View source for Languages of China

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{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
{{Languages of
| country        = China
| image          = Language families of China.svg
| caption        = Distribution of language families in China
| official       = {{Unbulleted list|[[Standard Mandarin]]|[[Cantonese]] ([[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]])|[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] ([[Macau]])|[[English language|English]] ([[Hong Kong]])|[[Mongolian language|Mongolian]] ([[Inner Mongolia]], [[Haixi Mongol and Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture|Haixi]] in Qinghai, [[Bayingolin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture|Bayingolin]] and [[Bortala Mongol Autonomous Prefecture|Bortala]] in Xinjiang)|[[Korean language|Korean]] ([[Yanbian]] in Jilin)|[[Standard Tibetan]] ([[Tibet]], [[Qinghai]])|[[Uyghur language|Uyghur]] ([[Xinjiang]])|[[Zhuang language|Zhuang]] ([[Guangxi]], [[Wenshan Zhuang and Miao Autonomous Prefecture|Wenshan]] in Yunnan)|[[Kazakh language|Kazakh]] ([[Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture|Ili]] in Xinjiang)|[[Yi language|Yi]] ([[Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture|Liangshan]] in Sichuan, [[Chuxiong Yi Autonomous Prefecture|Chuxiong]] and [[Honghe Hani and Yi Autonomous Prefecture|Honghe]] in Yunnan)}}
| sign           = {{Unbulleted list|[[Chinese Sign Language|Chinese Sign]]|[[Hong Kong Sign Language|Hong Kong Sign]]|[[Tibetan Sign Language|Tibetan Sign]]}}
}}
There are several hundred languages in the [[People's Republic of China]]. The predominant language is [[Standard Chinese]], which is based on [[Beijing dialect|Beijingese]], but there are hundreds of related [[Chinese language]]s, collectively known as ''Hanyu'' ({{lang-zh|s=汉语|t=漢語|p=Hànyǔ}}, 'Han language'), that are spoken by 92% of the population. The Chinese (or 'Sinitic') languages are typically divided into [[Varieties of Chinese|seven major language groups]], and their study is a distinct academic discipline.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dwyer |first=Arienne |url=http://www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/PS015.pdf |title=The Xinjiang Conflict: Uyghur Identity, Language Policy, and Political Discourse |date=2005 |publisher=East-West Center Washington |isbn=1-932728-29-5 |series=Political Studies 15 |location=Washington, D.C. |pages=31–32 |quote=Tertiary institutions with instruction in the languages and literatures of the regional minorities (e.g., Xinjiang University) have faculties entitled ''Hanyu xi'' ("Languages of China Department") and ''Hanyu wenxue xi'' ("Literatures of the Languages of China Department"). |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070716184716/http://www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/PS015.pdf |archive-date=16 July 2007}}</ref> They differ as much from each other [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphologically]] and [[phonetic]]ally as do English, German and Danish, but speakers of different Chinese languages are taught to write in Mandarin ([[Written vernacular Chinese|written vernacular Mandarin]]) at school and often do to communicate with speakers of other Chinese languages. This does not mean non-Mandarin Sinitic languages do not have vernacular written forms however (see [[written Cantonese]]). There are in addition approximately 300 [[Ethnic minorities in China|minority languages]] spoken by the remaining 8% of the population of China.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Ethnologue: Languages of the World |date=2009 |publisher=SIL International |editor-last=Lewis |editor-first=M. Paul |edition=16th |location=Dallas, Texas |chapter=Languages of China |quote=The number of individual languages listed for China is 299. |chapter-url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=CN |archive-date=9 December 2012 |access-date=24 July 2010 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121209163810/http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:xtpd1oBnb-0J:www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name%3Dcn+kok+nur+mongols+statistic+populations&cd=1&hl=mn&ct=clnk&gl=mn |url-status=live }}</ref> The ones with greatest state support are [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]], [[Standard Tibetan|Tibetan]], [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]] and [[Standard Zhuang|Zhuang]].

According to the 2010 edition of ''[[Nationalencyklopedin]]'', 955 million out of China's then-population of 1.34 billion spoke some variety of [[Mandarin Chinese]] as their first language, accounting for 71% of the country's population.<ref>Mikael Parkvall, "Världens 100 största språk 2007" (The World's 100 Largest Languages in 2007), in Nationalencyklopedin. Asterisks mark the 2010 estimates for the top dozen languages.</ref> According to the 2019 edition of ''[[Ethnologue]]'', 904 million people in China spoke some variety of Mandarin as their first language in 2017.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Ethnologue: Languages of the World |date=2019 |publisher=SIL International |editor-last=Eberhard |editor-first=David M. |edition=22nd |location=Dallas, Texas |chapter=China: Languages |work=Ethnologue |editor-last2=Simons |editor-first2=Gary F. |editor-last3=Fennig |editor-first3=Charles D. |chapter-url=https://www.ethnologue.com/country/CN/languages |archive-date=23 October 2022 |access-date=23 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221023131002/https://www.ethnologue.com/country/CN/languages |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Standard Chinese]], known in China as ''Putonghua'', based on the [[Beijing dialect|Mandarin dialect of Beijing]],<ref name="Barnes 1978">{{Cite journal |last=Barnes |first=Dayle |date=1978 |title=The Language of Instruction in Chinese Communities |journal=International Review of Education |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=371–374 |doi=10.1007/BF00598052 |jstor=3443833|bibcode=1978IREdu..24..371B |s2cid=144750671 }}</ref> is the official national spoken language for the mainland and serves as a [[lingua franca]] within the Mandarin-speaking regions (and, to a lesser extent, across the other regions of [[mainland China]]). Several other [[Autonomous regions of the People's Republic of China|autonomous regions]] have additional official languages. For example, [[Standard Tibetan|Tibetan]] has official status within the [[Tibet Autonomous Region]] and [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]] has official status within [[Inner Mongolia]]. Language laws of the People's Republic of China do not apply to either [[Hong Kong]] or [[Macau]], which have [[Cantonese]], [[Standard Chinese|Mandarin]] (both under the umbrella of "Chinese") and [[English language|English]] and [[Cantonese]], [[Standard Chinese|Mandarin]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], respectively, as official languages, unlike the mainland.

