View source for Kemalism

{{Short description|Founding ideology of the Republic of Turkey; Atatürkism}}
{{POV|date=September 2023|talk=pov tag}}
{{not to be confused|Camilism}}
[[File:Flag of CHF.jpg|thumb|261x261px|[[The Six Arrows]] flag inspired by the Turkish arrows in [[Topkapı Palace]]<ref>"[https://www.wikilala.com/gazeteler/cumhuriyet-gazetesi-19-10-1933-152569? C. H. F.nın bayrağı ve büyük bayram]", ''[[Cumhuriyet]]'', 19 October 1933</ref>]]
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{{Progressivism sidebar}}
'''Kemalism''' ({{langx|tr|Kemalizm}}, also archaically ''Kamâlizm'')<ref>''[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kam%C3%A2lizm.pdf Kamâlizm]'' (1936) by [[Mehmet Şeref Aykut]]</ref> or '''Atatürkism''' ({{langx|tr|Atatürkçülük|label=none}}) is a political ideology based on the ideas of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], the founder and first president of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]].<ref name="EricPage181">Eric J. Zurcher, Turkey: A Modern History. New York, J.B. Tauris & Co ltd. page 181</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yazıcı |first=Berna |date=October 2001 |title="Discovering Our Past": Are "We" Breaking Taboos? Reconstructing Atatürkism and the Past in Contemporary Turkey |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/new-perspectives-on-turkey/article/abs/discovering-our-past-are-we-breaking-taboos-reconstructing-ataturkism-and-the-past-in-contemporary-turkey/16F1514F8428A2A2419FE0E5B30E38A5 |journal=New Perspectives on Turkey |language=en |volume=25 |pages=1–30 |doi=10.1017/S0896634600003587 |issn=0896-6346|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Its symbol is [[the Six Arrows]] ({{langx|tr|Altı Ok|label=none}}).

Atatürk's Turkey was defined by sweeping political, social, cultural, and religious reforms designed to separate the Republican state from its [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] predecessor and embrace a [[Western world|Western]] lifestyle,<ref name="cleveland13">Cleveland, William L., and Martin P. Bunton. ''A History of the Modern Middle East''. Boulder: Westview, 2013.</ref> including the establishment of [[Secularism in Turkey|secularism/laicism]], state support of the sciences, [[gender equality]], [[statism|economic statism]] and more. Most of those policies were first introduced to and implemented in Turkey during Atatürk's presidency through [[Atatürk's reforms|his reforms]].

==Origins==
{{Section citations needed|date=January 2024}}

Various reforms to avoid the imminent [[Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire|collapse of the Empire]], began chiefly in the 19th-century [[Tanzimat]] reforms.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cleveland |first1=William L |first2=Martin |last2=Bunton |title=A History of the Modern Middle East |edition=4th |publisher=Westview Press |year=2009 |pages=82}}</ref> The mid-century [[Young Ottomans]] attempted to create the ideology of Ottoman nationalism, or [[Ottomanism]], to quell the [[Rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire|rising ethnic nationalism]] in the Empire and introduce limited democracy for the first time while maintaining Islamist influences. With their demise under Sultan [[Abdul Hamid II]]'s absolutist reign, in the early 20th century the [[Young Turks]] picked up their legacy. Atatürk's formative years were spent in Hamidian [[Salonica]]. During his time in the army, he joined the [[Committee of Union and Progress]], which was agitating for constitutionalism against Hamidian absolutism, and abandoned Ottoman nationalism in favor of [[Turkish nationalism]], while adopting a secular political outlook (see [[İttihadism]]).

Atatürk was not in a position to play a major role in the [[Young Turk Revolution]] of 1908, which reinstated the constitution, though he was a key player in the deposition of Abdul Hamid during the [[31 March incident|31 March Incident]]. During the [[Second Constitutional Era]] personal rivalries with [[İsmail Enver]] and [[Ahmed Cemal]] meant that he was kept at arms-length from power: the [[Central Committee of the CUP]]. It also didn't help that Atatürk mostly disagreed with the policies of the radical Unionists. However this allowed him to observe the CUP's successes and shortcomings in implementing their programs. During [[World War I]], his military career took off with his [[Gallipoli campaign|defense of Gallipoli]], and by the war's end he was a [[Pasha]] in charge of three army commands on the [[Sinai and Palestine campaign|Syrian Front]].

Following the Ottoman Empire's defeat -and the CUP's self-liquidation- by the war's end, Atatürk lead a military campaign against the Allies' planned partition of Anatolia and Eastern Thrace known as the [[Turkish War of Independence]]. This conflict being simultaneously a revolution, by 1923 his counter government based in [[Ankara government|Ankara]] [[Abolition of the Ottoman sultanate|abolished the Ottoman monarchy]] and proclaimed a [[Turkey|Republic]]. In Atatürk's 15 years as president, many [[Atatürk's reforms|sweeping reforms]] were introduced that advanced a [[Secular humanism|secular]], [[Republicanism|republican]], and [[Unitary state|unitary]] agenda for the Republic of Turkey.<ref name="mango164">{{cite book |last=Mango |first=Andrew |author-link= Andrew Mango |title=Atatürk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey |publisher=[[The Overlook Press]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-58567-334-6 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=nu68vd_AmuYC |page=164}}</ref> His doctrine was implanted into the Constitution as [[Ideology|state ideology]] in 1937.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Webster |first=Donald Everett |title=The Turkey of Atatürk; Social Process in the Turkish Reformation |year=1973 |publisher=AMS Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-404-56333-2 |page=245}}</ref>

==Principles==
Atatürk refrained from being dogmatic and described his ideology to be based on science and reason.<ref name="Giritli">{{langx|tr|"Ben, manevî miras olarak hiçbir nass-ı katı, hiçbir dogma, hiçbir donmuş ve kalıplaşmış kural bırakmıyorum. Benim manevî mirasım, ilim ve akıldır."}} İsmet Giritli, Kemalist Devrim ve İdeolojisi, İstanbul, 1980</ref>

There are six principles (''ilke'') of the ideology: [[Republicanism]] ({{langx|tr|cumhuriyetçilik|label=none}}), [[Populism]] ({{langx|tr|halkçılık|label=none}}), [[Nationalism]] ({{langx|tr|milliyetçilik|label=none}}), [[Laicism]] ({{langx|tr|laiklik|label=none}}), [[Statism]] ({{langx|tr|devletçilik|label=none}}), and [[Reform movement|Reformism]] ({{langx|tr|inkılapçılık|label=none}}). Together, they represent a kind of [[Jacobin (politics)|Jacobinism]], defined by Atatürk himself as a method of employing political despotism to break down the social despotism prevalent among the traditionally-minded Turkish-Muslim population, caused by, he believed, the bigotry of the ''[[Ulama|ulema]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t236/e0440|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100615235215/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t236/e0440|url-status=dead|archive-date=June 15, 2010|title=Kemalism - Oxford Islamic Studies Online|website=www.oxfordislamicstudies.com|access-date=2019-05-01}}</ref>

