View source for Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39

{{Short description|Historic Apollo Moonport}}
{{Redirect|Launch Complex 39|the Proton launch complex at Baikonur|Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 200}}
<!--"Moonport" is NOT a made-up word; see the citation to Benson & Flaherty's book which is a cited source below -->
{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2017}}
{{Infobox launch pad
|name = Launch Complex 39
|image = File:NASA’s SLS and SpaceX’s Falcon 9 at Launch Complex 39A & 39B (KSC-20220406-PH-JBP01-0001).jpg
|caption = LC-39A (foreground) and LC-39B (background) on April 6, 2022
|location = [[Kennedy Space Center]]
|coordinates = {{coord|28|36|30.2|N|80|36|15.6|W|type:landmark_region:US|display=inline,title}}
| time_zone   = [[Eastern Standard Time|EST]]
| utc_offset  = −05:00
| time_zone_DST = [[Eastern Daylight Time|EDT]]
| utc_offset_DST = −04:00
| short       = LC-39
| established = {{start date and age|1962}}
|operator = {{plainlist|
* '''LC-39A:'''
** [[NASA]] (1967&ndash;2014)
** [[SpaceX]] (2014&ndash;present)
* '''LC-39B:'''
** [[NASA]] (1969&ndash;present)
}}
|tlaunches = '''267''' (13 Saturn V, 4 Saturn IB, 135 Shuttle, 1 Ares I, 102 Falcon 9, 11 Falcon Heavy, 1 Space Launch System)
|pads = 3
|inclination = 28°–62°
| paddetails  = {{Infobox launch pad/pad
  | designation  = [[Launch Complex 39A|Pad 39A]]
  | status       = Active
  | launches     = '''207''' (12 Saturn V, 82 Shuttle, 102 Falcon 9, 11 Falcon Heavy)
  | unknown      = 
  | first_launch = November 9, 1967 |first_details = [[Saturn V]] [[Apollo 4|SA-501]]
  | last_launch  = June 25, 2025 |last_details = [[Falcon 9 Block 5]] / [[Axiom Mission 4]]

  | rockets      = 
'''Current:''' [[Falcon 9]], [[Falcon Heavy]]<br/>'''Future:''' [[SpaceX Starship|Starship]]<br/>'''Retired:''' [[Saturn V]], [[Space Shuttle]]<br/>'''Plans cancelled:''' [[Ares V]]
}} 
{{Infobox launch pad/pad
  | designation  = [[Launch Complex 39B|Pad 39B]]
  | status       = Active
  | launches     = '''60''' (1 Saturn V, 4 Saturn IB, 53 Shuttle, 1 Ares I-X, 1 SLS)
  | first_launch = May 18, 1969      |first_details = [[Saturn V]] [[Apollo 10|SA-505]]
  | last_launch  = November 16, 2022 |last_details  = [[Space Launch System]] / [[Artemis I]]
  | rockets      = '''Current:''' [[Space Launch System|SLS]]<br/> '''Retired:''' [[Saturn V]], [[Saturn IB]], [[Space Shuttle]], [[Ares I-X]]<br/>'''Plans cancelled:''' [[Ares I]], [[OmegA]]
}}
{{Infobox launch pad/pad
  | designation = Pad 39C
  | status      = Unused, functions transferred to [[Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 48|LC-48]]
  | launches = 0
 }}
{{Infobox NRHP
| name     = Launch Complex 39
| embed    = yes
| location = John F. Kennedy Space Center, [[Titusville, Florida]]
| locmapin = Florida#USA
| built    = 1967
| added    = May 24, 1973
| area     = {{convert|7000|acre}}
| mpsub    = {{NRHP url|id=64500111|title=John F. Kennedy Space Center MPS}}
| refnum   = 73000568<ref name="nris">{{NRISref|version=2010a}}</ref>
}}
}}

'''Launch Complex 39''' ('''LC-39''') is a [[rocket launch site]] at the [[John F. Kennedy Space Center]] on [[Merritt Island, Florida|Merritt Island]] in [[Florida]], United States. The site and its collection of facilities were originally built as the [[Apollo program]]'s "Moonport"<ref>{{cite book
 | last1 = Benson
 | first1 = Charles D.
 | last2 = Faherty
 | first2 = William B.
 | title = Moonport: A History of Apollo Launch Facilities and Operations
 | publisher = NASA
 | series = History Series
 | volume = SP-4204
 | date=August 1977
 | url = http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4204/contents.html
 | chapter = Preface
 | chapter-url = https://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4204/preface.html
 }}</ref> and later modified for the [[Space Shuttle program]].
Launch Complex 39 consists of three launch sub-complexes or "pads"—[[Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A|39A]], [[Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39B|39B]], and 39C—a [[Vehicle Assembly Building]] (VAB), a [[Crawlerway]] used by [[crawler-transporter]]s to carry [[mobile launcher platform]]s between the VAB and the pads, [[Orbiter Processing Facility]] buildings, a [[Launch Control Center]] which contains the firing rooms, a [[Launch Complex 39 Press Site|news facility]] famous for the iconic countdown clock seen in television coverage and photos, and various logistical and operational support buildings.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/facilities/tour.html|title=KSC Facilities|publisher=NASA|access-date=2009-07-06|archive-date=June 19, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180619200241/http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/facilities/tour.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

SpaceX leases Launch Complex 39A from NASA and has modified the pad to support [[Falcon 9]] and [[Falcon Heavy]] launches.<ref>{{cite web |author=D'Orazio |first=Dante |date=6 September 2015 |title=After delays, SpaceX's massive Falcon Heavy rocket set to launch in spring 2016 |url=https://www.theverge.com/2015/9/6/9270317/spacex-falcon-heavy-rocket-scheduled-launch-spring-2016 |work=The Verge |publisher=Vox Media}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://spacenews.com/spacex-seeks-to-accelerate-falcon-9-production-and-launch-rates-this-year/|title=SpaceX seeks to accelerate Falcon 9 production and launch rates this year|date=4 February 2016|author-first1=Jeff|author-last1=Foust|website=SpaceNews}}</ref>
[[NASA]] began modifying Launch Complex 39B in 2007 to accommodate the now defunct [[Constellation program]], and is currently prepared for the [[Artemis program]],<ref name="pad1">{{cite web |author=NASA |author-link=NASA |title=Launch Complex 39-A & 39-B |url=http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/facilities/lc39a.html |year=1993 |publisher=[[NASA|National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] |access-date=September 30, 2007 |archive-date=April 3, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403135718/https://science.ksc.nasa.gov/facilities/lc39a.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="pad2">{{Cite web |author=NASA |title=Launch Complex 39 |url=http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/kscpao/nasafact/pads.htm |year=2000 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120927112326/http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/kscpao/nasafact/pads.htm|archive-date=September 27, 2012|df=mdy-all |publisher=NASA |access-date=September 30, 2007}}</ref> which was first launched in November 2022.<ref name="sfn-20211022">{{cite web|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2021/10/22/nasa-targets-february-launch-for-artemis-1-moon-mission/|title=NASA targets February launch for Artemis 1 moon mission|last=Clark|first=Steven|publisher=Spaceflight Now|date=22 October 2021|access-date=23 October 2021}}</ref> A pad to be designated 39C, which would have been a copy of pads 39A and 39B, was originally planned for Apollo but never built. A smaller pad, also designated 39C, was constructed from January to June 2015, to accommodate [[small-lift launch vehicle]]s.<ref name="lc39C" />

NASA launches from pads 39A and 39B have been supervised from the NASA [[Launch Control Center]] (LCC), located {{convert|3|mi|km}} from the launch pads. LC-39 is one of several launch sites that share the radar and tracking services of the [[Eastern Range|Eastern Test Range]].

