View source for Kitos War

{{Short description|Part of the Second Jewish–Roman War}}
{{about|the Jewish uprising in Judaea|concurrent Jewish uprisings in other Roman provinces|Diaspora Revolt}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = Kitos War
| partof            = the [[Second Jewish–Roman War]]
| image             = Roman Empire - Iudaea (125 AD).svg
| image_size        = 260px
| caption           = Map of Judaea (red), the [[Roman province]] where Jewish aspirations for independence had spurred the [[Jewish–Roman wars]]
| date              = 116–118 CE <!-- When exactly did Lukuas flee to Judaea, kickstarting this war? -->
| place             = [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judaea]]
| territory         = ''Status quo ante bellum''
| result            = Roman victory<ref>https://www.heritage-history.com/index.php?c=resources&s=war-dir&f=wars_romanjewish#kitos The second Jewish Roman war occurred forty-five years after the fall of Jerusalem during Trajan's invasion of Parthia. It started in a Jewish community in Cyrene. The rebels destroyed many Roman Temples, and killed both Greeks and Romans. The revolt spread to Alexandria and Cyprus, where thousands of citizens were killed, both Jew and Gentile. The rebellions were disordered mobs, rather than armies, however, and the engagements were riots rather than battles. The governor of Egypt used his legions to protect the unmolested cities, but relied on Trajan to send enough forces to put down the rebels. Trajan eventually raised an army to put down the rebellions in Cyrene and Alexandria, and at the same time, he tried to prevent more rebellions among Jews in his newly won Mesopotamia regions by proactively killing Jews in some of the major cities in the region before they had a chance to rebel. The loss of life during these rebellions was terrific, especially in North Africa, and many of the Jewish urban strongholds outside of Judea were destroyed.</ref>
| combatant1        = [[Roman Empire]]
| combatant2        = [[Jews]]
| commander1        = {{plainlist|
*[[Trajan]]{{Natural Causes}}
*[[Lusius Quietus]]{{Assassinated}}<ref>Histoire des Juifs, Troisième période, I - Chapitre III - Soulèvement des Judéens sous Trajan et Adrien</ref>
}}
| commander2        = {{plainlist|
*[[Lukuas]]{{executed}}
*[[Lulianos and Paphos|Julianus]]{{executed}}<ref name=malamat>{{cite book|last=Malamat|first=Abraham|title=A History of the Jewish people|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/330|url-access=registration|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge, Mass|year=1976|page=330|isbn=978-0-674-39731-6}}</ref><br/>[[Lulianos and Paphos|Pappus]]{{executed}}<ref name=malamat/>
*[[Gamliel II]]{{Natural Causes}}
}}
| casualties1       = Roman & Greek deaths: 200,000 in Cyrene, 240,000 in Cyprus (per [[Cassius Dio]]). Unknown deaths in Egypt, Mesopotamia, Judea, and Syria. 
| casualties2       = Destruction and displacement of Jewish communities in North Africa, Cyrenaica, Cyprus, and Egypt
}}

The '''Kitos War{{Efn|{{langx|he|{{Script/Hebrew|פולמוס קיטוס}}|rtl=yes}} {{Transliteration|he|Polmus Ḳīṭos}}; {{langx|la|{{aut|expeditio Iudaeae}}}}, {{Literal translation|Judaean expedition}}; {{langx|grc|Πόλεμος του Κυήτου|label=[[Ancient Greek|Greek]]}} ({{Transliteration|grc|Pólemos tū Cyḗtū}}), {{Literal translation|Quietus's War}}}}''' took place from 116 to 118, as part of the [[Second Jewish–Roman War]]. Ancient Jewish sources date it to 52 years after the [[First Jewish–Roman War]] (66–73) and 16 years before the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]] (132–136). Like other conflicts of the [[Jewish–Roman wars]], the Kitos War was spurred by discontent among the [[Jews]] towards the [[Roman Empire]]. This sentiment, which most likely intensified significantly in the wake of the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|Roman destruction of the Second Temple]] in 70, had triggered another series of major Jewish uprisings throughout [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judaea]] and the rest of the [[Near East]], including [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]], [[Roman Libya|Libya]], [[Roman Cyprus|Cyprus]], and [[Mesopotamia (Roman province)|Mesopotamia]].

