View source for Lake Superior

{{Short description|Largest of the Great Lakes of North America}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2019}}
{{Infobox body of water
| name               = Lake Superior
| native_name        = {{Native name|oj|Gichi-gami or Anishinaabewi-gichi-gami}}
| image              = Lake Superior, ISS.jpg
| caption            = Lake Superior taken from the [[International Space Station]] on June 6, 2019
| location           = [[North America]]
| group              = [[Great Lakes]]
| image_bathymetry   = Lake Superior bathymetry map.png
| caption_bathymetry = Lake Superior [[bathymetry|bathymetric map]].<ref name="GLBathSup" /><ref name="GLBathHur" /><ref name="GLOBE" /> The deepest point, roughly off its southeastern shore, is marked with "×".<ref name="NOAA_GLERL" /> The deep trenches in its eastern part may have originated from [[tunnel valley]]s.<ref name="Wright73" /><ref name="Regis73" />
| coords             = {{Coord|47.7|N|87.5|W|name=Lake Superior|type:waterbody_scale:5000000|display=inline,title}}
| lake_type          = [[Glacial]]
| inflow             = [[Nipigon River|Nipigon]], [[Saint Louis River (Lake Superior tributary)|St. Louis]], [[Pigeon River (Minnesota-Ontario)|Pigeon]], [[Pic River|Pic]], [[White River (Ontario)|White]], [[Michipicoten River|Michipicoten]], [[Montreal River (Algoma–Sudbury, Ontario)|Montreal]], [[Agawa River|Agawa]], [[Kaministiquia River|Kaministiquia]], [[Ontonagon River|Ontonagon]], [[Tahquamenon River]]s
| outflow            = [[St. Marys River (Michigan-Ontario)|St. Marys River]]
| catchment          = {{convert|49300|sqmi|km2|abbr=on}}<ref name="EPAphysical"/>
| basin_countries    = Canada and the United States
| length             = {{convert|383|<!--statute-->smi|km|abbr=on}}<ref name=EPAfact/>
| width              = {{convert|160|<!--statute-->smi|km|abbr=on}}<ref name=EPAfact/>
| area               = {{convert|82100|sqkm|mi2|abbr=on}}<ref name="EPAphysical"/>
| depth              = {{convert|483|ft|m|abbr=on}}<ref name="EPAphysical"/>
| max-depth          = {{convert|1333|ft|m|abbr=on}}<ref name="EPAphysical"/><ref name=nyt/>
| volume             = {{convert|12070|km3|mi3|abbr=on}}<ref name="EPAphysical"/>
| residence_time     = 191 years
| shore              = {{convert|1729|mi|km|abbr=on}} plus {{convert|997|mi|km|abbr=on}} for islands<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.michigan.gov/deq/0,4561,7-135-3313_3677-15959--,00.html |title = Shorelines of the Great Lakes |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150405211915/https://www.michigan.gov/deq/0%2C4561%2C7-135-3313_3677-15959--%2C00.html |archive-date = April 5, 2015 |publisher = [[Michigan Department of Environmental Quality]] }}</ref>
| elevation          = {{convert|601.71|ft|m|0|abbr=on}} (2013 average)<ref>{{cite web |url = http://w3.lre.usace.army.mil/hh/GreatLakesWaterLevels/GLWL-CurrentMonth-Feet.pdf |title = Great Lakes Water Levels |publisher = United States Army Corps of Engineers |access-date = June 27, 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130418004734/http://w3.lre.usace.army.mil/hh/GreatLakesWaterLevels/GLWL-CurrentMonth-Feet.pdf |archive-date = April 18, 2013 |url-status = dead }} The link also has daily elevations for the current month.</ref>
| islands            = [[Isle Royale]], [[Apostle Islands]], [[Michipicoten Island]], [[Grand Island Township, Michigan|Grand Island]],  [[Slate Islands (Ontario)|Slate Islands]]
| islands_category   = Islands of the Great Lakes
| cities             = {{plainlist|1=
* [[Thunder Bay]], Ontario
*[[Duluth, Minnesota]]
*[[Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario]]
*[[Marquette, Michigan]]
*[[Superior, Wisconsin]]
*[[Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan]] }}
| frozen             = <!--      Map      -->
| pushpin_map        = North America
| pushpin_label_position = 
| pushpin_map_alt    = Location of Lake Superior in North America.
| pushpin_map_caption = <!--   Below       -->
}}

'''Lake Superior''' is a lake in central North America. The northernmost, westernmost, and highest of the [[Great Lakes]], Lake Superior straddles the [[Canada–United States border]] with the Canadian province of [[Ontario]] to the north and east and the U.S. states of [[Minnesota]] to the west and [[Michigan]] and [[Wisconsin]] to the south.<ref name=pursuit>{{cite web |url = http://www.seagrant.umn.edu/superior/facts |title = Superior Pursuit: Facts About the Greatest Great Lake |author = Minnesota Sea Grant |publisher = University of Minnesota |access-date = August 9, 2007 |archive-date = July 21, 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170721093144/http://www.seagrant.umn.edu/superior/facts |url-status = dead }}</ref> It is the [[List of lakes by area|largest freshwater lake in the world by surface area]]<ref group=lower-alpha>The [[Caspian Sea]] is the largest lake, but is saline, not freshwater. [[Lake Michigan–Huron]] has a larger combined surface area than Superior, but is normally considered two separate lakes.</ref> and the [[List of lakes by volume|third-largest freshwater lake by volume]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Bencomo|first=Phil|date=2015-10-06|title=Just How Big is Lake Superior?|language=en-us|work=Lake Superior Magazine|url=https://www.lakesuperior.com/the-lake/lake-superior/how-big-is-lake-superior/|access-date=2021-07-09}}</ref> It drains into [[Lake Huron]] via [[St. Marys River (Michigan–Ontario)|St. Marys River]], then through the lower Great Lakes to the [[St. Lawrence River]] and ultimately the Atlantic Ocean.

==Name==
[[File:LS-MetOp-B.png|thumb|left|False color view of Lake Superior|alt=False color view of Lake Superior as seen by the AVHRR instrument onboard MetOp-B. Made in a 221 composition, so colors are approximate. Received by an amateur station via the HRPT downlink with a 1m parabolic antenna.]]
[[File:Lake-Superior.svg|thumb|left|Map of [[Great Lakes]] (Lake Superior in darker blue)]]

The [[Ojibwe]] name for the lake is {{lang|oj-Latn|gichi-gami}} (in [[Ojibwe writing systems#Ojibwe syllabics|syllabics]]: {{lang|oj|ᑭᒋᑲᒥ}}, pronounced {{lang|oj-Latn|gitchi-gami}} or {{lang|oj-Latn|kitchi-gami}} in different dialects),<ref name="SuperiorMagOnName">{{cite web |date=January 1, 2006 |title=Kitchi-Gami Almanac: The Name |url=http://www.lakesuperior.com/the-lake/lake-superior/281almanac/ |work=LakeSuperior.com}}</ref> meaning "great sea". [[Henry Wadsworth Longfellow]] wrote this name as "'''Gitche Gumee'''" in the poem ''[[The Song of Hiawatha]]'', as did [[Gordon Lightfoot]] in his song "[[The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald|The Wreck of the ''Edmund Fitzgerald'']]{{-"}}.

