View source for Khasas

{{Short description|Ancient Indo-Aryan ethno-linguistic group}}
{{about|the ancient people|the tribe of same name mentioned in the Mahabharata|Khasas (Mahabharata)|the medieval and modern people of same name|Khas people|ethnolinguistic group in northeast India|Khasi people}}
{{EngvarB|date=May 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2023}}
'''Khasas''' ([[Sanskrit]]: खश, {{IAST3|Khaśa}}) were an ancient [[Indo-Aryan tribe]] and a late [[Janapada|Janapada kingdom]]{{sfn|Misra|1973|pp=306-321}} from Himalayan regions of northern [[Indian subcontinent]] mentioned in the various historical Indian inscriptions and ancient Indian Hindu and Tibetan literature. European sources described the Khasa tribe living in the [[Western Himalayas|Northwest Himalayas]] and the Roman geographer [[Pliny The Elder]] specifically described them as "[[Indian people]]".{{sfn|Grierson|1916|p=3}} They were reported to have lived around [[Gandhara Kingdom|Gandhara]], [[Trigarta Kingdom|Trigarta]] and [[Madra Kingdom]] as per the [[Mahabharata]].

[[Image:EpicIndia.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Tribes and nations in the ancient Epic Map of India; Khasas are described to have lived around [[Gandhara Kingdom|Gandhara]], [[Trigarta Kingdom|Trigarta]] and [[Madra Kingdom]]]]

==Origin==
The [[Kassites]] of [[Mesopotamia]], suggesting eastward migrations through [[Iran]] and Central Asia. The Khasas became significant early settlers in the Himalayas<ref>{{cite book |last1=Vaishṇava |first1=Yamunādatta |title=Himalayan Districts of Uttar Pradesh: Land and People |date=1983 |publisher=Sri Almora Book Depot |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Himalayan_Districts_of_Uttar_Pradesh/54e1AAAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=khasa+tribe+kassites&dq=khasa+tribe+kassites&printsec=frontcover |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Matlock |first1=Gene D. |title=Jesus and Moses Are Buried in India, Birthplace of Abraham and the Hebrews! |date=November 2000 |publisher=iUniverse |isbn=978-0-595-12771-9 |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Jesus_and_Moses_Are_Buried_in_India_Birt/WOQ5bucsDyAC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=khasa+tribe+kassites&pg=PA120&printsec=frontcover |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=BAR International Series |date=1978 |publisher=British Archaeological Reports |isbn=978-1-84171-008-2 |language=en}}</ref>

==Names and variants==
The original spelling for the name in Sanskrit literature is Khaśa ([[Sanskrit]]: खश) while variants of the name also used are '''Khasa''' (खस), '''Khaṣa''' (खष) and '''Khaśīra''' (खशीर).{{sfn|Thakur|1990|p=285}}{{sfn|Saksena|2019|p=108}}

There are various theories on how Khasas got their name :

# Suggests that they came from the [[Caucasus Mountains]], hence they got the suffix Khas.
# Suggests that they got their names from Iranians, as a combination of two Persian words, kho (mountains), and Shah (ruler). Thus, khoshah got corrupted into Khoshiya.

==Modern sources==
Irish Linguist George Abraham Grierson quoted that the Khasas that Pliny wrote about were one of the warriors "Kshatriya tribe of Aryan origin" with linguistic connections to both Sanskrit and Iranian languages, who lost claim to Vedichood due to non-observance of Vedic rules:
{{Blockquote|...in the extreme northwest of India, on the [[Hindu Kush]] and mountainous tracts to the south, and in Western Punjab, there was a group of tribes, one of which was called '''Khasa''', which were looked upon as Kshatriyas of [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Aryan]] origin. These spoke a language closely allied with [[Sanskrit]], but with a vocabulary partly agreeing with that of the [[Iranic peoples|Eranian]] [[Avesta]]. They were considered to have lost their claim to considerations as [[Aryans]] and to have become [[Mlechha]]s, or barbarians, owing to their non-observance of the rules for drinking and eating by [[Vedic people|Sanskritic peoples]] of India. Khasas were a warlike tribe and were well known to classical writers, who noted, as their special home, the [[Indian Caucasus]] of [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]].{{sfn|Grierson|1916|p=17}}{{sfn|Saksena|2019|pp=108-109}}}} According to E.T. Atkinson, the [[Jaunsar-Bawar]] is the representative Khasiya tract and it
{{Blockquote|"..forms a very important link between the almost Hinduized Khasiyas of Kumaon and their [[Muslim Rajputs|brethren converts to Islam]] on the ethnical frontier of the mountains of [[Hindu Kush]] and gives customs and practices of '''Khasiya race''' in full force at the present day which distinguished them thousands of years ago."{{sfn|Saksena|2019|p=109}}}}