Following the suppression of the Mesopotamian Jewish revolt, the Roman emperor [[Trajan]] appointed his general [[Lusius Quietus]] (also known as Kitos) as consul and governor of Judaea. Late [[Syriac language|Syriac]]-language sources suggest that Jewish rebels from Egypt and Libya relocated to Judaea, but were defeated there by the [[Roman army]]. However, the reliability of these sources is debated, and modern scholarship remains cautious with the lack of confirmation from the Greco-Roman historians [[Cassius Dio]] and [[Eusebius]], who were the main sources for the events of the Second Jewish–Roman War.

A large number of Jews were executed by Roman troops besieging [[Lod|Lydda]], where Jewish rebels had gathered under the leadership of brothers [[Lulianos and Paphos|Julian and Pappus]]. These "slain of Lydda" are often mentioned in words of reverential praise in the [[Talmud]].<ref name="ReferenceA2">Pes. 50a; B. B. 10b; Eccl. R. ix. 10</ref><ref name="Ta'anit 18b; Yer. Ta'anit 66b2">Ta'anit 18b; Yer. Ta'anit 66b</ref>

Although they had successfully put down numerous Jewish revolts, the Romans' situation in Judaea remained highly tense, prompting Trajan's successor [[Hadrian]] to permanently move [[Legio VI Ferrata|Legio VI ''Ferrata'']] into [[Caesarea Maritima]]. This environment climaxed with the outbreak of the Bar Kokhba revolt shortly thereafter, beginning with the establishment of an independent Jewish state by the rebels and ending with the massacre and displacement of Jews throughout Judaea, as well as the likely destruction or near-destruction of three [[Roman legion|Roman legions]].

==Name==
The [[Mishnaic Hebrew|Hebrew]] name for the conflict, {{Script/Hebrew|פולמוס קיטוס}} {{transliteration|he|Polmus Ḳīṭus}}, is a corruption (likely through [[Jewish Palestinian Aramaic|Aramaic]]) of the [[Hellenistic Greek|Greek]] {{Script/Greek|Πόλεμος του Κυήτου}} {{transliteration|grc|Pólemos tū Cyḗtū}} (meaning '''Quietus's War'''), after the Roman governor of [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judaea]], [[Lusius Quietus]], who put down the revolt.

The terms "Kitos War", "Diaspora Revolt" and "Second Jewish–Roman War", are often used interchangeably, but the first two terms are better understood as theatres of the latter larger conflict.

==Background==

=== First Jewish Revolt (66–73 CE) ===
{{main|First Jewish–Roman War}}

Tension between the [[Anti-Judaism#Pre-Christian Roman Empire|Jewish population of the Roman Empire and the Greek and Roman populations]] mounted over the course of the 1st century CE, gradually escalating with various violent events, mainly throughout [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judea]] (Iudaea), where parts of the Judean population occasionally erupted into violent insurrections against the [[Roman Empire]]. Several incidents also occurred in other parts of the empire, most notably the [[Alexandrian riots (38 CE)|Alexandria pogroms]], targeting the large [[History of the Jews in Alexandria|Jewish community of Alexandria]] in the province of Egypt. However, with the exception of Alexandria, the Jewish diaspora fared well throughout the Roman Empire and relied on the Roman state to maintain their rights.<ref name="Goodman20082">{{cite book |author=Martin Goodman |author-link=Martin Goodman (historian) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fNQPAEErNy8C |title=Rome and Jerusalem: The Clash of Ancient Civilizations |publisher=Vintage Books |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-375-72613-2 |page=418}}</ref>

The escalation of tensions finally erupted as the [[First Jewish–Roman War]], which began in 66. Initial hostilities were the result of Greek and Jewish religious tensions but later escalated with [[Tax resistance|anti-taxation protests]] and attacks upon Roman citizens.<ref>Josephus, ''War of the Jews'' II.8.11, II.13.7, II.14.4, II.14.5</ref> The Roman military garrison of Judea was quickly overrun by rebels and the pro-Roman king [[Herod Agrippa II]] fled [[Jerusalem]], together with Roman officials, to [[Galilee]]. [[Cestius Gallus]], the [[Legatus|legate]] of [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]], brought the Syrian army, based on [[Legio XII Fulminata|XII Fulminata]], reinforced by auxiliary troops, to restore order and quell the revolt. The legion, however, was ambushed and defeated by Jewish rebels at the [[Battle of Beth Horon (66)|Battle of Beth Horon]], a result that shocked the Roman leadership.