According to other sources, the full Ojibwe name is {{lang|oj|ᐅᒋᑉᐧᐁ ᑭᒋᑲᒥ}} {{lang|oj-Latn|Ojibwe Gichigami}} ("Ojibwe's Great Sea") or {{lang|oj|ᐊᓂᐦᔑᓈᐯ ᑭᒋᑲᒥ}} {{lang|oj-Latn|Anishinaabe Gichigami}} ("[[Anishinaabe]]'s Great Sea").<ref name="ChisholmGutsch">{{cite book |last1=Chisholm |first1=Barbara |title=Under the Shadow of the Gods: A Guide to the History of the Canadian Shore of Lake Superior |last2=Gutsche |first2=Andrea |publisher=Transcontinental Printing |year=1998 |edition=1st |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> The 1853 dictionary by [[Frederic Baraga|Father Frederic Baraga]], the first one written for the Ojibway language, gives the Ojibwe name as {{lang|oj-Latn|Otchipwe-kitchi-gami}} (a transliteration of {{lang|oj-Latn|Ojibwe Gichigami}}).<ref name = SuperiorMagOnName/>

In the 17th century, the first French explorers approached the great inland sea by way of the [[Ottawa River]] and Lake Huron; they referred to their discovery as {{lang|fr|le lac supérieur}} (the upper lake, i.e., above Lake Huron in elevation). Some 17th-century [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] missionaries referred to it as {{lang|fr|Lac Tracy}} (for [[Alexandre de Prouville de Tracy]]).<ref>{{cite web |year=1995 |title=Great Lakes Atlas |url=http://www.epa.gov/greatlakes/atlas/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120802152920/http://www.epa.gov/greatlakes/atlas/ |archive-date=August 2, 2012 |publisher=Environment Canada and United States Environmental Protection Agency}}</ref> After taking control of the region from the French in the 1760s, following their defeat in the [[French and Indian War]], the British [[Anglicisation|anglicized]] the lake's name to ''Superior'', "on account of its being superior in magnitude to any of the lakes on that vast continent".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stewart |first=George R. |author-link=George R. Stewart |year=1945 |title=Names on the Land, A Historical Account of Place-Naming in the United States |journal=Geographical Review |volume=35 |issue=4 |page=83 |bibcode=1945GeoRv..35..659P |doi=10.2307/210804 |jstor=210804}}</ref>

==Hydrography==
Lake Superior empties into Lake Huron via the St. Marys River and the [[Soo Locks]] (Sault Ste. Marie locks). Lake Superior is the largest freshwater lake in the world by area and the third largest in volume, behind [[Lake Baikal]] in [[Siberia]] and [[Lake Tanganyika]] in [[East Africa]]. The [[Caspian Sea]], while larger than Lake Superior in both surface area and volume, is [[brackish]].

[[File:Lake Superior bathymetry map, deepest point.png|thumb|left|Lake Superior's deepest point<ref name="NOAA_GLERL" /> on the bathymetric map<ref name="GLBathSup" />]]

Lake Superior has a surface area of {{convert|31700|sqmi|km2|0}},<ref name="EPAphysical">{{cite web |url = http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/physfacts.html |title = Great Lakes: Basic Information: Physical Facts |access-date = November 9, 2011 |date = May 25, 2011 |publisher = United States Environmental Protection Agency |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101029215637/http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/physfacts.html |archive-date = October 29, 2010 }}</ref> which is approximately the size of [[South Carolina]] or [[Austria]]. It has a maximum length of {{convert|350|<!--statute mile-->smi|km nmi|lk=on}} and maximum breadth of {{convert|160|<!--statute mile-->smi|km nmi|0}}.<ref name=EPAfact>{{cite web |url = http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/atlas/gl-fact1.html |archive-url = https://archive.today/20120801102528/http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/atlas/gl-fact1.html |url-status = dead |archive-date = August 1, 2012 |title = Great Lakes Atlas: Factsheet #1 |access-date = November 10, 2011 |date = April 11, 2011 |publisher = United States Environmental Protection Agency }}</ref> Its average depth is {{convert|<!--483/6=80.5fm-->80.5|fathom|ft m|0|lk=in}} with a maximum depth of {{convert|<!--1333/6=222.17fm-->222.17|fathom|ft m|0}}.<ref name="EPAphysical"/><ref name=EPAfact/><ref name=nyt>{{cite book |editor-first = John W. |editor-last = Wright |year = 2006 |title = The New York Times Almanac |url = https://archive.org/details/newyorktimesalma00john_2 |url-access = registration |edition = 2007 |publisher = Penguin Books |location = New York |isbn = 0-14-303820-6 |page = [https://archive.org/details/newyorktimesalma00john_2/page/64 64] }}</ref> Lake Superior contains 2,900 cubic&nbsp;miles (12,100&nbsp;km<sup>3</sup>) of water.<ref name="EPAphysical"/> There is enough water in Lake Superior to cover the entire [[Landmass|land mass]] of North and South America to a depth of {{convert|30|cm|in|0}}.<ref group=lower-alpha>[[North America]] (2.47{{e|7}} km<sup>2</sup>) and [[South America]] (1.78{{e|7}} km<sup>2</sup>) combined cover 4.26{{e|7}} km<sup>2</sup>. Lake Superior's volume (1.20{{e|4}} km<sup>3</sup>) over 4.26{{e|7}} km<sup>2</sup> gives a depth of 0.282 m.</ref> The shoreline of the lake stretches {{convert|2726|mi|km|0}} (including islands).<ref name="EPAphysical"/> The lake boasts a very small ratio (1.55) of catchment area to surface area, which indicates minimal terrestrial influence.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Urban |first=N. R. |date=2005 |title=Carbon cycling in Lake Superior |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |language=en |volume=110 |issue=C6 |pages=C06S90 |article-number=2003JC002230 |doi=10.1029/2003JC002230 |bibcode=2005JGRC..110.6S90U |issn=0148-0227|doi-access=free }}</ref>

American [[Limnology|limnologist]] [[J. Val Klump]] was the first person to reach the lowest depth of Lake Superior on July 30, 1985, as part of a scientific expedition, which at 122 fathoms 1-foot ({{convert|733|ft|m|abbr=on|disp=or}}) below sea level is the second-lowest spot in the continental interior of the United States and the third-lowest spot in the interior of the North American continent after [[Great Slave Lake]] in the Northwest Territories of Canada ({{convert|1503|ft|m|abbr=on|disp=or}} below sea level) and [[Iliamna Lake]] in Alaska {{convert|942|ft|m|abbr=on|disp=or}}. (Though [[Crater Lake]] is the deepest lake in the United States and deeper than Lake Superior, Crater Lake's elevation is higher and consequently its deepest point is {{convert|4229|ft|m}} ''above'' sea level.)

