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{{Short description|Sacred groves in Kerala, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2019}}
[[File:Kavu.jpg|thumb|''Mannan Purath Kavu, [[Nileshwaram]]''|360x360px]]
'''Kavu''' is the traditional name given for [[Sacred groves of India|sacred groves]] across the [[Malabar Coast]] in [[Kerala]], [[South India]].<ref>M. Jayarajan, [http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/92.pdf Sacred Groves of North Malabar] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326054142/http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/92.pdf |date=2009-03-26 }}, Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development, Centre for Development Studies, Thiruvananthapuram ({{ISBN|81-87621-95-8}})</ref> Kavus are notable for ''[[Theyyam]]'', the centuries-old ritual dance. 
[[File:Neeliyar Kottam views 2014 (38).jpg|thumb|360x360px|''[[Neeliyar Kottam]] In [[Dharmashala, Kannur|Mangattuparamba]]‚ [[Kannur]]'']]

==Snake Groves==
[[File:Sarpa-Kavu-3.jpg|thumb|Sarpa Kavu at [[Sakthanthamburan palace]], [[Thrissur]] ]]
A [[Sarpa Kavu]] (meaning ''Abode of Snakes'') is a traditional natural sacred space seen near traditional homes in [[Kerala]] state of [[South India]]. The site is believed to be inhabited by snakes, and the area usually contains a representation of Manasa ('Goddess of the Snakes'), ''Naga Raja'' (''King of the Snakes'') and other ''Naga Devatas'' (''snake deities''), where offerings and rites are performed during special ceremonies. This is a Hindu ritual performed by certain sects of [[Nambudiri]]s, and all castes hold the Sarpa Kavu in reverence, with access forbidden to the area unless for due ceremonies.

Brahmin mythology says that Kerala was created from the Arabian Sea and given to the Brahmins (Nambudiris) as a "donation" by Parasurama to save himself from the sins of killing numerous kshathriya kings. The land was full of forests and poisonous snakes were found in plenty. So the Brahmins refused to stay there. Parasurama requested Lord Shiva to provide a solution. Shiva told Parasurama to start worshipping Manasa, Anantha and Vasuki the king of snakes. Parasurama did so and they advised him to start snake worship in Kerala and provide some forest especially for snakes in the form of Sarppakkavu (Snake forests). Parasurama later installed the idols of Goddess Manasa, Anantha and Vasuki at Mannarassala (near Harippadu in Alappuzha district) and Vettikkottu (near Kayamkulam in Alappuzha district) and started worshipping them. The Brahmins also worshipped Goddess Manasa, Anantha and Vasuki and the pleased snake deities made Kerala suitable for living.

<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vaikhari.org/Nagaraja.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101105161415/http://vaikhari.org/Nagaraja.html |url-status=usurped |archive-date=5 November 2010 |title=Nagaraja Temples in Kerala |publisher=Vaikhari.org |date= |accessdate=2013-10-04}}</ref>

Sarpa Kavus even help in soil and water conservation besides preserving its rich biological wealth. The ponds and streams adjoining the groves are perennial water sources. These are the last resorts to many of the animals and birds for their water requirements, especially during summer. Sacred groves also enrich the soil through its rich litter composition. The nutrients generated thus are not only recycled within the sacred grove ecosystem but also find their way into the adjoining [[Agroecosystem|agroeco systems]].

