View source for Khmu language

{{short description|Austroasiatic language spoken in Laos, Vietnam, Thailand and China}}
{{distinguish|Khmer language}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Kmhmu
| nativename       = {{Lang|kjg|Kmhmu}}<br/>{{lang|kjg|ກຶມຫມຸ}}<br>{{lang|kjg|กำมุ}}
| states           = [[Laos]], [[Vietnam]], [[Thailand]], [[China]]
| region           = 
| ethnicity        = [[Kmhmu people|Kmhmu]]
| speakers         = 798,400
| date             = 1990–2015 census
| ref              =<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kjg|title=Kmhmu'|work=Ethnologue|access-date=26 July 2018|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/khf|title=Khuen|work=Ethnologue|access-date=26 July 2018|language=en}}</ref>
| familycolor      = Austroasiatic
| fam2             = [[Khmuic languages|Khmuic]]
| lc1              = kjg
| ld1              = Khmu
| lc2              = khf
| ld2              = Buddhist Kmhmu (Kmhmu' Khwen)<ref>Hammarström (2015) Ethnologue 16/17/18th editions: a comprehensive review: online appendices</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://sealang.net/sala/mk-class.htm|title = Mon-Khmer Classification (Draft)}}</ref>
| glotto           = khmu1255
| glottorefname    = Khmu<nowiki>'</nowiki>
| script           = [[Lao alphabet|Lao]], [[Latin script|Latin]], [[Thai script|Thai]]
}}

'''Khmu''' {{IPA|kjg|kʰmuʔ|}} is the language of the [[Khmu people]] of the northern [[Laos]] region. It is also spoken in adjacent areas of [[Vietnam]], [[Thailand]] and [[China]]. Khmu lends its name to the [[Khmuic languages|Khmuic]] branch of the [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] language family, the latter of which also includes [[Khmer language|Khmer]] and [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]. Within Austroasiatic, Khmu is often cited as being most closely related to the [[Palaungic languages|Palaungic]] and [[Khasic languages|Khasic]] languages.<ref name=Diffloth>Diffloth, Gérard (2005). "The contribution of linguistic palaeontology and Austroasiatic". in Laurent Sagart, Roger Blench and Alicia Sanchez-Mazas, eds. ''The Peopling of East Asia: Putting Together Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics.'' 77–80. London: Routledge Curzon.</ref>  The name "Khmu" can also be seen [[romanization|romanized]] as Kmhmu, Khmu', Kammu, or Khamuk in various publications or alternatively referred to by the name of a local dialect.

==Dialects==
[[File:Location of Kmhmu' Dialects in Laos.png|thumb|left|Approximate location of Khmu dialects in Laos]] Khmu has several dialects but no standard variety. Dialects differ primarily in consonant inventory, existence of [[register (phonology)|register]], and the degree to which the language has been influenced by the surrounding [[national language]](s). Dialects are, for the most part, mutually intelligible; however communication can be difficult between speakers of geographically distant dialects.

The dialects of Khmu can be broadly categorized into two groups, '''Western Khmu''' and '''Eastern Khmu'''.

*'''Western Kmhmu dialects''' have fewer consonant phonemes and instead use phonemic register contrast, as seen in other Austroasiatic languages, of "lax" [[breathy voice|breathy]] register and "tense" [[modal voice|modal]] register. In at least one dialect of Western Khmu, known as ''Khmu Rook'', [[tonogenesis]] is evident as the register contrast has developed into a system of two phonetic tones with six phonemic realizations.<ref name=Sulwilai>SUWILAI Premsrirat, author. 2001. "Tonogenesis in Khmu dialects of SEA." ''[[Mon-Khmer Studies]]'' 31: 47–56.</ref>
*'''Eastern Khmu dialects''' show the opposite tendency. Completely lacking either register or tone distinction, these dialects utilize a three-way distinction of [[Stop consonant|stops]] (voiced, voiceless and aspirated voiceless) and [[nasal consonant|nasals]] (voiced, voiceless, and pre-glottalized) in the syllable-initial position for phonemic contrast.<ref name=KhmuDict>Suwilai, Premsrirat, et al. Mahidol University. [https://archive.org/details/rosettaproject_kjg_phon-1 ''Dictionary of Khmu in Laos''].</ref>

===Suwilai Premsrirat (2002)===
Suwilai Premsrirat (2002)<ref>Premsrirat, Suwilai. 2002. ''Dictionary of Khmu in Laos''. ''[[Mon-Khmer Studies]]'', Special Publication, Number 1, Volume 3. Salaya, Thailand: Mahidol University.</ref> reports the following locations and dialects of Kmhmu' in Laos, Vietnam, China, and Thailand.