While the temperature of the surface of Lake Superior varies seasonally, the temperature below {{convert|110|fathom}} is an almost constant {{convert|39|°F|°C|abbr=on}}. This variation in temperature makes the lake seasonally [[Lake stratification|stratified]]. Twice per year, however, the [[water column]] reaches a uniform temperature of {{convert|39|°F|°C|abbr=on}} from top to bottom, and the lake waters thoroughly mix. This feature makes the lake [[Dimictic lake|dimictic]]. Because of its volume, Lake Superior has a [[lake retention time|retention time]] of 191 years.<ref name=mnsea/><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.seagrant.umn.edu/superior/processes |title = Lake Superior's Natural Processes |author = Minnesota Sea Grant |publisher = University of Minnesota |date = October 15, 2014 |access-date = November 17, 2015 |archive-date = August 22, 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200822135028/http://www.seagrant.umn.edu/superior/processes |url-status = dead }}</ref>

Annual storms on Lake Superior regularly feature wave heights of over {{convert|20|ft|m|0}}.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.crh.noaa.gov/mqt/fitzgerald/gales.php |title = The Fall Storm Season |publisher = National Weather Service |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20051117101853/http://www.crh.noaa.gov/mqt/fitzgerald/gales.php |archive-date= 17 Nov 2005 |access-date= 18 Feb 2025 }}</ref> Waves well over {{convert|30|ft|m|0}} have been recorded.<ref>{{harvp|Chisholm|Gutsche|1998|p= xiii}}.</ref>

===Tributaries===
[[File:Lake Superior Watershed.png|thumb|left|Lake Superior basin]]

Lake Superior is fed by more than 200 rivers, including the [[Nipigon River]], the [[Saint Louis River (Lake Superior tributary)|St. Louis River]], the [[Pigeon River (Minnesota–Ontario)|Pigeon River]], the [[Pic River]], the [[White River (Ontario)|White River]], the [[Michipicoten River]], the [[Bois Brule River]] and the [[Kaministiquia River]]. The lake's outlet at St. Marys River has a relatively steep [[stream gradient|gradient]] with rapids. The Soo Locks enable ships to bypass the rapids and to overcome the {{convert|25|ft|m|0|adj=on}} height difference between Lakes Superior and Huron.

===Water levels===
[[File:Duluth Harbor Entrance in February (25632302346).jpg|thumb|A frozen Duluth Harbor entrance]]

The lake's average surface elevation is {{convert|600|ft|m|0}}<ref name=EPAfact/><ref name=mnsea/> above sea level. Until approximately 1887, the natural hydraulic conveyance through the St. Marys River rapids determined the outflow from Lake Superior. By 1921, development in support of transportation and hydroelectric power resulted in gates, locks, power canals and other control structures completely spanning St. Marys rapids. The regulating structure is known as the Compensating Works and is operated according to a regulation plan known as Plan 1977-A. Water levels, including diversions of water from the [[Hudson Bay]] watershed, are regulated by the [[International Lake Superior Board of Control]], which was established in 1914 by the [[International Joint Commission]].

Lake Superior's water level was at a new record low in September 2007, slightly less than the previous record low in 1926.<ref>{{cite news |agency = Associated Press |date = October 1, 2007 |url = https://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20071001.wsuperior1001/BNStory/Science/?cid=al_gam_nletter_newsUp |title = Lake Superior Hits Record Lows |work = The Globe and Mail |location = Toronto |access-date = October 6, 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080610154851/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20071001.wsuperior1001/BNStory/Science/?cid=al_gam_nletter_newsUp |archive-date = June 10, 2008 }}</ref> Water levels recovered within a few days.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.great-lakes.net/envt/water/levels/levels_current.html#current |title = Current Great Lakes Water Levels |publisher = Great Lakes Information Network |access-date = October 23, 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071020031653/http://www.great-lakes.net/envt/water/levels/levels_current.html#current |archive-date = October 20, 2007 |url-status = dead }}</ref>

The lake's water level fluctuates from month to month, with the highest lake levels in October and November. The normal high-water mark is {{convert|1.17|ft|m}} above the datum ({{convert|601.1|ft|m|abbr=on|disp=or}}). In the summer of 1985, Lake Superior reached its highest recorded level at {{convert|2.33|ft|m}} above the datum.<ref name="COE-2009">{{cite book|author=Detroit District|title=Water Level Data|date=February 2021|publisher=United States Army Corps of Engineers|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref> 2019 and 2020 set new high-water records in nearly every month.<ref name=COE-2009/>

The lake's lowest levels occur in March and April. The normal low-water mark is {{convert|0.33|ft|m}} below the datum. In the winter of 1926, Lake Superior reached its lowest recorded level at {{convert|1.58|ft|m}} below the datum.<ref name=COE-2009/> Additionally, the entire first half of the year (January to June) included record low months. The low water was a continuation of the dropping lake levels from the previous year, 1925, which set low-water records for October through December. During the nine-month period of October 1925 to June 1926, water levels ranged from {{convert|1.58|to|0.33|ft|m}} below Chart Datum.<ref name=COE-2009/> In the summer of 2007 monthly historic lows were set; August at {{convert|0.66|ft|m}}, and September at {{convert|0.58|ft|m}}.<ref name=COE-2009/>

===Climate change===
According to a study by professors at the University of Minnesota Duluth, Lake Superior may have warmed faster than its surrounding area.<ref name="marshall2007">{{cite news |last = Marshall |first = Jessica |date = May 30, 2007 |url = https://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=mg19426064.100 |title = Global Warming Is Shrinking the Great Lakes |work = New Scientist |access-date = September 25, 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071013171036/http://environment.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=mg19426064.100 |archive-date = October 13, 2007 }}</ref> Summer surface temperatures in the lake appeared to have increased by about {{convert|4.5|°F-change|°C-change}} between 1979 and 2007, compared with an approximately {{convert|2.7|°F-change|°C-change}} increase in the surrounding average air temperature. The increase in the lake's surface temperature may be related to the decreasing ice cover. Less winter ice cover allows more [[solar radiation]] to penetrate and warm the water. If trends continue, Lake Superior, which freezes over completely once every 20 years, could routinely be ice-free by 2040<ref>{{cite news |agency = Associated Press |date = June 4, 2007 |url = https://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070406.wsuperior0406/BNStory/International/home |title = Lake Superior Warming Faster than Surrounding Climate |work = The Globe and Mail |location = Toronto |url-access = subscription |access-date = September 25, 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070409013456/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070406.wsuperior0406/BNStory/International/home |archive-date = April 9, 2007 }}</ref> although more current data through 2021 does not support this trend.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Statistics |url=https://coastwatch.glerl.noaa.gov/statistic/ |access-date=2022-07-29 |website=coastwatch.glerl.noaa.gov}}</ref>