==Spoken languages==
The spoken languages of nationalities that are a part of China belong to at least nine families:
[[File:China ethnolinguistic 1967.jpg|thumb|250px|Ethnolinguistic map of China]]
* The [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan family]]: 19 official ethnicities (including the [[Han Chinese|Han]] and [[Tibetans]])
* The [[Tai–Kadai languages|Tai–Kadai family]]: several languages spoken by the [[Zhuang people|Zhuang]], the [[Bouyei people|Bouyei]], the [[Dai people|Dai]], the [[Dong people|Dong]], and the [[Li people|Hlai (Li people)]]; 9 official ethnicities.
* The [[Hmong–Mien languages|Hmong–Mien family]]: 3 official ethnicities
* The [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic family]]: 4 official ethnicities ([[Palaung people|De'ang]], [[Blang people|Blang]], [[Gin people|Gin (Vietnamese)]], and [[Wa (nationality)|Wa]])
* The [[Turkic languages|Turkic family]]: [[Uyghur people|Uyghurs]], [[Kazakh people|Kazakhs]], [[Salar people|Salars]], etc.; 7 official ethnicities.<ref name="Yugur">[[Western Yugur language|Western Yugur]] is a Turkic language, whereas [[Eastern Yugur language|Eastern Yugur]] is a Mongolic language.</ref>
* The [[Mongolic languages|Mongolic family]]: [[Ethnic Mongols in China|Mongols]], [[Dongxiang people|Dongxiang]], and related groups; 6 official ethnicities.<ref name="Yugur" />
* The [[Tungusic languages|Tungusic family]]: [[Manchus]] (formerly), [[Nanais|Hezhe]], etc.; 5 official ethnicities.
* The [[Koreanic languages|Koreanic family]]: [[Korean language in China|Korean]]
* The [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European family]]: 2 official ethnicities, the [[Russians in China|Russians]] and [[Tajiks in China|Tajiks]] (actually [[Pamiri people]]). There is also a heavily Persian-influenced [[Äynu language]] spoken by the [[Äynu people]] in southwestern Xinjiang, who are officially considered Uyghurs.
* The [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian family]]: 1 official ethnicity (the [[Gaoshan]], who speak many languages of the [[Formosan languages|Formosan]] branch), 1 unofficial (the [[Utsul]]s, who speak the [[Tsat language]] but are considered [[Hui people|Hui]].)

