View source for Languages of East Asia

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{{More citations needed|date=June 2009}}

The '''languages of [[East Asia]]''' belong to several distinct [[language families]], with many common features attributed to interaction. In the [[Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area]], [[Chinese varieties]] and [[classification of Southeast Asian languages|languages of southeast Asia]] share many [[areal feature]]s, tending to be [[analytic language]]s with similar syllable and tone structure. In the 1st millennium AD, [[Chinese culture]] came to [[East Asian cultural sphere|dominate East Asia]], and [[Classical Chinese]] was adopted by [[scholar]]s and [[ruling class]]es in [[Literary Chinese in Vietnam|Vietnam]], [[Chinese-language literature of Korea|Korea]], and [[Kanbun|Japan]]. As a consequence, there was a massive influx of [[loanword]]s from Chinese vocabulary into these and other neighboring Asian languages. The [[Chinese script]] was also adapted to write [[Vietnamese writing system|Vietnamese]] (as [[Chữ Nôm]]), [[Korean writing system|Korean]] (as [[Hanja]]) and [[Japanese writing system|Japanese]] (as [[Kanji]]), though in the first two the use of Chinese characters is now restricted to university learning, linguistic or historical study, artistic or decorative works and (in Korean's case) newspapers, rather than daily usage.

== Language families ==
{{see also|Classification schemes for Southeast Asian languages}}
The [[Austroasiatic languages]] include [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] and [[Khmer language|Khmer]], as well as many other languages spoken in areas scattered as far afield as Malaya ([[Aslian languages|Aslian]]) and central India ([[Korku language|Korku]]), often in isolated pockets surrounded by the ranges of other language groups. Most linguists believe that Austroasiatic languages once ranged continuously across southeast Asia and that their scattered distribution today is the result of the subsequent arrival of other language groups.{{sfnp|Sidwell|Blench|2011|pp=339–340}}

One of these groups were the [[Tai–Kadai languages]] such as [[Thai language|Thai]], [[Lao language|Lao]] and [[Shan language|Shan]]. These languages were originally spoken in southern China, where the greatest diversity within the family is still found, and possibly as far north as the Yangtze valley. As Chinese civilization expanded [[Southward expansion of the Han dynasty|southward]] from the North China Plain, many Tai–Kadai speakers became sinicized, while others were displaced to Southeast Asia. With the exception of [[Zhuang language|Zhuang]], most of the Tai–Kadai languages still remaining in China are spoken in isolated upland areas.{{sfnp|Ramsey|1987|p=233}}

The [[Miao–Yao]] or Hmong–Mien languages also originated in southern China, where they are now spoken only in isolated hill regions. Many Hmong–Mien speakers were displaced into Southeast Asia during the [[Qing Dynasty]] in the 18th and 19th centuries, triggered by the suppression of a series of [[Miao Rebellion (1854–73)|revolts]] in [[Guizhou]].{{sfnp|Ramsey|1987|pp=278–279}}

The [[Austronesian languages]] are believed to have spread from [[Taiwan]] to the islands of the Indian and Pacific Oceans, as well as some areas of mainland southeast Asia.{{sfnp|Diamond|2000}}

The [[varieties of Chinese]] are usually included in the [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan family]], which also includes [[Tibeto-Burman languages]] spoken in Tibet, southwest China, northeast India, Burma and neighbouring countries.

To the north are the [[Turkic languages|Turkic]], [[Mongolic languages|Mongolic]] and [[Tungusic languages|Tungusic]] language families, which some linguists had grouped as an [[Altaic languages|Altaic family]], sometimes also including the [[Korean language|Korean]] and [[Japonic languages|Japonic]] languages, but is now seen as a discredited theory and is no longer supported by specialists in these languages.<ref>"While 'Altaic' is repeated in encyclopedias and handbooks most specialists in these languages no longer believe that the three traditional supposed Altaic groups, Turkic, Mongolian and Tungusic, are related." Lyle Campbell & Mauricio J. Mixco, A Glossary of Historical Linguistics (2007, University of Utah Press), pg. 7.</ref> The languages tend to be atonal, polysyllabic and [[agglutinative language|agglutinative]], with [[subject–object–verb]] word order and some degree of [[vowel harmony]].{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=6}} Critics of the Altaic hypothesis attribute the similarities to intense language contact between the languages that occurred sometime in pre-history.{{sfnp|Schönig|2003|p=403}}

