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{{Short description|Historical title of the rulers of the Khwarazm region in Central Asia}}
'''Khwarazmshah''' was an ancient title used regularly by the rulers of the [[Central Asia]]n region of [[Khwarazm]] starting from the [[Late Antiquity]] until the advent of the [[Mongol invasions and conquests|Mongols]] in the early 13th-century, after which it was used infrequently. There were a total of four families who ruled as Khwarazmshahs—the [[Afrighids]] (305–995), [[Ma'munids]] (995–1017), the line of [[Altuntash]] (1017–1041), and the most prominent ones, the [[Anushtegin dynasty|Anushteginids]] (1097–1231).{{sfn|Bosworth|1978|pp=1065–1068}}{{sfn|Bosworth|1984a|pp=743–745}} Like other contemporary Central Asian titles, such as ''[[Afshin]]'' and ''[[Ikhshid]]'', the title of Khwarazmshah is of [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] origin.{{sfn|Bosworth|1978|p=1065}}

== History ==
===Afrighids===
{{main article|Afrighids}}
[[Image:SawashfanCoin.jpg|thumb|Coin of the [[Afrighid]] shah [[Sawashfan]] (ruled in the 8th-century)]]
Most of Afrighid history was recorded by the Khwarazmian scholar [[al-Biruni]] (died 1050), whose reliability has been questioned. According to the latter, the Afrighids were founded by [[Afrig]] in 305, succeeding the semi-legendary line of the Siyavushids, founded by the Iranian king [[Kay Khosrow]]. However, extensive [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] archeological findings demonstrate that al-Biruni was in reality not well-acquainted with pre-Islamic Khwarazmian history. Coin findings show that before the advent of the Afrighids, Khwarazm was part of the [[Parthian Empire]]. The start of the [[Khwarazmian era]] seemingly took place in the early 1st-century, after they had freed themselves of Parthian rule, and established their own local dynasty of shahs. The dynastic name of "Afrighid" ([[Khwarazmian language|Khwarazmian]]: ''ʾfryḡ'') is not attested anywhere besides al-Biruni, which has led scholars to suggest that the name never existed. Likewise, many of the Khwarazmshahs recorded by al-Biruni are not supported by archeological evidence; however, this may be due to scribal errors.{{sfn|Bosworth|1978|p=1065}}{{sfn|Bosworth|1984a|pp=743–745}} 

The Afrighids and the local population were most likely adherents of [[Zoroastrianism]].{{sfn|Bosworth|1984a|pp=743–745}} The first Khwarazmshah to convert to [[Islam]] was [[Azkajwar-Abdallah]], who ruled in the early 9th-century, perhaps coinciding with the reign of the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]] [[caliph]] [[al-Ma'mun]] ({{reign|813|833}}). Regardless, the Islamization of the local population was much slower. In the early 10th-century, the Khwarazmshahs were made vassals of the [[Samanid dynasty]],{{sfn|Bosworth|1978|p=1066}}{{sfn|Bosworth|1984a|pp=743–745}} a [[Persians|Persian]] family which ruled mainly in [[Transoxania]] and [[Khurasan]].{{sfn|Bosworth|Crowe|1965|pp=1025–1027}} Although the Khwarazmshahs sometimes granted sanctuary to Samanid rebels, they generally ruled a peaceful domain. During the end of the Samanids, the Khwarazmshahs extended their rule as far as the northern edges of Khurasan, ruling frontier posts such as Farawa and [[Nisa, Turkmenistan|Nasa]].{{sfn|Bosworth|1978|p=1066}}

An uncertain part of Khwarazmian history is the rise of [[Ma'munids|Ma'munid family]], who came to rule their hometown of [[Gurganj]], one of the three main cities of the country. The city had risen to rival the Afrighid capital of [[Beruniy|Kath]], most likely due to its commercial success as a trading post between the [[steppe]] and the [[Kievan Rus']]. The Ma'munids and Afrighids eventually became rivals, with conflict soon ensuing. The Ma'munid [[Ma'mun I ibn Muhammad|Ma'mun I]] deposed and killed the Afrighid shah [[Abu 'Abdallah Muhammad]] ({{reign|967|995}}), thus marking the end of the first Khwarazmshah line of the Afrighids, and the inauguration of the second Khwarazmshah line of the Ma'munids.{{sfn|Bosworth|1978|p=1066}}