*[[Languages of Laos|Laos]]: spoken in the 8 northern provinces of Luang Namtha, Udomsai, Bokeo, Sayaburi, Phongsali, Luang Prabang, and Xiaq kvaaq, with a few villages near Vientiane. Dialects include '''Kmhmu' Rook''', '''Khmu Lw''',  and '''Kmhmu' Cwaq''' (also known as '''Kmhmu' Uu''').
*[[Languages of Vietnam|Vietnam]]: Kim Hua, Sop Pot, Sop Caw and Pung Kamong Villages, Kim Da Subdistrict, [[Tương Dương District]], [[Vinh]] City, [[Nghệ An Province]]. Also in [[Lai Châu Province]], [[Sơn La Province]], and [[Thanh Hóa Province]].
*[[Languages of China|China]]: Pung Soa village (more conservative with voicing contrasts in the initial consonants) and Om Kae village (has tonal contrasts) in [[Sipsongpanna]], [[Yunnan]]
*[[Languages of Thailand|Thailand]]: many villages, including the representative datapoint of Huai Ian village, [[Lai Ngao]] subdistrict, [[Wiang Kaen district]], [[Chiang Rai province]] (originally from Pak Bang district of Laos, where the language is called Khmu Khrong, meaning 'Mekong Khmu'). Also in [[Nan province]] and [[Lampang province]].

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
The consonant inventory of Khmu' is shown in the table below.  The phoneme /f/, present in dialects of both Eastern and Western Khmu', is a result of borrowings from the surrounding [[Tai languages]].<ref name=thes>Suwilai, Prēmsīrat. ''The Thesaurus and Dictionary Series of Khmu Dialects in Southeast Asia''. Nakorn Pathom: Institute of Language and Culture for Rural Development, Mahidol University at Salaya, Thailand, 2002. {{ISBN|9740501125}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
! colspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! colspan="2" | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! colspan="2" | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! colspan="2" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
!| [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[Plosive]]
! <small>Aspirated</small>
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|pʰ}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|tʰ}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|cʰ}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|kʰ}}
| 
|-
! <small>Voiceless</small>
| colspan="2"| {{IPA link|p}}
| colspan="2"| {{IPA link|t}}
| colspan="2"| {{IPA link|c}}
| colspan="2"| {{IPA link|k}}
| {{IPA link|ʔ}}
|-
! <small>Voiced</small>
| colspan="2"| {{IPA link|b}}
| colspan="2"| {{IPA link|d}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|ɟ}}<sup>1</sup>
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|ɡ}}<sup>1</sup>
| 
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
! <small>Voiceless<sup>1</sup></small>
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|m̥}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|n̥}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|ɲ̥}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|ŋ̥}}
| 
|-
! <small>Voiced</small>
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|m}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|n}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|ɲ}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|ŋ}}
| 
|-
! <small>Preglottalized<sup>1</sup></small>
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|ˀm}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|ˀn}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|ˀɲ}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|ˀŋ}}
| 
|-
! rowspan="1" |[[Fricative]]
! <small>Voiceless</small>
| colspan="2"| ({{IPA link|f}})
| colspan="2"| {{IPA link|s}}
| colspan="2"|
| colspan="2"|
| {{IPA link|h}}
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[Approximant]]
! <small>Voiceless<sup>1</sup></small>
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|w̥}}<sup>2</sup>
|  | {{IPA link|l̥}} ||  | {{IPA link|r̥}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|j̊}}
| colspan="2"|
|
|-
! <small>Voiced</small>
| colspan="2"| {{IPA link|w}}
| {{IPA link|l}} || {{IPA link|r}}
| colspan="2"| {{IPA link|j}}
| colspan="2"|
|
|-
! <small>Preglottalized<sup>1</sup></small>
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|ˀw}}
| colspan="2"|
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|ˀj}}
| colspan="2"|
|
|}