Chinese scholars often group Tai–Kadai and Hmong–Mien with Sino-Tibetan, but Western scholarship since the Second World War has considered them as separate families. Some larger groupings have been proposed, but are not widely supported. The [[Austric languages|Austric]] hypothesis, based on [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] and other resemblances, is that Austroasiatic, Austronesian, often Tai–Kadai, and sometimes Hmong–Mien form a genetic family. Other hypothetical groupings include the [[Sino-Austronesian languages]] and [[Austro-Tai languages]]. Linguists undergoing long-range comparison have hypothesized even larger [[macrofamily|macrofamilies]] such as [[Dené–Caucasian]], including Sino-Tibetan and [[Ket language|Ket]].

== Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area ==
{{main|Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area}}
The Mainland Southeast Asia [[linguistic area]] stretches from Thailand to China and is home to speakers of languages of the Sino-Tibetan, Hmong–Mien (or Miao–Yao), Tai-Kadai, Austronesian (represented by [[Chamic]]) and Austroasiatic families. Neighbouring languages across these families, though presumed unrelated, often have similar typological features, which are believed to have spread by diffusion.{{sfnp|Enfield|2005|pp=182–184}}

Characteristic of many MSEA languages is a particular syllable structure involving [[monosyllabic]] [[morpheme]]s, [[lexical tone]], a fairly large inventory of consonants, including phonemic [[aspiration (phonetics)|aspiration]], limited clusters at the beginning of a syllable, plentiful vowel contrasts and relatively few final consonants. Languages in the northern part of the area generally have fewer vowel and final contrasts but more initial contrasts.{{sfnp|Enfield|2005|pp=186–187}}

A well-known feature is the similar tone systems in Chinese, Hmong–Mien, Tai languages and Vietnamese. Most of these languages passed through an earlier stage with three tones on most syllables (apart from [[checked syllable]]s ending in a [[stop consonant]]), which was followed by a [[tone split]] where the distinction between voiced and voiceless consonants disappeared but in compensation the number of tones doubled.
These parallels led to confusion over the classification of these languages, until [[André-Georges Haudricourt|Haudricourt]] showed in 1954 that tone was not an invariant feature, by demonstrating that Vietnamese tones corresponded to certain final consonants in other languages of the Mon–Khmer family, and proposed that tone in the other languages had a similar origin.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=53–56}}

MSEA languages tend to have monosyllabic morphemes, though there are exceptions.{{sfnp|Enfield|2005|p=186}} Most MSEA languages are very [[analytic language|analytic]], with no [[inflection]] and little derivational morphology. Grammatical relations are typically signalled by word order, [[grammatical particle|particle]]s and [[coverb]]s or [[adposition]]s. [[linguistic modality|Modality]] is expressed using [[sentence-final particle]]s. The usual word order in MSEA languages is [[subject–verb–object]]. Chinese and [[Karen language|Karen]] are thought to have changed to this order from the [[subject–object–verb]] order retained by most other Sino-Tibetan languages.
The order of constituents within a noun phrase varies: noun–modifier order is usual in Tai languages, Vietnamese and Miao, while in Chinese varieties and Yao most modifiers are placed before the noun.{{sfnp|Enfield|2005|pp=187–190}}{{sfnp|Ramsey|1987|p=280}} [[Topic-comment]] organization is also common.{{sfnp|Enfield|2005|pp=189–190}}

Languages of both eastern and southeast Asia typically have well-developed systems of [[numeral classifier]]s.{{sfnp|Enfield|2005|p=189}} The other areas of the world where numerical classifier systems are common in indigenous languages are the western parts of North and South America, so that numerical classifiers could even be seen as a pan-[[Pacific Rim]] areal feature.{{sfnp|Nichols|1992|pp=131–133}} However, similar noun class systems are also found among most [[African languages|Sub-Saharan African languages]].