===Ma'munids===
{{main article|Ma'munids}}
[[File:Transoxiana 8th century.svg|thumb|300px|Map of [[Khurasan]] and [[Transoxiana]] in the early Islamic period]]
Under the Ma'munids, their capital of Gurganj became a centre of learning, attracting many prominent figures, such as the philosophers [[Avicenna]] and [[Abu Sahl 'Isa ibn Yahya al-Masihi|Abu Sahl al-Masihi]], the mathematician [[Abu Nasr Mansur]], the physician [[Ibn al-Khammar]], and the [[Philology|philologist]] [[al-Tha'alibi]]. The Ma'munids also embellished their capital with buildings such as a [[minaret]] which still survives till this day, and has an inscription crediting [[Ma'mun II]] ({{reign|1009|1017}}) its founder. However, the Ma'munids soon fell into conflict with the [[Ghaznavid Empire|Ghaznavid]] [[Sultan]] [[Mahmud of Ghazni|Mahmud]] ({{reign|999|1030}}), who sought to pressurize his [[Qarakhanid]] enemies by extending his rule into Khwarazm. In 1014, Mahmud demanded that Ma'mun II should add his name in the ''[[khutba]]'' (Friday sermon) in Khwarazm, thus acknowledging his suzerainty. Unable to gain military assistance or appease Mahmud through other means, Ma'mun II was forced to accept his demands, much to the dislike of the Khwarazmian nobles and military officers.{{sfn|Bosworth|1978|p=1066}}{{sfn|Bosworth|1984b|pp=762–764}} 

This eventually resulted in a patriotic revolt, led by the commander-in-chief Alptigin, which led to the murder of Ma'mun II and accession of his nephew [[Abu'l-Harith Muhammad]] in March 1017. Ma'mun II was the brother-in-law of Mahmud, which afforded the latter a pretext to invade Khwarazm. The Ghaznavid army defeated the local Khwarazmian forces at [[Hazorasp|Hazarasp]], brutalized the population of Gurganj, and captured many Khwarazmians, who were taken to the capital of [[Ghazni]] as slaves. Abu'l-Harith Muhammad was deposed and imprisoned, while Khwarazm was incorporated into the Ghaznavid realm, thus marking the end of the Ma'munid dynasty, the last ethnically Iranian line of Khwarazmshahs.{{sfn|Bosworth|1978|p=1066}}{{sfn|Bosworth|1984b|pp=762–764}}

===The line of Altuntash===
Due to the difficulty to control a distant area such as Khwarazm, Mahmud installed his [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] slave commander ({{lang|ar|[[Ghilman|ghulam]]}}) [[Altuntash]] as the governor of the region, with the traditional title of Khwarazmshah, thus marking the start of the third line of Khwarazmshahs.{{sfn|Bosworth|1978|pp=1066–1067}}{{sfn|Bosworth|1984b|pp=762–764}} A loyal servant of the Ghaznavids, Altuntash protected the borders of Khwarazm by enlisting additional soldiers from the Turkic groups of [[Kipchaks|Qipchaq]], Kujet and Chaghrat. He died of wounds in the aftermath of the [[Battle of Dabusiyya]] against the Qarakhanid ruler [[Ali-Tigin]] ({{reign|1020|1034}}) in 1032. Although Sultan [[Mas'ud I of Ghazni|Mas'ud I]] ({{reign|1030|1040}}) appointed his own son Sa'id as the new Khwarazmshah, the ''[[de facto]]'' ruler of Khwarazm was Altuntash's son [[Harun, Ghaznavid Governor of Khwarezm|Harun]], who was the ''khalifat al-dar'' (lieutenant) of Sa'id. In 1034, in an alliance with the [[Seljuk dynasty|Seljuk Turks]], Harun rebelled against Mas'ud, but was the following year assassinated at the instigation of the latter. Harun was succeeded by his brother [[Ismail Khandan]], who was able to rule as an independent monarch as Mas'ud I was occupied with the Seljuk invasions. In 1038, Mas'ud gave the governorship of Khwarazm to his ally, [[Shah Malik]], the [[Oghuz Yabgu State|Oghuz Yabghu]] of [[Jand (Transoxania)|Jand]]. In 1041, Ismail was expelled from Khwarazm by the latter, who declared himself ruler at Gurganj, thus marking the end of the Altuntash line. During this period, however, Mas'ud had already died and Ghaznavid rule in the west had crumbled.{{sfn|Bosworth|1978|p=1067}}{{sfn|Bosworth|1989|pp=914–915}}