Warmer temperatures could lead to more snow in the [[lake-effect snow|lake effect]] snow belts along the shores of the lake, especially in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. Two recent consecutive winters (2013–2014 and 2014–2015) brought high ice coverage to the Great Lakes, and on March 6, 2014, overall ice coverage peaked at 92.5%, the second-highest in recorded history.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.accuweather.com/en/weather-news/great-lakes-ice-coverage-shipping-industry-severe-weather/43665598 |title = Extensive Great Lakes Ice Coverage to Limit Severe Weather, Pose Challenges to Shipping Industry |work = Accuweather.com |access-date = November 17, 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160101060034/http://www.accuweather.com/en/weather-news/great-lakes-ice-coverage-shipping-industry-severe-weather/43665598 |archive-date = January 1, 2016 |url-status = dead }}</ref> Lake Superior's ice coverage further beat 2014's record in 2019, reaching 95% coverage.<ref>{{Cite news |url = https://www.twincities.com/2019/03/15/after-achieving-95-percent-coverage-lake-superiors-ice-breaking-up/ |title = After Achieving 95 Percent Coverage, Lake Superior's Ice Breaking Up |last = Meyers |first = John |agency = Forum News Service |date = March 16, 2019 |work = Pioneer Press |location = St. Paul, Minnesota |language = en-US |access-date = September 4, 2019 }}</ref>

==Geography==
[[File:Brooklyn Museum - Lake Superior - Walter Shirlaw.jpg|thumb|''Lake Superior'', by [[Walter Shirlaw]]]]

The largest island in Lake Superior is [[Isle Royale]] in Michigan. Isle Royale contains several lakes, some of which also contain islands. Other well-known islands include [[Madeline Island]] in Wisconsin, [[Michipicoten Island]] in Ontario, and Grand Island (the location of the [[Grand Island National Recreation Area]]) in Michigan.

The larger cities on Lake Superior include the twin ports of Duluth, Minnesota, and Superior, Wisconsin; [[Thunder Bay]], Ontario; [[Marquette, Michigan]]; and the twin cities of [[Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan]], and [[Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario]]. [[Duluth MN-WI Metropolitan Area|Duluth-Superior]], at the western end of Lake Superior, is the most inland point on the [[Saint Lawrence Seaway]] and the most inland port in the world.

Among the scenic places on the lake are [[Apostle Islands National Lakeshore]], [[Brockway Mountain Drive]] on the [[Keweenaw Peninsula]], [[Isle Royale National Park]], [[Porcupine Mountains|Porcupine Mountains Wilderness State Park]], [[Pukaskwa National Park]], [[Lake Superior Provincial Park]], Grand Island National Recreation Area, [[Sleeping Giant (Ontario)]] and [[Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore]]. The [[Great Lakes Circle Tour]] is a designated scenic road system connecting all of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.great-lakes.net/tourism/circletour/ |title = Great Lakes Circle Tour |work = Great-Lakes.net |access-date = November 17, 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100725204133/http://www.great-lakes.net/tourism/circletour/ |archive-date = July 25, 2010 |url-status = dead }}</ref>

==Climate==
Lake Superior's size reduces the severity of the seasons of its [[humid continental climate]] (more typically seen in locations like [[Nova Scotia]]).<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Phillips|first=David W.|date=1978|title=Environmental Climatology of Lake Superior|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0380133078721994|magazine=Journal of Great Lakes Research|language=en|volume=4|issue=3–4|pages=288–309|doi=10.1016/S0380-1330(78)72199-4}}</ref> The water surface's slow reaction to temperature changes, seasonally ranging between {{convert|32|and|55|F|C}} around 1970,<ref name="derecki1980">{{cite web |last = Derecki |first = J. A. |date = July 1980 |url = https://www.glerl.noaa.gov/ftp/publications/tech_reports/glerl-029/tm-029.pdf |title = NOAA Technical Memorandum ERL GLERL-29: Evaporation from Lake Superior |publisher = [[Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory]] |page = 37 |access-date = September 25, 2007 |archive-date = October 24, 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151024094927/http://www.glerl.noaa.gov/ftp/publications/tech_reports/glerl-029/tm-029.pdf |url-status = dead }}</ref> helps to moderate surrounding air temperatures in the summer (cooler with frequent [[sea breeze]] formations) and winter, and creates [[lake-effect snow]] in colder months. The hills and mountains that border the lake hold moisture and fog, particularly in the fall.

==Geology==
[[File:Mid-continental Rift System.webp|thumb|Most of Lake Superior lies within the basin of the [[Midcontinent Rift System|Midcontinent Rift]].]]

The rocks of Lake Superior's northern shore date back to the early history of the earth. During the [[Precambrian]] (between 4.5&nbsp;billion and 540&nbsp;million years ago) [[magma]] forcing its way to the surface created the intrusive [[granite]]s of the [[Canadian Shield]].<ref>{{cite book |title = Geology of National Parks |edition = 2nd |first = Ann G. |last = Harris |publisher = Kendall Hunt |location = Dubuque, Iowa |year = 1977 |page = 200 }}</ref> These ancient granites can be seen on the [[North Shore (Lake Superior)|North Shore]] today. It was during the [[Penokean orogeny]], part of the process that created the [[Great Lakes tectonic zone]], that many valuable metals were deposited. The region surrounding the lake has proved to be rich in minerals, with [[copper]], [[iron]], [[silver]], [[gold]] and [[nickel]] the most frequently mined. Notable production includes gold from the [[Golden Giant Mine|Hemlo]] mine near [[Marathon, Ontario|Marathon]], copper from the [[Keweenaw Peninsula]] and the [[Mamainse Point Formation]], iron from the [[Gogebic Range]], silver at [[Silver Islet]], and uranium at Theano Point.