== Indian sources ==
===Ancient literature===
{{For|more details of Khasas in Mahabharata|Khasas (Mahabharata)}}
{{Further|Janapada}}
As per the research conducted by political scientist Sudama Misra, the Khasa [[Janapada]] was a late Janapada (around 1100–500 BCE) under the broad division of Parvata-spraying [[Āryāvarta]] ([[Himalayas|Himalayan]] Āryāvarta) of the ancient Indian Iron Age.{{sfn|Misra|1973|pp=306-321}}

The [[Manusmriti|Manusmṛiti]] mentions the Khaśa as Kṣatriya-s formerly, due to omission of the sacred-rites and neglect of Brāhmaṇā-s.<ref>{{Cite web|last=www.wisdomlib.org|date=29 December 2016|title=Manusmriti Verse 10.44|url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/manusmriti-with-the-commentary-of-medhatithi/d/doc201774.html|access-date=14 January 2021|website=www.wisdomlib.org}}</ref>
<blockquote>
''But by the omission of the sacred rites, and also by their neglect of Brāhmaṇas, the following Kṣatriya castes have gradually sunk to the position of the low-born.—(43)''
</blockquote>
<blockquote>
''The Puṇḍrakas, the Coḍas, the Draviḍas, the Kāmbojas, the Yavanas, the Śākas, the Pāradas, the Pahlavas, the Cīnas, the Kirātas, the Daradas and the Khaśas.—(44)''
</blockquote>

The Manusmriti describes them as descendants of outcast Kshatriyas.{{sfn|Thakur|1990|p=286}}

The ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'' gives a list of various outcast tribes, the Khaśas also one of them, which have recovered salvation by adopting the religion of Viṣṇu [[Vaishnavism]].{{sfn|Thakur|1990|p=286}} The ''[[Mahabharata]]'' mentions the Khasas as one of the northern tribes who fought on the side of the [[Kaurava]] against [[Satyaki]].{{sfn|Saklani|1998|p=70}} In the [[Karna Parva]] of Mahabharata, Khasas are mentioned living in the [[Panjab region]] between Āraṭṭa and Vasāti:{{blockquote|[[Prasthala|prasthalā]] [[Madra Kingdom|Madra]]-[[Gandhara Kingdom|Gandhāra]] Āraṭṭa nāmatah '''Khaśāh''' Vasāti [[Sindhu Kingdom|Sindhu]]-[[Sauvira Kingdom|sauvīrā]]{{sfn|Thakur|1990|p=285}}|title=|source=}} In the [[Sabha Parva|Sabhaparvan]] of the Mahabharata, they are mentioned between Meru and Mandara along with [[Kuninda|Kulindas]] and Tanganas, who brought presents of [[Lapis Lazuli|Piplika gold]] to [[Yudhisthira]].{{sfn|Thakur|1990|pp=285-286}} In [[Drona Parva|Dronaparvan]] of the Mahabharata, they are mentioned with other northwestern tribes such as Daradas, Tanganas, Lampakas and Kulindas.{{sfn|Thakur|1990|p=286}} The Vaishnava text [[Harivamsa]] describes that the Khasas were defeated by the [[King Sagara]].{{sfn|Saklani|1998|p=71}}{{sfn|Thakur|1990|p=286}} The [[Markandeya Purana]] states that the Khasa is a country against the mountain. The [[Markandeya Purana]], [[Vayu Purana]] and [[Kalki Purana]] describe that Khasas together with [[Saka]]s and other tribes have penetrated to the northwest of India.{{sfn|Thakur|1990|p=286}} The [[Skanda Purana]] mentions the region of [[Himachal Pradesh]] and [[Kumaon Kingdom|Kumaon]]-[[Garhwal Kingdom|Garhwal]] as Kedare-Khasa-Mandale.{{sfn|Thakur|1990|pp=288-289}}