===Anushtegin dynasty===
{{main article|Anushtegin dynasty|Khwarazmian Empire}}
[[Image:Khwarezmian Empire 1190 - 1220 (AD).PNG|thumb|Map of the [[Khwarazmian Empire]] at its zenith in the late 12th-century]]
A year after Shah Malik's conquest of Khwarazm, he was expelled by the Seljuk leaders [[Tughril]] and [[Chaghri Beg]]. From henceforth Khwarazm was a Seljuk province, although the title of Khwarazmshah was unused until {{circa|1077}}, when the Turkic {{lang|ar|ghulam}} [[Anushtegin Gharchai]] was made its governor by Sultan [[Malik-Shah I]] ({{reign|1072|1092}}). He was succeeded by fellow Turkic {{lang|ar|ghulam}} [[Ekinchi (Khwarazm Shah)|Ekinchi]] as Khwarazmshah in 1097, but the latter died in the same year. Sultan [[Berkyaruq]] ({{reign|1094|1105}}) then made Anushtegin's son Qutb al-Din Muhammad (who became known as [[Muhammad I of Khwarazm|Muhammad I]]) the new Khwarazmshah, thus marking the start of the [[Khwarazmian Empire|fourth and final Khwarazmshah line]] of the [[Anushtegin dynasty|Anushteginids]].{{sfn|Bosworth|1978|p=1067}}{{sfn|Bosworth|1986}} 

Muhammad I was loyal to the Seljuks, attending the Seljuk court with diligence. It was his son and successor [[Atsiz]] ({{reign|1127/8|1156}}) who established the Khwarazmshahs' grandeur, being determined in his pursuit of autonomy and expansion of his realm, conquering the [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turkmens]] of the eastern [[Caspian Sea|Caspian shores]] and the [[Mangyshlak Peninsula|Manghislak peninsula]]. Regardless, he nominally acknowledged the suzerainty of Sultan [[Ahmad Sanjar]] ({{reign|1118|1157}}) till the end of his reign. Atsiz's son and successor [[Il-Arslan]] was able to gain greater autonomy after the death of Sanjar and disintegration of Seljuk authority in the east. As long as he paid tribute to the [[Qara Khitai]], they had little interest in meddling in his affairs, and thus he was free to focus on expanding his rule into the Qarakhanid domains.{{sfn|Bosworth|1978|p=1067}} 

The power of the Khwarazmshahs even further increased under Il-Arslan's son and successor [[Ala al-Din Tekish]] ({{reign|1172|1200}}) was able to slow down the [[Ghurid dynasty|Ghurid]] expansion into Khurasan and destroy the Seljuk Empire. Furthermore, he also declared independence against his Qara Khitai suzerains, whose attacks he repelled. At the time of his death, his realm stretched as far as [[Persian Iraq]] to the west. His son and successor [[Muhammad II of Khwarazm|Muhammad II]] ({{reign|1200|1220}}) was occupied with his rivals in the east (Ghurids, Qara Khitai, the Qipchaq of the northern steppes, and the Qarakhanids) for much of his reign. He initially maintained cordial relations with the Qara Khitai, who helped him fend off the 1204 invasion of Khurasan by the Ghurid ruler [[Muhammad of Ghor|Mu'izz al-Din Muhammad Ghuri]] ({{reign|1173|1206}}), who later died in 1206. His death led to the disintegration of his empire, and Khwarazmian conquest over much of it.{{sfn|Bosworth|1978|p=1067}} 