The mountains steadily eroded, depositing layers of [[sediment]]s that compacted and became [[limestone]], [[Dolomite (rock)|dolomite]], [[taconite]] and the [[shale]] at [[Kakabeka Falls]]. The continental crust was later [[rift|riven]], creating one of the deepest rifts in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/superior/superiorfacts.html |last = Linder |first = Douglas O. |year = 2006 |title = 'Simply Superior: The World's Greatest Lake' Lake Superior Facts |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20051105005812/http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/superior/superiorfacts.html |archive-date = November 5, 2005 |work = Law.umkc.edu |access-date = November 17, 2015 }}</ref> The lake lies in this long-extinct [[Mesoproterozoic]] [[rift valley]], the [[Midcontinent Rift System|Midcontinent Rift]]. Magma was injected between layers of [[Rove region|sedimentary rock]], forming [[diabase]] [[Sill (geology)|sills]]. This hard diabase protects the layers of sedimentary rock below, forming the flat-topped mesas in the [[Thunder Bay]] area. [[Amethyst]] formed in some of the cavities created by the Midcontinent Rift, and there are several amethyst mines in the Thunder Bay area.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.mndm.gov.on.ca/mndm/mines/ims/amethyst/default_e.asp |title = Ontario Amethyst: Ontario's Mineral Emblem |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070812025204/http://www.mndm.gov.on.ca/mndm/mines/ims/amethyst/default_e.asp |archive-date = August 12, 2007 |publisher = Ontario Ministry of Northern Development and Mines |access-date = August 4, 2007 }}</ref>

[[File:Basaltic columns Lake Superior.png|thumb|[[Basalt#Columnar basalt|Basaltic columns]] along Lake Superior]]

Lava erupted from the rift and formed the black basalt rock of Michipicoten Island, Black Bay Peninsula, and [[St Ignace Island|St. Ignace Island]].{{citation needed|date=June 2021}}

In the most recent geological history, during the [[Wisconsin glaciation]] 10,000 years ago, ice covered the region at a thickness of {{convert|1.25|mi|km|0}}. The land contours familiar today were carved by the advance and retreat of the [[ice sheet]]. The retreat left gravel, sand, clay and boulder deposits. Glacial meltwaters gathered in the Superior basin creating [[Glacial Lake Minong|Lake Minong]], a precursor to Lake Superior.<ref>{{harvp|Chisholm|Gutsche|1998|p= xv}}.</ref> Without the immense weight of the ice, the land [[Post-glacial rebound|rebounded]], and a drainage outlet formed at Sault Ste. Marie, becoming today's St. Mary's River.

==History==
[[File:Northern Michigan and Lake Superior.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.35|Historical map of Lake Superior and Northern Michigan, published 1879 by Rand McNally]]

The first people came to the Lake Superior region 10,000 years ago after the retreat of the glaciers in the [[Last Glacial Period]]. They are known as the [[Plano cultures|Plano]], and they used stone-tipped spears to hunt [[Reindeer|caribou]] on the northwestern side of Lake Minong. The Shield [[Archaic period (North America)|Archaic]] peoples arrived around 5000 BC; evidence of this culture can be found at the eastern and western ends of the Canadian shore. They used bows and arrows, paddled dugout canoes, fished, hunted, [[Old Copper Complex|mined copper]] for tools and weapons, and established trading networks. They are believed to be the direct ancestors of the Ojibwe and [[Cree]].<ref name="Chisholm & Gutsche, p. xvi">{{harvp|Chisholm|Gutsche|1998|p= xvi}}.</ref> The people of the [[Laurel complex]] (c. 500 BC to AD 500) developed [[seine net]] fishing, evidence being found at rivers around Superior such as the Pic and Michipicoten. The people of the Terminal [[Woodland period]] were evident in the area from AD 900 to 1650. They were [[Algonquian peoples]] who hunted, fished and gathered berries. They used [[snowshoe]]s, [[birch bark]] canoes and conical or domed lodges. At the mouth of the Michipicoten River, nine layers of encampments have been discovered. Most of the [[Pukaskwa Pit]]s were likely made during this time.<ref name="Chisholm & Gutsche, p. xvi" />

[[File:AgawaRock23.jpg|thumb|[[Pictograph]]s at [[Lake Superior Provincial Park]], Ontario]]

The [[Anishinaabe]] people (an ethnic grouping including the [[Ojibwe|Ojibwe/Chippewa]]) have inhabited the Lake Superior region for over five hundred years and were preceded by the [[Lakota people|Dakota]], [[Meskwaki|Meskwaki (Fox)]], [[Menominee]], Nipigon, [[Noquet]] and [[Gros Ventre]]s. After the arrival of Europeans, the Anishinaabe made themselves middle-men between the French [[fur trade]]rs and other Native peoples. They soon became the dominant Native American nation in the region: they forced out the [[Sioux]] and Fox and won a victory against the [[Iroquois]] west of Sault Ste. Marie in 1662. By the mid-18th century, the Ojibwe occupied all of Lake Superior's shores.<ref>{{harvp|Chisholm|Gutsche|1998|p= xvii}}.</ref>

[[File:050820 GrandPortageNationalMonument.jpg|thumb|left|Reconstructed Great Hall, [[Grand Portage National Monument]], Minnesota]]

In the 18th century, as the booming fur trade supplied Europe with [[beaver hat]]s, the [[Hudson's Bay Company]] had a virtual monopoly in the region until 1783, when the rival [[North West Company]] was formed. The North West Company built forts on Lake Superior at [[Grand Portage, Minnesota|Grand Portage]], [[Fort William, Ontario|Fort William]], Nipigon, the Pic River, the Michipicoten River, and Sault Ste. Marie. But by 1821, with competition harming the profits of both, the companies merged under the Hudson's Bay Company name. Many towns around the lake are current or former mining areas, or engaged in processing or shipping. Today, tourism is another significant industry: the sparsely populated Lake Superior country, with its rugged shorelines and wilderness, attracts vacationers and adventurers.