==History==

===Early history===
Northern Merritt Island was first developed around 1890 when a few wealthy Harvard University graduates purchased {{convert|18000|acre|km2}} and constructed a three-story mahogany clubhouse, very nearly on the site of Pad 39A.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/cgi-bin/ds_mark.prl?PidBox=AK6126|title=NGS Datasheet for Clubhouse Southwest Gable|publisher=National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)|access-date=2013-01-20}}</ref> During the 1920s, Peter E. Studebaker Jr., son of [[Studebaker|the automobile magnate]], built a small casino at De Soto Beach {{convert|8|mi|spell=in|0}} north of the Canaveral lighthouse.<ref>Eriksen, John M. [http://johneriksen.net/bc/bc_cb.htm ''Brevard County, Florida: A Short History to 1955'']. See Chapter Ten on De Soto Grove, De Soto Beach, and Playa Linda Beach.</ref>

In 1948, the Navy transferred the former Banana River Naval Air Station, located south of [[Cape Canaveral]], to the Air Force for use in testing captured German V-2 rockets.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.patrick.spaceforce.mil/?id=4514 |title=EVOLUTION OF THE 45TH SPACE WING |publisher=US Air Force |access-date=2009-07-06 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110613181155/http://www.patrick.af.mil/library/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=4514 |archive-date=June 13, 2011 }}</ref> The site's location on the East Florida coast was ideal for this purpose, in that launches would be over the ocean, away from populated areas. This site became the Joint Long Range Proving Ground in 1949 and was renamed Patrick Air Force Base in 1950 and Patrick Space Force Base in 2020. The Air Force annexed part of Cape Canaveral, to the north, in 1951, forming the Air Force Missile Test Center, the future [[Cape Canaveral Space Force Station]] (CCSFS). Missile and rocketry testing and development would take place here through the 1950s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spaceline.org/capehistory/2a.html|title=The History of Cape Canaveral, Chapter 2: The Missile Range Takes Shape (1949–1958)|publisher=Spaceline.org|access-date=2009-07-06}}</ref>

After the [[creation of NASA]] in 1958, the CCAFS launch pads were used for NASA's civilian uncrewed and crewed launches, including those of [[Project Mercury]] and [[Project Gemini]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/sites/capallc5.htm|title=Cape Canaveral LC5|publisher=Astronautix.com|access-date=2009-07-06|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090414180519/http://www.astronautix.com/sites/capallc5.htm|archive-date=April 14, 2009|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

=== Apollo and Skylab ===
{{Main|Apollo program}}

In 1961, President Kennedy proposed to Congress the goal of landing a man on the Moon by the end of the decade. Congressional approval led to the launch of the [[Apollo program]], which required a massive expansion of NASA operations, including an expansion of launch operations from the Cape to adjacent Merritt Island to the north and west.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spaceline.org/capehistory/3a.html|title=The History of Cape Canaveral, Chapter 3: NASA Arrives (1959–Present)|publisher=Spaceline.org|access-date=2009-07-06}}</ref> NASA began acquisition of land in 1962, taking title to {{convert|131|sqmi}} by outright purchase and negotiating with the state of Florida for an additional {{convert|87|sqmi}}. On July 1, 1962, the site was named the '''Launch Operations Center'''.<ref>{{cite web
 | url = https://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/about/information/visitor_faq.html#29
 | title = Kennedy Space Center Visitor and Area Information &#124; NASA
 | date = April 28, 2015
 | access-date = February 11, 2017
 | archive-date = October 30, 2016
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161030163510/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/about/information/visitor_faq.html#29
 | url-status = dead
 }}</ref>

==== Initial design ====
{{multiple image
 |direction=horizontal |align=right
 |total_width=550
 |image1=Lc39 plan 1963 labelled.png|caption1=Launch Complex Plan – 1963
 |image2=Apollo 11 Saturn V SN SA506 (69-HC-620).jpg|caption2=Apollo-Saturn 506 with [[Apollo 11]] spacecraft being moved from the VAB to LC-39A (1969)
 |image3=Crawler-Transporter.jpg |width2=3000 |height2=1993 |caption3=A restored crawler-transporter (2004)
}}
The need for a new launch complex was first considered in 1961. At the time, the highest-numbered launch pad at CCAFS was Launch Complex 37. A proposed Launch Complex 38 had been set aside for the future expansion of the [[Atlas-Centaur]] program, but ultimately never built.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.spaceline.org/cape-canaveral-launch-sites/launch-complex-38-fact-sheet/ |first=Cliff |last=Lethbridge |title=LAUNCH COMPLEX 38 FACT SHEET &#124; Spaceline |website= Spaceline}}</ref> The new complex was thus designated Launch Complex 39.

The method of reaching the Moon had not yet been decided. The two leading alternatives were [[direct ascent]], which launched a single huge rocket; and [[Earth orbit rendezvous]], where two or more launches of smaller rockets would place several parts of the lunar departure spacecraft which would be assembled in orbit. The former would require a huge [[Nova (rocket)|Nova-class]] launcher and pads, while the latter would require several rockets to be launched in quick succession. Furthermore, the selection of the actual rockets was still ongoing; NASA was proposing the Nova design while their newly-acquired former Army group in Huntsville Alabama had proposed a series of slightly smaller designs known as Saturn.<ref name=d1961/>

This complicated the design of the launch complex, as it had to encompass two very different possibilities and rockets. Accordingly, early designs from 1961 show two sets of launch pads. The first was a series of three pads for Saturn along [[Playalinda Beach (Florida)|Playalinda Beach]], with the southernmost near the current Eddy Creek Boat Launch, and the northernmost around Klondike Beach. Far to the south was a similar set of three pads for Nova, the southernmost just south of the [[Astronaut Beach House]] and the northern roughly at the location of the current Pad&nbsp;A.<ref name=d1961>{{cite tech report |title= Sixth Semiannual Report to Congress July 1 - December 31, 1961 |publisher=NASA |page=126}}</ref>

The final selection of [[lunar orbit rendezvous]] and the [[Saturn V]] led to numerous changes. The Nova pads disappeared, and the three Saturn pads were moved southward. The southernmost was now at the current location of Pad A, while the northernmost was located between Patrol Road, the current boundary road for the LC39 site, and Playlandia Beach Road on the north. At the time, the original three were named from north to south: Pad&nbsp;A through Pad&nbsp;C.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Saturn V Apollo Moon Rocket |url=http://heroicrelics.org/info/saturn-v/saturn-v-apollo-moon-rocket.html |publisher=NASA |date=1963}}</ref> The pads were evenly spaced {{convert|8700|ft|m}} apart to avoid damage in the event of an explosion on a pad.

In March 1963, plans were formalized to build only two of the three pads; the northernmost, furthest from the VAB, would not be built but reserved for future expansion. As the original Pad&nbsp;A would no longer be built, the naming was changed to run south-to-north, so that the two pads that would be built would be A and B. If the original 39A at the north end were ever built, it would now be known as 39C.

Some consideration for C's construction was made: the [[Crawlerway]] initially splits off from A toward B running north-northwest, and then bends north toward B a short distance north at Cochran Cove. Continuing straight north-northeast would have led to C after a similar northward bend. The original construction of the Crawlerway included an interchange between B and a short part of the extension northward for C, which remains intact {{asof|2022|lc=yes}}, and the traffic-light warning system for the Crawlerway has lights for Pad&nbsp;C.

The plans still set aside room for the remaining two pads, now known as D and E. Pad&nbsp;D would have been built due west of Pad&nbsp;C, some distance inland along Patrol Road. Access to D would have branched off westward from the crawlerway at the point where C's crawlerway turned north. Pad&nbsp;E would have continued the line of pads along the coast, north of C near [[Playalinda Beach (Florida)|Playalinda Beach]], close to the original location of the southernmost pad in the original layout. No diagram of the access to E can be found. Had all of them been built, C, D and E would have formed a triangle.<ref>{{Cite book
|last         = Petrone
|first        = Rocco A.
|author-link  = Rocco Petrone
|editor-last  = Cortright
|editor-first = Edgar M.
|editor-link  = Edgar Cortright
|date         = 1975
|chapter      = Chapter 6: The Cape
|chapter-url  = https://history.nasa.gov/SP-350/ch-6-1.html
|title        = Apollo Expeditions to the Moon
|url          = https://history.nasa.gov/SP-350/cover.html
|publisher    = Scientific and Technical Information Office, [[NASA|National Aeronautics and Space Administration]]
|place        = Washington, DC
|id           = SP-350
}}</ref>

==== Integration of space vehicle stack ====
{{Main|Vehicle Assembly Building}}
Months before a launch, the three stages of the [[Saturn V]] launch vehicle and the components of the [[Apollo spacecraft]] were brought inside the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB) and assembled, in one of four bays, into a {{convert|363|ft|m|adj=on}}-tall space vehicle on one of three [[Mobile Launcher]]s (ML). Each Mobile Launcher consisted of a two-story, {{convert|49|by|41|m|ft|adj=on|order=flip}} launcher platform with four hold-down arms and a {{convert|136|m|ft|adj=on|order=flip|sp=us}} [[Apollo launch umbilical tower|Launch Umbilical Tower]] (LUT) topped by a crane used to lift the spacecraft elements into position for assembly. The ML and unfueled vehicle together weighed {{convert|12600000|lb|MT|sigfig=4}}.<ref name="Moonport_appendixb">{{cite book
 | last1 = Benson
 | first1 = Charles D.
 | last2 = Faherty
 | first2 = William B.
 | title = Moonport: A History of Apollo Launch Facilities and Operations
 | publisher = NASA
 | series = History Series
 | volume = SP-4204
 | date=August 1977
 | url = http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4204/contents.html
 | chapter = Appendix B: Launch Complex 39
 | chapter-url = https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4204/appendixb.pdf
 }}</ref>