The suppression of the revolt was then handed to General [[Vespasian]] and his son [[Titus]], who assembled four legions and began advancing through the country, starting with Galilee in 67. The revolt ended when [[Roman legion|legions]] under Titus [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|besieged and destroyed]] the center of rebel resistance in Jerusalem in 70 and defeated the remaining Jewish strongholds later on.

=== Jewish revolts in Egypt, Libya and Cyprus (115–117 CE) ===
In 115 CE, a wave of large-scale Jewish uprisings, known as the "[[Diaspora Revolt]]", erupted almost simultaneously across several provinces in the [[Eastern Mediterranean]].{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|p=102}} The uprisings took place while Emperor Trajan was waging a military campaign against the Parthian Empire further east. The revolts appear to have been influenced by long-standing ethnic tensions,{{sfn|Bennett|2005|p=204}} the destruction of the Second Temple,{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|pp=93–94}} and revolutionary ideas spread by insurgents from Judaea.{{sfn|Horbury|2014|p=273}} Additional factors fueling the unrest included the humiliating Jewish Tax imposed by Rome{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|pp=93–94}} and widespread messianic expectations of divine redemption.{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|pp=93–94}}{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=397}}{{sfn|Barclay|1998|p=241}} Scholars believe that the rebels may have aimed at a return to Judaea, the re-establishment of Jewish sovereignty, and the rebuilding of the Temple.{{sfn|Horbury|2014|p=276}}{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=397}}

In [[Roman Libya|Libya]], Jewish forces launched attacks against Greek and Roman populations under the leadership of either Andreas or [[Lukuas]] – possibly the same individual known by both names.{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|pp=94–95}} In Egypt, the uprising reportedly began with clashes between Jewish communities and their Greek neighbors,{{sfn|Horbury|2021|p=348}} which escalated when Lukuas and his followers arrived from Cyrenaica. They plundered the countryside and overcame local resistance. The Greeks, supported by Egyptian peasants and Romans, retaliated, massacring the Jews of [[Alexandria]].{{sfn|Horbury|2021|p=350}} In [[Roman Cyprus|Cyprus]], Jewish rebels under Artemion's leadership reportedly devastated the island and the city of [[Salamis, Cyprus|Salamis]].{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|p=96}}{{sfn|Horbury|2014|p=249}}

The Roman response was severe. [[Marcius Turbo]], initially deployed against the Parthians, was redirected to suppress the revolts in Egypt and Libya with a large military force.{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|pp=96–98}} His campaigns were marked by extreme brutality,{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|pp=96–98}}{{sfn|Kerkeslager|2006|pp=61–62}} leading to the near-extermination of Jewish populations in Cyrenaica, Cyprus, and Egypt. By late 117 CE, the revolts had been largely quelled,{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|pp=96–98}} though some disturbances in Egypt may have continued into early 118 CE.{{sfn|Hacham|Ilan|2022|pp=9, 109–110}} In the aftermath, Jewish communities in the affected regions suffered immense losses,{{sfn|Kerkeslager|2006|pp=61–62}}{{sfn|Goodman|2004|p=10}} with archaeological evidence indicating severe destruction, particularly in [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]], which required reconstruction under Hadrian.{{sfn|Walker|2002|pp=45–47}}

=== Quietus in Mesopotamia (116 CE) ===
Ancient sources state that, alongside the Jewish uprisings in Egypt, Libya, and Cyprus, unrest also erupted in [[Mesopotamia]] following its recent conquest by the Romans from the Parthians. [[Cassius Dio]] describes a rebellion in the region during the summer of 116 CE, noting that General [[Lusius Quietus]] played a key role in suppressing it, retaking [[Nusaybin|Nisibis]] and sacking [[Edessa]], though he does not specifically mention Jewish involvement.{{sfn|Kerkeslager|2006|p=86}}{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|pp=99–100}}

