|url-status=live}}</ref>

In ancient Egypt, lapis lazuli was a favorite stone for amulets and ornaments such as [[Scarab (artifact)|scarabs]]. Lapis jewellery has been found at excavations of the [[Predynastic Egypt]]ian site [[Naqada]] (3300–3100 BC). At [[Karnak]], the relief carvings of [[Thutmose III]] (1479–1429 BC) show fragments and barrel-shaped pieces of lapis lazuli being delivered to him as tribute. Powdered lapis was used as eyeshadow by [[Cleopatra]].<ref name=bc1995/><ref>[http://indianapublicmedia.org/amomentofscience/cleopatra-wear-makeup/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004224254/http://indianapublicmedia.org/amomentofscience/cleopatra-wear-makeup/|date=2013-10-04}} Moment of Science site, Indiana Public Media</ref>

Jewelry made of lapis lazuli has also been found at [[Mycenae]] attesting to relations between the Myceneans and the developed civilizations of Egypt and the East.<ref>Alcestis Papademetriou, ''Mycenae'', John S. Latsis Public Benefit Foundation, 2015, p. 32.</ref>

[[Pliny the Elder]] wrote that lapis lazuli is "opaque and sprinkled with specks of gold".<ref>{{Cite book |last=King |first=Charles William |title=Antique Gems: Their Origin, Uses, and Value as Interpreters of Ancient History; and as Illustrative of Ancient Art: With Hints to Gem Collectors |year=1860 |location=London |page=44 |language=en}}</ref> Because the stone combines the blue of the heavens and golden glitter of the sun, it was emblematic of success in the old Jewish tradition.{{citation needed|date=September 2024}} In the early Christian tradition lapis lazuli was regarded as the stone of [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]].{{citation needed|date=September 2024}}

In late classical times and as late as the Middle Ages, lapis lazuli was often called [[sapphire]] (''sapphirus'' in Latin, ''sappir'' in Hebrew),<ref>{{cite book | last = Schumann | first = Walter | others = trans. Annette Englander & Daniel Shea | title = Gemstones of the World | orig-date = 2002 | edition = Newly revised & expanded 3rd | year = 2006 | publisher = Sterling | location = New York | page = 102 | chapter = Sapphire | quote =In antiquity and as late as the Middle Ages, the name sapphire was understood to mean what is today described as lapis lazuli.}}</ref> though it had little to do with the stone today known as the blue [[corundum]] variety sapphire. In his book on stones, the Greek scientist [[Theophrastus]] described "the sapphirus, which is speckled with gold," a description which matches lapis lazuli.<ref>Theophrastus, ''On Stones'' (De Lapidibus) – IV-23, translated by D.E. Eichholtz, Oxford University Press, 1965.</ref>
[[File:Meisje_met_de_parel.jpg|thumb|''[[Girl with a Pearl Earring]]'' by [[Vermeer]]]]

There are many references to "sapphire" in the [[Old Testament]], but most scholars agree that, since sapphire was not known before the Roman Empire, they most likely are references to lapis lazuli. For instance, Exodus 24:10: "And they saw the God of Israel, and there was under his feet as it were a paved work of a sapphire stone..." (KJV). The words used in the Latin Vulgate Bible in this citation are "quasi opus lapidis sapphirini", the terms for lapis lazuli.<ref>Pearlie Braswell-Tripp (2013), ''Real Diamonds and Precious Stones of the Bible'' {{ISBN|978-1-4797-9644-1}}</ref> Modern translations of the Bible, such as the New Living Translation Second Edition,<ref>"In His Image Devotional Bible" {{ISBN|978-1-4143-3763-0}}</ref> refer to lapis lazuli in most instances instead of sapphire.

=== Vermeer ===
[[Johannes Vermeer]] used lapis lazuli paint in the ''[[Girl with a Pearl Earring]]'' painting.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.essentialvermeer.com/palette/palette_ultramarine.html |title=Vermeer's Palette: Natural Ultramarine |access-date=2022-06-23 |archive-date=2021-11-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211123183602/http://www.essentialvermeer.com/palette/palette_ultramarine.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |title=Out of the blue: Vermeer's use of ultramarine in Girl with a Pearl Earring |year=2020 |doi=10.1186/s40494-020-00364-5 |last1=Van Loon |first1=Annelies |last2=Gambardella |first2=Alessa A. |last3=Gonzalez |first3=Victor |last4=Cotte |first4=Marine |last5=De Nolf |first5=Wout |last6=Keune |first6=Katrien |last7=Leonhardt |first7=Emilien |last8=De Groot |first8=Suzan |last9=Proaño Gaibor |first9=Art Ness |last10=Vandivere |first10=Abbie |journal=Heritage Science |volume=8 |article-number=25 |s2cid=211540737 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Yeats ===
The poet, [[W. B. Yeats|William Butler Yeats]], describes a figurine of sculpted lapis lazuli in a poem entitled "Lapis Lazuli". The sculpture of three men from China, a bird, and a musical instrument serves in the poem as a reminder of "gaiety" in the face of tragedy.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Labistour |first1=Marion |last2=Yeats |first2=W. B. |date=1966 |title=Lapis Lazuli |journal=Critical Survey |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=13–16 |jstor=41553715 |issn=0011-1570}}</ref>