# Only found in Eastern Khmu dialects.
# {{IPA|w̥}} is a [[voiceless labio-velar approximant]]

===Vowels===
The vowels of the Khmu' language show little variation across the dialects with all varieties having 19 monophthongs and three diphthongs ({{IPA|/iə/}}, {{IPA|/ɨə/}} and {{IPA|/uə/}}).<ref name=Sulwilai />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
!rowspan="2" |
!colspan=2|[[Front vowel|Front]]
!colspan=2|[[Central vowel|Central]]
!colspan=2|[[Back vowel|Back]]
|-class=small
! short || long
! short || long
! short || long
|-
![[Close vowel|Close]]
|{{IPA link|i}} || {{IPA link|iː}}
|{{IPA link|ɨ}} || {{IPA link|ɨː}}
|{{IPA link|u}} || {{IPA link|uː}}
|-
![[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
|{{IPA link|e}} || {{IPA link|eː}}
|{{IPA link|ə}} || {{IPA link|əː}}
|{{IPA link|o}} || {{IPA link|oː}}
|-
![[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
|{{IPA link|ɛ}} || {{IPA link|ɛː}}
| || {{IPA link|ʌː}}
|{{IPA link|ɔ}} || {{IPA link|ɔː}}
|-
![[Open vowel|Open]]
|
|
|{{IPA link|a}} || {{IPA link|aː}}
|
|
|}

== Grammar ==
=== Pronouns ===
{|class="wikitable"
|-
!Person || Singular || Dual || Plural 
|-
| 1st || {{lang|kjg|ໂອະ}} (òɂ) || {{lang|kjg|ອະ}} (àɂ) || {{lang|kjg|ອິ}} (ìɂ)
|-
| 2nd || {{lang|kjg|ແຢະ}} (jɛ̀ɂ) (masculine), {{lang|kjg|ປາ}} (pàː) (feminine) || {{lang|kjg|ສວາ}} (swáː) || {{lang|kjg|ປໍ}} (pɔ̀ː) 
|-
| 3rd || {{lang|kjg|ກັຽ}} (kəː) (masculine), {{lang|kjg|ນາ}} (nàː) (feminine) || {{lang|kjg|ສນາ}} (snáː) || {{lang|kjg|ນໍ}} (nɔ̀ː) 
|}

=== Syntax ===
Khmu uses mainly an SVO word order although an OVS order is also possible.

== Vocabulary ==

=== Numeral ===
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" | Cardinal
| {{IPA|/nɨŋ/}} || {{IPA|/sɔ́ːŋ/}} || {{IPA|/sáːm/}} || {{IPA|/síː/}} || {{IPA|/háː/}} || {{IPA|/rók/}} || {{IPA|/cét/}} || {{IPA|/pɛ́t/}} || {{IPA|/káw/}} || {{IPA|/síp/}}
|-
| {{lang|kjg|ນຶງ}} || {{lang|kjg|ສອງ}} || {{lang|kjg|ສາມ}} || {{lang|kjg|ສີ}} || {{lang|kjg|ຫາ}} || {{lang|kjg|ຣົກ}} || {{lang|kjg|ເຈຕັ}} || {{lang|kjg|ແປດ}} || {{lang|kjg|ເກົ້າ}} || {{lang|kjg|ສິບ}}
|-
| 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9 || 10 
|-
! rowspan="3" | Ordinal
| {{IPA|/mòːj/}} || {{IPA|/pà:ː/}} || {{IPA|/péʔ/}} || {{IPA|/puːl/}} || {{IPA|/pɨəŋ/}} || {{IPA|/tɔːl/}} || {{IPA|/tel/}} || {{IPA|/taːm/}} || {{IPA|/kaːj/}} || {{IPA|/kal/}}
|-
| {{lang|kjg|ໂມຢ}} || {{lang|kjg|ປາຣ}} || {{lang|kjg|ເປະ}} || {{lang|kjg|ປູລ}} || {{lang|kjg|ເປືອງ}} || {{lang|kjg|ຕອລ}} || {{lang|kjg|ເຕລ}} || {{lang|kjg|ຕາມ}} || {{lang|kjg|ກາຍ}} || {{lang|kjg|ກັລ}}
|-
| 1st || 2nd || 3rd || 4th || 5th || 6th || 7th || 8th || 9th || 10th 
|}

