View source for Labyrinth

{{Short description|Elaborate, confusing structure in Greek mythology}}
{{About|the elaborate maze-like labyrinth from Greek mythology}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{Special characters}}
[[File:Knossos silver coin 400bc.jpg|thumb|Silver coin from [[Knossos]] displaying the 7-course "Classical" design to represent the Labyrinth, {{circa|400 BC}}]]
{{Greek mythology sidebar}}

In [[Greek mythology]], the '''Labyrinth''' ({{langx|grc|{{wikt-lang|grc|λαβύρινθος}}|{{grc-transl|Λαβύρινθος}}|}}){{Efn|{{IPA|grc|laby&#833;rintʰos|label=Ancient:}}, {{IPA|el|laˈvirinθos|label=Modern:}}|name=|group=lower-alpha}} is an elaborate, confusing structure designed and built by the legendary artificer [[Daedalus]] for King [[Minos]] of [[Crete]] at [[Knossos]]. Its function was to hold the [[Minotaur]], the monster eventually killed by the hero [[Theseus]]. Daedalus had so cunningly made the Labyrinth that he could barely escape it after he built it.<ref>{{harvnb|Doob|1992|p=36}}</ref>

Although early Cretan coins occasionally exhibit branching (multicursal) patterns,<ref>Kern, ''Through the Labyrinth'', 2000, item 43, p. 53.</ref> the single-path (unicursal) seven-course "Classical" design without branching or dead ends became associated with the Labyrinth on coins as early as 430 BC,<ref>Kern, ''Through the Labyrinth'', 2000, item 50, p. 54.</ref> and similar non-branching patterns became widely used as visual representations of the Labyrinth – even though both logic and literary descriptions make it clear that the Minotaur was trapped in a complex branching maze.<ref>Penelope Reed Doob, ''The Idea of the Labyrinth'', pp. 40–41.</ref> Even as the designs became more elaborate, visual depictions of the mythological Labyrinth from the [[Roman era]] until the [[Renaissance]] are almost invariably unicursal. Branching mazes were reintroduced only when [[hedge maze]]s became popular during the Renaissance.<ref>{{cite book |last=McCullough |first=David |date=2004 |title=The Unending Mystery |location=New York |publisher=Pantheon |pages=113–124 |isbn=0375423060}}</ref>

In English, the term ''labyrinth'' is generally synonymous with ''[[maze]]''. As a result of the long history of unicursal representation of the mythological Labyrinth, however, many contemporary scholars and enthusiasts observe a distinction between the two. In this specialized usage, ''maze'' refers to a complex branching multicursal puzzle with choices of path and direction, while a unicursal ''labyrinth'' has only a single path to the center. A labyrinth in this sense has an unambiguous route to the center and back and presents no navigational challenge.<ref>Kern, ''Through the Labyrinth'', p. 23.</ref><ref>The usage restricting ''maze'' to patterns that involve choices of path is mentioned by Matthews (p. 2–3) as early as 1922, though he does not find the distinction useful and does not follow it himself.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.labyrinthos.net/Labyrinth%20Typology.pdf |author=Jeff Saward |website=Labyrinthos |title=Mazes or Labyrinths? |access-date=28 December 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://labyrinthsociety.org/about-labyrinths | website=The Labyrinth Society | title=About Labyrinths | access-date=18 September 2015 | archive-date=30 August 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230830020438/https://labyrinthsociety.org/about-labyrinths | url-status=dead }}</ref>

Unicursal labyrinths appeared as designs on [[pottery]] or [[basketry]], as [[body art]], and in etchings on walls of caves or churches. The Romans created many primarily decorative unicursal designs on walls and floors in tile or [[mosaic]]. Many labyrinths set in floors or on the ground are large enough that the path can be walked. Unicursal patterns have been used historically both in group ritual and for private meditation, and are increasingly found for therapeutic use in hospitals and hospices.<ref>{{cite book |last=McCullough |first=David |date=2004 |title=The Unending Mystery |location=New York |publisher=Pantheon |pages=184–187 |isbn=0375423060}}</ref>

==Etymology==

''Labyrinth'' is a word of [[pre-Greek]] origin whose derivation and meaning are uncertain. Maximillian Mayer suggested as early as 1892<ref>
{{cite journal |last=Mayer |first="Maximilian |title=Mykenische Beiträge. II. Zur mykenischen Tracht und Kultur |periodical=Jahrbuch des Kaiserlich deutschen archäologischen Instituts |date=1892 |volume=VII| page=191}}</ref> that ''labyrinthos'' might derive from ''[[labrys]]'', a [[Lydian language|Lydian]] word for "double-bladed axe".<ref>{{lang|grc|Λυδοὶ γάρ 'λάβρυν' τὸν πέλεκυν ὀνομάζουσι}}, Plutarch, ''[[Moralia|Greek Questions]]'', 45 2.302a.</ref> [[Arthur Evans]], who excavated the [[Minoan palace]] of [[Knossos]] in [[Crete]] early in the 20th century, suggested that the ruins there inspired the story of the labyrinth, and since the double axe motif appears in the palace ruins, he asserted that ''labyrinth'' could be understood to mean "the house of the double axe".<ref name= dapurito/> The same symbol, however, was discovered in other palaces in [[Crete]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rouse |first=W. H. D. |date=1901 |title=The Double Axe and the Labyrinth |journal=Journal of Hellenic Studies |volume=21 |pages=268–274|doi=10.2307/623875 |jstor=623875 |s2cid=164124200 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/2507941 }} Rouse criticised the association with Knossos, noting the reappearance of the same inscribed symbols at the newly discovered palace at [[Phaistos]] (p. 273).</ref> [[Martin P. Nilsson|Nilsson]] observed that in [[Crete]] the double axe is not a weapon and always accompanies [[goddess]]es or women and not a male god.<ref>Martin Nilsson (1967):'' Die Geschichte der Griechische Religion''. C.F.Beck Verlag Vol I, p. 277</ref>