===Medieval literature===
[[File:Kashmir-sat-nasa.jpg|thumb|[[Kashmir valley]] seen from space; "..the valley lying to the south and west of the [[Pir Panjal Range]] (white) which is surrounded by the [[Jhelum River]]) in the west and [[Kishtwar]] in the east" as the expanse of Khasas as per the [[Nilamata Purana]]]]
The [[Brihat Samhita]] authored by Indian polymath [[Varāhamihira]] grouped Khasas with Kulutas, [[Kashmira]]s, Tanganas, and Kunatas.{{sfn|Thakur|1990|p=286}} The [[Mudrarakshasa]] of Indian poet [[Vishakhadatta]] mentions that Khasas and [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]]s were [[Gana]]s (troops) in the army of Rakshasa and [[Malayaketu]].{{sfn|Thakur|1990|p=286}} According to an ancient Kashmiri text [[Nilamata Purana]] compiled by Indian scholar [[Ved Kumari Ghai]], the Khasa tribe occupied {{Blockquote|"the valley to the south and west of the [[Pir Panjal Range|Pir Pantsal range]] between the middle course of the [[Vitasta]] (modern [[Jhelum River]]) in the west and Kastavata (modern [[Kishtwar]]) in the east."{{sfn|Sharma|2019|p=706}}<ref name="Ved1968">{{citation |last=Kumari |first=Ved |title=The Nīlamata purāṇa, Volume 1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0sJHAAAAMAAJ |year=1968 |publisher=J. & K. Academy of Art, Culture and Languages; &#91;sole distributors: Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi}}</ref>}} This assertion is also corroborated by the later 12th century text ''[[Rajatarangini]]'' translated by British archaeologist Sir [[Marc Aurel Stein]].{{sfn|Saklani|1998|p=71}} The [[Natya Shastra|Bharata Nātyaśāstra]] by the Indian musicologist [[Bharata Muni]] mentions that the mother tongue language of Khaśas was [[Bahlikas|Bāhliki]] language in the phrase {{Blockquote|"Bāhlikabhāśodhīchyanāṃ '''Khaśāṇāṃ''' ca svadeśajā." (Translation : The Bahliki language is the native tongue of the Northerners and Khasas.){{sfn|Thakur|1990|p=286}}}} The [[Central Asians in ancient Indian literature#Kavyamimamsa of Rajashekhara|Kavyamimamsa]] of [[Rajashekhara (Sanskrit poet)|Rajashekhara]] mentions the Kuluta king with the title ''Khasadhipati''.{{sfn|Thakur|1990|p=289}} The inscription of [[Gurjaras of Lata#Dadda II|Dadda II]] (also known as Praśāntarāga) mentions about the Khasas in the phrase "...Yascopamiyate - sat - kataka - samunnata vidhyadharavasa taya Himachale na '''Khasa''' parivarataya."{{sfn|Thakur|1990|p=287}}