===[[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]]===
* [[Sinitic languages|Sinitic]] 
** [[Chinese language|Chinese]]
*** [[Mandarin Chinese]]
**** [[Beijing Mandarin (division of Mandarin)|Beijing Mandarin]]
***** [[Standard Chinese]]
***** [[Singaporean Mandarin]]
***** [[Malaysian Mandarin]]
***** [[Taiwanese Mandarin]]
**** [[Northeastern Mandarin]]
**** [[Jilu Mandarin]]
**** [[Jiaoliao Mandarin]]
**** [[Central Plains Mandarin]]
**** [[Lanyin Mandarin|Lan-Yin Mandarin]]
**** [[Lower Yangtze Mandarin]]
**** [[Southwestern Mandarin]]
*** [[Jin Chinese]]
*** [[Wu Chinese]]
**** [[Shanghainese]]
**** [[Suzhounese]]
**** [[Wenzhounese]]
*** [[Huizhou Chinese]]
*** [[Yue Chinese]]
**** [[Cantonese]]
**** [[Taishanese]]
*** [[Ping Chinese]]
*** [[Gan Chinese]]
*** [[Xiang Chinese]]
*** [[Hakka Chinese]]
*** [[Min Chinese]]
**** [[Southern Min]]
***** [[Hokkien]]
***** [[Teochew Min]]
***** [[Hainanese]]
***** [[Leizhou Min]]
***** [[Haklau Min]]
**** [[Eastern Min]]
**** [[Pu–Xian Min]]
**** [[Northern Min]]
**** [[Central Min]]
**** [[Shao–Jiang Min]]
*** [[Xiangnan Tuhua]]
*** [[Shaozhou Tuhua]]
*** ''[[Ba–Shu Chinese]] (extinct)'' 
* [[Bai language|Bai]]
** [[Dali language]] ({{zhi|c=大理語}})
*** [[Dali dialect]] ([[Bai language|Bai]]: Darl lit)
*** [[Xiangyun dialect]]
** [[Yitdut language]]/[[Jianchuan language]] ({{zhi|c=劍川語}})
*** [[Yitdut dialect]] ([[Bai language|Bai]]: Yit dut)
*** [[Heqing dialect]] ([[Bai language|Bai]]: hhop kait)
** [[Bijiang language]]
*** [[Bijiang dialect]]
*** [[Lanping dialect]] ([[Bai language|Bai]]: ket dant)
* [[Songlin language|Songlin]]
* [[Cai-Long languages|Cai-Long]]
** [[Caijia language|Caijia]]
* [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman]]
** [[Tujia language|Tujia]]
** [[Puroik language|Puroik]]
** [[Qiangic languages|Qiangic]]
*** [[Qiang language|Qiang]]
**** [[Northern Qiang language|Northern Qiang]]
**** [[Southern Qiang language|Southern Qiang]]
*** [[Gyalrongic languages|Gyalrongic]]
**** [[Gyalrong languages|Gyalrong]] (rGyalrong, Jiarong)
**** [[Khroskyabs language|Khroskyabs]] (Lavrung)
**** [[Horpa language|Horpa]] (Stau)
*** [[Pumi language|Prinmi]]
*** [[Muya language|Muya]] (Munya)
*** [[Zhaba language|Zhaba]]
*** [[Choyo language|Choyo]] (Queyu)
*** ''[[Tangut language|Tangut]] (extinct)''
** [[Tibeto-Kanauri languages|Tibeto-Kanauri]]
*** [[Bodish languages|Bodish]]
**** [[Tibetic languages|Tibetan]]
***** [[Central Tibetan language|Central Tibetan]] ([[Standard Tibetan]])
***** [[Amdo Tibetan language|Amdo Tibetan]]
***** [[Khams Tibetan language|Khams Tibetan]]
***** [[Baima language|Baima]]
**** [[Tshangla language|Tshangla]]
*** ''[[Zhang-Zhung language|Zhangzhung]] (extinct)''
** [[Lolo–Burmese languages|Lolo–Burmese]]–Naxi
*** [[Burmish languages|Burmish]]
**** [[Achang language|Achang]]
**** [[Chashan language|Chashan]]
**** [[Pela language|Bola]]
**** [[Zaiwa language|Zaiwa]]
**** [[Lhao Vo|Langsu]]
**** [[Lashi language|Lashi]]
*** [[Loloish languages|Loloish]]
**** [[Yi languages|Yi]]
**** [[Lisu language|Lisu]]
**** [[Lahu language|Lahu]]
**** [[Hani language|Hani]]
**** [[Jino language|Jino]]
*** Nakhi/[[Naxi language|Naxi]]
** Jingpho–Nungish–Luish
*** [[Jingpho language|Jingpho]]
*** [[Nungish languages|Nungish]]
**** [[Derung language|Derung]]
**** [[Nung language (Sino-Tibetan)|Nung]]
*** Nu
**** [[Nusu language|Nusu]]
**** [[Zauzou language|Rouruo]]
** [[Mishmi languages (disambiguation)|Mishmi]]
*** [[Miju languages|Mijuish]]
**** [[Miju language|Miju]] (Midzu, Kman, Geman, Kaman)
**** [[Zakhring language|Zakhring]] (Meyor)
*** [[Digaro languages|Digarish]]
**** [[Idu Mishmi language|Idu]]
**** [[Digaro language|Digaro]]
** [[Tani languages|Tani]]
*** [[Damu language|Damu]]
*** [[Bokar language|Bokar]]

===[[Kra–Dai languages|Kra–Dai]]===
* [[Be language|Be]]
* [[Kra languages|Kra]]
** [[Gelao language|Gelao]]
* [[Kam–Sui languages|Kam–Sui]]
** [[Kam language (China)|Dong]]
** [[Sui language|Sui]]
** [[Maonan language|Maonan]]
** Mulao/[[Mulam language|Mulam]]
* [[Hlai languages|Hlai]]/Li
* [[Tai languages|Tai]]
** [[Zhuang languages|Zhuang]] (Vahcuengh)
*** [[Standard Zhuang|Northern Zhuang]]
*** [[Zhuang languages|Southern Zhuang]]
** [[Bouyei language|Bouyei]]
** Dai
*** [[Tai Lü language]]
*** [[Tai Nüa language]]
*** [[Tai Dam language]]
*** [[Tai Ya language]]

===[[Turkic languages|Turkic]]===
* [[Karluk languages|Karluk]]
** [[Ili Turki language|Ili Turki]]
** [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]]
** [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]]
* [[Kipchak languages|Kipchak]]
** [[Kazakh language|Kazakh]]
** [[Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]]
** [[Tatar language|Tatar]]
* [[Oghuz languages|Oghuz]]
** [[Salar language|Salar]]
* [[Siberian Turkic languages|Siberian]]
** [[Äynu language|Äynu]]
** [[Fuyu Kyrgyz language|Fuyu Kyrgyz]]
** [[Western Yugur language|Western Yugur]]
** [[Tuvan language|Tuvan]]
** ''[[Old Uyghur language|Old Uyghur]] (extinct)''
* ''[[Old Turkic language|Old Turkic]] (extinct)''

===[[Mongolic languages|Mongolic]]===
* [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]]
* [[Oirat language|Oirat]]
** [[Torgut Oirat]]
* [[Buryat language|Buryat]]
* [[Daur language|Daur]]
* Southeastern
** [[Monguor language|Monguor]]
*** [[Eastern Yugur language|Eastern Yugur]]
** [[Dongxiang language|Dongxiang]]
** [[Bonan language|Bonan]]
** [[Kangjia language|Kangjia]]
* ''[[Tuoba language|Tuoba]] (extinct)''

;[[Para-Mongolic]]
* ''[[Khitan language|Khitan]] (extinct)''
* ''[[Tuyuhun language|Tuyuhun]] (extinct)''