The umbilical tower contained two elevators and nine retractable swing arms that were extended to the space vehicle—to provide access to each of the three rocket stages and the spacecraft for people, wiring, and plumbing—while the vehicle was on the launch pad and were swung away from the vehicle at launch.<ref name="Moonport_appendixb"/><ref>{{cite web|title=Swing Arm Engineer|url=http://enterfiringroom.ksc.nasa.gov/systemSwingArm.htm|publisher=NASA|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101107093952/http://enterfiringroom.ksc.nasa.gov/systemSwingArm.htm|archive-date=November 7, 2010|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Technicians, engineers, and astronauts used the uppermost Spacecraft Access Arm to access the crew cabin. At the end of the arm, the [[white room (spacecraft)|white room]] provided an environmentally controlled and protected area for astronauts and their equipment before entering the spacecraft.<ref>{{cite web
 | url = https://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/technology/sts-newsref/sts-lc39.html
 | title = Launch Complexes 39-A and 39-B
 | access-date = February 11, 2017
 | archive-date = December 31, 2016
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161231022507/http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/technology/sts-newsref/sts-lc39.html
 | url-status = dead
 }}</ref>

Early diagrams of the proposed layout also included the Nuclear Assembly Building, NAB, northeast of the VAB. These would be used to prepare the [[Nuclear thermal rocket|nuclear rocket engine]]s being developed under the [[NERVA]] program, before moving them to the VAB for assembly into a rocket stack. This program was cancelled and the NAB was not built.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4204/ch11-8.html|title=Plans for the Industrial Area|access-date=July 12, 2022|archive-date=March 26, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326024117/https://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4204/ch11-8.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==== Transportation to the pad ====
When the stack integration was completed, the Mobile Launcher was moved atop one of two [[crawler-transporter]]s, or Missile Crawler Transporter Facilities, {{convert|3|–|4|mi|km}} to its pad at a speed of {{convert|1|mph|kph}}. Each crawler weighed {{convert|2720|MT|lb|order=flip}} and was capable of keeping the space vehicle and its launcher platform level while negotiating the 5 percent grade to the pad. At the pad, the ML was placed on six steel pedestals, plus four additional extensible columns.<ref name="Moonport_appendixb"/>

==== Mobile Service Structure ====
{{Multiple image
| direction = vertical
| image1 = Saturn V and service structures.jpg
| caption1 = [[Saturn V]] with fixed (left) and mobile (right) service structures
| image2 = LC-39A walkway.jpg
| caption2 = Apollo-era walkway and [[White room (spaceflight)|white room]], on display at [[Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex]]
}}
After the ML was set in place, the crawler-transporter rolled a {{convert|125|m|ft|order=flip|adj=on|sp=us}}, {{convert|4760|MT|lb|order=flip|adj=on}} Mobile Service Structure (MSS) into place to provide further access for technicians to perform a detailed checkout of the vehicle, and to provide necessary umbilical connections to the pad. The MSS contained three elevators, two self-propelled platforms, and three fixed platforms. It was rolled back {{convert|2100|m|ft|order=flip|sp=us}} to a parking position shortly before launch.<ref name="Moonport_appendixb"/>

==== Flame deflector ====
While the ML was sat on its launch pedestals, one of two [[flame deflector]]s was slid on rails into place under it. Having two deflectors allowed for one to be used while the other was being refurbished after a previous launch. Each deflector measured {{convert|12|m|ft|order=flip|sp=us}} high by {{convert|15|m|ft|order=flip|sp=us}} wide by {{convert|23|m|ft|order=flip|sp=us}} long, and weighed {{convert|635|MT|lb|order=flip|sp=us}}. During a launch, it deflected the launch vehicle's rocket exhaust flame into a trench measuring {{convert|13|m|ft|order=flip|sp=us}} deep by {{convert|18|m|ft|order=flip|sp=us}} wide by {{convert|137|m|ft|order=flip|sp=us}} long.<ref name="Moonport_appendixb"/>

==== Launch control and fueling ====
The four-story [[Launch Control Center]] (LCC) was located {{convert|5.6|km|mi|order=flip|sp=us}} away from Pad A, adjacent to the Vehicle Assembly Building, for safety. The third floor had four firing rooms (corresponding to the four bays in the VAB), each with 470 sets of control and monitoring equipment.{{clarify|date=April 2014|reason=at what time in its long history did this apply?}} The second floor contained telemetry, tracking, instrumentation, and data reduction computing equipment. The LCC was connected to the Mobile Launcher Platforms by a high-speed data link; and during launch a system of 62 closed-circuit television cameras transmitted to 100 monitor screens in the LCC.<ref name="Moonport_appendixb"/>

Large cryogenic tanks located near the pads stored the liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen (LOX) for the second and third stages of the Saturn V. The highly explosive nature of these chemicals required numerous safety measures at the launch complex. The pads were located {{convert|2660|m|ft|order=flip|sp=us}} away from each other.<ref name="Moonport_appendixb"/> Before tanking operations began and during launch, non-essential personnel were excluded from the danger area.

==== Emergency evacuation system ====
Each pad had a {{convert|61|m|ft|order=flip|adj=on|sp=us}} evacuation tube running from the Mobile Launcher platform to a blast-resistant bunker {{convert|12|m|ft|order=flip|sp=us}} underground, nicknamed [[Rubber room (bunker)|Rubber room]], equipped with survival supplies for 20 persons for 24 hours and reachable through a high-speed elevator.<ref>[https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/10560573.pdf Maloney, Kelli. ''Launch Pad Escape System Design'']</ref>

A further Emergency Egress System was installed to allow fast escape of crew or technicians from pad in case of imminent catastrophic failure of the rocket.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/launch/emer-egress.html|title=NASA - Emergency Egress System|first=Lynda|last=Warnock|website=www.nasa.gov|access-date=August 21, 2020|archive-date=March 26, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326024149/https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/launch/emer-egress.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The system included seven baskets suspended from seven slidewires that extended from the fixed service structure to a landing zone {{convert|1200|ft|m|order=flip|sp=us}} to the west. Each basket could hold up to three people, which slid down the wire reaching up to {{convert|50|mph|kph|order=flip|sp=us}}, eventually reaching a gentle stop by means of a braking system catch net and drag chain which slowed and then halted the baskets.

The system was dismantled in 2012, as seen in [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TGMWdtQYkbc this video].

==== Pad Terminal Connection Room ====
Connections between the [[Launch Control Center]], [[Mobile Launcher Platform]], and space vehicle were made in the Pad Terminal Connection Room (PTCR), which was a two-story series of rooms located beneath the launch pad on the west side of the flame trench. The "room" was constructed of reinforced concrete and protected by up to {{convert| 20|ft}} of fill dirt.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/launch/pad-term-connect-room.html|title=NASA - Pad Terminal Connection Room|first=Lynda|last=Warnock|website=www.nasa.gov|access-date=June 22, 2023|archive-date=February 24, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224153226/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/launch/pad-term-connect-room.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Young|first=John|title=Wings in Orbit: Scientific and Engineering Legacies of the Space Shuttle 1971–2010|isbn=978-0-16-086847-4|pages=82|author-link=John Young (astronaut)|author2=Robert Crippen |date=April 8, 2011|publisher=Government Printing Office }}</ref>

==== Apollo and Skylab launches ====
{{multiple image
| align             = right
| total_width       = 280
| image1            = Apollo 11 Launch - GPN-2000-000630.jpg
| caption1          = [[Apollo 11]], carrying the first humans to land on the [[Moon]], lifts off from pad 39A, July 16, 1969
| image2            = ASTP Launch - GPN-2000-000643.jpg
| caption2          = Final launch of a [[Saturn IB]] (AS-210) from pad 39B, carrying the [[Apollo–Soyuz Test Project]] Command Module into orbit, July 24, 1975
}}

The first launch from Launch Complex 39 came in 1967 with the first Saturn&nbsp;V launch, which carried the uncrewed [[Apollo&nbsp;4]] spacecraft. The second uncrewed launch, [[Apollo&nbsp;6]], also used Pad 39A. With the exception of [[Apollo&nbsp;10]], which used Pad 39B (due to the "all-up" testing resulting in a 2-month turnaround period), all crewed Apollo-Saturn&nbsp;V launches, commencing with [[Apollo&nbsp;8]], used Pad 39A.