In contrast, [[Eusebius]] explicitly attributes activities in Mesopotamia to the Jews, reporting that Trajan suspected them of planning attacks against the inhabitants,<ref name="Eusebius2">Eusebius, ''Ecclesiastical History'', 4.2.5; possibly also ''Suidae Lexicon'' I, no. 4325; IV, no. 590</ref> prompting him to order Quietus to suppress them harshly.{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|pp=99–100}} Eusebius further states that Quietus "murdered a great number of the Jews there."<ref name="Eusebius2" /> Later Christian sources also mention a military campaign led by Quietus against Jewish communities in the region.{{sfn|Kerkeslager|2006|p=86}} Jewish resistance in Mesopotamia may have been part of a wider movement against Roman occupation in the Parthian territories, likely fueled by the contrast between their relatively privileged status under Parthian rule and the harsher conditions imposed by the Romans.{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|pp=99–100}}

== Unrest in Judaea ==
Following his suppression of rebel resistance in Mesopotamia, Quietus was honored with the consulship and given the governorship of [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judaea]] by Trajan.<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', 68.32.5; Eusebius, ''Ecclesiastical History'', 4.2.5</ref>{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|p=100}} The exact events at this stage remain unclear,{{Efn|Cassius Dio and Eusebius, the primary sources on the diaspora uprisings of this period, make no mention of events in Judaea at that time.{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|p=100}}}} but according to scholars such as Pucci Ben Zeev, there appears to have been a wave of Jewish unrest that Lucius Quietus suppressed.{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|p=100}} Fergus Millar, however, notes that "there is no concrete evidence for a Jewish revolt in Judaea" concurrent with the Diaspora Revolt.{{sfn|Millar|1995|p=103}}

Cassius Dio and Eusebius, the main sources on the diaspora uprisings of this period, do not mention events in Judaea at the time.{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|p=100}} However, fragmented and later accounts offer some insight. One such piece of evidence is an inscription from [[Sardinia]], which records an {{lang|la|expeditio Judaeae}} among the wars fought by Trajan.{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|p=101}} Additionally, two late [[Syriac language|Syriac]] sources suggest that Jewish rebels from Egypt and Libya moved to Judaea, where they were defeated by the Romans.{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|p=100}}

Rabbinic sources recount the story of Julian and Pappus, which may have taken place during this period of unrest in Judaea.{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|p=100}} It is possible that Quietus laid siege to [[Lod|Lydda]], where the rebel Jews had gathered under the leadership of Julian and Pappus. The distress became so great that the patriarch Rabban [[Gamaliel II]], who was shut up there and died soon afterwards, permitted fasting even on [[Hanukkah|Ḥanukkah]]. Other rabbis condemned that measure.<ref>Ta'anit ii. 10; Yer. Ta'anit ii. 66a; Yer. Meg. i. 70d; R. H. 18b</ref> Lydda was then taken, and many of the rebellious Jews were executed; the "slain of Lydda" are often mentioned in words of reverential praise in the [[Talmud]].<ref name="ReferenceA2" /> Pappus and Julian were among those executed by the Romans that year, and became martyrs among the Jews.<ref name="Ta'anit 18b; Yer. Ta'anit 66b2" />

Lusius Quietus, whom Trajan had held in high regard and who had served Rome so well, was quietly stripped of his command once [[Hadrian]] had secured the imperial title. He was murdered in unknown circumstances in the summer of 118, possibly by the orders of Hadrian. Hadrian took the unpopular decisions to end the war, abandon many of Trajan's eastern conquests, and stabilise the eastern borders. Although he abandoned the province of Mesopotamia, he installed [[Parthamaspates of Parthia|Parthamaspates]]—who had been ejected from [[Ctesiphon]] by the returning [[Osroes I|Osroes]]—as king of a restored [[Osroene]]. For a century, Osroene retained a precarious independence as a [[buffer state]] between both empires. The situation in Judea remained tense for the Romans, who were obliged under Hadrian to move the [[Legio VI Ferrata|Legio VI ''Ferrata'']] permanently into [[Caesarea Maritima]] in [[Judea]].