===[[Tungusic languages|Tungusic]]===
* Southern
** [[Manchu language|Manchu]]
*** [[Jurchen language|Jurchen]]
** [[Xibe language|Xibe]]
** [[Nanai language|Nanai]]/Hezhen
* Northern
** [[Evenki language|Evenki]]
** [[Oroqen language|Oroqen]]

===[[Koreanic languages|Koreanic]]===
* [[Korean language in China|Korean]]
* [[Yukjin Korean|Yukjin]]

===[[Hmong–Mien languages|Hmong–Mien]]===
* [[Hmong language|Hmong]]
* [[Iu Mien language|Mien]]
* [[She language|She]]

===[[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]]===
* [[Pakanic languages|Pakanic]]
** [[Bolyu language|Bolyu]]
** [[Bugan language|Bugan]]
* [[Mang language|Mang]]
* [[Palaungic languages|Palaungic]]
** [[Palaung language|Palaung]] (De'ang, Ta'ang)
** [[Riang language|Riang]]
** [[Angkuic languages|Angkuic]]
*** [[Hu language|Hu]] (Angku, Kon Keu)
*** [[Man Met language|Man Met]] (Kemie)
*** [[U language|U]] (Pouma)
** [[Waic languages|Waic]]
*** [[Blang language|Blang]] (Pulang, Samtao)
*** [[Wa language|Wa]] (Va)
* [[Vietic languages|Vietic]]
** [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]

===[[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]]===
* [[Formosan languages]]
* [[Tsat language|Tsat]]

===[[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]===
* [[Russians in China|Russian]]
* ''[[Tocharian languages|Tocharian]] (extinct)''
* ''[[Saka language|Saka]] (extinct)''
* [[Pamiri languages|Pamiri]] (mislabelled as "Tajik")
** [[Sarikoli language|Sarikoli]]
** [[Wakhi language|Wakhi]]
* [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] (official in Macau)
* [[English language|English]] (official in Hong Kong)

===[[Yeniseian languages|Yeniseian]]===
* ''[[Jie people|Jie]] (Kjet) (extinct)'' (?)

===[[Mixed language|Mixed]]===
* [[E language|E]] ([[Tai languages|Tai]]–[[Pinghua]] mixed language)
* [[Hezhou language|Hezhou]] (Uyghur-Mandarin mixed language or a Uyghur creole)
* [[Macanese Patois]] ([[Portuguese-based creole languages|Portuguese]]–[[Cantonese language|Cantonese]] [[Creole language|creole]])
* [[Tangwang language|Tangwang]] ([[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]]–[[Santa language|Santa]] mixed language)
* [[Wutun language|Wutun]] ([[Lower Yangtze Mandarin]]–[[Amdo Tibetan|Amdo]]–[[Bonan language|Bonan]] mixed language)

===[[Unclassified languages|Unclassified]]===
* ''[[Rouran language|Rouran]] (Rouran) (extinct)''
* ''[[Nam language|Nam]] (extinct)''

==Written languages==
{{Main|Written Chinese}}
[[File:Yuzhi Wuti Qingwen Jian Tian.svg|thumb|280px|The first page of the astronomy section of the [[Pentaglot Dictionary|御製五體清文鑑]] (''Yuzhi Wuti Qing Wenjian).'' The work contains four terms on each of its pages, arranged in the order of Manchu, Tibetan, Mongolian, [[Chagatai language|Chagatai]], and Chinese languages. For the Tibetan, it includes both transliteration and a transcription into the Manchu alphabet. For the Chagatai, it includes a line of transcription into the Manchu alphabet.]]

The following ethnic minority languages traditionally had written forms that do not involve [[Chinese character]]s:
* [[Tai Lü language]] – [[New Tai Lue alphabet|Tai Lü alphabet]]
* [[Tai Nüa language]] – [[Tai Le script|Tai Nüa script]]
* [[Dagur language]] – [[Manchu alphabet]]
* [[Hmongic languages]] – [[Hmong writing]] ([[Pollard script]], [[Pahawh Hmong]], [[Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong]], etc.)
* [[Kazakh language]] – [[Kazakh alphabets]]
* [[Korean language]] – [[Hangul|Chosŏn'gŭl alphabet]]
* [[Kyrgyz language]] – [[Kyrgyz alphabets]]
* [[Lisu language]] – [[Lisu script]]
* [[Manchu language]] – [[Manchu alphabet]]
* [[Mongolian language]] – [[Mongolian writing systems|Mongolian writing]]
* [[Naxi language]] – [[Dongba symbols|Dongba characters]]
* [[Qiang language]] or [[Rrmea language]] – [[Rma script]]
* [[Santa language]] – [[Arabic script]]
* [[Sui language]] – [[Sui script]]
* [[Tibetic languages]] – [[Tibetan script]]
* [[Uyghur language]] – [[Uyghur Arabic alphabet]]
* [[Xibe language]] – [[Manchu alphabet]]
* [[Loloish languages]] – [[Yi script]]

Many modern forms of spoken Chinese languages have their own distinct writing system using Chinese characters that contain colloquial variants.
These typically are used as sound characters to help determine the pronunciation of the sentence within that language:
* [[Cantonese]] – [[Written Cantonese]] 
* [[Shanghainese]] – [[Written Shanghainese]]
* [[Hokkien]] – [[Written Hokkien]] 

Some non-Sinitic languages have historically used Chinese characters:
* [[Korean language]] – [[Hanja]]
* [[Vietnamese language]] – [[Chữ Nôm]]
* [[Zhuang languages]] – [[Sawndip]]
* [[Bouyei language]] – [[Bouyei writing]] ({{zhi|c=方塊布依字}})
* [[Bai language]] – [[Bai writing]] ({{zhi|c=僰文}})
* [[Kam language]] – [[Dong writing]] ({{zhi|c=方塊侗字}})