== European sources ==
Greek Geographer [[Ptolemy]] contended that the country of Khasas (referred to as 'Khasia') was located near the Trans-Himalayan range of [[North India|Northwest India]].{{sfn|Adhikary|1997|p=28}} [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] Geographer [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] noted that {{Blockquote|The mountain races between the [[Indus river|Indus]] and the [[Yamuna River|Jomanes]] are the '''Cesi''', the Catriboni who dwell in the forest.{{sfn|Adhikary|1997|p=28}}}} E.T. Atkinson speculated that Pliny referred to the terms, ''Cesi'' and ''Catriboni'' in the above quotations to ''Khasa'' and ''[[Kshatriya]]''.{{sfn|Adhikary|1997|p=28}} Irish linguist Sir [[George Abraham Grierson]] in his work [[Linguistic Survey of India]] (Volume 9 Part 4) mentions the remarks by the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] Geographer [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] on the Khasa (referred as 'Casiri') tribe with the imputations of cannabalism. Pliny further stated them as "an Indian people":
{{Blockquote|
Latin Source (Gabriel Brotier edition):
<br/>''Ab Attacoris gentes Phruri, et Tochari: et jam Indorum Casiri, introrsus ad Scythas versi, humanis corporibus vescuntur.''{{sfn|Pliny The Elder|1826|p=1117}}
<br/>English Translation:
<br/>
"Next to the Attacori [ [[Uttarakuru]] ] are the nations of the Thuni and the Forcari; then come the '''Casiri [Khasiras]''', an [[Indian people]] who look towards the [[Scythian]]s and feed on human flesh."{{sfn|Grierson|1916|p=3}}{{sfn|Saksena|2019|p=108}}}}
Indian sociologist R.N. Saksena explains that this imputation was due to the existing suspicion towards Khasas by the [[Rigvedic tribe|Vedic Aryans]],{{sfn|Saksena|2019|p=108}} though he regards them as the earlier wave of the same '[[List of ancient Indo-Aryan peoples and tribes|Aryan settler]]' group.{{sfn|Saksena|2019|p=107}}

== Tibetan sources ==
The Mongolian-Tibetan historian [[:de:Sumpa Yeshe Peljor|Sumpa Yeshe Peljor]] (writing in the 18th century) lists the Khasas alongside other peoples found in Central Asia since antiquity, including the [[Yavanas]] (Greeks), [[Kambojas]], [[Tukharas]], [[Hunas]] and [[Daradas]].<ref>[[:de:Sumpa Yeshe Peljor|Sumpa Yeshe Peljor]]'s 18th century work ''Dpag-bsam-ljon-bzah'' (Tibetan title) may be translated as "The Excellent [[Kalpavriksha]]"): "Tho-gar yul dań yabana dań Kambodza dań Khasa [sic] dań Huna dań Darta dań..."</ref><ref>Pag-Sam-Jon-Zang (1908), I.9, Sarat Chandra Das; Ancient Kamboja, 1971, p 66, [[H. W. Bailey]].</ref>

== Descendants ==
Irish linguist Sir [[G.A. Grierson]] asserted that "..the great mass of the Aryan speaking population of the lower [[Himalaya]] from [[Kashmir]] to [[Darjeeling]] is inhabited by tribes descended from the ancient [[Khasas (Mahabharata)|Khasas of Mahabharata]]."{{sfn|Saklani|1998|p=71}} The Khasa peoples are the [[Khakha]]s of [[Jhelum Valley]], the [[Kanet]]s of [[Kangra Valley|Kangra]] and [[Garhwal region|Garhwal]], Khŏś/Khośyā of [[Jaunsar-Bawar]] and regions adjacent to it in [[Uttarkashi district|Uttarkashi]] and [[Tehri Garhwal district|Tehri]] districts of Uttarakhand and [[Shimla]], [[Sirmaur]] districts of [[Himachal Pradesh]], the bulk population of [[Garhwal region|Garhwal]] and [[Kumaon region|Kumaon]] referred as "Khasia" {{sfn|Saksena|2019|p=109}} and the [[Nepali language|Nepali]] speaking [[Khas people]] of Nepal.

===Khasas under Katyuris===
{{further|Katyuri kings}}
{{multiple image|perrow=3|total_width=900|caption_align=center
| align = centre
| image1 = Sun Temple, Katarmal.jpg|caption1= Sun Temple at [[Katarmal]]
| image2 = Jageshwar Mandir.jpg|caption2=[[Jageshwar|Jageshwar Temples Complex]]
| image3 = BAIJNATH TEMPLE.jpg|caption3=[[Baijnath Temple Complex]]
 | footer = Several temples in Uttarakhand are attributed to the Katyuri Kings.
}}