The association with "labrys" lost some traction when [[Linear B]] was deciphered in the 1950s, and an apparent [[Mycenaean Greek]] rendering of "labyrinth" appeared as {{Lang|gmy-Latn|da-pu₂-ri-to}} ({{Lang|gmy|𐀅𐀢𐀪𐀵}}).<ref name= dapurito >''The Oxford Classical Dictionary''. Oxford University Press p.116. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bVWcAQAAQBAJ&dq=dapurito+linear+B&pg=PA960 Oxford Classical Dictionary]</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=da-pu2-ri-to-jo|url=http://minoan.deaditerranean.com/resources/linear-b-sign-groups/da/da-pu2-ri-to-jo/|work=Minoan Linear A & Mycenaean Linear B|publisher=Deaditerranean|last=Raymoure|first=K.A.}}</ref><ref>Stephanie Lynn Buden. ''The Ancient Greeks. An introduction''. Oxford University Press.p. 227 [https://archive.org/details/ancientgreeksint0000budi/page/227 <!-- quote=dapurito. -->]</ref><ref name="Sarullo">{{cite journal | last=Sarullo | first=Giulia | title=The Cretan Labyrinth: Palace or Cave? | date=2008 | journal=Caerdroia |volume=37 |pages=31–40 }}</ref> This may be related to the Minoan word ''du-pu₂-re'', which appears in [[Linear A]] on [[libation]] tablets and in connection with [[Mount Dikte]] and [[Mount Ida]], both of which are associated with caverns.<ref>{{cite book| first=Francesco | last=Aspesi | chapter=Greco labyrinthos, ebraico d<sup>e</sup>bîr | title=KRHTH TIS GAI ESTI: Studi e ricerche intorno ai testi minoici | place=Roma | publisher=Il Calamo | date=1996}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| first=Francesco | last=Aspesi | chapter=Lineare A (-)da-pu<sub>2</sub>-re: un'ipostesi | title=KRHTH TIS GAI ESTI: Studi e ricerche intorno ai testi minoici | place=Roma | publisher=Il Calamo | date=1996}}</ref> Caverns near [[Gortyna]], the Cretan capital in the 1st century AD, were called ''labyrinthos''.<ref name="Sarullo" />

[[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]]'s [[Pliny's Natural History|''Natural History'']] gives four examples of ancient labyrinths: the Cretan labyrinth, an Egyptian labyrinth, a Lemnian labyrinth, and an Italian labyrinth. These are all complex underground structures,<ref name="Kern III">{{cite book |last=Kern |first=Hermann |date=2000 |title=Through the Labyrinth |location=Munich, New York, London |publisher=Prestel |chapter=Chapter III: Ancient "Labyrinths" |pages=57–65 |isbn=3791321447 }}</ref> and this appears to have been the standard Classical understanding of the word.

[[Robert S.P. Beekes|Beekes]] also finds the relation with ''labrys'' speculative, and suggests instead a relation with Greek {{Lang|grc|λαύρα}} ('narrow street').<ref>{{cite book |last=Beekes |first=Robert |author-link=Robert S. P. Beekes |date=2009 |title=Etymological Dictionary of Greek |publisher=Brill |page= 819 |isbn=978-90-04-17418-4}}</ref>

==Ancient labyrinths==
===Cretan labyrinth===
[[File:Gaziantep Zeugma Museum Daedalus mosaic 1871.jpg|thumb|A [[Roman mosaic]] from [[Zeugma, Commagene]] (now in the [[Zeugma Mosaic Museum]]) depicting [[Daedalus]], his son [[Icarus]], Queen [[Pasiphaë]], and two of her female attendants]]
[[File:Edward Burne-Jones - Tile Design - Theseus and the Minotaur in the Labyrinth - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|Theseus in the Minotaur's labyrinth, by [[Edward Burne-Jones]], 1861]]
When the [[Bronze Age]] site at [[Knossos]] was excavated by archaeologist [[Arthur Evans]], the complexity of the architecture prompted him to suggest that the palace had been the Labyrinth of Daedalus. Evans found various bull motifs, including an image of [[Bull-leaping|a man leaping over the horns of a bull]], as well as depictions of a [[labrys]] carved into the walls. On the strength of a passage in the ''Iliad'',<ref name="dancingground">{{cite web 
 |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0133%3Abook%3D18%3Acard%3D591
 |author=Homer
 |title=Iliad
 |at=xviii.590–3
 |publisher=Tufts University
 |series=Perseus Digital Library
}}</ref> it has been suggested that the palace was the site of a dancing-ground made for [[Ariadne]] by the craftsman [[Daedalus]],<ref>{{cite journal
 |last=Miller
 |first=Paul Allen
 |date=July 1995
 |title=The Minotaur Within: Fire, the Labyrinth, and Strategies of Containment in Aeneid 5 and 6
 |journal=Classical Philology
 |volume=90
 |issue=3
 |pages=225–240
|doi=10.1086/367466
 |s2cid=161753794
 }}</ref><ref>"Furthermore he wrought a green, like that which Daedalus once made in Cnossus for lovely Ariadne. Hereon there danced youths and maidens whom all would woo, with their hands on one another's wrists. The maidens wore robes of light linen, and the youths well woven shirts that were slightly oiled. There was a bard also to sing to them and play his lyre, while two tumblers went about performing in the midst of them when the man struck up with his tune."