Other languages, all now extinct, used separate [[logographic script]]s influenced by, but not directly derived from, Chinese characters:
* The [[Jurchens]] (Manchu ancestors) – [[Jurchen language]] – [[Jurchen script]]
* The [[Khitan people|Khitans]] (Mongolic people) – [[Khitan language]] – Khitan [[Khitan large script|large]] and [[Khitan small script|small]] scripts
* The [[Tanguts]] (Sino-Tibetan people) – [[Tangut language]] – [[Tangut script]]

During [[Qing dynasty]], palaces, temples, and coins have sometimes been inscribed in five scripts:
* [[Chinese characters|Chinese]]
* [[Manchu alphabet|Manchu]]
* [[Mongolian alphabet|Mongol]]
* [[Tibetan script|Tibetan]]
* [[Uyghur Arabic alphabet|Chagatai]]

During the Mongol [[Yuan dynasty]], the official writing system was:
* [['Phags-pa script]]

[[File:RMB4-1jiao-B.jpg|300px|thumb|The reverse of a one [[jiao (currency)|jiao]] note with Chinese (Pinyin) at the top and Mongolian, Tibetan, Uyghur, and Zhuang along the bottom.]]
Chinese banknotes contain several scripts in addition to Chinese script. These are:
* [[Mongolian alphabet|Mongol]]
* [[Tibetan script|Tibetan]]
* [[Uyghur Arabic alphabet|Arabic (for Uyghur)]]
* [[Zhuang alphabet|Latin (for Zhuang)]]

Other writing system for Chinese languages in China include:
* [[Nüshu script]]

Ten nationalities who never had a written system have, under the [[People's Republic of China|PRC]]'s encouragement, developed [[Spelling alphabet|phonetic alphabet]]s. According to [http://www.china.org.cn/e-white/20050301/index.htm a government white paper] published in early 2005, "by the end of 2003, 22 ethnic minorities in China used 28 written languages."

==Language policy==
One decade before the demise of the [[Qing dynasty]] in 1912, Mandarin was promoted in the planning for China's first [[Public school system|public school]] system.<ref name="Barnes 1978"/> There is a debated myth, prevalent among speakers of [[Yue Chinese]], that [[Cantonese]] lost to Mandarin in a narrow vote on the language of the new [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Cantonese almost became the official language|url=https://www.scmp.com/article/694592/cantonese-almost-became-official-language|date=6 October 2009}}</ref>

[[Standard Mandarin]] (Putonghua) has been promoted as the commonly spoken language for the People's Republic since 1956, based [[Phonology|phonologically]] on the [[Varieties of Chinese|dialect]] of Beijing, gramatically and lexically on various [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin varieties]], and [[Stylistics|stylistically]] on the writings of [[Mao Zedong]] and [[Lu Xun]].<ref name="Barnes 1978" /> Pronunciation is taught with the use of the romanized phonetic system known as ''pinyin''. Pinyin has been criticized for fear of an eventual replacement of the traditional character orthography.<ref name="Barnes 1978" />

=== Ethnic minority language policy ===
{{Further|Sinicization|Sinicization of Tibet|2020 Inner Mongolia protests}}
The Chinese language policy in [[mainland China]] is heavily influenced by the Soviet nationalities policy and officially encourages the development of standard spoken and written languages for each of the [[List of ethnic groups in China|nationalities of China]].<ref name="Barnes 1978" /> Language is one of the features used for ethnic identification.<ref name="Dreyer 1978">{{Cite journal |last=Dreyer|first=June Teufel|date=1978|title=Language Planning for China's Ethnic Minorities|journal=Pacific Affairs|volume=51|issue=3|pages=369–383|doi=10.2307/2757936|jstor=2757936}}</ref> In September 1951, the ''All-China Minorities Education Conference'' established that all minorities should be taught in their language at the primary and secondary levels when they count with a writing language. Those without a writing language or with an "imperfect" writing language should be helped to develop and reform their writing languages.<ref name="Dreyer 1978" />

However, in this schema, [[Han Chinese]] are considered a single nationality and the official policy of the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC) treats the different [[varieties of Chinese]] differently from the different national languages, even though their differences are as significant, if not more so, as those between the various [[romance languages]] of [[Europe]].
While official policies in [[mainland China]] encourage the development and use of different orthographies for the national languages and their use in educational and academic settings, realistically speaking it would seem that, as elsewhere in the world, the outlook for
[[minority language]]s perceived as inferior is grim.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Prospects for the Long-Term Survival of Non-Han Minority Languages in the South of China |url=http://www.linguapax.org/congres04/pdf/prosser.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080821081528/http://www.linguapax.org/congres04/pdf/prosser.pdf |archive-date=21 August 2008 |via=linguapax.org}}</ref>
The [[Tibetan Government-in-Exile]] argues that social pressures and political efforts result in a policy of sinicization and feels that Beijing should promote the [[Lhasa Tibetan|Tibetan language]] more.
Because many languages exist in China, they also have problems regarding diglossia. Recently, in terms of Fishman's typology of the relationships between bilingualism and [[diglossia]] and his [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomy]] of diglossia (Fishman 1978, 1980) in China: more and more minority communities have been evolving from "diglossia without [[bilingualism]]" to "bilingualism without diglossia." This could be an implication of mainland China's power expanding.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zhou |first=Minglang |title=Multilingualism in China: The Politics of Writing Reforms for Minority Languages, 1949–2002 |date=2003 |publisher=Mouton de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-092459-6 |location=Berlin}}</ref>