===Shipping===
[[File:Ice blockade in Marquette Harbor, June 1873, by Childs, B. F. 2.jpg|thumb|"Ice blockade in Marquette Harbor, June 1873", stereoscopic photo]]

Lake Superior has been an important link in the [[Great Lakes Waterway]], providing a route for the transportation of iron ore as well as grain and other mined and manufactured materials. Large cargo vessels called lake freighters, as well as smaller ocean-going [[seawaymax|freighters]], transport these commodities across Lake Superior. Shipping was slow to arrive at Lake Superior in the 19th century. The first steamboat to run on the lake was the [[Independence (steamboat)|''Independence'']] in 1847, whereas the first steamers on the other Great Lakes began sailing in 1816.<ref>*{{cite book |last = Palmer |first = Richard F. |title = First Steamboat on the Great Lakes |year = 1988 |url = http://navalmarinearchive.com/research/pdf/in_seas_xl_1-7_sm.pdf |pages = 7–8 |archive-date = October 16, 2019 |access-date = October 28, 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191016214544/http://navalmarinearchive.com/research/pdf/in_seas_xl_1-7_sm.pdf |url-status = dead }}</ref><ref>*{{cite book |title = Great Lakes Ships and Shipping |first = Dana Thomas |last = Bowen |publisher = Minnesota Historical Society |year = 1953 |url = http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/34/v34i01p009-016.pdf |page = 9 |access-date = October 28, 2019 |archive-date = July 14, 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200714210700/http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/34/v34i01p009-016.pdf |url-status = dead }}</ref> Ice closes the lake shipping from mid-January to late March. Exact dates for the shipping season vary each year,<ref>{{cite web |url = http://duluthshippingnews.com/tag/paul-r-tregurtha/ |title = Paul R. Treggurtha: Last Trip for the ''Tregurtha'' This Year |date = January 12, 2015 |access-date = January 21, 2015 |work = Duluth Shipping News |quote = Another trip here was planned but has apparently been canceled, making this her last and 41st visit this season. Last year, without a late start due to ice, the Tregurtha was here 49 times. |archive-date = May 20, 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200520193113/http://duluthshippingnews.com/tag/paul-r-tregurtha/ |url-status = dead }}</ref> depending on weather conditions that form and break the ice.

===Shipwrecks===
{{See also|Great Storms of the North American Great Lakes|List of shipwrecks of Isle Royale|Whitefish Point Underwater Preserve|List of shipwrecks of western Lake Superior}}

The southern shore of Lake Superior between [[Grand Marais, Michigan]], and [[Whitefish Point Light|Whitefish Point]] is known as the "[[Graveyard of the Great Lakes]]"; more ships have been lost around the Whitefish Point area than any other part of Lake Superior.<ref>{{cite book |last = Stonehouse |first = Frederick |orig-year = 1985 |year = 1998 |title = Lake Superior's Shipwreck Coast |page = 267 |publisher = Avery Color Studios |location = Gwinn, Michigan |isbn = 0-932212-43-3 }}</ref> These shipwrecks are now protected by the [[Whitefish Point Underwater Preserve]]. Storms that claimed multiple ships include the [[Mataafa Storm]] in November 1905 and the [[Great Lakes Storm of 1913]].

Wreckage of {{SS|Cyprus}}—a {{convert|420|ft|adj=on}} ore carrier that sank on October 11, 1907, during a Lake Superior storm in 77 fathoms ({{convert|460|ft|m|abbr=on|disp=semicolon}}) of water—was located in August 2007. Built in [[Lorain, Ohio]], ''Cyprus'' was launched August 17, 1907, and was lost on her second voyage hauling iron ore from Superior, Wisconsin, to Buffalo, New York, with the sole survivor among her 23 crew being Charles G. Pitz.<ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna20679934 |publisher = NBC News |title = Century-Old Shipwreck Discovered: Ore Carrier Went Down in Lake Superior on Its Second Voyage |agency = Associated Press |date = September 10, 2007 }}</ref> In 1918 the last warships to sink in the Great Lakes, [[French minesweepers Inkerman and Cerisoles|French minesweepers ''Inkerman'' and ''Cerisoles'']], vanished in a Lake Superior storm, perhaps upon striking the uncharted danger of the [[Superior Shoal]] in an otherwise deep part of the lake. With 78 crewmembers dead, their sinking marked the largest loss of life on Lake Superior to date.

{{SS|Edmund Fitzgerald}} is the last ship that sank in Lake Superior, {{convert|15|nmi|km mi|lk=in}} from Whitefish Point in a storm on November 10, 1975. The wreck was immortalized by [[Gordon Lightfoot]] in his ballad [[The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald|"The Wreck of the ''Edmund Fitzgerald''"]]. All 29 crew members died, and no bodies were recovered. ''Edmund Fitzgerald'' was battered so intensely by Lake Superior that the {{convert|729|ft|m|adj=on}} ship split in half; her two pieces lie approximately {{convert|170|ft|m}} apart at a depth of 88 fathoms ({{convert|530|ft|m|disp=semicolon|abbr=on}}).

Lightfoot sings that "Superior, they said, never gives up her dead".<ref>{{cite book |last = Kohl |first = Cris |year = 1998 |title = The 100 Best Great Lakes Shipwrecks |volume = II |page = 430 |publisher = Seawolf Communications |isbn = 0-9681437-3-3 }}</ref> This is because of the unusually cold water, under {{convert|36|°F}} on average around 1970.<ref name="derecki1980" /> Normally, bacteria decaying a sunken body will bloat it with gas, causing it to float to the surface after a few days. But Lake Superior's water is cold enough year-round to inhibit [[bacterial growth]], and bodies tend to sink and never resurface.<ref>{{harvp|Chisholm|Gutsche|1998|p= xxxiv}}.</ref> [[Joseph B. MacInnis|Joe MacInnis]] reported that in July 1994, explorer Frederick Shannon's Expedition 94 to the wreck of ''Edmund Fitzgerald'' discovered a man's body near the port side of her pilothouse, not far from the open door, "fully clothed, wearing an orange life jacket, and lying face down in the sediment".<ref>{{cite book |last = MacInnis |first = Joseph |author-link = Joseph B. MacInnis |year = 1998 |title = Fitzgerald's Storm: The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald |page = 101 |publisher = Thunder Bay Press |location = Berkeley, California |isbn = 1-882376-53-6 }}</ref>

In February 2024, it was announced that wreckage from the [[SS Arlington|SS ''Arlington'']], which sank in 1940, was discovered.<ref>{{cite web|title=Shipwreck hunters stunned by discovery at bottom of world's largest freshwater lake|website=[[Independent.co.uk]] |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/lake-superior-shipwreck-arlington-found-b2495846.html|access-date=14 February 2024}}</ref>

==Ecology==
[[File:Lake Superior at Neys Provincial Park Ontario.jpg|thumb|Bedrock shoreline, [[Neys Provincial Park]], Ontario]]
[[File:Miners Castle, Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore.jpg|thumb|[[Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore]], Michigan]]

More than 80 species of fish have been found in Lake Superior. Species native to the lake include [[banded killifish]], [[Coregonus hoyi|bloater]], [[brook trout]], [[burbot]], [[Coregonus artedi|cisco]], [[lake sturgeon]], [[lake trout]], [[lake whitefish]], [[longnose sucker]], [[muskellunge]], [[northern pike]], [[pumpkinseed]], [[rock bass]], [[round whitefish]], [[smallmouth bass]], [[walleye]], [[white sucker]] and [[yellow perch]]. In addition, many fish species have been either intentionally or accidentally introduced to Lake Superior: [[Atlantic salmon]], [[brown trout]], [[carp]], [[chinook salmon]], [[coho salmon]], [[freshwater drum]], [[pink salmon]], [[rainbow smelt]], [[rainbow trout]], [[round goby]], [[ruffe]], [[sea lamprey]] and [[white perch]].<ref name=mnsea2>{{cite web |url = http://www.seagrant.umn.edu/fisheries/superior_fish_species |title = Lake Superior Fish Species |author = Minnesota Sea Grant |publisher = University of Minnesota |access-date = June 3, 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title = Minnesota 2009 fishing regulations |page = 23 }}{{full citation needed|date=February 2020}}</ref>