==Sacred Groves==
A Kavu is a South Indian version of an Indian sacred grove. 
[[File:Banyan tree at Kanhirathara, Chirakkal.jpg|thumbnail|Banyan Tree at a temple in [[Kannur]], [[Kerala]] |250x250px]]
[[File:Hindu worship place from North Kerala (4).jpg|thumb|Sacred grove in [[Mayyil]], [[Kerala]] |250x250px]]
[[File:Sarpa Kavu By Manojk.JPG|thumb|Sarpakkavu in [[Taliparamba]], [[Kerala]] |250x250px]]
'''[[Sacred grove]]s of [[India]]''' are forest fragments of varying sizes, which are communally protected, and which usually have a significant religious connotation for the protecting community. Hunting and logging are usually strictly prohibited within these patches.<ref>Gadgil, M. and Vartak, V.D. ; Sacred groves of India : A plea for continued conservation
Journal of [[Bombay Natural History Society]], 72 : 314-320, 1975</ref> Other forms of forest usage like [[honey]] collection and [[Coarse woody debris|deadwood]] collection are sometimes allowed on a sustainable basis. Sacred groves did not enjoy protection via federal legislation in India. Some NGOs work with local villagers to protect such groves. Traditionally, and in some cases even today, members of the community take turns to protect the grove.<ref>Sudha, P., Rekha, P. V., Gunaga, V. S., Patagar, S., Naik, M. B., Indu, K. M., and N. H Ravindranath, [http://dlc.dlib.indiana.edu/archive/00000166/00/sudha.pdf Community Forest Management and Joint Forest Management: An Ecological, Economic and Institutional Assessment in Western Ghats, India] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070610012512/http://dlc.dlib.indiana.edu/archive/00000166/00/sudha.pdf |date=2007-06-10 }}, Presented at "Crossing Boundaries", the seventh annual conference of the International Association for the Study of Common Property, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, 10–14 June 1998</ref> However, the introduction of the protected area category [[Conservation reserves and community reserves of India|community reserves]] under the [[Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act, 2002]] has introduced legislation for providing government protection to community held lands, which could include sacred groves.

Indian sacred groves are sometimes associated with temples / monasteries / shrines or with burial grounds (which is the case in [[Shinto]] and [[Ryukyuan religion]]-based sacred groves respectively in [[Japan]]). Sacred groves may be loosely used to refer to other natural habitat protected on religious grounds, such as [[Alpine Meadow]]s.

Historical references to sacred groves can be obtained from ancient classics as far back as [[Kalidasa]]'s [[Vikramuurvashiiya]]. There has been a growing interest in creating green patches such as [[Nakshatravana]].

==Beliefs and practices==
Typically, such groves are associated with the concept of a "presiding deity". While most of these sacred deities are associated with local [[Hindu mythology|Hindu]] gods, sacred groves of Islamic and Buddhist origins, and some based on smaller local religions and  [[folk religion]]s (like the folk deities ''ayyanar'' and ''amman'' ) are also known of. There are over 1000 deities associated with sacred groves in the states of [[Kerala]] and [[Karnataka]] alone. In [[Kodagu]] district in Karnataka from time immemorial the martial community of [[Kodava people|Kodava]]s had maintained over 1000 Deva kadus dedicated to Aiyappa the forest god.

The Hindu tradition considers forests (''Van''/ ''Ban'') to be of three types - ''Tapovan'', ''Mahavan'' and ''Sreevan''. ''Tapovan'' are forests associated with penance (''Tapas''), and are inhabited by saints and ''rishis''. ''Mahavan'' refers to the grand natural forests. ''Tapovan'' and ''Mahavan'' are considered to be a ''Raksha'' ("sanctuary") for flora and fauna as ordinary human beings are not allowed to enter these forests. ''Sreevan'', which means, "forests of the goddess of prosperity", consists of dense forests and groves. From the former, people would collect dry wood, leaves, forest produce and a limited amount of timber, though natural ecosystem would not be unnecessarily disturbed. Groves were considered as spaces of forests from where harvesting could be done. Sometimes, specific trees like mango trees could be planted and nurtured here. Groves were associated with religious rites, festivals and recreation. Typical recreational activities associated with these groves included ''jhoola''/ ''jhoolan''.<ref name="ReferenceA">Ranchor Prime, Vedic Ecology: Practical Wisdom for Surviving the 21st Century, Mandala Publishing, Novato, CA, 2002</ref> In the villages, ''Panchavati'', or a cluster of five trees that represented the forests, were maintained. These trees represented the five elements of Earth, Water, Fire, Air and Space.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

Planting and nurturing of trees has been a highly evolved practice in ancient India.<ref name="ReferenceB">Vrukshayurveda, authored by Surapala, translated by Nalini Sadhale, Agri-History Bulletin No.1, Asian Agri-History Foundation, Secunderabad</ref> ''Vrukshayurveda'', the science of plant life and also a 10th-century treatise of that title on the subject ascribed to Surapala, dealt with various species of trees and their growth. Verses 9-23 from this text indicate how mystical beliefs and conservation of ecology was inter-connected.