He could now distance himself from the Qara Khitai, and while the latter were preoccupied by the revolt of the Mongol leader [[Kuchlug]] in [[Jetisu|Semirechye]], Muhammad II capitalized on this by defeating and killing the Qarakhanid leader Uthman Khan, thus putting an end to Qarakhanid rule in Transoxiana.{{sfn|Bosworth|1978|pp=1067–1068}} Muhammad II was now a towering figure in the eastern Islamic world, but like his father, was content with the limited titles of Khwarazmshah and Sultan. He now sought to the deal with the Abbasid Caliphate, who had in the past supported the Ghurids against him; he marched towards [[Baghdad]], but the extreme weather conditions during the winter and unrest amongst the Qipchaq forced him to return to Khwarazm. His son and successor [[Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu|Jalal al-Din Mangburni]] ({{reign|1220|1231}}) was unable to contain the [[Mongol invasions]], which led to the collapse of the Khwarazmian Empire.{{sfn|Bosworth|1978|p=1068}}

===Aftermath and Final Usage===
The title of Khwarazmshah was seemingly unused by the Mongol governors of Khwarazm and the later [[Sufi dynasty]]. It was revived under the [[Timurid Empire]], after which it was infrequently used, such as under Shah Malik, the governor of Khwarazm under [[Shah Rukh]] ({{reign|1405|1447}}) and Shah Malik's son, Nasir al-Din Sultan Ibrahim. The title was informally used by the [[Uzbeks|Uzbek]] [[Arabshahids|Arabshahid]] and later dynasties of [[Khiva]] in various literary works but never officially adopted.{{sfn|Bosworth|1978|p=1068}}

The final official use of the title was under [[Eltuzar Muhammad Bahodir Khan|Eltuzar-Inak]] – the founder of the [[Khongirad|Qungrat]] line (1804-1920) of the [[Khanate of Khiva|Khans of Khiva]] – who titled himself ''Wāriṯẖ-i Kẖwārazm-Sẖāhān'' ("Heir of the Khwarazmshahs") on his coins, however he died in 1806 before they could ever be issued.{{sfn|Bosworth|1978|p=1068}}

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== Sources ==
* {{EI2|last1=Bosworth|first1=C.E.|authorlink1=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|last2=Crowe|first2=Yolande|volume=2|title=Sāmānids|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/samanids-COM_0995}}
* {{Cambridge History of Iran|volume=5|last=Bosworth|first=Clifford Edmund|authorlink=|chapter=The Political and Dynastic History of the Iranian World (A.D. 1000–1217)|pages=1–202}}
* {{EI2|last=Bosworth|first=Clifford Edmund|volume=4|title=K̲h̲wārazm-S̲h̲āhs|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/khwarazm-shahs-SIM_4206}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Āl-e Afrīḡ | last = Bosworth | first = Clifford Edmund | url = https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/al-e-afrig | encyclopedia  = Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 7 | pages = 743–745 | year = 1984a }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Āl-e Maʾmūn | last = Bosworth | first = Clifford Edmund | url = https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/al-e-mamun | encyclopedia  = Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 7 | pages = 762–764 | year = 1984b }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |first=Clifford Edmund |last=Bosworth |author-link=|title=Anuštigin Ĝarčāī |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |year=1986 |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/anustigin-garcai-slave-commander }}
* {{Encyclopædia Iranica | volume = 3 | fascicle = 9 | title = Altuntaš | last = Bosworth | first = Clifford Edmund | url = https://iranicaonline.org/articles/altuntas | pages = 915}}
* {{Encyclopædia Iranica | volume = 14 | fascicle = | title = Khwarazmshahs i. Descendants of the line of Anuštigin | last = Bosworth | first = Clifford Edmund | url = https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/khwarazmshahs-i | pages = }}

== Further reading ==
* {{The Arab Conquests in Central Asia}}

[[Category:Iranian words and phrases]]
[[Category:Royal titles]]
[[Category:Rulers of Khwarazm| ]]