In 2010, [[2010 Tibetan language protest|Tibetan students protested]] against changes in the Language Policy on the schools that promoted the use of Mandarin instead of Tibetan. They argued that the measure would erode their culture.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Branigan |first=Tania |date=20 October 2010 |title=Tibetans Protest Against Language Curbs in Chinese Schools |work=The Guardian |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/oct/20/tibetans-protest-language-chinese-schools |access-date=15 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112014949/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/oct/20/tibetans-protest-language-chinese-schools |archive-date=12 November 2020}}</ref> In 2013, China's Education Ministry said that about 400 million people were unable to speak Mandarin. In that year, the government pushed linguistic unity in China, focusing on the countryside and areas with ethnic minorities.<ref>{{Cite news |date=6 September 2013 |title=Beijing Says 400 Million Chinese Cannot Speak Mandarin |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-23975037 |access-date=15 January 2021 |archive-date=27 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170527160146/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-03/07/content_5812838.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

Mandarin Chinese is the [[prestige language]] in practice, and failure to protect ethnic languages does occur. In summer 2020, the Inner Mongolian government announced an education policy change to phase out Mongolian as the language of instructions for humanities in elementary and middle schools, adopting the national instruction material instead. Thousands of ethnic Mongolians in northern China gathered to protest the policy.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Qin |first=Amy |date=4 September 2020 |title=Curbs on Mongolian Language Teaching Prompt Large Protests in China |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/31/world/asia/china-protest-mongolian-language-schools.html |access-date=18 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919031621/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/31/world/asia/china-protest-mongolian-language-schools.html |archive-date=19 September 2020}}</ref> The [[Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China|Ministry of Education]] describes the move as a natural extension of the ''Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language'' ({{lang-zh|c=通用语言文字法}}) of 2000.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Lin |first=Jin 林瑾 |date=24 September 2020 |title=Nèiménggǔ jiàogǎi fēngbō zhēngyì yánshāo – Zhōngguó jiàoyùbù: Bùtóng kànfǎ shì zhànshí de |script-title=zh:内蒙古教改风波争议延烧 中国教育部: 不同看法是暂时的 |work=Duōwéi xīnwén |url=https://www.dwnews.com/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD/60212835/%E5%86%85%E8%92%99%E5%8F%A4%E6%95%99%E6%94%B9%E9%A3%8E%E6%B3%A2%E4%BA%89%E8%AE%AE%E5%BB%B6%E7%83%A7%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2%E9%83%A8%E4%B8%8D%E5%90%8C%E7%9C%8B%E6%B3%95%E6%98%AF%E6%9A%82%E6%97%B6%E7%9A%84 |script-work=zh:多维新闻 |archive-date=10 October 2020 |access-date=4 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201010110755/https://www.dwnews.com/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD/60212835/%E5%86%85%E8%92%99%E5%8F%A4%E6%95%99%E6%94%B9%E9%A3%8E%E6%B3%A2%E4%BA%89%E8%AE%AE%E5%BB%B6%E7%83%A7%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2%E9%83%A8%E4%B8%8D%E5%90%8C%E7%9C%8B%E6%B3%95%E6%98%AF%E6%9A%82%E6%97%B6%E7%9A%84 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2024, [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party]] [[Xi Jinping]] called for wider use of Mandarin by ethnic minorities and in border areas. He stated that it is necessary to guide all ethnic groups in border regions to "continuously enhance their recognition of the Chinese nation, Chinese culture and the Communist Party".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cai |first=Vanessa |date=2024-12-10 |title=Xi calls for wider use of Mandarin in China's border areas amid security push |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3290195/xi-jinping-calls-wider-use-mandarin-chinas-border-areas-amid-security-push |access-date=2024-12-11 |website=[[South China Morning Post]] |language=en |archive-date=10 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241210125435/https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3290195/xi-jinping-calls-wider-use-mandarin-chinas-border-areas-amid-security-push |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Study of foreign languages==
[[English language|English]] has been the most widely-taught foreign language in China, as it is a required subject for students attending university.<ref name="Faisal Kidwai 2018">{{cite web |last=Faisal Kidwai |date=22 October 2018 |title=Retooling English Learning in China |url=http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201810/22/WS5bcd33b3a310eff303283b99.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190623031903/http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201810/22/WS5bcd33b3a310eff303283b99.html |archive-date=23 June 2019 |access-date=22 June 2019 |website=Chinadaily.com.cn}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=What Languages Are Spoken in China? |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-languages-are-spoken-in-china.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190623031904/https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-languages-are-spoken-in-china.html |archive-date=23 June 2019 |access-date=22 June 2019 |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> Other languages that have gained some degree of prevalence or interest are [[Japanese language|Japanese]], [[Korean language|Korean]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], and [[Russian language|Russian]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Phillips |first=Tom |date=2 September 2018 |title=Study of Portuguese and Spanish Explodes as China Expands Role in Latin America |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/sep/02/study-of-portuguese-and-spanish-explodes-as-china-expands-role-in-latin-america |access-date=23 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190623031903/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/sep/02/study-of-portuguese-and-spanish-explodes-as-china-expands-role-in-latin-america |archive-date=23 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Zhou |first1=Lihua |last2=Zhou |first2=Sally |date=9 July 2017 |title=Increasing Number of Middle Schools Offer Russian Language Courses |work=Chinadaily.com.cn |url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2017-07/09/content_30045936.htm |access-date=23 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190623031906/http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2017-07/09/content_30045936.htm |archive-date=23 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Top 6 Most Popular Foreign Language Teachers in China |url=http://top.at0086.com/China-Job-Center/Top-6-Most-Popular-Foreign-Language-Teachers-in-China.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190623031906/http://top.at0086.com/China-Job-Center/Top-6-Most-Popular-Foreign-Language-Teachers-in-China.html |archive-date=23 June 2019 |access-date=23 June 2019 |website=At0086.com}}</ref> During the 1950s and 1960s, [[Russian language|Russian]] had some social status among elites in mainland China as the international language of [[socialism]].