A total of thirteen Saturn Vs were launched for Apollo, including the uncrewed launch of the [[Skylab]] space station in 1973. The mobile launchers were then modified for the shorter [[Saturn IB]] rockets, by adding a "milk-stool" extension platform to the launch pedestal, so that the [[S-IVB]] upper stage and Apollo spacecraft swing arms would reach their targets. These were used for three crewed Skylab flights and the [[Apollo–Soyuz Test Project]], since the Saturn IB pads 34 and 37 at Cape Canaveral SFS had been decommissioned.<ref>{{cite web
 | url = http://afspacemuseum.org/ccafs/CX34/
 | title = Launch Complex 34
 | access-date = February 11, 2017
 | archive-date = February 12, 2017
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170212093022/http://afspacemuseum.org/ccafs/CX34/
 | url-status = dead
 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web
 | url = http://afspacemuseum.org/ccafs/CX37/
 | title = Launch Complex 37
 | access-date = February 11, 2017
 | archive-date = March 2, 2017
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170302234203/http://afspacemuseum.org/ccafs/CX37/
 | url-status = dead
 }}</ref>

===Space Shuttle===
{{Main|Space Shuttle program}}
[[File:Space_Shuttle_Atlantis_at_Launch_Pad_39A.jpg|thumb|{{OV|104}} at [[Launch Complex 39A]]]]
The thrust to allow the Space Shuttle to achieve orbit was provided by a combination of the [[Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster|Solid Rocket Booster]]s (SRBs) and the [[RS-25]] engines. The SRBs used solid propellant, hence their name. The RS-25 engines used a combination of [[liquid hydrogen]] and [[liquid oxygen]] (LOX) from the [[external tank]]&nbsp;(ET), as the orbiter did not have room for internal fuel tanks. The SRBs arrived in segments via rail car from their manufacturing facility in [[Utah]], the external tank arrived from its manufacturing facility in [[Louisiana]] by barge, and the orbiter waited in the [[Orbiter Processing Facility]] (OPF). The SRBs were first stacked in the VAB, then the External tank was mounted between them, and then, with the help of a massive crane, the orbiter was lowered and connected to the External tank.

The payload to be installed at the launch pad was independently transported in a payload transportation canister and then installed vertically at the Payload Changeout Room. Otherwise, payloads would have already been pre-installed at the Orbiter Processing Facility and transported within the orbiter's cargo bay.

The original structure of the pads was remodeled for the needs of the Space Shuttle, starting with Pad 39A after the last Saturn&nbsp;V launch, and, in 1977, that of Pad 39B after the [[Apollo–Soyuz]] in 1975. The first usage of the pad for the Space Shuttle came in 1979, when ''Enterprise'' was used to check the facilities prior to the first operational launch.

==== Service structures ====
{{Main|Service structure#Kennedy Space Center}}
Each pad contained a two-piece access tower system, the Fixed Service Structure (FSS) and the Rotating Service Structure (RSS). The FSS permitted access to the Shuttle via a retractable arm and a "beanie cap" to capture vented LOX from the external tank.

==== Sound Suppression Water System ====
A Sound Suppression Water System (SSWS) was added to protect the Space Shuttle and its payload from effects of the intense sound wave pressure generated by its engines. An elevated water tank on a {{convert|290|ft|m|adj=on}} tower near each pad stored {{convert|300000|gal|L|sp=us|abbr=off}} of water, which was released onto the mobile launcher platform just before engine ignition.<ref name="nasa_suppression_system">{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/missions/shuttle/f_watertest.html|title=Sound Suppression System|access-date=2007-10-22|archive-date=February 15, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090215132833/http://www.nasa.gov/missions/shuttle/f_watertest.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The water muffled the intense sound waves produced by the engines. Due to heating of the water, a large quantity of steam and water vapor was produced during launch.

==== Swing arm modifications ====
[[File:Launch Pad 39A KSC White Room Access Arm Walkway.jpg|thumb|200px|The doors to the White Room, which provided entry to the Shuttle crew compartment, are seen here at the end of the access arm walkway]]

The Gaseous Oxygen Vent Arm positioned a hood, often called the "Beanie Cap", over the top of the external tank (ET) nose cone during fueling.{{when|date=February 2014|reason=when was this modification made to the pad?}} Heated gaseous nitrogen was used there to remove the extremely cold gaseous oxygen that normally vented out of the external tank. This prevented the formation of ice that could fall and damage the shuttle.<ref>{{cite web |title=NASA – External Tank (ET) Gaseous Oxygen Vent Arm |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/launch/et-gaseous-O2-vent-arm.html |publisher=nasa.gov |access-date=2016-12-09 |archive-date=May 24, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170524123727/https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/launch/et-gaseous-O2-vent-arm.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The Hydrogen Vent Line Access Arm mated the External Tank's  [[Ground Umbilical Carrier Plate]] (GUCP) to the launch pad hydrogen vent line. The GUCP provided support for plumbing and cables, called umbilicals, that transferred fluids, gases, and electrical signals between two pieces of equipment. While the External Tank was being fueled, hazardous gas was vented from an internal hydrogen tank, through the GUCP, and out a vent line to a flare stack where it was burned off at a safe distance. Sensors at the GUCP measured gas level. The GUCP was redesigned after leaks created scrubs of [[STS-127]] and were also detected during attempts to launch [[STS-119]] and [[STS-133]].<ref>{{cite web|title=GUCP troubleshooting continues as MMT push for launch on June 17|date=June 13, 2009 |url=http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2009/06/sts-127-scrubbed-due-to-gucp-leak-launch-moves-to-net-june-17/|publisher=NASA Spaceflight}}</ref> The GUCP released from the ET at launch and fell away with a curtain of water sprayed across it for protection from flames.

==== Emergency pad evacuation equipment ====
The launch complex was equipped with a slidewire escape basket system for quick evacuation. Assisted by members of the closeout team, the crew would leave the orbiter and ride an emergency basket to the ground at speeds reaching up to {{convert|55|mph|km/h}}.<ref name="astronaut_rescue_drill">{{cite web|url=http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/ft_shuttle_training_041203.html|title=SPACE.com – NASA Conducts Shuttle Astronaut Rescue Drill|website=[[Space.com]] |date=December 3, 2004 |access-date=2007-10-22}}</ref> From there, the crew took shelter in a bunker. [[File:Astroescape.jpg|thumb|200px|M113 armored personnel carriers parked near LC-39]]

The pad fire station operated a fleet of four modified [[M113A2 Firefighting Vehicle]]s, a variant of the [[M113 armored personnel carrier|M113 APC.]] Painted in a neon green rescue livery, these vehicles provided viable transportation to rescue personnel and firefighters should they need to approach the pad during a launch emergency. They could also be used to safely evacuate astronauts and crew from the vicinity of the pad. During launches, two manned APCs would be stationed less than a mile from the launch pad (holding firefighters at-the-ready), one unmanned would be stationed on the pad (for extra evacuation capacity), and the fourth provided a backup at the fire station.<ref>{{Citation |title=M113: Armored Rescuer | date=February 2012 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1zjfXm07Dg8 |language=en |access-date=2023-02-22}}</ref><ref name="astronaut_evacuation">{{cite web|url=http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/people/journals/space/lohning/|title=NASA Field Journal by Greg Lohning|access-date=2008-11-01|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090204045450/http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/people/journals/space/lohning/|archive-date=February 4, 2009|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

During the launch of Discovery on [[STS-124]] on May 31, 2008, the pad at LC-39A suffered extensive damage, in particular to the concrete trench used to deflect the SRB's flames.<ref name="damage">{{cite web|url=http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/080602-sts124-pad39a-damage.html#comments|title=NASA Eyes Launch Pad Damage for Next Shuttle Flight|work=Space.com|date=June 2, 2008 }}</ref> The subsequent investigation found that the damage was the result of carbonation of epoxy and corrosion of steel anchors that held the [[refractory brick]]s in the trench in place. The damage had been exacerbated by the fact that [[hydrochloric acid]] is an exhaust by-product of the solid rocket boosters.<ref>{{cite journal | url=http://pbma.nasa.gov/docs/public/pbma/images/msm/STS-124FlameTrench_SFCS.pdf | title=Hit the Bricks | journal=System Failure Case Studies | publisher=NASA | date=August 2010 | volume=4 | issue=8 | pages=1–4 | author=Lilley, Steve K. | access-date=July 20, 2011 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928091534/http://pbma.nasa.gov/docs/public/pbma/images/msm/STS-124FlameTrench_SFCS.pdf | archive-date=September 28, 2011 | df=mdy-all }}</ref>

==== Space Shuttle launches ====
After the launch of [[Skylab]] in 1973, Pad 39A was reconfigured for the Space Shuttle, with shuttle launches beginning with [[STS-1]] in 1981, flown by the {{OV|102}}.<ref
 name="mods">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/launch/pad-mods.html|title=Shuttle-Era Pad Modifications|access-date=September 30, 2007|publisher=NASA|year=2006|author=NASA|archive-date=March 1, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301194511/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/launch/pad-mods.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> After Apollo&nbsp;10, Pad 39B was kept as a backup launch facility in the case of the destruction of 39A, but saw active service during all three Skylab missions, the Apollo–Soyuz test flight, and a contingency Skylab Rescue flight that never became necessary. After the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project, 39B was reconfigured similarly to 39A; but due to additional modifications (mainly to allow the facility to service a modified [[Centaur (rocket)|Centaur-G]] upper stage), along with budgetary restraints, it was not ready until 1986. The first shuttle flight to use it was [[STS-51-L]], which ended with the [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|''Challenger'' disaster]], after which the first return-to-flight mission, [[STS-26]], was launched from 39B.