== Influence of Literary Chinese ==
{{main|Adoption of Chinese literary culture|Sino-Xenic vocabularies}}
For most of the pre-modern period, Chinese culture dominated East Asia. Scholars in Vietnam, Korea and Japan wrote in [[Literary Chinese]] and were thoroughly familiar with the [[Chinese classics]]. Their languages absorbed large numbers of Chinese words, known collectively as Sino-Xenic vocabulary, i.e. [[Sino-Japanese vocabulary|Sino-Japanese]], [[Sino-Korean vocabulary|Sino-Korean]] and [[Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary|Sino-Vietnamese]]. These words were written with [[Chinese characters]] and pronounced in a local approximation of [[Middle Chinese]].{{sfnp|Miyake|2004|p=99}}

Today, these words of Chinese origin may be written in the [[traditional Chinese characters]] (Chinese, Japanese, and Korean), [[simplified Chinese characters]] (Chinese, Japanese), a locally developed phonetic script (Korean [[hangul]], Japanese [[kana]]), or a [[Latin script|Latin alphabet]] ([[Vietnamese alphabet|Vietnamese]]). The Chinese, Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese languages are collectively referred to as CJKV, or just [[CJK characters|CJK]], since modern Vietnamese is no longer written with Chinese characters at all.

In a similar way to the use of [[Latin language|Latin]] and [[ancient Greek]] roots in English, the morphemes of Classical Chinese have been used extensively in all these languages to coin compound words for new concepts.{{sfnp|Shibatani|1990|p=146}} These coinages, written in shared Chinese characters, have then been borrowed freely between languages. They have even been accepted into Chinese, a language usually resistant to loanwords, because their foreign origin was hidden by their written form.{{sfnp|Wilkinson|2000|p=43}}

=== Topic–comment constructions ===
In [[Topic-prominent language|topic–comment constructions]], sentences are frequently structured with a [[Topic (linguistics)|topic]] as the first segment and a comment as the second. This way of marking previously mentioned vs. newly introduced information is an alternative to [[article (grammar)|articles]], which are not found in East Asian languages. The Topic–comment sentence structure is a legacy of Classical Chinese influence on the grammar of modern East Asian languages. In Classical Chinese, the focus of the phrase (i.e. the topic) was often placed first, which was then followed by a statement about the topic. The most generic sentence form in Classical Chinese is "A B 也", where ''B'' is a comment about the topic ''A''.

;Chinese
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-2}}
''<u>Classical Chinese example</u>'':

{|
| || 今 || 之 || 飱 || 吾 || 已 || 食 || 也。
|-
| Gloss: || today || <small>GENITIVE</small> || dinner || I || already || eat || <small>AFFIRMATIVE</small>
|-
| Translation: ||colspan=7| I've already eaten today's dinner. ('''Topic:''' today's dinner; '''Comment:''' I've already eaten.)
|}

''<u>[[Standard Mandarin]] example</u>'':

{|
| || 今天 || 的 || 晚飯 || 我 || 已經 || 吃過 || 了。
|-
| Transcription: || ''Jīntiān'' || ''de'' || ''wǎnfàn'' || ''wǒ'' || ''yǐjīng'' || ''chīguò'' || ''le.''
|-
| Gloss: || today || <small>GENITIVE</small> || dinner || I || already || eat-<small>PERFECTIVE</small> || <small>NEWSTATE</small>
|-
| Translation: ||colspan=7| I've already eaten today's dinner. ('''Topic:''' today's dinner; '''Comment:''' I've already eaten.)
|}
{{Col-2}}
''<u>[[Cantonese]] example</u>'':