===Republicanism===
{{republicanism sidebar}}
[[Republicanism]] ({{langx|tr|cumhuriyetçilik|label=none}}) in the Kemalist framework replaced the [[monarchy]] of the [[Ottoman dynasty]] with the [[rule of law]], [[popular sovereignty]] and [[civic virtue]], including an emphasis on liberty practiced by citizens. Kemalist republicanism defines a type of constitutional republic, in which representatives of the people are elected, and must govern in accordance with existing constitutional law limiting governmental power over citizens. The head of state and other officials are chosen by election rather than inheriting their positions, and their decisions are subject to judicial review. In defending the change from the Ottoman State, Kemalism asserts that all laws of the Republic of Turkey should be inspired by actual needs here on Earth as a basic tenet of national life.<ref>Mustafa Kemal as quoted in "A World View of Criminal Justice (2005)" by Richard K. Vogler, p. 116</ref> Kemalism advocates a republican system as the best representative of the wishes of the people.

Among the many types of [[republic]], the Kemalist republic consist<ref>{{Cite book |last=Soyak |first=Hasan Rıza |title=Atatürk'ten Hatıralar |pages=58 |language=tr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=İlhan |first=Atilla |title=Hangi Atatürk |pages=111 |language=tr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kili |first=Suna |title=Türk Devrim Tarihi |pages=240 |language=tr}}</ref> of a parliament chosen in general elections, a [[President (government title)|president]] as head of state elected by parliament and serving for a limited term, a [[prime minister]] appointed by the president, and other ministers appointed by parliament. The president does not have direct executive powers, but has limited veto powers, and the right to contest with referendum. The day-to-day operation of government is the responsibility of the Council of Ministers formed by the prime minister and the other ministers. There is a [[separation of powers]] between the executive (president and Council of Ministers), the legislative (Parliament) and the judiciary, in which no one branch of government has authority over another—although parliament is charged with the supervision of the Council of Ministers, which can be compelled to resign by a vote of no-confidence.

The Kemalist republic is a [[unitary state]] in which three [[Separation of powers|organs of state]] govern the nation as a single unit, with one [[constitution]]ally created [[legislature]]. On some issues, the [[Power (social and political)|political power]] of [[government]] is transferred to lower levels, to local elected assemblies represented by mayors, but the [[central government]] retains the principal governing role.

===Populism===
{{Populism sidebar|expanded=Related}}
{{multiple image
| align             = right
| direction         = vertical
| header            = Dimensions of populism
| width             = 150
| image1            = GNAT speakers.jpg
| caption1          = "[[Sovereignty unconditionally belongs to the People|Sovereignty belongs, without any restrictions or conditions, to the nation]]" embossed behind the speaker's seat at the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|GNA]]
| image2            = Nicosia 01-2017 img17 View from Shacolas Tower.jpg
| caption2          = The motto, "[[How happy is the one who says I am a Turk|Ne mutlu Türküm diyene]]", embossed on the [[Kyrenia Mountains]] in [[Northern Cyprus]]
}}

[[Populism]] ({{langx|tr|halkçılık|label=none}}) is defined as a social revolution aimed to transfer the political power to [[citizenship]]. Kemalist populism intends not only to establish [[popular sovereignty]] but also the transfer of the social-economic transformation{{clarify|date=May 2021}} to realize a true populist state. However, Kemalists reject [[class conflict]] and [[Collective farming|collectivism]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Medeni Bilgiler (Örgün Yayınları)|publisher=Afet İnan|year=1930s|pages=212}}</ref> Kemalist populism believes [[national identity]] is above all else. Kemalist populism envisions a sociality that emphasizes [[class collaboration]] and national unity like [[Solidarity|solidarism]]. Populism in Turkey is to create a unifying force that brings a sense of the Turkish state and the power of the people to bring in that new unity.<ref name="jstor.org">Kili, Suna. “Kemalism in Contemporary Turkey.” International Political Science Review, vol. 1, no. 3, 1980, pp. 381–404. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/1601123.</ref>

Kemalist populism is an extension of the Kemalist modernization movement, aiming to make Islam compatible with the modern nation-state. This included state supervision of religious schools and organizations. Mustafa Kemal himself said "everyone needs a place to learn religion and faith; that place is a ''[[Wiktionary:mektep#Turkish|mektep]]'', not a ''[[madrasa]].''" This was intended to combat the "corruption" of Islam by the ''ulema''. Kemal believed that during the Ottoman period, the ''ulema'' had come to exploit the power of their office and manipulate religious practices to their own benefit. It was also feared that, were education not brought under state control, unsupervised ''madrasa''s could exacerbate the rising problem of ''[[tariqa|tarikat]]'' insularity that threatened to undermine the unity of the Turkish state.<ref name="AKMAK, DİREN 2009, pp. 825">Çakmak, Dıren. “Pro-Islamic Public Education in Turkey: The Imam-Hatip Schools.” Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 45, no. 5, 2009, pp. 825–846. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/40647155.</ref>

====Sovereignty====
Kemalist social theory (populism) does not accept any adjectives placed before the definition of a nation [a nation of ...] Sovereignty must belong solely to people without any term, condition, etc.:

{{Blockquote|''Ḥâkimiyet bilâ ḳaydü şarṭ Milletiñdir''

''Egemenlik kayıtsız şartsız Milletindir''

[[Sovereignty unconditionally belongs to the Nation|Sovereignty belongs to the nation unrestrictedly and unconditionally]]<ref>{{Cite web |author=Embassy of the Republic of Turkey, Washington, D.C. |url=http://www.turkishembassy.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=188&Itemid=165 |title=Constitution and Foundations of the State System |access-date=2008-02-20 |publisher=T.C. Government |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070115010917/http://www.turkishembassy.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=188&Itemid=165 |archive-date=January 15, 2007 }}</ref>|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk}}

====Motto====
Populism was used against the political domination of sheikhs, tribal leaders, and the [[Islamic state|Islamic political system]] of the Ottoman Empire.

Atatürk's nationalism aimed to shift the political legitimacy from royal autocracy (by the [[Ottoman dynasty]]), [[theocracy]] (based in the [[Ottoman Caliphate|Ottoman caliphate]]), and [[feudalism]] (tribal leaders) to the active participation of its citizenry, the Turks. Kemalist social theory wanted to establish the value of Turkish citizenship. A sense of pride associated with this citizenship would give the needed psychological spur for people to work harder and achieve a sense of unity and national identity. Active participation, or the "will of the people", was established with the republican regime and Turkishness replacing the other forms of affiliations that had been promoted in the Ottoman Empire (such as the allegiance to the different millets that eventually led to divisiveness in the empire). The motto "[[How happy is the one who says I am a Turk|Ne mutlu Türküm diyene]]" (English: How happy is the one who calls themselves a Turk) was promoted against such mottoes as "long live the Sultan," "long live the Sheikh", or "long live the Caliph."