=== Comparison with Khmer ===

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!English || Khmu || [[Khmer language|Khmer]] 
|-
| dog || {{lang|kjg|ເສາະ}} ({{IPA|[sɔ́ɂ]}}) || {{lang|km|ឆ្កែ}} ({{Transliteration|km|chhkê}})
|-
| child || {{lang|kjg|ກອນ}} ({{IPA|[kɔ́ːn]}}) || {{lang|km|កូន}} ({{Transliteration|km|kon}})
|-
| mother || {{lang|kjg|ມະ}} ({{IPA|[màɂ]}}) || {{lang|km|ម៉ាក់}} ({{Transliteration|km|măk}})
|-
| flower || {{lang|kjg|ຣາງ}} ({{IPA|[ràːŋ]}}) || {{lang|km|ផ្កា}} ({{Transliteration|km|phka}})
|-
| mountain || {{lang|kjg|ມົກ}} ({{IPA|[mòk]}}) || {{lang|km|ភ្នំ}} ({{Transliteration|km|phnum}})
|-
| to see || {{lang|kjg|ກເລະ}} ({{IPA|[klèɂ]}}) || {{lang|km|ឃើញ}} ({{Transliteration|km|kheunh}})
|-
| enemy || {{lang|kjg|ສັຕູ}} ({{IPA|[sa tùː]}}) || {{lang|km|សត្រូវ}} ({{Transliteration|km|sâtrov}})
|-
| to disappear || {{lang|kjg|ງັຕ}} ({{IPA|[ŋát]}}) || {{lang|km|បាត់}} ({{Transliteration|km|băt}})
|-
| to shoot || {{lang|kjg|ປິຍ}} ({{IPA|[píɲ]}}) || {{lang|km|បាញ់}} ({{Transliteration|km|bănh}})
|-
| seven || {{lang|kjg|ເຈຕັ}} ({{IPA|[cét]}}) || {{lang|km|ប្រាំពីរ}} ({{Transliteration|km|brămpir}})
|-
| penis || {{lang|kjg|ລົກ}} ({{IPA|[lòk]}}) || {{lang|km|លិង្គ}} ({{Transliteration|km|lĭngk}})
|}

==See also==
*[[Khmuic languages]]
*[[Khmu people]]
*[[List of Khmu plant common names]]
*[[List of Khmu animal common names]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
*[http://www.khmuoc.org/TableOfContent.aspx Thomas Khammeung Manokoune (Tamong)]

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|last1=Premsirat|first1=Suwilai|editor1-last=Davidson|editor1-first=Jeremy H. C. S.|editor2-last=Shorto|editor2-first=H. L.|title=Austroasiatic Languages: Essays in Honour of H.L. Shorto|date=1991|publisher=University of London, School of Oriental and African Studies|isbn=0728601834|pages=123–140|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1Rs5UC5qGXsC&pg=PA123 |access-date=9 June 2014|chapter=Aspects Inter-Clausal Relations in Khmu}}
* Prēmsīrat, Suwilai. ''The Thesaurus and Dictionary Series of Khmu Dialects in Southeast Asia''. Nakorn Pathom: Institute of Language and Culture for Rural Development, Mahidol University at Salaya, Thailand, 2002. {{ISBN|9740501125}}
* Prēmsīrat, Suwilai. ''Khmu, a Minority Language of Thailand''. Papers in South-East Asian linguistics, no. 10. Canberra, A.C.T., Australia: Dept. of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University, 1987. {{ISBN|0-85883-365-4}}
* Proschan, Frank. ''Kmhmu' Language and Language Policy: At Home and Abroad''. s.l: s.n, 1995.
* Proschan, Frank. ''Poetic Parallelism in Kmhmu Verbal Arts: From Texts to Performances''. s.l: s.n, 1988.
* Smalley, William Allen. ''Outline of Khmu structure''. American Oriental series. Essay, v.2. New Haven, Conn: American Oriental Society, 1961.
* Svantesson, Jan-Olof. ''Kammu Phonology and Morphology''. Travaux de l'Institut de linguistique de Lund, 18. Lund: CWK Gleerup, 1983. {{ISBN|91-40-04870-5}}

== External links ==
* http://projekt.ht.lu.se/rwaai RWAAI (Repository and Workspace for Austroasiatic Intangible Heritage)
* [[hdl:10050/00-0000-0000-0003-66EA-B@view|http://hdl.handle.net/10050/00-0000-0000-0003-66EA-B@view]] Khmu in RWAAI Digital Archive
*[http://dominicweb.eu/en/endictionaries/exotic-languages-prayers?kjg Database of audio recordings in Khmu – basic Catholic prayers]{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}

{{Languages of Laos}}
{{Austroasiatic languages}}

[[Category:Khmu language|*]]
[[Category:Languages of Laos]]