{|
| || 今日 || 嘅 || 晚餐 || 我 || 已經 || 食咗 || 喇。
|-
| Transcription: || ''Gam<sup>1</sup>jat<sup>6</sup>'' || ''ge<sup>3</sup>'' || ''maan<sup>5</sup>caan<sup>1</sup>'' || ''ngo<sup>5</sup>'' || ''ji<sup>5</sup>ging<sup>1</sup>'' || ''sik<sup>6</sup>zo<sup>2</sup>'' || ''laa<sup>3</sup>''
|-
| Gloss: || today || <small>GENITIVE</small> || dinner || I || already || eat-<small>PERFECTIVE</small> || <small>NEWSTATE</small>
|-
| Translation: ||colspan=7| I've already eaten today's dinner. ('''Topic:''' today's dinner; '''Comment:''' I've already eaten.)
|}

''<u>[[Hokkien]] example</u>'':

{|
| || 今仔日 || 兮 || 暗頓 || 我 || 有 || 食過 || 矣。
|-
| [[Pe̍h-ōe-jī|Transcription]]: || ''Kin-á-ji̍t'' || ''ê'' || ''àm-tǹg'' || ''góa'' || ''ū '' || ''chia̍h-kòe'' || ''ah''
|-
| Gloss: || today || <small>GENITIVE</small> || dinner || I || have-<small>AUXILIARY</small> || eat-<small>PERFECTIVE</small> || already
|-
| Translation: ||colspan=7| I've already eaten today's dinner. ('''Topic:''' today's dinner; '''Comment:''' I've already eaten.)
|}

''<u>[[Shanghainese]] example</u>'':

{|
| || 今朝 || 個 || 夜飯 || 我 || 已經 || 吃脫了。
|-
| Transcription: || ''Cín-zau'' || ''gheq'' || ''ya-ve'' || ''ngu'' || ''i-cín'' || ''chiq-theq-leq''
|-
| Gloss: || today || <small>GENITIVE</small> || dinner || I || already || eat-<small>PERFECT</small>-<small>PRESENT</small> 
|-
| Translation: ||colspan=7| I’ve already eaten today's dinner. ('''Topic:''' today's dinner; '''Comment:''' I had eaten.)
|}
{{Col-end}}

;Japanese
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-2}}
''<u>Japanese example</u>'':

{|
| || 今日  || の || 晩ご飯 || は || もう || 食べた。
|-
| Transcription: || ''Kyō'' || ''no'' || ''bangohan'' || ''wa'' || ''mō'' || ''tabeta''.
|-
| Gloss: || today || <small>GENITIVE</small> || dinner || <small>TOPIC</small>  || already || eat-<small>PERFECTIVE</small>
|-
| Translation: ||colspan=6| I've already eaten today's dinner. ('''Topic:''' today's dinner; '''Comment:''' already eaten.)
|}

''<u>The epistolary style of Japanese (Sōrōbun) example</u>'':

{|
| || 今日  || 之 || 夕飯 || 已 || 食申候也。
|-
| Transcription: || ''Kyō'' || ''no'' || ''yūhan'' || ''sudeni'' || ''tabemōshisōrōnari''.
|-
| Gloss: || today || <small>GENITIVE</small> || dinner || already || eat-<small>HUMBLE</small>-<small>POLITE</small>-<small>AFFIRMATIVE</small>
|-
| Translation: ||colspan=6| I've already eaten today's dinner. ('''Topic:''' today's dinner; '''Comment:''' already eaten.)
|}
{{Col-2}}
''<u>The Standard Meiji-Era Written Style of Japanese (Meiji Futsūbun) example</u>'':

{|
| || 今日  || ノ || 夕飯 || ハ || 已ニ || 之ヲ || 食ス。
|-
| Transcription: || ''Kyō'' || ''no'' || ''yūhan'' || ''wa'' || ''sudeni'' || ''korewo'' || ''shokusu''.
|-
| Gloss: || today || <small>GENITIVE</small> || dinner || <small>TOPIC</small>  || already || this-<small>ACCUSATIVE</small> || eat
|-
| Translation: ||colspan=6| I've already eaten today's dinner. ('''Topic:''' today's dinner; '''Comment:''' already eaten this.)
|}
{{Col-end}}