===Laicism===
{{Main|Secularism in Turkey|Islam in Turkey}}
{{See also|Freedom of religion in Turkey}}
[[File:Atatürk CHP'nin 4. Kurultay'ında (9 Mayıs 1935).jpg|thumb|200px|[[Atatürk's Main Principles|Atatürk's Six Main Principles]] symbolized by the Six Arrows]]

[[Laicism]] ({{langx|tr|laiklik|label=none}}) in Kemalist ideology aims to banish religious interference in government affairs, and vice versa. It differs from the passive Anglo-American concept of [[secularism]],<ref name="Kösebalaban2011">{{cite book |last=Kösebalaban |first=Hasan |title=Turkish Foreign Policy: Islam, Nationalism, and Globalization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3dnGAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA9 |date=12 April 2011 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-11869-0 |page=9}}</ref> but is similar to the concept of [[Secularism in France|laïcité]] in France.

The roots of Kemalist secularism lie in the reform efforts in the late Ottoman Empire, especially the [[Tanzimat]] period and the later [[Second Constitutional Era]]. The Ottoman Empire was an [[Islamic state]] in which the head of the Ottoman state held the position of the Caliph. The social system was organized according to various systems, including the religiously organized [[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|Millet system]] and [[Sharia|Shari'ah law]], allowing religious ideology to be incorporated into the Ottoman administrative, economic, and political system. In the Second Constitutional Era, the [[General Assembly of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Parliament]] pursued largely secular policies, although techniques of religious populism and attacks on other candidates' piety still occurred between [[List of political parties in the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman political parties]] during [[Elections in the Ottoman Empire|elections]]. These policies were stated as the reason for the [[31 March Incident]] by Islamists and absolute monarchists. The secular policies of the Ottoman parliament also factored in the [[Arab Revolt]] during World War I.

When secularism was implemented in the fledgling Turkish state, it was initiated by the abolition of the centuries-old [[caliphate]] in March 1924. The office of [[Shaykh al-Islām]] was replaced with the [[Directorate of Religious Affairs|Presidency of Religious Affairs]] ({{langx|tr|Diyanet|label=none}}). In 1926, the ''[[Mecelle|mejelle]]'' and shari'ah law codes were abandoned in favor of an adapted [[Swiss Civil Code]] and a penal code modeled on the German and Italian codes. Other religious practices were done away with, resulting in the dissolution of [[Sufism|Sufi]] orders and the penalization of wearing a [[Fez (hat)|fez]], which was viewed by Atatürk as a tie to the Ottoman past.<ref name=cleveland13/>

====State and religion (laïcité)====
Atatürk was profoundly influenced by the triumph of ''[[Secularism in France|laïcité]]'' in France.<ref name=page153>{{cite book |authorlink=M. Şükrü Hanioğlu|last=Hanioglu |first=Sükrü |title=Ataturk: An Intellectual Biography |year=2011 |publisher=Princeton University Press |page=153}}</ref> Atatürk perceived the French model as the authentic form of secularism. Kemalism strove to control religion and transform it into a private affair rather than an institution interfering with politics, as well as scientific and social progress.<ref name=page153/> It is more than merely creating a separation between state and religion. Atatürk has been described as working as if he were [[Leo III the Isaurian|Leo the Isaurian]], [[Martin Luther]], the [[Baron d'Holbach]], [[Ludwig Büchner]], [[Émile Combes]], and [[Jules Ferry]] rolled into one in creating Kemalist secularism.<ref name=page153/> Kemalist secularism does not imply nor advocate [[agnosticism]] or [[nihilism]]; it means freedom of thought and independence of the institutions of the state from the dominance of religious thought and religious institutions. The Kemalist principle of laicism is not against moderate and apolitical religion, but against religious forces opposed to and fighting modernization and democracy.

According to the Kemalist perception, the Turkish state is to stand at an equal distance from every religion, neither promoting nor condemning any set of religious beliefs. Kemalists, however, have called for not only separation of church and state but also a call for the state control of the Turkish Muslim religious establishment{{fact|date=November 2022}}. For some Kemalists{{who|date=November 2022}}, this means that the state must be at the helm of religious affairs, and all religious activities are under the supervision of the state. This, in turn, drew criticism from the religious conservatives. Religious conservatives were vocal in rejecting this idea, saying that to have a secular state, the state can't control the activities of religious institutions. Despite their protest, this policy was officially adopted by the [[Turkish Constitution of 1961|1961 constitution]].<ref name="jstor.org"/>

Kemalist policies aimed to stamp out the religious element within society. After the end of the [[Turkish War of Independence]], all education was under the control of the state in both secular and religious schools. It centralized the education system, with one curriculum in both religious and secular public schools, in the hope this would eliminate or lessen the appeal of religious schools. The laws were meant to abolish the [[Sufism|Sufi]] religious schools or orders ''([[Tariqa|tarikats]])'' and their lodges ''([[khanqah|tekke]]s)''. Titles like ''[[sheikh]]'' and ''[[dervish]]'' were abolished, and their activities were banned by the government. The day of rest was changed by the government from Friday to Sunday. But the restrictions on personal choice extended to both religious duty and naming. Turks had to adopt a surname and were not allowed to perform the [[hajj]] (pilgrimage to [[Mecca]]).<ref name="jstor.org"/><ref name="AKMAK, DİREN 2009, pp. 825"/>

====Politics and religion (secularism)====
The Kemalist form of [[Separation of church and state#Turkey|separation of state and religion]] sought the reform of a complete set of institutions, interest groups (such as [[List of political parties in Turkey|political parties]], unions, and lobbies), the relationships between those institutions, and the political norms and rules that governed their functions (constitution, election law). The biggest change in this perspective was the abolishment of the [[Ottoman Caliphate|Ottoman caliphate]] on March 3, 1924, followed by the removal of its political mechanisms. The article stating that "the established religion of Turkey is Islam" was removed from the constitution on April 10, 1928.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.atam.gov.tr/index.php?Page=DergiIcerik&IcerikNo=560 |title=Atatürk ve Laiklik |access-date=2017-07-28 |publisher=Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi Dergisi, Issue: 24, Volume: VIII}}</ref>