: The Iliad: Transl, by Samuel Butler:[http://classics.mit.edu/Homer/iliad.18.xviii.html]</ref>
where young men and women, of the age of those sent to Crete as prey for the Minotaur, would dance together. By extension, in popular legend the palace is associated with the myth of the Minotaur.

In the 2000s, archaeologists explored other potential sites of the labyrinth.<ref name="skotinogortyn">{{cite web 
| url = https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/architecture/has-the-original-labyrinth-been-found-1803638.html 
| work = The Independent
| title= Has the original Labyrinth been found?
| author = Steve Connor
| date = 16 October 2009}}</ref> [[Oxford University]] geographer Nicholas Howarth believes that "Evans's hypothesis that the palace of Knossos is also the Labyrinth must be treated sceptically."<ref name=skotinogortyn /> Howarth and his team conducted a search of an underground complex known as the [[Skotino cave]] but concluded that it was formed naturally. Another contender is a series of tunnels at [[Gortyn]], accessed by a narrow crack but expanding into interlinking caverns. Unlike the Skotino cave, these caverns have smooth walls and columns, and appear to have been at least partially man-made. This site corresponds to a labyrinth symbol on a 16th-century map of Crete in a book of maps in the library of [[Christ Church, Oxford]]. A map of the caves themselves was produced by the French in 1821. The site was also used by German soldiers to store ammunition during the [[Second World War]]. Howarth's investigation was shown on a documentary<ref name="natgeodocumentary">[http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/episode/the-holy-grail-5048/Overview National Geographic Channel: The Holy Grail (and the Minotaur)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110101072958/http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/episode/the-holy-grail-5048/Overview |date=1 January 2011 }}</ref> produced for the [[National Geographic Channel]].

===The Egyptian labyrinth===
{{see also|Labyrinth of Egypt}}
In Book II of his ''[[Histories (Herodotus)#Book II (Euterpe)|Histories]]'', [[Herodotus]] applies the term "labyrinth" to a building complex in Egypt "near the place called the [[Crocodilopolis|City of Crocodiles]]", that he considered to surpass the [[Egyptian pyramids|pyramids]].<ref>[[Herodotus]], ''[[The Histories of Herodotus|The Histories]]'', translated by [[Aubrey de Sélincourt]], Book II, pp. 160–161.</ref> The structure, which may have been a collection of funerary temples such as are commonly found near Egyptian pyramids,<ref name="Kern 2000, p. 59">Kern 2000, p. 59.</ref> was destroyed in antiquity and can only be partially reconstructed.<ref>{{cite book |author=Verner, Miroslav |title=The Pyramids: The Mystery, Culture and Science of Egypt's Great Monuments |publisher=Grove Press |year=2001 |isbn=9780802117038 |location=New York |page=430}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lehner |first1=Mark |title=The Complete Pyramids |publisher=Thames & Hudson |year=2008 |isbn=9780500285473 |location=New York |page=181}}</ref> During the nineteenth century, the remains of this ancient Egyptian structure were discovered at [[Hawara (archaeological site)|Hawara]] in the [[Faiyum Oasis]] by [[Flinders Petrie]] at the foot of the pyramid of the twelfth-dynasty pharaoh [[Amenemhat III]] (reigned c. 1860 BC to c. 1814 BC).<ref>Matthews, p. 13.</ref>

===Pliny's Lemnian labyrinth===
[[Pliny the Elder]]'s ''Natural History'' (36.90) lists the legendary [[Smilis]], reputed to be a contemporary of Daedalus, together with the historical mid-sixth-century BC architects and sculptors Rhoikos and Theodoros as two of the makers of the Lemnian labyrinth, which Andrew Stewart<ref>Andrew Stewart, ''One Hundred Greek Sculptors: Their Careers and Extant Works'', "Smilis."</ref> regards as "evidently a misunderstanding of the Samian temple's location ''en limnais'' ['in the marsh']."

===Pliny's Italian labyrinth===
According to Pliny, the [[Tomb of Lars Porsena]] contained an underground maze. Pliny's description of the exposed portion of the tomb is intractable; Pliny, it seems clear, had not observed this structure himself, but is quoting the historian and Roman antiquarian [[Marcus Terentius Varro|Varro]].<ref>[[Pliny the Elder]], ''Natural History'', [http://attalus.org/translate/pliny_hn36a.html#91 xxxvi.91–92].</ref>

===Ancient labyrinths outside Europe===
[[File:Halebid2.JPG|thumb|right|Carving showing the warrior [[Abhimanyu]] entering the ''chakravyuha'' – [[Hoysaleswara temple]], [[Halebidu]], India]]
A design essentially identical to the 7-course "classical" pattern appeared in Native American culture, the [[Tohono O'odham people]] labyrinth which features [[I'itoi]], the "Man in the Maze." The Tonoho O'odham pattern has two distinct differences from the classical: it is radial in design, and the entrance is at the top, where traditional labyrinths have the entrance at the bottom (see below). The earliest appearances cannot be dated securely; the oldest is commonly dated to the 17th century.<ref>{{cite book
 |last=Saward |first=Jeff |date=2003 |title=Labyrinths and Mazes |publisher=Gaia |page=70 |isbn=1579905390 
}}</ref>