Lake Superior has fewer dissolved nutrients relative to its water volume than the other Great Lakes and so is less productive in terms of fish populations and is an [[Trophic state index|oligotrophic lake]]. This is a result of the underdeveloped soils found in its relatively small watershed.<ref name=mnsea>{{cite web |url = http://www.seagrant.umn.edu/superior/overview |title = Lake Superior |author = Minnesota Sea Grant |publisher = University of Minnesota |access-date = August 9, 2007 |archive-date = February 20, 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070220053912/http://www.seagrant.umn.edu/superior/overview |url-status = dead }}</ref> It is also a reflection of relatively small human population and small amount of agriculture in its watershed. However, [[nitrate]] concentrations in the lake have been continuously rising for more than a century. They are still much lower than levels considered dangerous to human health; but this steady, long-term rise is an unusual record of environmental nitrogen buildup. It may relate to anthropogenic alternations to the regional [[nitrogen cycle]], but researchers are still unsure of the causes of this change to the lake's ecology.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1 = Sterner |first1 = Robert W. |last2 = Anagnostou |first2 = Eleni |last3 = Brovold |first3 = Sandra |last4 = Bullerjahn |first4 = George S. |author-link4=George S. Bullerjahn|last5 = Finlay |first5 = Jacques C. |last6 = Kumar |first6 = Sanjeev |last7 = McKay |first7 = R. Michael L. |last8 = Sherrell |first8 = Robert M. |title = Increasing Stoichiometric Imbalance in North America's Largest Lake: Nitrification in Lake Superior |magazine = Geophysical Research Letters |volume = 34 |pages = L10406 |year = 2007 |doi = 10.1029/2006GL028861 |bibcode = 2007GeoRL..3410406S |issue = 10 |url = https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/339953/1/Sterner_et_al._2007_GRL_LS_NO3.pdf |doi-access = free }}</ref>

As for other Great Lakes fish, populations have also been affected by the accidental or intentional introduction of foreign species such as the sea lamprey and [[Ruffe|Eurasian ruffe]]. Accidental introductions have occurred in part by the removal of natural barriers to navigation between the Great Lakes. Overfishing has also been a factor in the decline of fish populations.<ref name=pursuit/>

==See also==
{{portal|Lakes}}
* [[List of lakes in Ontario]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="GLBathSup">{{cite web |url = https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/products/great-lakes-bathymetry  |year = 1999 |title = Bathymetry of Lake Superior |author = National Geophysical Data Center |publisher = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |access-date = March 23, 2015 }}<br />(the general reference to NGDC because this lake was never published, compilation of Great Lakes Bathymetry at NGDC has been suspended).</ref>
<ref name="GLBathHur">{{cite web |url = https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/products/great-lakes-bathymetry |author = National Geophysical Data Center |year = 1999 |title = Bathymetry of Lake Huron |publisher = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |doi = 10.7289/V5G15XS5 |access-date = March 23, 2015 }} (only small portion of this map)</ref>
<ref name="GLOBE">{{cite web |year = 1999 |url = http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/topo/gltiles.html |title = Global Land One-Kilometer Base Elevation (GLOBE) v.1. |last1 = Hastings |first1 = D. |first2 = P.K. |last2 = Dunbar |name-list-style = amp |publisher = National Geophysical Data Center |doi = 10.7289/V52R3PMS |access-date = March 16, 2015 }}</ref>