From a political perspective, Kemalism is anti-clerical, in that it seeks to prevent religious influence on the democratic process, which was a problem even in the largely secular politics of the [[Second Constitutional Era]] of the Ottoman Empire, when even non-religiously affiliated political parties like the [[Committee of Union and Progress]] and the [[Freedom and Accord Party]] feuded over matters such as the Islamic piety of their candidates in the [[1912 Ottoman general election|Ottoman elections of 1912]].<ref name=HK>Hasan Kayalı (1995) [http://psi203.cankaya.edu.tr/uploads/files/Kayali,%20Elections%20in%20the%20Ott%20Empire%20(1995).pdf "Elections and the Electoral Process in the Ottoman Empire, 1876-1919"] ''International Journal of Middle East Studies'', Vol. 27, No. 3, pp 273–274. "The prominent leaders of the Entente [Freedom and Accord Party] were Turkish-speaking and no different from the Unionists as far as their basic attitudes toward Islam were concerned. Nevertheless, they sought to frustrate the CUP by encouraging non-Turkish groups to attack it for pursuing a policy of Turkification and by pointing out to the conservatives its alleged disregard for Islamic principles and values. The overall effect of this propaganda was to instill ethnic and sectarian-religious discord, which survived the Entente's defeat at the polls ... The Unionists proved to be less vulnerable to accusations of disregard for Islamic precepts and values. Some of the Entente members were known for their cosmopolitan attitudes and close relations with foreign interests. But this did not keep the Entente from accusing the CUP of violating Islamic principles and attempting to restrict the prerogatives of the sultan-caliph in its pamphlets. One such pamphlet, ''Afiksoz'' (Candid Words), appealed to the religious-national sentiments of Arabs and claimed that Zionist intrigue was responsible for the abandonment of [[Libya]] to the Italians. Such propaganda forced the CUP to seize the role of the champion of Islam. After all, the secular integrationist Ottomanism that it had preached was failing, and the latest manifestation of this failure was the Entente's appeal to segments of Christian communities. The Unionists used Islamic symbols effectively in their election propaganda in 1912. They accused the Entente of trying to separate the offices of the caliphate and the sultanate and thus weakening Islam and the Muslims. There seemed no end to the capital to be gained from the exploitation and manipulation of religious rhetoric. In Izmir, the Entente attacked the CUP's intention to amend Article 35 of the constitution by arguing that the Unionists were thus denouncing the "thirty" days of fasting and "five" daily prayers. This led the town's mufti to plead that "for the sake of Islam and the welfare of the country" religion not be used to achieve political objectives. As with the rhetoric on Turkification, Islam too remained in political discourse long after the elections were over."</ref> Thus, in the Kemalist political perspective, politicians cannot claim to be the protector of any religion or religious sect, and such claims constitute sufficient legal grounds for the permanent banning of political parties.

====Insignia====
The Ottoman social system was based on religious affiliation. Religious insignia extended to every social function. Clothing identified citizens with their own particular religious grouping; headgear distinguished rank and profession. [[Turban]]s, [[Fez (hat)|fez]]es, [[Bonnet (headgear)|bonnet]]s, and head-dresses denoted the sex, rank, and profession — both civil and military — of the wearer. Religious insignia outside of worship areas became banned.

While Atatürk considered women's religious coverings as antithetical to progress and equality, he also recognized that headscarves were not such a danger to the separation of church and state to warrant an outright ban.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.law.harvard.edu/students/orgs/jlg/vol332/661-686.pdf|title=Politics of the Headscarf in Turkey: Masculinities, Feminism, and the Construction of Collective Identities|first=Valorie K.|last=Vojdik|journal=Harvard Journal of Law & Gender|volume= 33|pages=661–686|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120416012819/http://www.law.harvard.edu/students/orgs/jlg/vol332/661-686.pdf|archive-date=16 April 2012}}</ref> But the Constitution was amended in 1982, following the 1980 coup by the Kemalist-leaning military, to prohibit women's use of Islamic coverings such as the ''[[hijab]]'' at higher education institutions.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Journal of Political Inquiry |url=http://www.jpinyu.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/roots-of-the-headscarf-debate-laicism-and-secularism-in-france-and-turkey.pdf |title=Roots of the Headscarf Debate: Laicism and Secularism in France and Turkey |first=Gulce |last=Tarhan |year=2011 |issue=4 |pages=1–32 |access-date=2014-10-04 }}</ref> [[Joost Lagendijk]], a [[member of the European Parliament]] and chair of the Joint Parliamentary Committee with Turkey, has publicly criticized these [[dress code|clothing restrictions]] for Muslim women,<ref>Lagendijk, Joost (2006-03-22). [http://arsiv.sabah.com.tr/2006/03/22/siy113.html Başörtüsü yasağı savunulamaz]. ''Sabah''.</ref> whereas the [[European Court of Human Rights]] has ruled in numerous cases that such restrictions in public buildings and educational institutions do not constitute a violation of human rights.<ref>[http://www.todayszaman.com/tz-web/detaylar.do?load=detay&link=9958 ECHR Rules for Turkish Headscarf Ban] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090604102452/http://www.todayszaman.com/tz-web/detaylar.do?load=detay&link=9958 |date=2009-06-04 }}: The European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) ruled in favor of Turkey's policy of banning headscarves at universities. (Today's Zaman, 30 June 2004)</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20131226050047/http://www.turkishweekly.net/news.php?id=40196 ECHR Insists on Headscarf Ban], [[Journal of Turkish Weekly]], 2006-10-17</ref>

===Reformism===
[[Reform movement|Reformism]] ({{langx|tr|inkılapçılık}}) is a principle which calls for the country to replace the traditional institutions and concepts with modern institutions and concepts. This principle advocated the need for fundamental social change through [[reform]] as a strategy to achieve a modern society. The core of the reform, in the Kemalist sense, was an accomplished fact.<ref name="durkiem">{{Cite book |last=Hamilton |first=Peter |title=Emile Durkheim: Critical Assessments |year=1995 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-415-11046-7 |page=69}}</ref> In a Kemalist sense, there is no possibility of return to the old systems because they were deemed backward.

The principle of reformism went beyond the recognition of the reforms made during Atatürk's lifetime. Atatürk's reforms in the social and political spheres are accepted as irreversible. Atatürk never entertained the possibility of a pause or transition phase during the course of the progressive unfolding or implementation of the reform. The current understanding of this concept can be described as "active modification".<ref name="durkiem" /> Turkey and its society, taking over institutions from Western Europe, must add Turkish traits and patterns to them and adapt them to Turkish culture, according to Kemalism.<ref name="durkiem" /> The implementation of the Turkish traits and patterns of these reforms takes generations of cultural and social experience, which results in the collective memory of the Turkish nation.{{citation needed|date=May 2021}}

===Nationalism===
{{Nationalism sidebar}}
[[File:Aksam 1935 tesrinievvel 29.pdf|thumb|200px|On 29 October 1935, the 12th anniversary of the proclamation of the republic, the daily ''[[Akşam]]'' featured three Turkish nationalist symbolisms on its front page: The [[Grey wolf (mythology)|Grey Wolf]], the [[Star and crescent|Crescent and Star]], and the [[Six Arrows]].]]
[[Nationalism]] ({{langx|tr|milliyetçilik}}): The Kemalist revolution aimed to create a [[nation state]] from the remnants of the multi-religious and multi-ethnic Ottoman Empire. Atatürk's nationalism originates from the [[social contract]] theories, especially from the [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] principles advocated by [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] and his [[The Social Contract|Social Contract]]. The Kemalist perception of social contract was facilitated by the [[dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]], which was perceived as a product of failure of the Ottoman "[[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|''Millet'']]" system and the ineffective [[Ottomanism]] policy. Atatürk's nationalism, after experiencing the Ottoman Empire's breakup, defined the social contract as its "highest ideal".