Unsubstantiated claims have been made for the early appearance of labyrinth figures in India,<ref name="Saward, p. 60">Saward, ''Labyrinths and Mazes'', p. 60.</ref> such as a prehistoric petroglyph on a riverbank in [[Goa]] purportedly dating to circa 2500 BC.<ref>{{cite web 
| url = https://sites.google.com/site/isiscrete/rationale 
| work = 9th ISIS Congress
| title= Festival on Labyrinth and Symmetry
| date = 9 September 2013}}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=January 2019}} Other examples have been found among cave art in northern India and on a dolmen shrine in the [[Nilgiri Mountains]], but are difficult to date accurately. Securely datable examples begin to appear only around 250 BC.<ref name="Saward, p. 60"/> Early labyrinths in India typically follow the Classical pattern or a local variant of it; some have been described as plans of forts or cities.<ref>Saward, ''Labyrinths and Mazes'', pp. 60–61.</ref>

Labyrinths appear in Indian manuscripts and [[Vajrayana|Tantric]] texts from the 17th century onward. They are often called "[[Chakravyuha]]" in reference to an impregnable battle formation described in the ancient [[Mahabharata]] epic. Lanka, the capital city of mythic Rāvana, is described as a labyrinth in the 1910 translation of [[Abu Rayhan Biruni|Al-Beruni]]'s ''India'' (c. 1030 AD) p.&nbsp;306 (with a diagram on the following page).<ref>[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/digital/collections/cul/texts/ldpd_5949073_001/pages/ldpd_5949073_001_00000362.html <!--Abu Rayhan Biruni--> Al-Beruni, ''India'', (c. 1030&nbsp;AD), Edward C. Sachau (translator), Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co, London, 1910] Online version from Columbia University Libraries (Retrieved 5 December 2009)</ref>

By the [[White Sea]], notably on the [[Solovetsky Islands]], there have been preserved more than 30 stone labyrinths. The most remarkable monument is the [[Stone labyrinths of Bolshoi Zayatsky Island]] – a group of some 13 stone labyrinths on 0.4&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> area of one small island. Local archaeologists have speculated that these labyrinths may be 2,000–3,000 years old, though most researchers remain dubious.<ref>Saward, ''Labyrinths and Mazes'', pp. 148–149.</ref>

==Labyrinth as pattern==
[[File:Classical 7-Circuit Labyrinth.svg|thumb|"Classical" or "Cretan" design, well-known in antiquity.]]
The 7-course "Classical" or "Cretan" pattern known from Cretan coins (ca 400–200 BC) appears in several examples from antiquity, some perhaps as early as the late Stone Age or early Bronze Age.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.labyrinthos.net/labyrinthosarchive.html|title=Labyrinthos Archive – The First Labyrinths|website=www.labyrinthos.net|access-date=10 January 2020}}</ref> Roman [[floor mosaic]]s typically unite four copies of the classical labyrinth (or a similar pattern) interlinked around the center, squared off as the medium requires, but still recognisable. An image of the [[Minotaur]] or an allusion to the legend of the Minotaur appears at the center of many of these mosaic labyrinths.

{{Commons category|Classical labyrinths|Classical Cretan labyrinths|lcfirst=yes}}

[[File:Labyrinthus.svg|thumb|The four-axis pattern as executed in [[Chartres Cathedral]] (early 1200s)]]
The four-axis medieval patterns may have developed from the Roman model, but are more varied in how the four quadrants of the design are traced out. The Minotaur or other danger is retained in the center of several medieval examples. The Chartres pattern (named for its appearance in [[Chartres Cathedral]]) is the most common medieval design; it appears in manuscripts as early as the 9th century.

==Medieval labyrinths and turf mazes==
[[File:Inneres der Kathedrale.jpg|thumb|right|[[Chartres Cathedral]], about 1750, Jean Baptiste Rigaud]]
When the early humanist [[Benzo d'Alessandria]] visited [[Verona]] before 1310, he noted the "''Laberinthum'' which is now called the [[Arena of Verona|Arena]]";<ref>"quod nunc Harena dicitur": Roberto Weiss, ''The Renaissance Discovery of Classical Antiquity'' 1969:25.</ref> perhaps he was seeing the ''cubiculi'' beneath the arena's missing floor.
The full flowering of the medieval labyrinth came about from the twelfth through fourteenth centuries with the grand pavement labyrinths of the gothic cathedrals, notably [[Cathedral of Chartres|Chartres]], [[Reims Cathedral|Reims]] and [[Amiens Cathedral|Amiens]] in northern France. The symbolism or purpose behind these is unclear, and may have varied from one installation to the next. Descriptions survive of French clerics performing a ritual Easter dance along the path on Easter Sunday.<ref name="kern_church" /> Some labyrinths may have originated as allusions to the [[Jerusalem|Holy City]]; and some modern writers have theorized that prayers and devotions may have accompanied the perambulation of their intricate paths.<ref>{{CathEncy|wstitle=Labyrinth}}</ref> Although some books (in particular guidebooks) suggest that the mazes on cathedral floors served as substitutes for pilgrimage paths, the earliest attested use of the phrase "chemin de Jerusalem" (path to Jerusalem) dates to the late 18th century when it was used to describe mazes at [[Reims]] and [[Saint-Omer]].<ref name="Wright">{{cite book
|last=Wright
|first=Craig M.
|title=The maze and the warrior: symbols in architecture, theology, and music
|year=2001
|publisher=Harvard University Press
|isbn=978-0-674-00503-7
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e-wGs_-9H8IC&q=%22Chemin+de+Jerusalem%22&pg=PA210|page=210
}}</ref> The accompanying ritual, depicted in Romantic illustrations as involving pilgrims following the maze on their knees while praying, may have been practiced at Chartres during the 17th century.<ref name="Wright" /><ref name="russell">{{cite journal
  | last = Russell
  | first = W. M. S.
  | author2 = Claire Russell
  | title = English Turf Mazes, Troy, and the Labyrinth 
  | journal = Folklore
  | volume = 102
  | issue = 1
  | pages = 77–88
  | publisher = Taylor and Francis
  | year = 1991
  | jstor = 1260358
  | doi = 10.1080/0015587x.1991.9715807
 }}
</ref> The cathedral labyrinths are thought to be the inspiration for the many [[turf maze]]s in the UK, such as survive at [[Wing, Rutland|Wing]], [[Hilton, Cambridgeshire|Hilton]], [[Alkborough Turf Maze|Alkborough]], and [[Saffron Walden]].