{{clear}}

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
File:Bull LACMA M.71.73.4.jpg|A bovine with eyes decorated with lapis lazuli. [[Fertile Crescent]], [[Sumer]]ian, 889-853 B.C. 
File:Oriental Institute Museum. ORLY? (5948770604).jpg|[[Sumer]]ian bald clean-shaven male worshipper head, 2600–2500 BC; [[gypsum]], shell, lapis lazuli and [[bitumen]]; from [[Nippur]] ([[Iraq]]); Museum of the [[Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures]] (Chicago)
File:Necklace beads MET DP104225.jpg|Sumerian necklace beads; 2600–2500 BC; gold and lapis lazuli; length: {{convert|54|cm|in|abbr=on}}; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City)
File:Necklace MET an33.35.47.jpg|Sumerian necklace; 2600–2500 BC; gold and lapis lazuli; length: {{convert|22.5|cm|in|abbr=on}}; from the [[Royal Cemetery at Ur]] (Iraq); Metropolitan Museum of Art
File:Scarab Finger Ring MET 26.7.755 top.jpg|[[Ancient Egypt]]ian scarab finger ring; 1850–1750&nbsp;BC; lapis lazuli scarab set in gold plate and on a gold wire ring lapis-lazuli; diameter: {{convert|2.5|cm|in|abbr=on}}, the scarab: {{convert|1.8|cm|in|abbr=on}}; Metropolitan Museum of Art
File:Conical seal MET vsz1999 325 097.jpg|Neo-Babylonian conical seal; 7th–6th century BC; lapis lazuli; height: {{convert|2.7|cm|in|abbr=on}}, diameter: {{convert|2.1|cm|in|abbr=on}}; Metropolitan Museum of Art
File:Plaque- Wedjat Eye MET 30.8.1053 view 2.jpg|Ancient Egyptian plaque with an [[Eye of Horus]]; 664–332 BC; lapis lazuli; length: {{convert|1.8|cm|in|abbr=on}}, width: {{convert|1.6|cm|in|abbr=on}}; Metropolitan Museum of Art
File:Lapis lazuli ring stone MET DP261442 (cropped).jpg|Greek or Roman ring stone; lapis lazuli; {{convert|2.1|x|1.6|x|0.3|cm|in|abbr=on}}; Metropolitan Museum of Art
File:Bead ornament with lapis lazuli MET sf951625color.jpg|Roman bead ornament; gold and lapis lazuli; {{convert|3|×|1.8|×|0.5|cm|in|abbr=on}}; Metropolitan Museum of Art
File:Lapis lazuli oval set in silver ring.jpg|20th century silver ring with polished lapis oval; {{convert|2|x|2.4|x|1|cm|in|abbr=on}}
File:Elephant carved in lapis lazuli Length 7 cm arp.jpg|Elephant carved from lapis lazuli. Length {{convert|7|cm|in|abbr=on}}.
File:Lapis lazuli, Smithsonian Objects of Wonder.jpg|Large lapis lazuli specimen from Afghanistan's [[Hindu Kush]] mountains. [[National Museum of Natural History]] (Washington, D.C.)
</gallery>

==See also==
* {{annotated link|Dvārakā–Kamboja route}}
* {{annotated link|Hauyne}}
* {{annotated link|Lapis armenus}}
* {{annotated link|Sar-i Sang}}
* {{annotated link|Shades of blue}}
* {{annotated link|Ultramarine}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
* Bakhtiar, Lailee McNair, ''Afghanistan's Blue Treasure Lapis Lazuli'', Front Porch Publishing, 2011, {{ISBN|978-0615573700}}
* Bariand, Pierre, "Lapis Lazuli", Mineral Digest, Vol 4 Winter 1972.
* {{Cite book | last1=Bowersox | first1=Gary W. | last2=Chamberlin | first2=Bonita E. | year=1995 |title=Gemstones of Afghanistan | location=Tucson, AZ | publisher=Geoscience Press}}
* [[Georgina Herrmann|Herrmann, Georgina]], "Lapis Lazuli: The Early Phases of Its Trade", Oxford University Dissertation, 1966.
* Korzhinskij, D. S., "Gisements bimetasomatiques de philogophite et de lazurite de l'Archen du pribajkale", Traduction par Mr. Jean Sagarzky-B.R.G.M., 1944.
* Lapparent A. F., Bariand, P. et Blaise, J., "Une visite au gisement de lapis lazuli de Sar-e-Sang du Hindu Kouch, Afghanistan," C.R. Somm.S.G.P.p.&nbsp;30, 1964.
* {{Cite book | last = Oldershaw | first = Cally |author-link=Cally Oldershaw |title=Firefly Guide to Gems |year=2003 |publisher=Firefly Books | location = Toronto }}.
* Wise, Richard W., ''Secrets of the Gem Trade: The Connoisseur's Guide to Precious Gemstones'', 2016 {{ISBN|9780972822329}}
* Wyart J. Bariand P, Filippi J., "Le Lapis Lazuli de Sar-e-SAng", Revue de Geographie Physique et de Geologie Dynamique (2) Vol. XIV Pasc. 4 pp.&nbsp;443–448, Paris, 1972.

==External links==
{{Wiktionary|lapis lazuli}}
{{commons}}
* [http://www.gemstone.org/gem-by-gem/english/lapis.html Lapis lazuli] at Gemstone.org
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090101082000/http://ist-socrates.berkeley.edu/~eps2/wisc/Lect16.html Documentation from online course produced by University of California at Berkeley]
* [http://www.mineral-exploration.de/mepub/lapislazuli.pdf Lapislazuli: Occurrence, Mining and Market Potential of a blue Mineral Pigment]
* {{Cite NSRW|wstitle=Lapis Lazuli|short=x}}
* [https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2019/01/the-woman-with-lapis-lazuli-in-her-teeth/579760/ "Why a Medieval Woman Had Lapis Lazuli Hidden in Her Teeth"], ''[[The Atlantic]]'', January 2019
* [https://www.birthstone.guide/lapis-lazuli-birthstone-meaning Lapis Lazuli birthstone] virtues and story at birthstone.guide

{{Jewellery}}
{{Rock type}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Gemstones]]
[[Category:Metamorphic rocks]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Rajasthan]]