{{Blockquote|In the administration and defense of the Turkish Nation; national unity, national awareness and national culture are the highest ideals that we fix our eyes upon.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Forces |first=Republic Of Turkey Turkish Armed |url=http://www.tsk.mil.tr/eng/Anitkabir/milli.html |title=Ataturks Principles |access-date=2008-02-20 |publisher=T.C. Government }}{{dead link|date=May 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk}}

Kemalist ideology defines the "Turkish Nation" ({{langx|tr|Türk Ulusu|label=none}}) as a nation of [[Turkish people]] who always love and seek to exalt their family, country and nation, who know their duties and responsibilities towards the democratic, secular and social state governed by the rule of law, founded on [[human rights]], and on the tenets laid down in the preamble to the constitution of the Republic of Turkey.<ref name="TurkishNational">{{Cite web |last=Education |first=Republic Of Turkey Ministry Of National |url=http://www.meb.gov.tr/Stats/apk2001ing/Section_1/1Generalprincipals.htm |title=Turkish National Education System |access-date=2008-02-20 |publisher=T.C. Government|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020612122337/http://www.meb.gov.tr/Stats/apk2001ing/Section_1/1Generalprincipals.htm|archive-date=12 June 2002}}</ref>

Similar to its CUP predecessors, it can be said that Kemalism endorsed [[social Darwinism]] in some way by desiring the Turkish youth to be healthy and physically strong.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ter-Matevosyan |first1=Vahram |title=Turkey, Kemalism and the Soviet Union: Problems of Modernization, Ideology and Interpretation |date=2019 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-319-97403-3 |page=163|quote=Both the Young Turks and the Kemalists had an elitist conception of society; they saw themselves as the nation’s “social physicians,” the only ones capable of enlightening the “masses.”78 Other definitions and fashionable currents of thought that defined different facets of fascism—biological materialism, positivism, social Darwinism, and the quest for magic formulas—were also incorporated by both regimes in Turkey.7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Zurcher |first1=Erik-Jan |title=Late Ottoman Society |chapter=Ottoman sources of Kemalist thought |year=2013 |pages=36–49 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9780203481387-10 |isbn=978-0-203-48138-7 |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/ottoman-sources-kemalist-thought-erik-jan-zurcher/e/10.4324/9780203481387-10 |language=en}}</ref>

====Criteria====
{{See also|Turkish nationality law}}

Atatürk defined the Turkish nation as the "people (''halk'') who established the Turkish republic". Further, "the natural and historical facts which effected the establishment (''teessüs'') of the Turkish nation" were "(a) unity in political existence, (b) unity in language, (c) unity in homeland, (d) unity in race and origin (''menşe''), (e) to be historically related and (f) to be morally related".<ref>{{cite book|title=Minorities and Nationalism in Turkish Law|page=110|author=Derya Bayir|year=2013}}</ref>

Membership is usually gained through birth within the borders of the state and also the principle of [[jus sanguinis]]. The Kemalist notion of nationality is integrated into the [[Turkish nationality law#Definition of citizenship|Article 66]] of the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey. Every citizen is recognized as a Turk, regardless of ethnicity, belief, and gender, etc. [[Turkish nationality law]] states that he or she can be deprived of his/her nationality only through an act of treason.<ref>Citizenship is defined in the {{Ws|[[s:Constitution of the Republic of Turkey#66|1982 constitution, Article 66]]}} (amended on October 17, 2001).</ref>

Kemalists saw non-Muslims as only nominal citizens, and they have often been treated as [[Second-class citizen|second-class citizens]] in the Republic of Turkey.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dağı |first1=İhsan |title=Why Turkey Needs a Post-Kemalist Order |journal=Insight Turkey |date=1 January 2012 |url=https://www.insightturkey.com/commentaries/why-turkey-needs-a-post-kemalist-order |language=tr|quote= Non-Muslims, whose citizenship was only nominal in the eyes of the Kemalists, faced [[pogrom]]s. This relationship of the Kemalist regime with the people of different ethnicity, religion, and life-style positioned the state with its loyal Kemalist elite as a hegemonic power vis-à-vis the society.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=İçduygu |first1=Ahmet |last2=Toktaş |first2=Şule |last3=Soner |first3=B. Ali |title=The politics of population in a nation-building process: emigration of non-Muslims from Turkey |journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies |date=1 February 2008 |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=358–389 |doi=10.1080/01419870701491937|s2cid=143541451 |hdl=11729/308 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The identity of [[Kurds in Turkey]] was [[Denial of Kurds by Turkey|denied for decades]] with Kurds described as "Mountain Turks".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ataman |first1=M. |title=Özal Leadership and Restructuring of Turkish Ethnic Policy in the 1980s |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |date=1 October 2002 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=123–142 |doi=10.1080/714004493|s2cid=144430188 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Moustakis |first1=Fotios |last2=Chaudhuri |first2=Rudra |title=Turkish-Kurdish Relations and the European Union: An Unprecedented Shift in the Kemalist Paradigm? |journal=Mediterranean Quarterly |date=28 November 2005 |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=77–89 |doi=10.1215/10474552-16-4-77 |s2cid=153382746 |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/190579/summary |language=en |issn=1527-1935|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Atatürk stated in 1930:
{{blockquote|Within the political and social unity of today's Turkish nation, there are citizens and co-nationals who have been incited to think of themselves as [[Kurds]], [[Circassians]], [[Laz people|Laz]] or [[Bosniaks|Bosnians]]. But these erroneous appellations - the product of past periods of tyranny - have brought nothing but sorrow to individual members of the nation, with the exception of a few brainless reactionaries, who became the enemy's instruments.<ref name=mangokurds20>[[Andrew Mango]], ''Atatürk and the Kurds'', Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.35, No.4, 1999, 20</ref>}}

In 2005, the [[Article 301 (Turkish Penal Code)|Article 301]] of the Turkish Penal code made it a crime to insult Turkishness ({{langx|tr|Türklük|label=none}}), but under pressure of the EU, this was changed in 2008 to protect the "Turkish nation" instead of Turkish ethnicity in 2008, an 'imagined' nationhood of people living within the [[Misak-ı Millî|National Pact]] ({{langx|tr|Misak-ı Milli|label=none}}) borders.<ref name="osmansdream">{{Cite book |last=Finkel |first=Caroline |title=Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire |year=2006 |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |pages=549–550 |isbn=0-465-02396-7}}</ref>

=====Turkism=====
{{Main|Pan-Turkism}}
[[File:Map-TurkicLanguages.png|thumb|320px|[[Turkic languages]] speaking areas]]