==Aftermath==

=== Provincial status change and increased military presence ===
After the Kitos War, Judaea underwent administrative and military restructuring. The province was elevated from [[Praetorian prefect|praetorian]] to consular status, allowing for a strengthened military presence. As part of this change, a second legion, likely [[Legio II Traiana Fortis|Legio II Traiana]], was stationed in the region by circa 120 CE.{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|p=101}} Following Quietus, subsequent governors of the province also held consular rank. Among them were [[Lucius Cossonius Gallus]], who was appointed consul in 116 CE and governed Judaea between 118 and 120 CE, and [[Quintus Coredius Gallus Gargilius Antiquus]], [[Consul suffectus|''consul suffectus'']] in 119 CE, who served as governor between 122 and 125 CE.{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|p=101}}

=== Bar Kokhba revolt ===
{{Main article|Bar Kokhba revolt}}
Further developments took place in Judaea in 130 CE, when [[Hadrian]] visited the Eastern Mediterranean and decided to rebuild the ruined city of Jerusalem as the [[Colonia (Roman)|Roman colony]] of [[Aelia Capitolina]], named after himself.{{sfn|Magness|2024|pp=294–296}} This decision, along with a possible ban on [[Brit milah|circumcision]], led to the outbreak of the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]],{{sfn|Eshel|2006|p=106}} the final major Jewish uprising and last organized attempt to regain national independence.{{sfn|Eshel|2006|p=127}}{{sfn|Isaac|1990|p=55}} The rebels initially secured victories against the Romans, briefly establishing an independent state and severely straining Roman military resources. In response, Rome mobilized a massive force and crushed the rebellion with an unprecedented assault on Judaea's Jewish population,{{sfn|Taylor|2012|p=243}}<ref name="raviv2021">{{Cite journal |last1=Raviv |first1=Dvir |last2=Ben David |first2=Chaim |date=2021-05-27 |title=Cassius Dio's figures for the demographic consequences of the Bar Kokhba War: Exaggeration or reliable account? |journal=Journal of Roman Archaeology |language=en |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=585–607 |doi=10.1017/S1047759421000271 |issn=1047-7594 |s2cid=236389017 |doi-access=free}}</ref> mass enslavement and displacement,{{sfn|Mor|2016|pp=471, 483–484}} the destruction of the [[Judea|Judean]] countryside,{{sfn|Zissu|2018|pp=28–29, 37}} and a ban on Jewish practices, which remained in effect until Hadrian's death in 138 CE.{{sfn|Eshel|2006|p=126}} Judaea was renamed [[Syria Palaestina]].{{sfn|Eshel|2006|pp=126–127}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== See also ==
* [[History of the Jews in the Roman Empire]]
* [[Jewish revolt against Constantius Gallus]], 352
* [[Samaritan revolts]], 484–572
* [[Jewish revolt against Heraclius]], 614–617/625

* [[List of conflicts in the Near East]]

== References ==
<references group="lower-alpha" responsive="1"></references>
<references responsive="1"></references>