:''A person is honored in [[Vaikuntha]] for as many thousand years as the days they reside in a house where [[tulasi]] is grown.''

:''And if one properly grows [[bilva]], which pleases [[Lord Siva]], in their family, the goddess of riches resides permanently passes on to the children and grandchildren''

:''One who plants even a single asvattha, wherever it may be, as per the prescribed mode, goes to the abode of Hari.''

:''One who has planted dhatri has performed several sacrifices. They have donated the earth. They would be considered liberated{{typo help inline|date=March 2021}} forever.''

:''One who plants a couple of [[banyan]] trees as per the prescribed mode would go to the abode of Siva.''

:''After planting [[neem]] trees a person well-versed in [[dharma]] attains the abode of Sun. Indeed! They reside there for a long period.''

:''By planting four [[plaksa]] trees a person doubtlessly obtains the fruits of [[Rajasuya]] sacrifice.''

:''One who plants five or six [[mango]] trees attains the abode of [[Garuda]] and lives happily forever like gods.''

:''One should plant seven palasa trees or even one. One attains the abode of [[Brahma]] and enjoys the company of gods by doing so.''

:''One who personally plants eight [[udumbara]] trees or even prompts someone to plant them, rejoices in the lunar world''

:''One who has planted madhuka has propitiated [[Parvati]], has become free from diseases, and has worshipped all deities.''

:''If one plants ksirini, dadimi, rambha, [[Buchanania lanzan|priyala]], and panasa, one experiences no affliction for seven births.''

:''One who has knowingly or unknowingly planted ambu is respected as a recluse even while staying in the house.''

:''By planting all kinds of other trees, useful for fruits and flowers, a person gets a reward of thousand cows adorned with jewels.''

:''By planting one asvattha, one picumanda, one [[nyagrodha]], ten [[tamarind]] trees, the group of three, viz., kapittha, [[bilva]], and amalaka, and five [[mango]] trees, one never visits hell.''<ref name="ReferenceB"/>

==Locations==
Sacred groves are scattered all over the country, and are referred to by different names in different parts of India. Sacred groves occur in a variety of places – from [[Deserts and xeric shrublands|scrub forest]]s in the [[Thar Desert]] of [[Rajasthan]] maintained by the [[Bishnoi]]s, to [[rain forest]]s in the [[Western Ghats]] of [[Kerala]]. [[Himachal Pradesh]] in the north and [[Kerala]] in the south are specifically known for their large numbers of sacred groves. The Kodavas of Karnataka alone maintained over 1000 sacred groves in their region.<ref>A [http://www.cseindia.org/dte-supplement/forest20031231/forest-index.htm series] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070203075638/http://cseindia.org/dte-supplement/forest20031231/forest-index.htm |date=3 February 2007 }} of articles in the journal ''Down to Earth'' on sacred groves</ref> The [[Gurjar]] people of Rajasthan have a unique practice of neem (Azadirachta indica) planting and worshipping as abode of God [[Devnarayan]].Thus, a Gurjjar settlement appears like a human-inhabited sacred grove.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.infinityfoundation.com/mandala/t_es/t_es_pande_forest.htm|title = Sacred Forestry}}</ref> Similarly Mangar Bani, last surviving natural forest of Delhi is protected by Gurjars of nearby area.<ref>http://www.ngtba.org/index.php/news?start=190 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304002326/http://www.ngtba.org/index.php/news?start=190 |date=4 March 2016 }}</ref> 14,000 sacred groves have been reported from all over India, which act as reservoirs of rare fauna, and more often rare flora, amid rural and even urban settings. Experts believe that the total number of sacred groves could be as high as 100,000.<ref name = "mal">Malhotra, K. C., Ghokhale, Y., Chatterjee, S. and Srivastava, S., Cultural and 
Ecological Dimensions of Sacred Groves in India, INSA, New Delhi, 2001</ref><ref>Ramachandra Guha, The Unquiet Woods, University of California Press, 2000 ({{ISBN|978-0520222359}})</ref>