Over the same general period, some 500 or more non-ecclesiastical labyrinths were constructed in [[Scandinavia]]. These labyrinths, generally in coastal areas, are marked out with stones, most often in the simple 7- or 11-course classical forms. They often have names which translate as "[[Troy Town]]." They are thought to have been constructed by fishing communities:  trapping malevolent [[troll]]s or winds in the labyrinth's coils might ensure a safe fishing expedition. There are also stone labyrinths on the [[Isles of Scilly]], although none is known to date from before the nineteenth century.

There are examples of labyrinths in many disparate cultures. The symbol has appeared in various forms and media ([[petroglyph]]s, classic-form, medieval-form, pavement, turf, and basketry) at some time throughout most parts of the world, from Native [[North America|North]] and South America to Australia, [[Java]], India, and [[Nepal]].

==<span id="Modern"></span> Modern labyrinths==
[[File:Labyrinth.JPG|thumb|left|Labyrinth on floor of [[Grace Cathedral, San Francisco]]]]
Starting in the late 20th century, there has been a resurgence of interest in labyrinths and a revival in labyrinth building, of both unicursal and multicursal patterns.<ref>{{cite book
 |last=Saward |first=Jeff |date=2003 |title=Labyrinths and Mazes |publisher=Gaia |chapter=Chapter 6: The Modern Revival |pages=179–208 |isbn=1579905390 
}}</ref> Approximately 6,000 labyrinths have been registered with the Worldwide Labyrinth Locator; these are located around the world in private properties, libraries, schools, gardens, and recreational areas, as well as famous temples and cathedrals.<ref>{{cite news |last=Bliss |first=Laura |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-07-29/the-pandemic-era-appeal-of-labyrinths |title=The Pandemic-Era Appeal of Getting Lost in a Labyrinth |work=[[Bloomberg News]] |date=29 July 2020 |access-date=30 July 2020 }}</ref><ref name="World-Wide Labyrinth Locator">{{cite web | title=Welcome to the World-Wide Labyrinth Locator! | website=World-Wide Labyrinth Locator | url=https://labyrinthlocator.com/ | access-date=23 November 2021}}</ref>

The labyrinth is also treated in contemporary [[fine arts]]. Examples include [[Piet Mondrian]]'s ''Pier and Ocean'' (1915), [[Joan Miró]]'s ''[[Labyrinth (Miró, Joan)|Labyrinth]]'' (1923), [[Pablo Picasso]]'s ''[[Minotauromachy]]'' (1935), [[M. C. Escher]]'s ''[[Relativity (M. C. Escher)|Relativity]]'' (1953), [[Friedensreich Hundertwasser]]'s ''Labyrinth'' (1957), [[Jean Dubuffet]]'s ''Logological Cabinet'' (1970), [[Richard Long (artist)|Richard Long]]'s ''[[Connemara]] sculpture'' (1971), [[Joe Tilson]]'s ''Earth Maze'' (1975), [[Richard Fleischner]]'s ''Chain Link Maze'' (1978), [[István Orosz]]'s ''Atlantis Anamorphosis'' (2000), [[Dmitry Rakov]]'s ''Labyrinth'' (2003), and drawings by contemporary American artist Mo Morales employing what the artist calls "Labyrinthine projection." The Italian painter Davide Tonato has dedicated many of his artistic works to the labyrinth theme.<ref>Davide Tonato, ''Labyrinth of Transformations'' (edited by Renzo Margonari), Grafiche Aurora, Verona 1988</ref> In modern imagery, the labyrinth of Daedalus is often represented by a multicursal maze, in which one may become lost.{{Citation needed|date=January 2022}}

[[Mark Wallinger]] has created a set of [[Labyrinth (artwork)|270 enamel plaques]] of unicursal labyrinth designs, one for every tube station in the [[London Underground]], to mark the 150th anniversary of the Underground. The plaques were installed over a 16-month period in 2013 and 2014, and each is numbered according to its position in the route taken by the contestants in the 2009 [[Guinness World Record]] [[Tube Challenge]].<ref>{{cite news
 | last = Brown
 | first = Mark
 | title = Tube celebrates 150th birthday with labyrinth art project
 | newspaper = The Guardian
 | date = 7 February 2013
| url =https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2013/feb/07/tube-150-birthday-labyrinth-art-project
 | access-date = 9 February 2013
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
 |last=Wallinger |first=Mark |date=2014 |title=Labyrinth: A Journey Through London's Underground |url=https://art.tfl.gov.uk/labyrinth/ 
 |publisher=Art Books |isbn=9781908970169 |author-link=Mark Wallinger |access-date=7 January 2017 }}</ref>