Just as for the first 24 shuttle flights, LC-39A supported the final shuttle flights, starting with [[STS-117]] in June 2007 and ending with the [[Space Shuttle retirement|retirement of the Shuttle fleet]] in July 2011. Prior to the SpaceX lease agreement, the pad remained as it was when ''Atlantis'' launched on the final shuttle mission on July 8, 2011, complete with a [[mobile launcher platform]].

==== After Space Shuttle retirement ====
With the [[retirement of the Space Shuttle]] in 2011,<ref name=bw20101028>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110919215746/http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/10_45/b4202066178314.htm?campaign_id=mag_Oct28&link_position=link23 NASA: Lost in Space], ''[[Business Week]]'', 2010-10-28, accessed 2010-10-31.</ref>
and the cancellation of [[Constellation Program]] in 2010, the future of the Launch Complex 39 pads was uncertain.
By early 2011, NASA began informal discussions on use of the pads and facilities by [[private spaceflight|private companies]] to fly missions for the commercial space market,<ref name=ft20110206>
{{cite news |last=Dean|first=James |title=Up for grabs? Private companies eye KSC facilities |url=http://www.floridatoday.com/article/20110206/NEWS02/102060317/Up-for-grabs-Private-companies-eye-KSC-facilities |access-date=2011-02-06 |newspaper=Florida Today |date=2011-02-06|quote=As the shuttle program nears retirement, KSC officials are evaluating whether other facilities that supported three decades of shuttle flights will transition to serve new vehicles or be discarded. The center is offering use of its launch pads, runway, Vehicle Assembly Building high bays, hangars and firing rooms to private companies expected to play a bigger role in NASA missions and a growing commercial space market.}}</ref> culminating in a 20-year lease agreement with SpaceX for Pad 39A.<ref name=flortoda>{{cite web|url=http://www.floridatoday.com/story/tech/science/space/2014/04/14/spacex-takes-over-ksc-pad-39a/7711859/|title=SpaceX takes over KSC pad 39A|last=Dean|first=James|date=April 14, 2014|publisher=Florida Today|access-date=April 15, 2014}}</ref>

Talks for use of the pad were underway between NASA and [[Space Florida]]—the [[State of Florida]]'s [[economic development agency]]—as early as 2011, but no deal materialized by 2012, and NASA then pursued other options for removing the pad from the federal government inventory.<ref name=nsf20141117/>

===Constellation program===
{{Main|Constellation program}}
[[File:Ares I-X launch 08.jpg|thumb|Ares I-X launches from LC-39B, 15:30 UTC, October&nbsp;28, 2009]]
The Constellation program planned to use LC-39A for uncrewed Ares V launches and LC-39B for crewed Ares I launches. In preparation for this, NASA began modifying LC-39B to support Ares I launches with 39A planned to be modified in the mid 2010s for Ares V launches. Prior to Ares I-X, the last Shuttle launch from pad 39B was the nighttime launch of [[STS-116]] on December 9, 2006. To support the final Shuttle mission to the Hubble Space Telescope [[STS-125]] launched from pad 39A in May 2009, ''[[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Endeavour]]'' was placed on 39B if needed to launch the [[STS-400]] rescue mission. 

After the completion of [[STS-125]], 39B was converted to launch the single test flight of the ''Constellation Program'' [[Ares&nbsp;I-X]] on October&nbsp;28, 2009.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2009/10/pad-39b-suffers-substantial-damage-ares-i-x-parachute-update/|title=Pad 39B suffers substantial damage from Ares I-X launch – Parachute update {{!}} NASASpaceFlight.com|website=www.nasaspaceflight.com|date=October 31, 2009 |access-date=2016-04-15}}</ref> Pad 39B was then planned to have the FSS and RSS removed in preparation for Ares I. However, in 2010, the Constellation program was cancelled.

=== SpaceX ===
{{Cleanup split|Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A#SpaceX|date=September 2020}}
{{Main|Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A#SpaceX}}
[[File:PAD 39A lease announcement.jpg|thumb|right|KSC Director [[Robert D. Cabana|Bob Cabana]] announces the signing of the pad 39A lease agreement on April 14, 2014. [[SpaceX]] COO [[Gwynne Shotwell]] stands nearby.]]
By early 2013, NASA publicly announced that it would allow commercial launch providers to lease LC-39A,<ref>[http://www.americaspace.com/?p=30313 "NASA not abandoning LC-39A" January 17, 2013], accessed February 7, 2013.</ref> and followed that, in May 2013, with a formal solicitation for proposals for [[private spaceflight|commercial use]] of the pad.<ref name=nsw20130520>[http://www.newspacewatch.com/articles/nasa-requests-proposals-for-commercial-use-of-pad-39a.html NASA requests proposals for commercial use of Pad 39A], ''NewSpace Watch'', May 20, 2013, accessed May 21, 2013.</ref>
There were two competing bids for the commercial use of the launch complex.<ref name=leasedoc>{{cite web|url=https://prod.nais.nasa.gov/eps/eps_data/159268-OTHER-001-001.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150511114338/https://prod.nais.nasa.gov/eps/eps_data/159268-OTHER-001-001.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=May 11, 2015|title=Selection Statement for Lease of Launch Complex 39A|date=December 12, 2013|publisher=NASA|access-date=December 23, 2013}}</ref> [[SpaceX]] submitted a bid for exclusive use of the launch complex, while [[Jeff Bezos]]' [[Blue Origin]] submitted a bid for shared non-exclusive use of the complex, so that the launchpad would handle multiple vehicles, and costs could be shared over the long-term. One potential shared user in the Blue Origin plan was [[United Launch Alliance]].<ref name=os20130818>
{{cite news |last=Matthews|first=Mark K. |title=Musk, Bezos fight to win lease of iconic NASA launchpad |url=https://www.orlandosentinel.com/2013/08/18/musk-bezos-fight-to-win-lease-of-iconic-nasa-launchpad/ |access-date=2013-08-21 |newspaper=Orlando Sentinel |date=2013-08-18 }}</ref> Prior to the end of the bid period, and prior to any public announcement by NASA of the results of the process, Blue Origin filed a protest with the [[Federal government of the United States|U.S.]] [[General Accounting Office]] (GAO) "over what it says is a plan by NASA to award an exclusive commercial lease to SpaceX for use of mothballed space shuttle launch pad 39A."<ref name=pa20130910/> NASA had planned to complete the bid award and have the pad transferred by October 1, 2013, but the protest "will delay any decision until the GAO reaches a decision, expected by mid-December."<ref name=pa20130910>{{cite news |last=Messier |first=Doug |title=Blue Origin Files Protest Over Lease on Pad 39A |url=http://www.parabolicarc.com/2013/09/09/49934/ |access-date=2013-09-11 |newspaper=Parabolic Arc |date=2013-09-10 |archive-date=September 25, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130925185437/http://www.parabolicarc.com/2013/09/09/49934/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> On December 12, 2013, the GAO denied the protest and sided with NASA, which argued that the solicitation contained no preference on the use of the facility as multi-use or single-use. "The [solicitation] document merely asks bidders to explain their reasons for selecting one approach instead of the other and how they would manage the facility."<ref name=pa20131212>{{cite news |last=Messier |first=Doug |title=Blue Origin Loses GAO Appeal Over Pad 39A Bid Process |url=http://www.parabolicarc.com/2013/12/12/blue-origin-loses-gao-appeal-pad-39a-bid-process/ |access-date=2013-12-13 |newspaper=Parabolic Arc |date=2013-12-12 |archive-date=December 16, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216130603/http://www.parabolicarc.com/2013/12/12/blue-origin-loses-gao-appeal-pad-39a-bid-process/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