The Katyuris were of the Khasha origin as agreed by most scholars.{{sfn|Handa|2002|p=22}} They belonged to the [[Khas people|Khasha people]] that entirely dominated the inner Himalayan belt up to Nepal{{sfn|Handa|2002|pp=24-25}} and they extensively populated the mountainous regions of Uttarakhand.{{sfn|Handa|2002|p=22}} Previously, Khashas had strongly established themselves from Afghanistan to Nepal in the ancient period and as per internal evidence, they managed the village-level theocratic republics like Gram-Rajya and Mandals under various local clans and identities.{{sfn|Handa|2002|p=22}} Katyuri was one of the ruling houses of [[Joshimath]] that claimed sovereignty over other Gram Rajyas of the entire territory.{{sfn|Handa|2002|p=24}} The Katyuris ruled from [[Joshimath]] in the [[Alaknanda River|Alaknanda]] Valley and later they shifted their capital to [[Baijnath, Uttarakhand|Baijnath]].{{sfn|Handa|2002|pp=26-28}}

===Khasas under Malla rule===
{{Further|Khas people|Khasa Malla Kingdom}}
[[File:Narakot Sinja Valley.JPG|thumb|right|Sinja Valley, capital of Khas Mallas where earliest [[Devanagari]] scripts from the 13th century<ref name="UNESCO">[https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5263/ Sinja valley – UNESCO World Heritage Centre]</ref>
]]

Khasas are thought to be connected to the medieval [[Khasa Malla kingdom]] and the modern [[Khas people]] of [[Nepal]].<ref name="Pradhan1984">{{cite book |author=Kumar Pradhan |title=A History of Nepali Literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OdRjAAAAMAAJ |year=1984 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |page=5 }}</ref> The modern [[Khas people]] of Nepal have also been connected with the ancient Khasas, although their period of migration in Nepal remains ambiguous.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Witzel|first1=Dr. Michael|title=On the History and the Present State of Vedic Tradition in Nepal|journal=Vasudha|date=1976|volume=15|issue=12|pages=17–24; 35–39|url=http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/savifadok/volltexte/2008/87}}</ref> In Nepal the Khas people first settled around present-day [[Humla District|Humla]] and [[Jumla District|Jumla]]. The Khasa kings of Nepal formed the famous [[Khasa Malla kingdom|Malla]] Kingdom, which ruled Humla from the eleventh century before collapsing and splintering into local chiefdoms during the fourteenth century.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kelly|first1=Thomas L.|last2=Dunham|first2=V. Carroll|title=Hidden Himalayas|date=March 2001|publisher=Abbeville Press|location=New York|isbn=9780789207227|url=http://www.abbeville.com/pdf/0789207222.pdf|access-date=14 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060324052621/http://www.abbeville.com/pdf/0789207222.pdf|archive-date=24 March 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Khasas (identified with [[Khasa Malla kingdom|Khasa Mallas]]) are also mentioned in several Indian inscriptions dated between 8th and 13th centuries CE.{{sfn|Thakur|1990|p=287}} The 954 AD Khajuraho Inscription of Dhaṇga states [[Khasa kingdom]] equivalent to [[Gauda Kingdom|Gauda of Bengal]] and [[Gurjara-Pratihara]] dynasty. The [[Nalanda]] inscription of [[Devapala (Pala dynasty)|Devapala]] and Bhagalpur; a copper plate of [[Narayanapala]] also mentions Khasas. The three copper plates from Pandukeshavara explain the territories of Khasas.{{sfn|Thakur|1990|p=287}}

===Khasas of Jammu===
{{further|Lohara dynasty|Khakha}}
{{Location map|Jammu and Kashmir
|width      = 300
|float      = 
|border     = 
|caption    = Rajapuri ([[Rajouri]]), the seat of the lord of the Khasas in the present day [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]], [[India]]
|alt        = 
|relief     = 
|AlternativeMap= 
|overlay_image = 
|label      = 
|label_size = 
|position   = 
|background = 
|mark       = 
|marksize   = 
|link       = 
|lat_deg    = 33.38
|lon_deg    = 74.3
}}
The 12th-century text ''[[Rajatarangini]]'' translated by British archaeologist Sir [[Marc Aurel Stein]] links the Khasas with northwestern affiliations. It describes at 
{{Blockquote|No such difficulity arises as regards the Khaśas so frequently mentioned in the Kashmir Chronicles. It can be shown from a careful examination of all the passages that their seat was to comparatively limited region, which may be roughly described as comprising the valleys lying immediately to the S. and W. of [[Pir Panjal]] range, between the middle course of Vitastā in the W. and Kāṣṭavāṭa in the E.