;Korean
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-2}}
''<u>Korean example</u>'':

{|
| || 오늘  || 의 || 저녁밥 || 은 || 벌써 || 먹었다.
|-
| Transcription: || ''Oneur'' || ''ui'' || ''jeonyeokbab'' || ''eun'' || ''beolsseo'' || ''meogeotda''.
|-
| Gloss: || today || <small>GENITIVE</small> || dinner || <small>TOPIC</small>  || already || eat-<small>PERFECTIVE</small>
|-
| Translation: ||colspan=6| I've already eaten today's dinner. ('''Topic:''' today's dinner; '''Comment:''' already eaten.)
|}
{{Col-2}}
''<u>Korean mixed script example</u>'':

{|
| || 今日  || 의 || 晩食 || 은 || 旣已 || 食事하였다.
|-
| Transcription: || ''Geumir'' || ''ui'' || ''mansig'' || ''eun'' || ''gii'' || ''siksahayeotda''.
|-
| Gloss: || today || <small>GENITIVE</small> || dinner || <small>TOPIC</small>  || already || eat-<small>PERFECTIVE</small>
|-
| Translation: ||colspan=6| I've already eaten today's dinner. ('''Topic:''' today's dinner; '''Comment:''' already eaten.)
|}
{{Col-end}}

;Ryukyuan
''<u>Okinawan Ryukyuan example</u>'':

{|
| || 今日  || ぬ || 夕御飯ー || なー || 噛だん。
|-
| Transcription: || ''Chuu'' || ''nu'' || ''yuu'ubanoo'' || ''naa'' || ''kadan''.
|-
| Gloss: || today || <small>GENITIVE</small> || dinner-<small>TOPIC</small> || already || eat-<small>PERFECTIVE</small>
|-
| Translation: ||colspan=6| I've already eaten today's dinner. ('''Topic:''' today's dinner; '''Comment:''' already eaten.)
|}

Note that in [[Okinawan language|Okinawan]], the topic marker is indicated by lengthening the short vowels and adding -oo to words ending in -N/-n. For words ending in long vowels, the topic is introduced only by や.

;Vietnamese
''<u>Vietnamese example</u>'':

{|
| || ''Hôm nay'' || ''tôi'' || ''đã'' || ''ăn'' || ''bữa ăn tối''.
|-
| [[Chữ Nôm]]: || 𣋚𠉞 || 碎 || 吔 || 𩛖 || 𩛷𩛖啐。
|-
| Gloss: || today || I || already || eat || dinner
|-
| Translation: ||colspan=6| I've already eaten today's dinner.
|}

==Politeness systems==
{{main|Honorifics (linguistics)}}
Linguistic systems of [[politeness]], including frequent use of [[honorific|honorific titles]], with varying levels of politeness or respect, are well-developed in Japanese and Korean. [[Politeness system]]s in Chinese are relatively weak, having simplified from a [[Chinese honorifics|more developed system]] into a much less predominant role in modern Chinese.<ref>{{Cite web |title=KCTOS 2007: What Happened to the Honorifics? |url=https://www.inst.at/kctos/speakers_g-m/kadar.htm |access-date=2022-11-14 |website=inst.at}}</ref> This is especially true when speaking of the southern Chinese varieties. However, Vietnamese has retained a highly complex system of pronouns, in which the terms mostly derive from Chinese. For example, ''bác'', ''chú'', ''dượng'', and ''cậu'' are all terms ultimately derived from Chinese and all refer to different statuses of "uncle".