=== Cultural meanings ===
[[Prehistoric]] labyrinths may have served as traps for malevolent spirits or as paths for ritual dances.{{citation needed|date=September 2013}} Many Roman and Christian labyrinths appear at the entrances of buildings, suggesting that they may have served a similar [[wikt:apotropaic|apotropaic]] purpose.<ref>Ruth Mellinkoff, ''Averting Demons'', 2004, Vol. 2, p. 164.</ref> In their cross-cultural study of signs and symbols, ''Patterns that Connect'', [[Carl Schuster]] and [[Edmund Snow Carpenter|Edmund Carpenter]] present various forms of the labyrinth and suggest various possible meanings, including not only a sacred path to the home of a sacred ancestor, but also, perhaps, a representation of the ancestor him/herself: "...many [New World] Indians who make the labyrinth regard it as a sacred symbol, a beneficial ancestor, a deity. In this they may be preserving its original meaning: the ultimate ancestor, here evoked by two continuous lines joining its twelve primary joints."<ref name="Schuster 1996 307">
{{cite book|last=Schuster|first=Carl, & Edmund Carpenter|title=Patterns that Connect: Social Symbolism in Ancient & Tribal Art|year=1996|publisher=Harry N. Abrams|isbn=978-0-8109-6326-9|page=307}}
</ref> Schuster also observes the common theme of the labyrinth being a refuge for a trickster; in India, the demon [[Ravana]] has dominion over labyrinths, the trickster Djonaha lives in a labyrinth according to Sumatran [[Batak]]s, and Europeans say it is the home of a rogue.<ref name="Schuster 1996 307"/>

One can think of labyrinths as symbolic of [[pilgrimage]]: people walking the path ascend toward salvation or enlightenment. Mystical teachings in traditions across centuries suggest that they can also be understood as coded maps of the spiritual path.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bair |first=Puran and Susanna |title=Follow Your Heart: The Map to Illumination |publisher=Living Heart Media |year=2011 |isbn=978-0983303800 |pages=9–13 |language=English}}</ref> 

==== Labyrinth Walking ====
Labyrinth walking is a form of active meditation in which one navigates a labyrinth for meditative or therapeutic purposes.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Gale encyclopedia of alternative medicine |date=2020 |publisher=Gale, a Cengage Company |isbn=978-1-4103-9427-9 |editor-last=Hiam |editor-first=Deirdre S. |edition=Fifth |series=Gale eBooks |location=Farmington Hills, Michigan |editor-last2=Gale (Firm)}}</ref> Modern labyrinths have been built in places of rehabilitation, such as prisons and hospitals, to be used in this way.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Fessenden |first=Maris |title=Labyrinths in Prisons and Hospitals Might Actually Help People Relax |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/labyrinths-prisons-and-hospitals-might-actually-help-people-relax-180955190/ |access-date=2025-11-16 |website=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en}}</ref> While this activity is often connected with religious practice,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Neimeyer |first=Robert A. |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781351069120 |title=New Techniques of Grief Therapy: Bereavement and Beyond |date=2021-08-19 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-06912-0 |edition=1 |location=New York |language=en |doi=10.4324/9781351069120}}</ref> it has been introduced into medical settings for spiritual and secular usage alike.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gersbach |first=Jim |date=2008 |title=Labyrinths Find Their Way onto Hospital Grounds as Paths to Healing |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3037149/ |journal=The Permanente Journal |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=77–80 |doi=10.7812/TPP/08-045 |issn=1552-5767 |pmc=3037149 |pmid=21339929}}</ref> Some faith-based researchers have claimed that labyrinth walking can help calm the mind and guide people through internal growth,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dudeja |first=Jai Paul |date=2018 |title=Labyrinth Walking: Origin, Patterns, Significance, Walking Procedures and Spiritual Benefits |url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jai-Dudeja/publication/328880845_International_Journal_of_Yogic_Human_Movement_and_Sports_Sciences_2018_32_666-673_Labyrinth_walking_Origin_patterns_significance_walking_procedures_and_spiritual_benefits/links/5be95ab192851c6b27b89a19/International-Journal-of-Yogic-Human-Movement-and-Sports-Sciences-2018-32-666-673-Labyrinth-walking-Origin-patterns-significance-walking-procedures-and-spiritual-benefits.pdf |journal=International Journal of Yogic, Human Movement and Sports Sciences |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=666-673}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Artress |first=Lauren |title=Walking a Sacred Path: Rediscovering the Labyrinth As a Spiritual Practice |date=1996 |publisher=Penguin Publishing Group |isbn=978-1-101-21853-2 |location=East Rutherford}}</ref> while secular studies regarding its effectiveness in reducing stress are still ongoing.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zucker |first=Donna M. |last2=Choi |first2=Jeungok |last3=Cook |first3=Matthew N. |last4=Croft |first4=Janet Brennan |date=2016-11-16 |title=The Effects of Labyrinth Walking in an Academic Library |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/01930826.2016.1180873 |journal=Journal of Library Administration |volume=56 |issue=8 |pages=957–973 |doi=10.1080/01930826.2016.1180873 |issn=0193-0826}}</ref>

===Christian use===
[[File:Labyrinth at Chartres Cathedral.JPG|thumb|300px|Walking the labyrinth at Chartres Cathedral]]

Labyrinths have on various occasions been used in Christian tradition as a part of worship. The earliest known example is from a fourth-century pavement at the Basilica of St Reparatus, at Orleansville, Algeria, with the words "Sancta Eclesia" {{sic}} at the center, though it is unclear how it might have been used in worship.