Finally we have evidence of the latter’s settlements in the valley of Khaśālaya, it is certainly the valley of khaiśāl, which leads from Marbal Pass in S.E. corner of Kaśmir down to Kishtwar{{sfn|Stein|1900a|pp=317}}}}

Rajatarangini describes the rulers of Rajapuri (modern [[Rajauri]]) as the "lord of the Khasas".{{sfn|Thakur|1990|p=287}}{{sfn|Sharma|2019|p=706}} It also describes the [[Lohara dynasty|chiefs of the Lohara]] as Khasas.{{sfn|Stein|1900b|p=433}}{{sfn|Thakur|1990|p=287}}{{sfn|Mohan|1981|p=28}} The Khasa chiefs of Rajapuri freely intermarried with [[Kshatriya]] rulers of [[Kashmir]] while the Khasa chief of Lohara, Simharaja, married a daughter of [[Hindu Shahi|Shahi Kings of Kabul]].{{sfn|Thakur|1990|p=287}} The descendants of the royal family of Rajauri later became [[Muslim Rajput]] chiefs and they retained the rulership of the territory till the 19th century.{{sfn|Stein|1900b|p=433}} Stein also identified the modern [[Khakha]]s as descendants of Khasas mentioned in the ''[[Rajatarangini]]''.{{sfn|Thakur|1990|p=287}}{{sfn|Stein|1900b|p=433}} The [[Bomba (tribe)|Bomba clan]] are descended from the medieval [[Khas people]] of Kashmir that inhabited the entire [[Karnah]] region of Kashmir.{{sfn|Stein|1900b|p=434}} The region of khaśāli which M.A. stein identifies as Khaśalaya is situated in the left bank of the chenab river was identified and studied by [[Siddheshwar Varma]] in 1938 in his linguistic survey.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kaul |first=P.K |title=Pahāṛi and other tribal dialects of jammu |date=2006 |publisher=Eastern book linkers |isbn=81-7854-101-7 |edition=1st |pages=123}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Kingdoms of Ancient India]]
*[[List of ancient Indo-Aryan peoples and tribes]]
*[[Kuru Kingdom]]
*[[Uttarakuru]]
*[[Kambojas]]
*[[Gandhara]]s
*[[Daradas]]
*[[Kashmira]]s
*[[Madra]]
*[[Sakas]], ancient [[Scythians]] mentioned in Sanskrit literatures