Kemalism focused on the nation-state's narrower interests, renouncing the concern for the "Outside Turks".<ref name="Pan-Turkism">{{Cite book |authorlink=Jacob M. Landau|last=Landau |first=Jacob M. |title=Pan-Turkism: From Irredentism to Cooperation |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=1995 |page=275 |isbn=0-253-20960-9}} Page 186-187</ref>

Pan-Turkism was an [[Ethnocentrism|ethnocentric]] ideology [to unite all ethnically Turkic nations] while Kemalism is polycentric [united under a "common will"] in character.<ref name="Pan-Turkism" /> Kemalism wants to have an equal footing among the mainstream world civilizations. Pan-Turkists have consistently emphasized the special attributes of the [[Turkic peoples]], and wanted to unite all of the Turkic peoples. Kemalism wants an equal footing (based on respect) and does not aim to unite the people of Turkey with all the other Turkic nations. Most Kemalists were not interested in Pan-Turkism and from 1923 to 1950 (the single state period) reacted with particular firmness.<ref name="Pan-Turkism"/> Further more, Atatürk opposed Pan-Turkism in his speech ([[Nutuk]]) as following:

{{blockquote|Gathering various nations under a common and general title and establishing a strong state by keeping these various groups of elements under the same law and conditions is a bright and attractive political view; but it is deceptive. In fact, it is an impossible goal to unite all the Turks in the world into a state, without any borders. This is a truth that centuries and people who have lived for centuries brought about through very painful and bloody events.

It cannot be seen in history that panislamism and panturanism were successful and were practiced in the world. Though, the results of the ambitions for the establishment of a state, covering all humanity, regardless of race, are written in history.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Atatürk |first=Mustafa Kemal |title=Nutuk |publisher=Kaynak Yayınları |pages=336–337 |language=tr}}</ref>}}

However, Atatürk owned the idea of taking Turkicness as one of the identities of Turkish nation. [[Turkish History Thesis]] started under Atatürk's order and administration, which contained ethno-racial ideas based on Turkish origins coming from [[Central Asia]]. Also Atatürk era high school books contained education of [[Old Turkic script|Orkhon alphabet]]<ref>{{Cite book|title=Atatürk era high school history book, volume 1|publisher=Republic Of Turkey|year=1931|pages=79–80}}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=September 2021}}{{Obsolete source|date=September 2021}} and a unit under the title of "Greater Turkic history and Civilization".<ref>{{Cite book|title=Atatürk era high school history book, volume 1|publisher=Republic of Turkey|year=1931|pages=25–53}}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=September 2021}}{{Obsolete source|date=September 2021}} The book also gave detailed information about empires which are Turkic such as [[Göktürks]] or "claimed to be Turkic" such as [[Scythians]], [[Xiongnu]], and so on.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Atatürk era high school history book, volume 1|publisher=Republic of Turkey|year=1931}}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=September 2021}}{{Obsolete source|date=September 2021}}[[File:Atatürk looking into Central asia.jpg|thumb|Atatürk analyzing [[First Turkic Khaganate|Turkic Khaganate]] map]]

With the supports of newly founded Turkish Republic, [[Pan-Turkism|Pan-Turkist]] organization known as "[[Turkish Hearths]]", re-established in Atatürk's era to get Turkists' support during the [[Atatürk's reforms|revolutions]]. Atatürk was frequently giving speeches on Turkish Hearths after important events occurred in Turkey.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Akçiçek|first=Eren|title=Atatürk'ün Türk Ocakları'nı Ziyaretleri ve Yaptığı Konuşmalar|publisher=Turkish Hearths Ankara Branch|year=2008|location=Ankara, Turkey|language=Turkish}}</ref> Also reopening of Turkish magazine "[[Türk Yurdu]]" which was an organ of Turkish Hearts, was supported.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Georgeon|first=François|title=Aux origines du nationalisme Turc|publisher=Éditions A.D.P.F|year=1980|isbn=2865380084|location=Paris|pages=44}}</ref> Later, in 1931, Turkish Hearts were closed by Atatürk after they lost their non-political stance, because of their Pan-Turkist views and movements; and with all of its premises, it merged to the ruling party [[Republican People's Party|CHP]].<ref>{{Cite web|first=Emine|last=Merdim|date=2011-07-13|title=Türk Ocakları Merkez Binası'ndan Ankara Devlet Resim ve Heykel Müzesi'ne|url=https://www.arkitera.com/haber/turk-ocaklari-merkez-binasindan-ankara-devlet-resim-ve-heykel-muzesine/|access-date=2021-06-21|website=Arkitera|language=tr-TR}}</ref>

Kemalism had a narrower definition of language, which sought to remove ([[Replacement of loanwords in Turkish|purify]]) the Persian, Arabic, Greek, Latin, etc. words from the Turkish language and replace them with either Turkic originated words or derive new words with Turkic roots.

====Kemalism and the Hittites====
{{Main|Turkish History Thesis}}
[[File:Turkije3 2014 010 (15080445834).jpg|thumb|One of the lions at "[[Anıtkabir#Road of Lions|Road of Lions]]" in [[Anıtkabir]], which are replicas of ancient [[Hittites|Hittite]] lion statues]]
Kemalism gave an important place to [[Hittites]] and the Hittite symbolism to construct the Turkish identity and nationhood. Kemalist researchers, such as [[Ahmet Ağaoğlu]] (who was an advisor to Atatürk and a politician who played an important role on creating [[Turkish Constitution of 1924|Turkey's constitution of 1924]]), believed in that the nation has to portray Hittites as a world-domineering Turkish race with firm roots in Anatolia.<ref name=":04">{{Cite journal |last=Erimtan |first=Can |year=2008 |title=Hittites, Ottomans and Turks: Ağaoğlu Ahmed Bey and the Kemalist Construction of Turkish Nationhood in Anatolia |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20455417 |journal=Anatolian Studies |volume=58 |pages=158 |doi=10.1017/S0066154600008711 |jstor=20455417 |s2cid=163040610|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Modern genetic researches on Turkish samples show that [[Turkish people|Anatolian Turks]] are mixage of [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turkic tribes]] and Anatolian natives, however, unlike [[Turkish History Thesis|Kemalist thoughts]], these two admixtures are not originated from same ethnicity, race, or identity.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The genetic structure of the Turkish population - Ethnicity Prediction|url=https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1pHvOMVZPtNDuwVabSXD7OxdFMTYQGvfjq7Z-L6IiII0/edit#gid=450884960}}</ref>