On April 14, 2014, the privately owned launch service provider [[SpaceX]] signed a 20-year lease for Launch Complex 39A (LC-39A).<ref>{{cite web |last=Granath |first=Bob |title=NASA, SpaceX Sign Property Agreement for Historic Launch Pad |url=https://www.nasa.gov/content/nasa-spacex-sign-property-agreement-for-historic-launch-pad |date=April 22, 2014 |website=NASA |access-date=June 22, 2019 |archive-date=February 7, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180207070227/https://www.nasa.gov/content/nasa-spacex-sign-property-agreement-for-historic-launch-pad/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The pad was modified to support launches of both [[Falcon 9]] and [[Falcon Heavy]] launch vehicles, modifications that included the construction of a large [[Horizontal Integration Facility]] (HIF) similar to that used at existing SpaceX-leased facilities at [[Cape Canaveral Space Force Station]] and [[Vandenberg Air Force Base]], horizontal integration being markedly difference from the [[Vehicle Assembly Building|vertical integration]] process used to assemble NASA's Apollo and Space Shuttle vehicles at the launch complex. Additionally, new instrumentation and control systems were installed, and substantial new plumbing was added for a variety of rocket liquids and gases.<ref name=ft20140414>{{cite news |last=Dean|first=James |title=With nod to history, SpaceX gets launch pad 39A OK |url=http://www.floridatoday.com/story/tech/science/space/2014/04/15/nod-history-spacex-gets-ok/7721971/ |access-date=2014-04-15 |newspaper=Florida Today |date=2014-04-14 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=First Launch from LC-39A at Kennedy Since 2011 – SpaceX|url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacex/2017/02/19/first-launch-from-lc-39a-at-kennedy-since-2011/|access-date=2020-12-25|website=blogs.nasa.gov|date=February 19, 2017 |language=en-US}}</ref>

==== Modifications ====
In 2015, SpaceX built the Horizontal Integration Facility just outside the perimeter of the existing launch pad in order to house both the Falcon 9 and the Falcon Heavy rockets, and their associated hardware and payloads, during preparation for flight.<ref name=sfn20150225>{{cite news |last1=Clark |first1=Stephen |title=Falcon Heavy rocket hangar rises at launch pad 39A |url=http://spaceflightnow.com/2015/02/25/falcon-heavy-rocket-hangar-rises-at-pad-39a/ |access-date=28 February 2015 |work=Spaceflight Now |date=25 February 2015 }}</ref> Both types of launch vehicles will be transported from the HIF to the launch pad aboard a [[Transporter erector|Transporter Erector]] (TE) which will ride on rails up the former crawlerway path.<ref name=nsf20141117/><ref name=sfn20150225/> Also in 2015, the launch mount for the Falcon Heavy was constructed on Pad 39A over the existing infrastructure.<ref name=cs20140414/><ref>{{cite web |last1=Bergin |first1=Chris |title=Falcon Heavy into production as Pad 39A HIF rises out of the ground |url=http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2015/02/falcon-heavy-production-39a-hif-rises/ |publisher=NASASpaceFlight |access-date=19 February 2015 |date=18 February 2015}}</ref> The work on both the HIF building and the pad was substantially complete by late 2015.<ref name=nsf20151008>{{cite news |last1=Gebhardt|first1=Chris |title=Canaveral and KSC pads: New designs for space access |url=http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2015/10/canaveral-ksc-pads-new-designs-space-access/ |access-date=2015-10-11 |newspaper=NASASpaceFlight.com |date=2015-10-08 }}</ref> A rollout test of the new Transporter Erector was conducted in November 2015.<ref name=nsf20151109>{{cite news |last1=Bergin|first1=Chris |title=SpaceX conducts test rollout for 39A Transporter/Erector |url=http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2015/11/spacex-conducts-rollout-39a-te/ |access-date=11 November 2015 |work=NASASpaceFlight.com |date=2015-11-09}}</ref>

In February 2016, SpaceX indicated that they had "completed and activated Launch Complex 39A",<ref name=sn20160204/> but still had more work yet to do to support crewed flights. SpaceX originally planned to be ready to accomplish the first launch at pad 39A—of a Falcon Heavy—as early as 2015,<ref name=ft20140414/> as they had had architects and engineers working on the new design and modifications since 2013.<ref name=sfn20140415/><ref name=cs20140414>{{cite news |title=NASA signs over historic Launch Pad 39A to SpaceX |url=http://www.collectspace.com/news/news-041414a-launch-pad-39a-spacex.html |access-date=2014-04-15 |newspaper=collectSpace |date=2014-04-14 }}</ref> By late 2014, a preliminary date for a [[wet dress rehearsal]] of the Falcon Heavy was set for no earlier than July 1, 2015.<ref name=nsf20141117>{{cite news |last1=Bergin|first1=Chris |title=Pad 39A – SpaceX laying the groundwork for Falcon Heavy debut |url=http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2014/11/pad-39a-spacex-groundwork-falcon-heavy-debut/ |access-date=2014-11-17 |work=NASA Spaceflight |date=2014-11-18 }}</ref> Due to a failure in a June 2015 Falcon 9 launch, SpaceX had to delay launching the Falcon Heavy in order to focus on the Falcon 9's failure investigation and its return to flight.<ref>{{cite web|author=Clark, Stephen|title=First flight of Falcon Heavy delayed again |url=http://spaceflightnow.com/2015/07/21/first-flight-of-falcon-heavy-delayed-again/ |publisher=spaceflightnow.com|date=2015-07-21|access-date=2015-10-06}}</ref> In early 2016, considering the busy Falcon 9 launch manifest, it became unclear if the Falcon Heavy would be the first vehicle to launch from Pad 39A, or if one or more Falcon 9 missions would precede a Falcon Heavy launch.<ref name=sn20160204>{{cite news |last=Foust|first=Jeff |url=http://spacenews.com/spacex-seeks-to-accelerate-falcon-9-production-and-launch-rates-this-year/ |title=SpaceX seeks to accelerate Falcon 9 production and launch rates this year |work=[[SpaceNews]] |date=2014-02-04 |access-date=2016-02-06 }}</ref> In the following months, the Falcon Heavy launch was delayed multiple times and eventually pushed back to February 2018.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.investors.com/news/spacex-to-test-fire-falcon-heavy-ahead-of-maiden-flight-despite-zuma-questions/|title=SpaceX Performs Falcon Heavy Rocket Static Fire Test After Delays {{!}} Stock News & Stock Market Analysis - IBD|date=2018-01-24|work=Investor's Business Daily|access-date=2018-02-06|language=en-US}}</ref>

In 2018, SpaceX made further modifications to LC 39A to prepare it to accommodate it for the crew Dragon 2 mission. These modifications included installing a new crew access arm,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gebhardt|first=Chris|date=2018-08-17|title=SpaceX readies for installation of LC-39A Crew Access Arm, previews Crew Dragon|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2018/08/spacex-installation-lc-39a-caa-previews-crew-dragon/|access-date=2020-12-25|website=NASASpaceFlight.com|language=en-US}}</ref> refurbishing the emergency egress slidewire system, and raising it up to the level of the new arm.  The LC 39A fixed service structure was also repainted during this work.

In 2019, SpaceX began substantial modification to LC 39A in order to begin work on phase 1 of the construction to prepare the facility to launch [[test article (aerospace)|prototypes]] of the large {{cvt|9|m}}-diameter [[methalox]] reusable rocket—[[SpaceX Starship|Starship]]—from a launch stand, which would fly from 39A on suborbital test flight trajectories with six or fewer [[Raptor (rocket engine)|Raptor]] engines. However, these plans were later cancelled.

In 2021, SpaceX began construction of an orbital launch pad for Starship at 39A.<ref>{{Cite tweet |title=Construction of Starship orbital launch pad at the Cape has begun |number=1466797158737268743 |user=elonmusk|date=December 3, 2021|access-date=2023-02-13 |website=Twitter |language=en}}</ref> As of early 2023, the new launch pad is still undergoing construction and will accommodate launch operations for the fully stacked [[SpaceX Starship|Starship]] rocket. Starship will lift off under the power of 33 [[SpaceX Raptor|Raptor]] engines, with each engine producing 500,000 lbf of force each, or 16,500,000 lbf for the whole vehicle.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SpaceX |url=http://www.spacex.com/ |access-date=2023-02-14 |website=SpaceX |language=en}}</ref>

==== Launch history ====
The first SpaceX launch from pad 39A was [[SpaceX CRS-10]] on February 19, 2017, using a Falcon 9 launch vehicle; it was the company's 10th cargo resupply mission to the International Space Station,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.spacex.com/webcast|title=CRS-10 MISSION|last=spacexcmsadmin|date=2016-01-29|newspaper=SpaceX|access-date=2017-02-18|language=en}}</ref> and the first uncrewed launch from 39A since Skylab.[[File:NASA Artemis 1 Launch.jpg|thumb|Artemis I, the first launch of the SLS rocket]]While [[Cape Canaveral Space Launch Complex 40|Cape Canaveral's Space Launch Complex 40]] (SLC-40) was undergoing reconstruction after the loss of the [[AMOS-6]] satellite on September 1, 2016, all SpaceX's east coast launches were from Pad 39A until SLC-40 became operational again in December 2017. These included the May 1, 2017, launch of [[NROL]]-76, the first SpaceX mission for the [[National Reconnaissance Office]], with a classified payload.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2017/03/spacex-falcon-9-echostar-23-slc-40-return/ |title=SpaceX Static Fires Falcon 9 for EchoStar 23 launch as SLC-40 targets return |work=[[NASASpaceFlight.com]] |first=Chris |last=Bergin |date=March 9, 2017 |access-date=March 18, 2017}}</ref>

On February 6, 2018, Pad 39A hosted the successful liftoff of the Falcon Heavy on its [[Falcon Heavy Test Flight|maiden launch]], carrying [[Elon Musk]]'s [[Elon Musk's Tesla Roadster|Tesla Roadster]] car to space;<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://money.cnn.com/2018/02/06/technology/future/spacex-falcon-heavy-launch-mainbar/index.html|title=SpaceX launches Falcon Heavy, the world's most powerful rocket|last=Wattles|first=Jackie|work=CNNMoney|access-date=2018-02-06}}</ref> and the first flight of the human-rated spacecraft [[Crew Dragon]] (Dragon 2) took place there on March 2, 2019.