In medieval times, labyrinths began to appear on church walls and floors around 1000 AD. The most famous medieval labyrinth, with great influence on later practice, was created in [[Chartres Cathedral]].<ref name="kern_church">{{cite book
|last=Kern
|first=Hermann
|title=Through the Labyrinth: Designs and Meaning Over 5,000 Years
|year=2000
|publisher=Prestel
|isbn=978-3-7913-2144-8
|chapter=VIII. Church Labyrinths
}}</ref>

The use of labyrinths has recently been revived in some contexts of Christian worship. Many churches in Europe and North America have constructed permanent, typically unicursal, labyrinths, or employ temporary ones (e.g., painted on canvas or outlined with candles). For example, a labyrinth was set up on the floor of [[St Paul's Cathedral]] for a week in March 2000.<ref>Ian Tarrant and Sally Dakin, ''Labyrinths and Prayer Stations'', p 6.</ref> Some conservative Christians disapprove of labyrinths, considering them pagan practices or "[[New Age]]" fads.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/view.cfm?recnum=3440 |title=Maze Craze |author=Mark Tooley |work=Touchstone Magazine |publisher=The Fellowship of St. James |date=September 2000 |access-date=29 December 2016}}</ref>

=== Usage in media ===

Labyrinths and mazes have been embraced by the video game industry, and countless video games include such a feature. For example, the 1994 video game [[Marathon (video game)|Marathon]] features many maze-like passages the player must navigate.

A number of film, game, and music creations feature labyrinths. For instance, the avant-garde multi-screen film ''[[In the Labyrinth (film)|In the Labyrinth]]'' presents a search for meaning in a symbolic modern labyrinth. The well-received 2006 film ''[[Pan's Labyrinth]]'' draws heavily upon labyrinth legend for symbolism. A magical labyrinth appears in the third episode, "And The Horns of a Dilemma", of ''[[The Librarians (2014 TV series)|The Librarians]]''. See [[Labyrinth (disambiguation)]] for a further list of titles. The cult classic film by Jim Henson [[Labyrinth (1986 film)]] features an enormous otherworldly maze which a young woman must traverse to save her younger brother.

The Argentine writer [[Jorge Luis Borges]] was entranced with the idea of the labyrinth, and used it extensively in his short stories (such as "The House of Asterion" in ''The Aleph''). His use of it has inspired other authors (e.g. [[Umberto Eco]]'s ''[[The Name of the Rose]]'', Mark Z. Danielewski's ''[[House of Leaves]]''). Additionally, [[Roger Zelazny]]'s fantasy series ''[[The Chronicles of Amber]]'' features a labyrinth, called "the Pattern," which grants those who walk it the power to move between parallel worlds. In [[Rick Riordan]]'s series [[Percy Jackson & the Olympians]], the events of the fourth novel, ''[[The Battle of the Labyrinth]]'', predominantly take place within the labyrinth of Daedalus, which has followed [[History of Western civilization|the heart of the West]] to settle beneath the United States. [[Ursula K. Le Guin]] used an underground labyrinth in the second book of her [[Earthsea]] series, ''[[The Tombs of Atuan]]'', in which the series hero [[Ged (Earthsea)|Ged]] is captured by the book's protagonist Tenar on his trip to the Kargish Empire – the spiritual power of the "Nameless Ones" is vested at least in part in the labyrinth. Australian author [[Sara Douglass]] incorporated some labyrinthine ideas in her series [[The Troy Game]], in which the Labyrinth on Crete is one of several in the ancient world, created with the cities as a source of magical power. [[Lawrence Durrell]]'s ''The Dark Labyrinth'' depicts travelers trapped underground in Crete. Because a labyrinth can serve as a metaphor for situations that are difficult to be extricated from, [[Octavio Paz]] titled his book on Mexican [[National identity|identity]] ''[[The Labyrinth of Solitude]]'', describing the Mexican condition as orphaned and lost.

==See also==

*[[Caerdroia]]
*[[Celtic maze]]
*[[I'itoi]]
*[[Julian's Bower]]
*[[Mizmaze]]
*[[Oxkintok]]
*[[Corn Maze]]
*[[The Backrooms]]
*[[Hedge maze]]
*[[Labyrinth of Egypt]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