===Statism===
[[Statism]] ({{langx|tr|devletçilik|label=none}}): Atatürk made clear in his statements and policies that Turkey's complete [[Modernization theory|modernization]] was very much dependent on economic and technological development. The principle of Kemalist statism is generally interpreted to mean that the state was to regulate the country's general economic activities and engage in areas where private enterprises are not willing to do so. This was the result of post-independence war Turkey needing to redefine the relationship between societal and international capitalism. The war left Turkey in ruins, as the Ottoman Empire was focused on raw materials and was an [[open market]] in the international capitalist system. Post-war Turkey has been largely defined by its agricultural society, which includes many landlords and merchants. The control of people in the Turkish economy is quite evident from 1923 to the 1930s, but they still managed, through foreign joint investment, to establish a state economic enterprise. However, after the [[Great Depression]], there was a shift to more inward-looking development strategies during an era generally referred to as "etatism". During this era, the state had an active involvement in both [[capital accumulation]] and investment as well as in taking the interest of private businesses into consideration. The state often stepped into economic areas that the private sector did not cover, either due to not being strong enough or having simply failed to do so. These were often infrastructure projects and power stations, but also iron and steel industries, while the masses shouldered the burden of capital accumulation.<ref>{{cite book|last=Aydın|first=Zülküf|title=The Political Economy of Turkey|publisher=Pluto Press|year=2005|pages=25–56|doi=10.2307/j.ctt18dzt8j}}</ref>

==Analysis==
{{See also|White Turks}}

===Kemalism and Turkey's political parties===
[[File:Young Turkish Women Pose on Ataturk Memorial - Chunuk Bair - Gallipoli Peninsula - Dardanelles - Turkey (5734773780).jpg|thumb|299x299px|Young Turkish women pose on Atatürk memorial]]
The [[Republican People's Party]] (CHP) was established by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk on September 9, 1923, not long before the declaration of the Republic of Turkey on October 29. The Republican People's Party did not attempt to update or define the philosophical roots of its Kemalism between the 1940s and the 1960s. 

Since the 1960s, it has been generally considered, the CHP has moved to a position that is more [[center left|left-of-center]]; supporters of the party appear to have generally accepted the idea that structural changes brought forth by the government were necessary for modernization. Later, in the 1970s, due to a wider rejection and abandonment of Kemalism, in Turkish society, the CHP made more fundamental and left-leaning changes to its party platform, including programs that were labeled "[[Left of Center (Turkey)|democratic left]]". 

By the early 21st century, most Kemalists (within or outside the CHP) still believed in the original six principles, whilst others criticized and explicitly sought to reduce the [[statist]] tendencies of Kemalism.<ref>İrem, Nazım. “Undercurrents of European Modernity and the Foundations of Modern Turkish Conservatism: Bergsonism in Retrospect.” Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 40, no. 4, 2004, pp. 79–112. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/4289929</ref> For instance, in 1930, the Turkish Justice Minister of Kemalist Turkey, [[Mahmut Esat Bozkurt]], equated some Kemalist policies with the [[Italian fascism]] of [[Benito Mussolini]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kieser|first=Hans-Lukas|author-link=Hans-Lukas Kieser|date=2016-01-19|title=Dersim Massacre, 1937-1938 {{!}} Sciences Po Mass Violence and Resistance - Research Network|url=http://dersim-massacre-1937-1938.html/|access-date=2021-06-22|website=dersim-massacre-1937-1938.html|language=en}}{{Dead link|date=January 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> 

Use of "Kemalism" as a descriptive term of political discourse is often attributed to Bozkurt, [[Ahmet Cevat Emre]] and politician [[Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoğlu]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ter-Matevosyan|first=Vahram|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XtaIDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA48|title=Turkey, Kemalism and the Soviet Union: Problems of Modernization, Ideology and Interpretation|year=2019|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-97403-3|page=48}}</ref> The latter used the term on 28 June 1929 to refer to the ideology consisting of "the basic principles and values of the Turkish path to modernity."<ref>{{cite journal|author=Nazım İrem|title=Turkish conservative modernism: Birth of a nationalist quest for cultural renewal|journal=[[International Journal of Middle East Studies]]|volume=34|issue=1|year=2002|doi=10.1017/S0020743802001046| page=87}}</ref>

===Kemalism and Turkey's constitutional law===
The six principles were solidified on 5 February 1937, 14 years after establishment of the Republic of Turkey.

In the [[Turkish Constitution of 1924|1924 Constitutional Law]] Article 2, Clause 1:

{{blockquote|Turkey is republican, nationalist, attached to the people, interventionist, secular, and revolutionary.}}

Both the [[1960 Turkish coup d'état|military coup of 1960]] and the [[1980 Turkish coup d'état|military coup of 1980]] were followed by fundamental revisions of the Turkish Constitution. The texts of the new constitutions were approved by popular referendum in each case.

In the [[Turkish Constitution of 1961|1961 Constitutional Law]] Article 1, Clause 1 states "The Turkish State is a Republic." Article 2, Clause 1:

{{blockquote|The Turkish Republic is a nationalistic, democratic, secular and social state, governed by the rule of law, based on human rights and fundamental tenets set forth in the preamble.}}
[[File:Turkse_arbeiders_met_het_bronzen_hoofd_van_Atatürk_-_Turkish_workers_carrying_the_bronze_head_of_Atatürk_(6941436439).jpg|thumb|Turkish workers carrying the bronze head of a statue of Atatürk. Turkey, 1933. His statues were placed in all public buildings in the nation and his values are encoded in the constitution.]]

In the [[Constitution of Turkey|1982 Constitutional Law]] Article 1, Clause 1 states "The Turkish State is a Republic." Article 2, Clause 1:

{{blockquote|The Republic of Turkey is a democratic, secular and social state governed by the rule of law; bearing in mind the concepts of public peace, national solidarity and justice; respecting human rights; loyal to the nationalism of Atatürk, and based on the fundamental tenets set forth in the Preamble.}}

Only the principles of [[Secularism in Turkey|secularism]], [[Turkish nationalism|nationalism]] and democracy were maintained in each change to the constitution. The 1961 Constitution more strongly emphasized human rights, the rule of law, and the welfare state than the original 1924 constitution, while the 1982 constitution focused on the peace of the community and national solidarity, but also explicitly referenced some of Atatürk's principles and included them as well.

===External interpretations of Kemalism===
In the 1920s and 1930s, Turkey's domestic transformations and the evolution of the Kemalist system of ideological and political principles were closely observed in Germany, France, Britain, the US, and beyond, including several nations farther East. In recent years, scholarly interest in the transnational history of Kemalism has expanded. Some scholars have focused on the interwar period in Bulgaria, Cyprus, Albania, Yugoslavia, and Egypt to reveal how, as a practical tool, Kemalism was relocated as a global movement, whose influence is still felt today.<ref>"Kemalism: Transnational Politics in the Post Ottoman World.", eds. N. Clayer, F. Giomi, E. Szurek. London. I.B. Tauris. 2018.</ref> Some scholars have examined the impact of Atatürk's reforms and his image on the Jewish community in British-ruled Palestine before the establishment of Israel,<ref>Jacob Landau. "A Note on Kemalizm in the Hebrew Press of
Palestine." 2018. Middle Eastern Studies 54 (4): 723–728</ref> some went farther East—to Persia, Afghanistan, China, India,<ref>Amin Saikal. "Kemalism: Its Influences on Iran and Afghanistan." 1982. International Journal of Turkish Studies 2 (2): 25–32</ref> and other parts of the Muslim world—to assess the influence wielded by Mustafa Kemal and his modernization project. These works explore perceptions of Kemalism that are mostly positive in their respective countries providing few critical insights into Kemalism's evolution and its reception as an ideological project. 