==References==
===Footnotes===
{{reflist|group=note}}

===Notes===
{{reflist}}

==Books==
*{{citation | last = Acharya| first = Baburam |author-link = Baburam Acharya | editor-last = Bhandari | editor-first = Devi Prasad | title = Ei. Shi. Baburam Acharya Rachana garnubhayeko nepalko samkshipta itihasa | journal = Purnima | volume = 8| issue = 4 | pages = 197–206 | location = Kathmandu | date = 1975 | url = http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/purnima/pdf/Purnima_08_04.pdf}}
*{{cite book | last = Adhikary | first = Surya Mani |title=The Khaśa kingdom: a trans-Himalayan empire of the middle age |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cH5uAAAAMAAJ |year=1997 |publisher=Nirala Publications |isbn=978-81-85693-50-7}}
*{{cite book |first=George Abraham |last=Grierson |author-link= George Abraham Grierson|title= Linguistic Survey of India, Volume 9, Part 4 | volume = 9 |publisher = Office of the superintendent of government printing, India |year= 1916 |isbn= |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=mYtPAQAAMAAJ&q=attacori+thuni}}
*{{cite book |last1=Handa |first1=O. C. (Omacanda) |title=History of Uttaranchal |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7_Ct9gzvkDQC |year=2002 |publisher= Indus Publishing |location=New Delhi |isbn=9788173871344}}
* {{cite book |first=Sudama |last=Misra |url=http://dli.ernet.in/handle/2015/131690 |title=Janapada state in ancient India |publisher=Bhāratīya Vidyā Prakāśana |location=Vārāṇasī |year=1973 |access-date=18 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817151315/http://dli.ernet.in/handle/2015/131690 |archive-date=17 August 2016 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book |last= Mohan |first= Krishna | title = Early medieval history of Kashmir: with special reference to the Loharas, A.D. 1003–1171 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=wiRuAAAAMAAJ |year = 1981 | publisher = Meharchand Lachhmandas Publications }}
*{{cite book | author = Pliny The Elder |author-link =Pliny The Elder | editor = Gabriel Brotier | title = C. Plinii Secundi Naturalis historiae libri XXXVII: Lib. VI-VIII | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=-bcTAAAAYAAJ&q=casiri+indorum+Pliny | year = 1826 | publisher= A.J. Valpy | location = London}}
* {{cite book | last = Saklani | first = Dinesh Prasad | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=tK5y4iPArKQC&q=khasas | title = Ancient Communities of the Himalaya | isbn= 9788173870903 | publisher = Indus Publishing | year = 1998 }}
* {{cite book | last = Saksena| first = R.N. |editor= George Kurrian |chapter= Marriages and Family in the Polyandrous Khasa tribe of Jaunsar-Bawar |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=CWOEDwAAQBAJ | title = The Family in India: A Regional View | isbn= 9783110886757 | publisher = Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG | year = 2019  |pages=108–118}}
* {{citation |last= Sharma |first= Megha | title = The region of Kashmir in Ancient Literature with special mention to Tribes | journal = Pramana Research Journal | volume = 9 | issue = 6 | pages = 703–707 | date = 2019 |url = https://www.pramanaresearch.org/gallery/prj-p1082.pdf | issn=  2249-2976 }}
*{{cite book | last = Singh | first = M.R. |title= Geographical data in the early Puranas: A critical study |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=iGXl3hlmQyYC |year = 1972 |publisher= Punthi Pustak }}
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ImBDAAAAYAAJ |title=Kalhana's Rajatarangini: A Chronicle of the Kings of Kasmir |volume=1 |first=Marc Aurel |last=Stein |author-link = Marc Aurel Stein |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |orig-year=1900 |year=1979 |chapter=Chronological and Dynastic Tables of Kalhana's Record of Kasmir Kings |isbn=9780896841017 |ref={{sfnref|Stein|1900a}} }}
*{{cite book |first=Mark Aurel |last=Stein |author-link = Marc Aurel Stein |title=Kalhana's Rajatarangini: a chronicle of the kings of Kasmir, Volume 2 |edition=Reprinted |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1989 |orig-year=1900 |isbn=978-81-208-0370-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KzxTkI9iAxkC |access-date=10 July 2011 |ref={{sfnref|Stein|1900b}} }}
* {{cite book |last=Thakur |first=Laxman S. |chapter=The Khaśas: An Early Indian Tribe |editor=K. K. Kusuman |title=A Panorama of Indian Culture: Professor A. Sreedhara Menon Felicitation Volume |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z4JqgSUSXDsC&pg=PA287 |year=1990 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-81-7099-214-1 |pages=285–293}}

{{Uttarakhand}}
{{Tribes and kingdoms of the Mahabharata}}
{{Mahabharata}}
{{Historical regions of North India}}

[[Category:Himalayan peoples]]
[[Category:Ancient peoples of India]]
[[Category:Ancient peoples of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Ancient peoples of Nepal]]
[[Category:Ancient India]]
[[Category:Ancient Nepal]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in India]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Nepal]]
[[Category:Iron Age countries in Asia]]
[[Category:Iron Age cultures of South Asia]]
[[Category:Indo-Aryan peoples]]
[[Category:Mahabharata]]
[[Category:Places in Hindu mythology]]
[[Category:History of Kashmir]]
[[Category:History of Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:History of Uttarakhand]]
[[Category:Dynasties of India]]
[[Category:Dynasties of Nepal]]