The second Falcon Heavy flight, carrying the [[Arabsat-6A]] communications satellite for Arabsat of Saudi Arabia, successfully launched on April 11, 2019. The satellite is to provide [[Ku band|K<sub>u</sub> band]] and [[Ka band|K<sub>a</sub> band]] communication services for the Middle East and northern Africa, as well as for South Africa. The launch was notable as it marked the first time that SpaceX was able to successfully soft-land all three of the [[SpaceX reusable launch system development program|reusable booster stages]], which will be refurbished for future launches.<ref name="launch schedule">{{Cite web|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/launch-schedule/|title=Launch Schedule – Spaceflight Now|website=Spaceflightnow.com|language=en-US|access-date=February 20, 2019}}</ref>

The [[SpaceX Demo-2]] − the first crewed test flight of the [[SpaceX Dragon 2|Crew Dragon "Endeavour"]] spacecraft, with astronauts [[Bob Behnken]] and [[Doug Hurley]] on board launched from Complex 39A on May 30, 2020 and docked to [[PMA-2|Pressurized Mating Adapter 2]] on the [[Harmony (ISS module)|Harmony module]] of the [[International Space Station|ISS]] on May 31, 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Upcoming Spaceflight Events |url=http://nextspaceflight.com/events/|website=nextspaceflight.com|access-date=1 May 2020}}</ref><ref name="M20-050">{{cite web|last1=Potter|first1=Sean|title=NASA to Host Preview Briefings for First Crew Launch with SpaceX|url=https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-to-host-preview-briefings-interviews-for-first-crew-launch-with-spacex|website=NASA|access-date=30 April 2020|date=20 April 2020}} {{PD-notice}}</ref>

=== Artemis program ===
On November 16, 2022, at 06:47:44 UTC the [[Space Launch System]] (SLS) was launched from Complex 39B as part of the [[Artemis I]] mission.<ref>{{Citation |title=Artemis I Launch to the Moon (Official NASA Broadcast) - Nov. 16, 2022 | date=November 16, 2022 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CMLD0Lp0JBg |language=en |access-date=2022-11-16}}</ref><ref name="nasa-20221108">{{cite web |url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/11/08/nasa-prepares-rocket-spacecraft-ahead-of-tropical-storm-nicole-re-targets-launch/ |title=NASA Prepares Rocket, Spacecraft Ahead of Tropical Storm Nicole, Re-targets Launch |work=[[NASA]] |date=8 November 2022 |access-date=8 November 2022}}</ref>

==Current status==
{{Kennedy Space Center map|highlight=1}}
===Launch Complex 39A===
{{Main|Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A#Current status}}
SpaceX has launched [[SpaceX launch vehicles|their launch vehicles]] from Launch Complex 39A and built a new hangar nearby.<ref name=leasedoc/><ref name=flortoda/><ref name=tss20140321>
{{cite AV media|people=Gwynne Shotwell |date=2014-03-21 |title=Broadcast 2212: Special Edition, interview with Gwynne Shotwell |medium=audio file |url=http://archived.thespaceshow.com/shows/2212-BWB-2014-03-21.mp3 |access-date=2014-03-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140322013556/http://archived.thespaceshow.com/shows/2212-BWB-2014-03-21.mp3 |archive-date=March 22, 2014 |format=mp3 |time=20:00–21:10 |publisher=The Space Show |id=2212 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

SpaceX assembles its launch vehicles horizontally in a hangar near the pad, and transports them horizontally to the pad before erecting the vehicle to vertical for the launch.<ref name=sfn20140415/> For [[United States Department of Defense|military]] missions from Pad 39A, [[payload]]s will be vertically integrated, as that is required per launch contract with the U.S. Space Force.<ref name=sfn20140415>{{cite news |last=Clark|first=Stephen |title=SpaceX's mega-rocket to debut next year at pad 39A |url=http://spaceflightnow.com/news/n1404/15pad39a/#.U06Y5VfTnhN|access-date=2014-04-16 |newspaper=SpaceflightNow |date=2014-04-15 }}</ref>

Pad 39A is used to host launches of astronauts on the [[Crew Dragon]] capsule in a [[public–private partnership]] with NASA. In August 2018, SpaceX's Crew Access Arm (CAA) was installed on a new level, which was built at the necessary height to enter the Crew Dragon spacecraft atop a Falcon 9 rocket.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2018/08/20/spacexs-astronaut-walkway-installed-on-florida-launch-pad/ |title=SpaceX's astronaut walkway installed on Florida launch pad |work=Spaceflight Now |first=Stephen |last=Clark |date=August 20, 2018 |access-date=August 22, 2018}}</ref>

In April 2024, [[Elon Musk]] announced that SpaceX would have a launch tower for the [[SpaceX Starship|Starship]] completed and operational by mid 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Foust |first=Jeff |date=2024-04-06 |title=Musk outlines plans to increase Starship launch rate and performance |url=https://spacenews.com/musk-outlines-plans-to-increase-starship-launch-rate-and-performance/ |access-date=2024-04-07 |website=SpaceNews |language=en-US}}</ref>

===Launch Complex 39B===
{{Main|Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39B#Current status}}
Since the Artemis I in 2022, Launch Complex 39B is used by NASA's [[Space Launch System]] rocket, a [[Shuttle-Derived Vehicle|Shuttle-derived launch vehicle]] which is used in the [[Artemis program]] and subsequent Moon to Mars campaigns. The pad has also been leased for use by NASA to aerospace company [[Northrop Grumman]], for use as a launch site for their Shuttle-derived [[OmegA]] launch vehicle, for [[National Security Space Launch]] flights and commercial launches, but the plans were cancelled.

===Launch Complex 39C===
Launch Complex 39C is a new facility for [[small-lift launch vehicle]]s. It was built in 2015 within the Launch Complex 39B perimeter. It was to serve as a multi-purpose site that allowed companies to test the vehicles and capabilities of the smaller class of rockets, making it more affordable for smaller companies to break into the commercial spaceflight market. However, its primary customer [[Rocket Lab]] opted to launch their [[Electron (rocket)|Electron]] rocket from [[Wallops Island]], instead. Several small-lift launch-vehicle companies also wanted to launch their rockets from a dedicated site at [[Cape Canaveral]] instead of 39C.<ref>{{cite web|first1=Chris|last1=Bergin|access-date=2020-09-13|title=OmegA Launch Tower to be demolished as KSC 39B fails to become a multi-user pad|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/09/omega-mlp-ksc-39b-multi-user-pad/|date=2020-09-11}}</ref>

==== Construction ====
Construction of the pad began in January 2015 and was completed in June 2015. [[Kennedy Space Center]] director [[Robert D. Cabana]] and representatives from the Ground Systems Development and Operations (GSDO) Program and the Center Planning and Development (CPD) and Engineering directorates marked the completion of the new pad during a ribbon-cutting ceremony on July 17, 2015. "As America's premier spaceport, we're always looking for new and innovative ways to meet America's launch needs, and one area that was missing was small class [[payloads]]", Cabana said.<ref name="lc39C">{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/feature/new-launch-pad-will-enable-smaller-companies-to-develop-and-launch-rockets-from-kennedy|title=New Launch Pad will Enable Smaller Companies to Develop and Launch Rockets from Kennedy|access-date=July 18, 2015|publisher=[[NASA]]|year=2015|author=NASA|author-link=NASA|archive-date=July 20, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150720023554/http://www.nasa.gov/feature/new-launch-pad-will-enable-smaller-companies-to-develop-and-launch-rockets-from-kennedy/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==== Capabilities ====
The concrete pad measures about {{convert|50|feet|m}} wide by about {{convert|100|feet|m}} long and could support the combined weight of a fueled [[launch vehicle]], [[payload]], and customer-provided launch mount up to about {{convert|132,000|lbs|kg}}, and an umbilical tower structure, fluid lines, cables, and umbilical arms weighing up to about {{convert|47,000|lbs|kg}}. There is a universal propellant servicing system to provide liquid oxygen and [[liquid methane]] fueling capabilities for a variety of small-class rockets.<ref name="lc39C" />