The [[Bolsheviks]] regarded Kemalists as an ally against the Western imperialism led by [[British Empire]] but feared that the Greeks could establish a "Great Armenian-Byzantine state" in Anatolia, which would border Russia. The intolerance against communists in Turkey was overlooked by the Soviet leadership to unite against the common enemy.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gökay |first=Bülent |title=A Clash of Empires: Turkey between Russian Bolshevism and British Imperialism, 1918-1923 |publisher=Tauris Academic Studies |year=1997}}</ref>{{Rp|page=64}} The Germans of 1920s were similarly intrigued by Kemalism. That a member of the [[Central Powers]] fought a war of liberation impressed the German society.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Asker |first=Ahmet |date=2011-12-01 |title=Nazi Almanyası'ndan Kemalist Türkiye'ye bakışlar |url=https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/ankuayd/issue/1839/22445 |journal=Atatürk Yolu Dergisi |language=tr |volume=13 |issue=50 |pages=261–516 |doi=10.1501/Tite_0000000359 |issn=1303-5290|doi-access=free }}</ref>{{Rp|page=269}} The [[Nazi Germany|Nazis]] viewed Kemalist Turkey as a "postgenocidal paradise" worthy of emulation.<ref name=Avedian>{{cite journal |last1=Avedian |first1=Vahagn |title=Justifying genocide: Germany and the Armenians from Bismarck to Hitler, by Stefan Ihrig, Cambridge, MA, Harvard, 460 pp., $35.00 (HC), ISBN 978-0674504790 |orig-year=2016 |journal=Nationalities Papers  |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=532–535 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=20 November 2018|doi=10.1080/00905992.2017.1390980|s2cid=159627934 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |authorlink=Margaret L. Anderson|last1=Anderson |first1=Margaret Lavinia |title=Atatürk in the Nazi Imagination. By Stefan Ihrig. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014. Pp. 311. Cloth $29.95. ISBN 978-0674368378. |journal=Central European History |date=March 2016 |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=138–139 |doi=10.1017/S0008938916000236|s2cid=148167017 |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/4qt900k7 }}</ref> Nazis often stated that [[Nazism]] and Kemalism were very similar.<ref>{{cite book |authorlink=Stefan Ihrig|last1=Ihrig |first1=Stefan |title=Atatürk in the Nazi Imagination |date=2014 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-36837-8 |pages=114, ''passim'' |language=en}}</ref> In 1933, Nazis openly admired Kemalist Turkey. Hitler described Mustafa Kemal as the "star in the darkness".{{sfn|Ihrig|2014|pp=113–117}}<ref name=":22">{{Cite web|title="Nazilere göre Atatürk'ün başarısının en önemli nedeni Ermenilerin yok edilmesiydi"|url=http://www.agos.com.tr/tr/yazi/9998/nazilere-gore-ataturkun-basarisinin-en-onemli-nedeni-ermenilerin-yok-edilmesiydi|access-date=2021-06-16|website=Agos|date=19 December 2014 |language=tr}}</ref>

Historian [[M. Şükrü Hanioğlu|Şükrü Hanioğlu]] describes Kemalism as "scientifically sanctioned version of Turkish nationalism." It drew upon the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] ideas of the American and French revolutions, 19th century [[positivism]] and [[republicanism]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Hanioğlu |first=Şükrü |title=Atatürk: An Intellectual Biography |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011}}</ref>{{Rp|page=152}} It is centered around Atatürk, who reigned as an [[Enlightened absolutism|enlightened autocrat]] and brought top-down changes to a backwater society, in the style of [[Frederick the Great|Friedrich the Great]] and [[Catherine the Great]].<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=165}} Although those who view Kemalism in a positive light link Kemalist secularism to [[the Enlightenment]], Kemalism rejects certain Western emancipatory ideologies such as liberalism and socialism that derived from the Enlightenment.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Parla |first1=Taha |last2=Davison |first2=Andrew |title=Corporatist Ideology in Kemalist Turkey: Progress or Order? |date=2004 |publisher=Syracuse University Press |isbn=978-0-8156-3054-8 |page=288 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mXhC8t7TREsC&dq=kemalism+enlightenment&pg=PA288 |language=en}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[İttihadism]]
*[[Liberal Kemalism]]
*[[Post-Kemalism]]
*[[Islamokemalism]]
*''[[Kadro]]''
*[[Ecevitism]]
*[[Ulusalcılık]]
*[[Erdoğanism]]
*[[Social corporatism]]
*[[Bourguibism]]
*[[Qasimism]]
*[[Kemalist historiography]]
*[[Monarchism in Iran]]

==References==
<!--See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for guidance on adding references using<ref>tags-->
{{Reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book |last=Alaranta |first=Toni |title=Contemporary Kemalism: From Universal Secular-Humanism to Extreme Turkish Nationalism |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-91676-5 |language=en |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Ciddi |first=Sinan |title=Kemalism in Turkish Politics: The Republican People's Party, Secularism and Nationalism |date=2009 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-02559-6 |language=en |ref=none}}
*{{cite journal |last=Gürpınar |first=Doğan |date=2013 |title=The Reinvention of Kemalism: Between Elitism, Anti-Elitism and Anti-Intellectualism |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=454–476 |doi=10.1080/00263206.2013.783822 |s2cid=144626059 |ref=none |authorlink=Doğan Gürpınar}}
*{{cite book |last=Plaggenborg |first=Stefan |title=Ordnung und Gewalt: Kemalismus - Faschismus - Sozialismus |date=2012 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-486-71409-8 |language=de |ref=none}}
*{{cite web|url=https://newsaboutturkey.com/2020/05/13/the-myth-of-new-turkey-kemalism-and-erdoganism-as-two-sides-of-the-same-coin/|title=The Myth of 'New Turkey': Kemalism and Erdoganism as Two Sides of the Same Coin|work=Dr. Ceren Şengül|date=13 May 2020 |publisher=News About Turkey}}
{{Turkish nationalism}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kemalism}}
<!--Categories-->
[[Category:Kemalism| ]]
[[Category:Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]]
[[Category:Political ideologies]]
[[Category:Political movements in Turkey]]
[[Category:Eponymous political ideologies]]
[[Category:Republican People's Party (Turkey)]]
[[Category:Republicanism in Turkey]]
[[Category:Progressivism]]
[[Category:Secularism in Turkey]]
[[Category:Statism]]
[[Category:Turkish nationalism]]
[[Category:State ideologies]]