<ref name="Wright73">{{cite magazine |last = Wright |first = H. E. Jr. |date = 1973 |title = Tunnel Valleys, Glacial Surges, and Subglacial Hydrology of the Superior Lobe, Minnesota |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=O45xdC5_hTAC&pg=PA273 |location = Boulder, Colorado |publisher = Geological Society of America |volume = 136 |pages = 251–276 |editor1-last = Black |editor1-first = Robert Foster |editor2-last = Goldthwait |editor2-first = Richard Parker |editor3-last = Willman |editor3-first = Harold |doi = 10.1130/MEM136-p251 |isbn = 0813711363 |access-date = April 1, 2015 |magazine = Geological Society of America Memoirs |series = Geological Society of America Memoirs }}</ref>
<ref name="Regis73">{{cite conference |last1 = Regis |first1 = Robert S. |last2 = Jennings-Patterson |first2 = Carrie |last3 = Wattrus |first3 = Nigel |last4 = Rausch |first4 = Deborah |name-list-style = amp |url = https://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2003NC/finalprogram/abstract_50646.htm |title = Relationship of Deep Troughs in the Eastern Lake Superior Basin and Large-Scale Glaciofluvial Landforms in the Central Upper Peninsula of Michigan |publisher = The Geological Society of America |work = North-Central Section 37th Annual Meeting |date = March 24–25, 2003 |location = Kansas City, Missouri |id = Paper No. 19-10 |access-date = April 1, 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304050532/https://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2003NC/finalprogram/abstract_50646.htm |archive-date = March 4, 2016 |url-status = dead }}</ref><ref name="NOAA_GLERL">{{cite web |url = https://www.glerl.noaa.gov/education/ourlakes/gl_tour.html |title = About Our Great Lakes: Tour |publisher = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |author = Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory |access-date = December 15, 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170507173208/https://www.glerl.noaa.gov/education/ourlakes/gl_tour.html |archive-date = May 7, 2017 |url-status = dead }}</ref>
}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite news |title = America |location = Houghton, Michigan |work = The Daily Mining Gazette |date = June 8, 1928 }}
* {{cite book |url = https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_6c0QAAAAIAAJ |last1 = Burt |first1 = Williams A. |last2 = Hubbard |first2 = Bela |name-list-style = amp |title = Reports on the Mineral Region of Lake Superior |location = Buffalo |publisher = L. Danforth |year = 1846 }}
* {{cite news |title = Cumberland |work = Detroit Free Press |date = January 29, 1974 }}
* {{cite book |last = Grady |first = Wayne |title = The Great Lakes: The Natural History of a Changing Region |publisher = Greystone Books |year = 2007 }}
* {{cite web |author = Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory |url = http://www.glerl.noaa.gov/res/Programs/glscf/hydrology.html |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100808074846/http://www.glerl.noaa.gov/res/Programs/glscf/hydrology.html |archive-date = August 8, 2010 |title = Great Lakes Sensitivity to Climatic Forcing: Hydrological Models |publisher = National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration |year = 2006 }}
* {{cite magazine |last = Holdon |first = Thom |title = Reef of the Three C's |magazine = The Nor'easter |location = Duluth, MN |publisher = Lake Superior Marine Museum |volume = 2 |issue = 4 |date = July–August 1977 }}
* {{cite magazine |last = Holdon |first = Thom |author-mask = ——— |title = Above and Below: Steamer America |magazine = The Nor'easter |location = Duluth, Minnesota |publisher = Lake Superior Marine Museum |volume = 3 |issue = 3 & 4 |date = May–August 1978 }}
* {{cite book |last1 = Hyde |first1 = Charles K. |first2 = Ann |last2 = Mahan |first3 = John |last3 = Mahan |name-list-style = amp |title = The Northern Lights: Lighthouses of the Upper Great Lakes |location = Detroit |publisher = Wayne State University Press |year = 1995 |isbn = 9780814325544 }}
* {{cite book |last = Langston |first = Nancy |title = Sustaining Lake Superior: An Extraordinary Lake in a Changing World |location = New Haven, Connecticut |publisher = Yale University Press |year = 2017 }}
* {{cite magazine |last = LeMay |first = Konnie |title = Rockin' the Rift, The Billion-Year-Old Split that Made Us |magazine = Lake Superior Magazine |url = https://www.lakesuperior.com/the-lake/402rockin-the-rift-the-billion-year-old-split-that-made-us/ |date = July 30, 2018 }}
* {{cite book |last = Oleszewski |first = Wes |title = Great Lakes Lighthouses, American and Canadian: A Comprehensive Directory/Guide to Great Lakes Lighthouses |location = Gwinn, Michigan |publisher = Avery Color Studios |year = 1998 |isbn = 0-932212-98-0 }}
* {{cite book |last = Penrod |first = John |title = Lighthouses of Michigan |location = Berrien Center, Michigan |publisher = Penrod/Hiawatha |year = 1998 |isbn = 978-0-942618-78-5 }}
* {{cite book |last1 = Penrose |first1 = Laurie |last2 = Penrose |first2 = Bill |name-list-style = amp |title = A Traveler's Guide to 116 Michigan Lighthouses |location = Petoskey, Michigan |publisher = Friede Publications |year = 1999 |isbn = 9780923756031 |url-access = registration |url = https://archive.org/details/travelersguideto00penr }}
* {{cite book |last = Ralph |first = Julian |title = Lake Superior along the south shore |location = New York |publisher = Press of American Bank Note Company |year = 1890 |url = https://archive.org/details/lakesuperioralon00ralp/page/20 |ref = ralph }} 
* {{cite book |editor1-last = Sims |editor1-first = P.K. |editor2-first = L.M.H. |editor2-last = Carter |name-list-style = amp |title = Archean and Proterozoic Geology of the Lake Superior Region, U.S.A., 1993 |id = Professional Paper 1556 |location = Washington, DC |publisher = United States Geological Survey |year = 1996 }}
* {{cite book |last = Splake |first = T. Kilgore |title = Superior Land Lights |location = Battle Creek, Michigan |publisher = Angst Productions |year = 1984 }}
* {{cite news |title = S.S. George M. Cox Wrecked |location = Houghton, Michigan |work = The Daily Mining Gazette |date = May 28, 1933 }}
* {{cite book |last = Stonehouse |first = Frederick |title = Marquette Shipwrecks |location = Marquette, Michigan |publisher = Harboridge Press |year = 1974 }}
* {{cite book |last = Stonehouse |first = Frederick |author-mask = ——— |title = Isle Royale Shipwrecks |location = Marquette, Michigan |publisher = Avery Color Studios |year = 1977 }}
* {{cite news |author = United States Army Corps of Engineers |title = [Record Low Water Levels Expected on Lake Superior] |date = August 2007 }}
* {{cite book |last = Wagner |first = John L. |title = Michigan Lighthouses: An Aerial Photographic Perspective |location = East Lansing, Michigan |publisher = John L. Wagner |year = 1998 |isbn = 9781880311011 }}
* {{cite news |title = Wreck of Sidewheel Steamer Cumberland |work = Detroit Free Press |date = January 29, 1974 }}
* {{cite book |last1 = Wright |first1 = Larry |last2 = Wright |first2 = Patricia |name-list-style = amp |title = Great Lakes Lighthouses Encyclopedia |location = Erin |publisher = Boston Mills Press |year = 2006 |isbn = 1-55046-399-3 }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Lake Superior}}
* {{osmrelation|4039486}}
* [http://www.charts.noaa.gov/OnLineViewer/14961.shtml Lake Superior NOAA nautical chart #14961 online]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20180112034236/http://www.ijc.org/en_/ilsbc/International_Lake_Superior_Board_of_Control International Lake Superior Board of Control]
* [https://archive.today/20121205023609/http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/atlas/index.html EPA's Great Lakes Atlas]
* [https://archive.today/20120801102528/http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/atlas/gl-fact1.html EPA's Great Lakes Atlas Factsheet #1]
* [http://www.coastwatch.msu.edu/ Great Lakes Coast Watch] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511230142/http://www.coastwatch.msu.edu/ |date=May 11, 2008 }}
* [http://pc.gc.ca/en/amnc-nmca/on/super Parks Canada - Lake Superior National Marine Conservation Area]
* [http://seagrant.umn.edu/superior/ Minnesota Sea Grant Lake Superior Page] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070814143509/http://www.seagrant.umn.edu/superior/ |date=August 14, 2007 }}
* [http://www.nrri.umn.edu/lsgis/bathy.htm Lake Superior Bathymetry] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116025806/http://www.nrri.umn.edu/lsgis/bathy.htm |date=January 16, 2009 }}
* [https://americanarchive.org/catalog/cpb-aacip-526-154dn40s6r Lake Superior Trials]

{{Great Lakes}}
{{Upper Peninsula of Michigan}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Superior, Lake}}
[[Category:Lake Superior| ]]
[[Category:Canada–United States border]]
[[Category:Great Lakes Waterway]]
[[Category:Great Lakes|*Superior]]
[[Category:International lakes of North America]]
[[Category:Lakes of Algoma District]]
[[Category:Lakes of Michigan]]
[[Category:Lakes of Minnesota]]
[[Category:Lakes of Ontario]]
[[Category:Lakes of Thunder Bay District]]
[[Category:Lakes of Wisconsin]]
[[Category:Mesoproterozoic rifts and grabens]]
[[Category:Upper Peninsula of Michigan]]