With the addition of Launch Complex 39C, KSC offered the following processing and launching features for companies working with small-class vehicles (maximum thrust up to {{convert|200,000|lbf|kN|abbr=on|disp=or}}):<ref name="lc39C-2" />
* Processing facilities – i.e. [[Vehicle Assembly Building]]
* Vehicle/payload transportation ([[KAMAG]], [[flatbed trucks]], tugs, etc.) from integration facility to pad
* Launch site
* Universal propellant servicing system (LOX, LCH4)
* [[Launch control center]]/mobile command center options.<ref name="lc39C-2">{{cite web|url=http://kscpartnerships.ksc.nasa.gov/Partnering-Opportunities/Capabilities-and-Testing/Physical-Assets/Launch-Complex-39C|title=Launch Complex 39C|access-date=July 18, 2015|publisher=[[NASA]]|year=2015|author=NASA|author-link=NASA|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150719190505/http://kscpartnerships.ksc.nasa.gov/Partnering-Opportunities/Capabilities-and-Testing/Physical-Assets/Launch-Complex-39C|archive-date=July 19, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==== Discontinued ====
In 2016 a decision was made not to use LC-39C. Because the site was within the perimeter of LC-39B, Artemis use of that pad would make LC-39C unavailable to users.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/12/kennedy-expands-complex-48-opens/ |title=Kennedy Space Center Expands as Launch Complex 48 Opens for Operations
|author=Anthony Iemole |date=December 22, 2020}}</ref>
==Future development==
{{update|section|date=March 2020}}
[[File:Future Land Use Map Stretched Final.png|thumb|324x324px|A map shows the current and proposed elements on KSC.]]
Previous Kennedy Space Center (KSC) Master Plan recommendations—in 1966, 1972, and 1977—noted that an expansion of KSC's vertical launch capacity could occur when the market demand existed. The 2007 Site Evaluation Study recommended an additional vertical launch pad, Launch Complex 49 (LC-49), to be sited north of existing LC-39B.
  
As part of the Environmental Impact Study (EIS) process, this proposed launch complex was consolidated from two pads (designated in the 1963 plans as 39C and 39D) to one that would provide greater separation from LC-39B. The area was expanded to accommodate a wider variety of launch azimuths, helping to protect against potential overflight concerns of LC-39B. This LC-49 launch facility could accommodate medium to large launch vehicles.<ref name=2007_KSCPlan>{{cite web |url=https://masterplan.ksc.nasa.gov/Future-State/Future-Land-Use/Vertical-Launch |title=Vertical Launch |publisher=NASA |access-date=4 June 2018 |archive-date=December 9, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191209061639/https://masterplan.ksc.nasa.gov/Future-State/Future-Land-Use/Vertical-Launch |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The 2007 Vertical Launch Site Evaluation Study concluded that a vertical launch pad could also be sited to the south of 39A, and to the north of pad 41, to accommodate small to medium launch vehicles. Designated as [[Launch Complex 48]] (LC-48), this area is best suited to accommodate small to medium class launch vehicles, due to its closer proximity to LC-39A and LC-41. Due to the nature of these activities, required [[Explosives safety|quantity-distance arcs]], launch hazard impact limit lines, other safety setbacks, and exposure limits will be specified for safe operations.<ref name=2007_KSCPlan/> Details of the proposed launch pads were published in the Kennedy Space Center Master Plan in 2012.

The Master Plan also notes a proposed New Vertical Launchpad northwest of LC-39B and a Horizontal Launch Area north of the LC-49 and converting the Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF) and its apron areas into a second Horizontal Launch Area.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://masterplan.ksc.nasa.gov/-/media/Master%20Plan/Future%20Land%20Use%20Map%20Stretched_Final.ashx|title=Kennedy Space Center Master Plan Map by Nasa|date=August 1, 2017|website=masterplan.ksc.nasa.gov|access-date=August 19, 2018|archive-date=August 3, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803085002/https://masterplan.ksc.nasa.gov/-/media/Master%20Plan/Future%20Land%20Use%20Map%20Stretched_Final.ashx|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="2007_KSCPlan" />

[[Space Florida]] has proposed that Launch Complex 48 be developed for use by Boeing's [[XS-1 (spacecraft)|Phantom Express]] and that three landing pads be built for reusable booster systems, to provide more landing options for SpaceX's [[Falcon 9]] and [[Falcon Heavy]], Blue Origin's [[New Glenn]], and other potential reusable vehicles.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://eu.floridatoday.com/story/tech/science/space/2018/08/05/space-florida-proposes-launch-landing-pads-ksc/896648002/|title=Space Florida proposes launch landing pads at KSC|last=Dean|first=James|date=August 5, 2018|work=Florida Today|access-date=August 19, 2018}}</ref> The pads would be located east of the Horizontal Launch Area and north of LC-39B<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://masterplan.ksc.nasa.gov/Future-State/Future-Land-Use/Vertical-Landing|title=Vertical Landing|last=Holton|first=Tammy|date=May 22, 2017|website=masterplan.ksc.nasa.gov|access-date=August 19, 2018|archive-date=December 9, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191209063318/https://masterplan.ksc.nasa.gov/Future-State/Future-Land-Use/Vertical-Landing|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In August 2019, SpaceX submitted an Environmental Assessment for [[SpaceX Starship|Starship]] launch system at Kennedy Space Center.<ref>{{cite web |title=Draft Environmental Assessment for the SpaceX Starship and Super Heavy Launch Vehicle at Kennedy Space Center (KSC) |url=https://netspublic.grc.nasa.gov/main/20190801_Final_DRAFT_EA_SpaceX_Starship.pdf |website=NASA Public NEPA Documents |publisher=SpaceX |access-date=20 September 2019}}</ref> This document included plans for the construction of additional structures at LC-39A to support Starship launches, including a dedicated pad, liquid methane tanks, and a Landing Zone.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ralph |first1=Eric |title=SpaceX prepares to break ground on Starship launch facilities at Pad 39A |url=https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-breaks-ground-starship-super-heavy-florida-launch-pad/ |website=TESLARATI |access-date=20 September 2019 |date=18 September 2019}}</ref>  These are separate from the existing structures that support Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy launches.

== Launch statistics ==

=== LC-39A ===
{{#section-h:Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A|Launch statistics}}<!--Edit the section "Statistics" under "Launch history" at [[Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A]] instead, it will update here-->

=== LC-39B ===
{{#section-h:Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39B|Launch statistics}}<!-- Edit the section "Statistics" under "Launch history" at [[Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39B]] instead, it will update here-->

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
File:Space shuttles Atlantis (STS-125) and Endeavour (STS-400) on launch pads again.jpg|Space Shuttles ''Atlantis'' and ''Endeavour'' are placed at LC-39A and LC-39B in preparation for the [[STS-125|final service mission]] to the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] (May 2009). ''Endeavour'' was ready for a [[STS-400|contingency mission]] in case of trouble with ''Atlantis''.
File:NASA LC39B deconstruction.jpg|Removal of the top floor of the fixed service structure on LC-39B (March 2011).
File:Liquid hydrogen storage tank at Launch Pad 39B.jpg|Storage tank for liquid hydrogen fuel located just to the Northeast of Kennedy Space Center's SLS launch pad 39B.
File:Sls block1 on-pad sunrisesmall.jpg|Artist's rendering of the Space Launch System Block 1 sitting on LC-39B with the Orion spacecraft at sunrise.
File:Artemis 1 First Rollout (KSC-20220318-PH-KLS03 0061).jpg|The first Space Launch System rocket on LC-39B for Artemis I.
</gallery>

== See also ==
{{portal|Rocketry|Spaceflight}}
* {{annotated link|List of Cape Canaveral and Merritt Island launch sites}}
*[[Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A]]
*[[Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39B]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{NASA|article=Launch Pad 39C|url=https://kscpartnerships.ksc.nasa.gov/Partnering-Opportunities/Capabilities-and-Testing/Physical-Assets/Launch-Pad-39C}}

== External links ==
*{{Commons category-inline|Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39}}
* [http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/facilities/tour.html KSC page on Launch Complex 39 Facilities] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180619200241/https://science.ksc.nasa.gov/facilities/tour.html |date=June 19, 2018 }}
* {{cite web | url = http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/main/Constellationfacilities.html | title = Kennedy Prepares to Host Constellation | publisher = NASA | date = 2007-09-28 | access-date = October 14, 2007 | archive-date = January 25, 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210125011203/https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/main/Constellationfacilities.html | url-status = dead }}-
* {{HAER |survey=FL-4 |id=fl0302 |title=Mobile Launcher One, Kennedy Space Center, Titusville vicinity, Brevard County, FL}}
* {{HAER |survey=FL-8-11-A |id=fl0694 |title=Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Launch Complex 39, Launch Control Center, LCC Road, East of Kennedy Parkway North, Cape Canaveral, Brevard County, FL |link=no}}

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