In the late 1960s, English replaced the position of Russian to become the most studied foreign language in China.{{citation needed|date=November 2012}} After the [[Reform and opening up]] policy in 1988, English was taught in public schools starting in the third year of primary school.<ref name="English craze">{{cite web |title=English Craze Hits Chinese Language Standards |url=http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/english-craze-hits-chinese-language-standards |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200225063643/https://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/english-craze-hits-chinese-language-standards |archive-date=25 February 2020 |access-date=27 July 2018 |website=YaleGlobal Online}}</ref><ref name="Asians offer">{{Cite news |last=The Miami Herald |date=25 April 2004 |title=Asians Offer Region a Lesson – in English |work=YaleGlobal Online |url=http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/asians-offer-region-lesson-%E2%80%93-english |url-status=dead |access-date=6 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100219214821/http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/asians-offer-region-lesson-%E2%80%93-english |archive-date=19 February 2010}}</ref> ''[[The Economist]]'' reported in 2006 that up to one fifth of the population was learning English. [[Gordon Brown]], the former British prime minister, estimated that the total English-speaking population in China would outnumber the native speakers in the rest of the world in two decades.<ref>{{Cite news |date=12 April 2006|title=English Beginning to be Spoken Here|work=Economist.com|url=http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=6803197|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060417192251/http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=6803197|archive-date=17 April 2006}}</ref> In China, English is used as a [[lingua franca]] in several fields, especially for business settings,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Wang|first1=Wenpu|title=SHS Web of Conferences|last2=Wei|first2=Lin|date=2016|editor-last=Liu|editor-first=X.|volume=25|chapter=Chinese English in As Lingua Franca in Global Business Setting: A Case Study of Ongoing Emails of A Foreign Company in China|page=01013|doi=10.1051/shsconf/20162501013|editor-last2=Wang|editor-first2=J.|editor-last3=Li|editor-first3=N.|doi-access=free}}</ref> and in schools to teach Standard Mandarin to people who are not Chinese citizens.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wang|first=Danping|title=Language Alternation, Language Choice and Language Encounter in International Tertiary Education|date=2013|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-94-007-6475-0|editor-last=Haberland|editor-first=Hartmut|editor-link=Hartmut Haberland|volume=5|location=Dordrecht|pages=161–177|chapter=The Use of English as a Lingua Franca in Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language: A Case Study of Native Chinese Teachers in Beijing|series=Multilingual Education|doi=10.1007/978-94-007-6476-7_8|editor-last2=Lønsmann|editor-first2=Dorte|editor-last3=Preisler|editor-first3=Bent}}</ref> English is also one of the official languages in [[Hong Kong]].

Russian, [[French language|French]], and [[German language|German]] language classes have been made widely available in universities and colleges.<ref>{{cite web |date=30 April 2015 |title=German Language Study on the Rise Worldwide |url=https://monitor.icef.com/2015/04/german-language-study-on-the-rise-worldwide/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190623031908/https://monitor.icef.com/2015/04/german-language-study-on-the-rise-worldwide/ |archive-date=23 June 2019 |access-date=23 June 2019 |website=ICEF Monitor}}</ref> In [[Northeast China]], there are many bilingual schools (Mandarin-Japanese; Mandarin-Korean; Mandarin-Russian), in these schools, students learn languages other than English.

There have been a growing number of students studying [[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]], due to reasons of cultural interest and belief in better job opportunities.<ref>{{cite web |last=Walker |first=Alyssa |date=18 December 2017 |title=More Chinese Students Study Arabic |url=https://www.academiccourses.com/news/more-chinese-students-study-arabic-2215/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190623031904/https://www.academiccourses.com/news/more-chinese-students-study-arabic-2215/ |archive-date=23 June 2019 |access-date=23 June 2019 |website=Academiccourses.com}}</ref> The language is also widely studied amongst the [[Hui people]].<ref name="Michael Dillon 1999 155">{{Cite book |last=Dillon |first=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BwuSpFiOFfYC&q=hunan+uyghur&pg=PA154 |title=China's Muslim Hui Community: Migration, Settlement and Sects |date=1999 |publisher=Curzon Press |isbn=0-7007-1026-4 |location=Richmond |page=155 |archive-date=10 April 2023 |access-date=14 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410023529/https://books.google.com/books?id=BwuSpFiOFfYC&q=hunan+uyghur&pg=PA154 |url-status=live }}</ref> In the past, literary Arabic education was promoted in Islamic schools by the [[Kuomintang]] when it ruled mainland China.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MJzB6wrz6Q4C&q=ma+fuxiang+military+academy&pg=PA251 |title=Intellectuals in the Modern Islamic World: Transmission, Transformation, Communication |date=2006 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-415-36835-3 |editor-last=Dudoignon |editor-first=Stéphane A. |location=London |page=251 |editor-last2=Komatsu |editor-first2=Hisao |editor-last3=Kosugi |editor-first3=Yasushi}}</ref>