===Sources===
* Hermann Kern, ''Through the Labyrinth'', ed. Robert Ferré and Jeff Saward, Prestel, 2000, {{ISBN|3-7913-2144-7}}. (This is an English translation of Kern's original German monograph ''Labyrinthe'' published by Prestel in 1982.)
* Lauren Artress, ''Walking a Sacred Path: Rediscovering the Labyrinth as a Spiritual Practice'', Penguin Books, 1995, {{ISBN|1-57322-007-8}}.
* Lauren Artress, ''The Sacred Path Companion: A Guide to Walking the Labyrinth to Heal and Transform'', Penguin Books, 2006, {{ISBN|1-59448-182-2}}.
* {{cite book | first=Penelope Reed | last=Doob | title=The Idea of the Labyrinth: from Classical Antiquity through the Middle Ages | location=Ithaca | publisher=Cornell University Press | year=1992 | isbn=0-80142-393-7 | url-access=registration | url=https://archive.org/details/ideaoflabyrinthf0000doob }}
* [[Herodotus]], ''[[The Histories of Herodotus|The Histories]]'', Newly translated and with an introduction by [[Aubrey de Sélincourt]], [[Harmondsworth]], England, [[Penguin Books]], 1965.
* [[Karl Kerenyi]], ''Dionysos: Archetypal Image of Indestructible Life'', Princeton University Press, 1976.
* Helmut Jaskolski, ''The Labyrinth: Symbol of Fear, Rebirth and Liberation'', Shambala, 1997.
* Adrian Fisher & Georg Gerster, ''The Art of the Maze'', Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1990. {{ISBN|0-297-83027-9}}.
* Jeff Saward, ''Labyrinths and Mazes'', Gaia Books Ltd, 2003, {{ISBN|1-85675-183-X}}.
* Jeff Saward, ''Magical Paths'', Mitchell Beazley, 2002, {{ISBN|1-84000-573-4}}.
* W. H. Matthews, [http://www.sacred-texts.com/etc/ml/index.htm ''Mazes and Labyrinths: Their History and Development''], Longmans, Green & Co., 1922. Includes [http://www.sacred-texts.com/etc/ml/ml27.htm bibliography]. Dover Publications reprint, 1970, {{ISBN|0-486-22614-X}}.
* Andrew Stewart, ''One Hundred Greek Sculptors: Their Careers and Extant Works''.
* [[Henning Eichberg]], "Racing in the labyrinth? About some inner contradictions of running." In: ''Athletics, Society & Identity.'' Imeros, Journal for Culture and Technology, 5 (2005): 1. Athen: Foundation of the Hellenic World, 169–192.
* Edward Hays, ''The Lenten Labyrinth: Daily Reflections for the Journey of Lent'', Forest of Peace Publishing, 1994.
* [[Carl Schuster]] and [[Edmund Snow Carpenter|Edmund Carpenter]], ''Patterns that Connect: Social Symbolism in Ancient & Tribal Art'', Harry N. Abrams, NY, 1996.
* Mark Siegeltuch, ''Labyrinths, Mazes and Related Art Forms: A History and Analysis based on the Research of Carl Schuster''. Available on Academia.edu.
* Ettore Selli, ''Labirinti Vegetali, la guida completa alle architetture verdi dei cinque continenti'', Ed. Pendragon, 2020; ISBN 9788833642222

==External links==
* {{cite web | url=http://www.labyrinthos.net | title=Labyrinthos | publisher=Labyrinthos.net |year=2012 | first=Jeff | last=Saward}}
* [http://www.labyrinthsociety.org/ The Labyrinth Society]
* [https://labyrinthlocator.com/ World-Wide Labyrinth Locator], an international directory
* [http://www.veriditas.org Veriditas] – Spiritual labyrinth organization founded by Lauren Artress.
* [http://www.math.sunysb.edu/~tony/mazes/ Sunysb.edu], Through Mazes to Mathematics, Exposition by Tony Phillips
* [http://www.astrolog.org/labyrnth/algrithm.htm Astrolog.org], Maze classification, Extensive classification of labyrinths and algorithms to solve them.
* [http://www.irrgartenwelt.de Irrgartenwelt.de], Lars O. Heintel's collection of handdrawn labyrinths and mazes
* [http://www.begehbare-labyrinthe.de/ Begehbare-labyrinthe.de] Website {{in lang|de}} with diagrams and photos of virtually all the public labyrinths in Germany.
* [http://www.mymaze.de/ Mymaze.de], German website {{in lang|de}} and [http://www.mymaze.de/home_e.htm Mymaze.de] {{in lang|en}} with descriptions, animations, links, and especially photos of (mostly European) labyrinths.
* [http://www.indigogroup.co.uk/edge/Mazes.htm Indigogroup.co.uk], British turf labyrinths by Marilyn Clark. Photos and descriptions of the surviving historical turf mazes in Britain.
* [http://www.theedkins.co.uk/jo/maze/intro/index.htm Theedkins.co.uk], Jo Edkins's Maze Page, an early website providing a clear overview of the territory and suggestions for further study.
* [http://www.gottesformel.ch/Labyrinth/Labyrinth-Hoehle.html Gottesformel.ch], "Die Kretische Labyrinth-Höhle" by Thomas M. Waldmann, rev. 2009 {{in lang|de|en|fr|el}}. Description of a labyrinthine artificial cave system near [[Gortyn]], Crete, widely considered the original labyrinth on Crete. 
* [http://SpiralZoom.com ''Spiralzoom.com''] an educational website about the science of pattern formation, spirals in nature, and spirals in the mythic imagination & labyrinths.
* [http://www.mi.sanu.ac.rs/vismath/morrison Sanu.ac.rs], "The Geometry of History," Tessa Morrison, University of Newcastle, Australia. An attempt to extend Phillips's topological classification to more general unicursal labyrinths.
* [http://www.tmba.tv/3d-animation-studio/archaeology/labyrinth-egypt/ Labyrinth of Egypt] – Archaeological site reconstruction and 3D diagrams based on the writings of Herodotus and Strabo.
* [http://labyrinthofegypt.com Report of expedition to Hawara in 2008 in search of the lost Egyptian Labyrinth of Herodotus.]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dnd2YK_FwUA Video and annotation on labyrinths]
{{Subject bar |auto=1 |s=1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Labyrinth |portal1=Architecture |portal2=Mythology |portal3=Religion |portal4=Greece}}
{{Authority control|state=collapsed}}

[[Category:Labyrinths| ]]
[[Category:Garden features]]
[[Category:History of Crete]]
[[Category:Knossos]]
[[Category:Land art]]
[[Category:Places in Greek mythology]]
[[Category:Mazes]]
[[Category:Minotaur]]
[[Category:Rituals]]
[[Category:Subterranean buildings and structures]]
[[Category:Theseus]]
[[Category:Words and phrases derived from Greek mythology]]