== Bibliography ==
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* {{Cite book |last=Bennett |first=Julian |url= |title=Trajan Optimus Princeps: A Life and Times |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2005 |orig-date=1997 |isbn=0-203-36056-7 |edition=e-Library |series= |volume= |location=London and New York}}
* {{Cite book |last=Eshel |first=Hanan |url= |title=The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |series=The Cambridge History of Judaism |volume=4th |location= |pages= |chapter=The Bar Kochba Revolt, 132–135}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Goodman |first=Martin |year=2004 |title=Trajan and the Origins of Roman Hostility to the Jews |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3600803 |journal=[[Past & Present (journal)|Past & Present]] |volume= |issue=182 |pages=3–29 |doi= 10.1093/past/182.1.3|jstor=3600803 |url-access=subscription }}
* {{Cite book |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110787764/html |title=The Early Roman Period (30 BCE–117 CE) |publisher=[[De Gruyter Oldenbourg]] |year=2022 |isbn=978-3-110-78599-9 |editor-last=Hacham |editor-first=Noah |series=Corpus Papyrorum Judaicarum |volume=5 |location= |chapter= |pages= |doi=10.1515/9783110787764 |editor-last2=Ilan |editor-first2=Tal}}
* {{Cite book |last=Horbury |first=William |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/jewish-war-under-trajan-and-hadrian/jewish-war-under-trajan-and-hadrian/039283010F789E29AA6B95AA212BC9FA |title=Jewish War under Trajan and Hadrian |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-139-04905-4 |series= |volume= |location= |pages= |chapter=}}
* {{Cite book |last=Horbury |first=William |url= |title=Israel in Egypt: The Land of Egypt as Concept and Reality for Jews in Antiquity and the Early Medieval Period |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |year=2021 |isbn=978-90-04-43539-1 |editor-last=Salvesen |editor-first=Alison |series=Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity |volume=110 |location=Leiden & Boston |chapter=Jewish Egypt in the Light of the Risings under Trajan |pages=347–366 |editor-last2=Pearce |editor-first2=Sarah |editor-last3=Frenkel |editor-first3=Miriam}}
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* {{Cite book |last=Kerkeslager |first=Allen |url= |title=The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |series=The Cambridge History of Judaism |volume=4 |location= |chapter=The Jews in Egypt and Cyrenaica, 66–c. 235 CE |pages=}}
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* {{cite book|last=Mor|first=Menahem|title=The Second Jewish Revolt: The Bar Kokhba War, 132–136 CE |year=2016|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-31463-4}}
* {{Cite book |last=Pucci Ben Zeev |first=Miriam |url= |title=The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |series=The Cambridge History of Judaism |volume=4 |location=Cambridge |chapter=The Uprisings in the Jewish Diaspora, 116–117|pages=93–104 |doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521772488.005}}
* {{Cite book |last=Smallwood |first=E. Mary |url=https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004502048_023 |title=The Jews under Roman Rule from Pompey to Diocletian |publisher=SBL Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-90-04-50204-8 |series= |volume= |location= |pages=389–427 |chapter=The Jewish Revolt of AD 115–117 |doi=10.1163/9789004502048_023}}
*{{cite book |last=Taylor |first=J. E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XWIMFY4VnI4C&pg=PA243 |title=The Essenes, the Scrolls, and the Dead Sea |date=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199554485}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Walker |first=Susan |year=2002 |title=Hadrian and the Renewal of Cyrene |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/libyan-studies/article/abs/hadrian-and-the-renewal-of-cyrene/79FD713919C7F0CAA562DB2C4DC00F12 |journal=[[Libyan Studies]] |volume=33 |issue= |pages=45–56 |doi=10.1017/S0263718900005112|language=|publisher=Society for Libyan Studies|url-access=subscription }}
* {{Cite book | last=Zissu | first=Boaz | editor-first=Joshua J. | editor-last=Schwartz | editor2-first=Peter J. | editor2-last=Tomson | title=Jews and Christians in the First and Second Centuries: The Interbellum 70‒132 CE | series=Compendia Rerum Iudaicarum ad Novum Testamentum | volume=15 | chapter=Interbellum Judea 70–132 ce: An Archaeological Perspective | chapter-url=https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004352971_003 | year=2018 | pages=19–49 | isbn=978-90-04-35297-1 | publisher=Brill | doi=10.1163/9789004352971_011 }}

== External links ==

* "[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=237&letter=B <small>BAR KOKBA AND BAR KOKBA WAR</small>]" article from [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/index.jsp Jewish Encyclopedia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628180823/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/index.jsp|date=2011-06-28}} (public domain)
* "[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=948&letter=C&search=egypt%20roman <small>Cyprus: In Roman Times</small>]" article from [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/index.jsp Jewish Encyclopedia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628180823/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/index.jsp|date=2011-06-28}} (public domain)
* "[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=948&letter=C&search=egypt%20roman <small>Cyrene</small>]" article from [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/index.jsp Jewish Encyclopedia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628180823/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/index.jsp|date=2011-06-28}} (public domain)
* "[https://www.livius.org/articles/concept/roman-jewish-wars/roman-jewish-wars-7/ The revolt against Trajan]", at livius.org
* [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.ix.ii.html Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers], [[Eusebius]], ''[[Church History (Eusebius)|Ecclesiastical History]]'', 4.2.
{{Jewish history}}
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