There have also been a growing number of students choosing to learn [[Urdu]], due to interest in Pakistani culture, close ties between the respective nations, and job opportunities provided by the [[China–Pakistan Economic Corridor|CPEC]].<ref>{{cite news |date=11 June 2017 |title=Chinese Students Eager to Learn Urdu Anticipating Job Opportunities Under Cpec |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1338888 |access-date=23 June 2019 |website=Dawn |agency=Agence France-Presse |archive-date=23 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190623031907/https://www.dawn.com/news/1338888 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Interest in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] have increased greatly, due in part to Chinese investment in Latin America as well as in African nations such as Angola, Mozambique, and Cape Verde. Portuguese is also one of the official languages in [[Macau]], although its use had stagnated since the nation's transfer from [[Portugal]] to the [[China|PRC]]. It was estimated in 2016 that 2.3% of Macau's locals spoke the language,<ref>{{cite web |last=Statistics and Census Service |date=2017 |title=2016 Population By-Census Detailed Results |url=https://www.dsec.gov.mo/getAttachment/e20c6bab-ada4-4f83-9349-e72605674a42/E_ICEN_PUB_2016_Y.aspx |access-date=11 November 2021 |archive-date=8 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200408142710/https://www.dsec.gov.mo/getAttachment/e20c6bab-ada4-4f83-9349-e72605674a42/E_ICEN_PUB_2016_Y.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref> although with government backing since then, interest in it has increased.<ref>{{Cite news |date=8 November 2018 |title=In Macau, the Old Colonial Tongue Is Back in Vogue |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/china/2018/11/08/in-macau-the-old-colonial-tongue-is-back-in-vogue |access-date=23 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181110100230/https://www.economist.com/china/2018/11/08/in-macau-the-old-colonial-tongue-is-back-in-vogue |archive-date=10 November 2018}}</ref> Macau is used by China as a hub for learning Portuguese and diplomatic and financial ties with Brazil and Portuguese-speaking African countries.<ref>{{cite web|last=Leach |first=Michael |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb6469/is_92/ai_n29406744/ |title=talking Portuguese; China and East Timor |access-date=18 May 2011 |website=Arena Magazine |year=2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111105033001/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb6469/is_92/ai_n29406744/ |archive-date=5 November 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.macaomagazine.net/china/promising-future-portuguese-language-china |title=Promising future for Portuguese language in China |last=Bilrero |first=António |date=15 March 2018 |website=Macao Magazine |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702230400/https://www.macaomagazine.net/china/promising-future-portuguese-language-china |archive-date=2019-07-02}}</ref>

[[Esperanto in China|Esperanto became prominent in certain circles]] in the early 20th century and reached its peak in the 1980s, though by 2024 its prominence had declined.<ref name=HeWuLastEsp>{{cite web|last1=He|first1=Kai|last2=Wu|first2=Huiyuan|url=https://www.sixthtone.com/news/1013747|title=China's Last Esperanto Students|magazine=[[Sixth Tone]]|date=15 September 2023|access-date=6 January 2023|archive-date=15 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230915110037/https://www.sixthtone.com/news/1013747|url-status=live}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|China|Language}}
* ''[[Language Atlas of China]]''
* ''[[Linguistic Atlas of Chinese Dialects]]''
* [[Varieties of Chinese]]
* [[List of varieties of Chinese]]
* [[Han Chinese subgroups]]
* [[Demographics of China]]
* [[Racism in China]]
* [[Hong Kong English]]
* [[Languages of Hong Kong]]
* [[Culture of Macau]]
* [[Macanese Portuguese]]
* [[List of ethnic groups in China]]
* [[Classification of Southeast Asian languages]]
* [[Cantonese]]
* [[Standard Chinese]]
* [[Chinglish]]

==References==
===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

===Sources===
{{refbegin}}
* {{PD-old-text|title=Encyclopædia of religion and ethics, Volume 8|year=1916|author=James Hastings, John Alexander Selbie, Louis Herbert Gray}}
* {{PD-old-text|title=Burma past and present|year=1878|author=Albert Fytche}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Library resources box}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kane |first=D. |title=The Chinese Language: Its History and Current Usage |date=2006 |publisher=Tuttle |isbn=0-8048-3853-4 |location=North Clarendon, VT}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Halliday |first1=M. A. K. |title=Studies in Chinese Language |last2=Webster |first2=J. |date=2005 |publisher=Continuum |isbn=978-1-84714-449-2 |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ramsey |first=S. Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2E_5nR0SoXoC |title=The Languages of China |date=1987 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0691014685 |edition=illustrated, reprint |location=Princeton, NJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hong |first=B. |title=Chinese Language Use |date=1978 |publisher=Contemporary China Centre, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University |isbn=0-909596-29-8 |location=Canberra}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Cheng |first1=C. C. |title=Language & Linguistics in the People's Republic of China |last2=Lehmann |first2=W. P. |date=1975 |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=0-292-74615-6 |location=Austin}}
*Hahn, Reinhard F. "Zhōngguó Tūjué yŭzú yŭyán cíhuìjí [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41927813?casa_token=I6dNN9cdDwYAAAAA%3AJZdsHp9fc73SwtcISmETMq1XqdAuDAI9tkTUIPXFUlAmYlJall91YZDdXDLEx-eKf5MRmx4Rz2yu547BcxgEHkZNYhNMwTk-c7_RPt0sfI-8Z32WlBUr Collected glossaries of China's Turkic languages]." (1992): 124–128.

{{Languages of China}}
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