In many of the region's languages, including Japanese, Korean, Thai, and Malay/Indonesian, new [[personal pronoun]]s or forms of reference or address can and often do evolve from nouns as fresh ways of expressing respect or social status. Thus personal pronouns are [[open class word]]s rather than [[closed class word]]s: they are not stable over time, not few in number, and not [[clitic]]s whose use is obligatory in grammatical constructs.  In addition to [[Korean honorifics]] that indicate politeness toward the subject of the speech, [[Korean speech levels]] indicate a level of politeness and familiarity directed toward the audience.

With modernization and other trends, politeness language is evolving to be simpler. Avoiding the need for complex polite language can also motivate use in some situations of languages like Indonesian or English that have less complex respect systems.{{citation needed|date=May 2019}}

==Distribution maps==
{{gallery
|width=225
|File:Sino-Tibetan Languages Map.png|Distribution of [[Sino-Tibetan languages]]
|File:Taikadai-en.svg|Distribution of [[Kra–Dai languages]]
|File:Austroasiatic-en.svg|Distribution of [[Austroasiatic languages]]
|File:Hmong-Mien-en.svg|Distribution of [[Hmong–Mien languages]]
|File:Chronological dispersal of Austronesian people across the Pacific (per Benton et al, 2012, adapted from Bellwood, 2011).png|Dispersal of [[Austronesian languages]]
|File:Koreanic.svg|Distribution of [[Koreanic languages]]
|File:Japanese_dialects-en.png|Distribution of [[Japonic languages]]
|File:Ainu_map.svg|Distribution of [[Ainu languages]]
|File:Nivkh_settlements_2002_map_vector.svg|Distribution of [[Nivkh languages]]
|File:Chukotko-Kamchatkan_map.svg|Distribution of [[Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages]]
}}

==See also==
*[[EALC]]

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources cited ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{citation | title = Taiwan's gift to the world | last = Diamond | first = Jared M | author-link = Jared Diamond | journal = Nature | volume = 403 | issue = 6771 | year = 2000 | pages = 709–710 | doi = 10.1038/35001685 | pmid = 10693781 | bibcode = 2000Natur.403..709D | s2cid = 4379227 | url = http://faculty.washington.edu/plape/pacificarchwin06/readings/Diamond%20nature%202000.pdf | postscript = . | doi-access = free | access-date = 2012-11-26 | archive-date = 2006-09-16 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060916193454/http://faculty.washington.edu/plape/pacificarchwin06/readings/Diamond%20nature%202000.pdf | url-status = dead }}
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  | hdl = 11858/00-001M-0000-0013-167B-C
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  | postscript = .
  | access-date = 2013-06-05
  | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130524220414/http://pubman.mpdl.mpg.de/pubman/item/escidoc:57458:2/component/escidoc:57459/Enfield_2005_areal.pdf
  | archive-date = 2013-05-24
  | url-status = dead
  | hdl-access = free
  }}
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  }}
* {{citation
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  }}
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* {{citation
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  }}
* {{citation
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  | editor-first = Juha | editor-last = Janhunen
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  | postscript = .
  }}
* {{citation
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  | postscript = .
  }}
* {{citation
  | first1 = Paul
  | last1 = Sidwell
  | author-link1 = Paul Sidwell
  | first2 = Roger
  | last2 = Blench
  | author-link2 = Roger Blench
  | chapter = The Austroasiatic Urheimat: the Southeastern Riverine Hypothesis
  | chapter-url = http://rogerblench.info/Archaeology/SE%20Asia/SR09/Sidwell%20Blench%20offprint.pdf
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  | title = Dynamics of Human Diversity: The Case of Mainland Southeast Asia
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* {{citation
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  }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [http://www.kaom.net/mzy_hzyyyhch.php ''Hanzangyu yuyin he cihui'' 汉藏语语音和词汇] (2017), comparative lexicon of languages in southern China

{{Clear}}
{{East Asian topics}}
{{Asia in topic|Languages of}}
{{Eurasian languages}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:East Asian Languages}}
[[Category:Languages of East Asia| ]]
[[Category:Linguistic typology]]