It is estimated{{By whom|date=December 2009}} that around 1000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> of unexploited land is inside sacred groves. Some of the more famous groves are the ''kavu''s of Kerala, which are located in the Western Ghats and have enormous biodiversity; and the ''law kyntang''s of [[Meghalaya]] – sacred groves associated with every village (two large groves being in [[Mawphlang]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://megtourism.gov.in/ecodestination.html |title=Eco Destination . Mawphlang Sacred Forest |access-date=31 March 2017 |archive-date=9 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111209012830/http://megtourism.gov.in/ecodestination.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> and [[Mausmai]]) to appease the forest spirit.

Among the largest sacred groves of India are the ones in [[Hariyali]], near Ganchar in [[Chamoli District]] of [[Uttarakhand]], and the [[Cedrus deodara|Deodar]] grove in [[Shipin]] near [[Shimla|Simla]] in [[Himachal Pradesh]]. Kodagu, a small region of about 4000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> in Karnataka, had over 1000 sacred groves.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! State
! No of groves
! Local name
! References
|-
| [[Andhra Pradesh]]
| 691
| ''Pavitraskhetralu''
| Kailash C. Malhotra et al.<ref name="himalayanconnections.org">Kailash C. Malhotra, Yogesh Gokhale, Sudipto Chatterjee, and Sanjeev Srivastava (2001). ''Cultural and Ecological Dimensions of Sacred Groves in India''. Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi, and Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Manav Sangrahalaya, Bhopal. [http://himalayanconnections.org/wp-content/uploads/pdf/Malhotra_2001_CultureEcologySacredGrovesIndia_IAS.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808033418/http://himalayanconnections.org/wp-content/uploads/pdf/Malhotra_2001_CultureEcologySacredGrovesIndia_IAS.pdf|date=8 August 2014}}</ref>
|-
| [[Arunachal Pradesh]]
| 65
| ''Gumpa forests''<br>(since attached<br>to monasteries)
| Dudley et al.<ref name = "gum">
Ed. N. Dudley, L. Higgins-Zogib, and S. Mansourian; 
[http://www.arcworld.org/downloads/WWF%20Beyond%20Belief.pdf The Arguments for Protection Series - Beyond Belief: Linking faiths and protected areas to support biodiversity conservation], pp. 91-95; World Wide Fund for Nature, 2005 ({{ISBN|2-88085-270-6}})</ref>   
|-
| [[Assam]]
| 40
| ''Than'', ''Madaico''
|
|- 
| [[Chhattisgarh]]
| 600*
| ''Sarna'', ''Devlas'',<br>''Mandar'', ''Budhadev''
|
|-
|[[Goa]]
| NA*
|
| SERBC document <ref>[http://www.serbc.info/public/ser_seminar/webex/rseaton-2_0403251550-322 Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040530233156/http://www.serbc.info/public/ser_seminar/webex/rseaton-2_0403251550-322 |date=30 May 2004 }} of the Sacred 
Grove Restoration Project, Society for Ecological Restoration</ref>
|-
| [[Gujarat]]
| 29*
|
|
|-
| [[Haryana]]
| 248
| ''Beed'' or ''Bid'' (बीड़), Bani (बणी), Bann (बण), Janglat (जंगलात), Shamlat (शामलात) 
|
|-
| [[Himachal Pradesh]]
| 5000
| ''Deo bhumi''
|
|-
| [[Jharkhand]]
| 21*
| ''Sarna''
more than 500 " Jaherthan" in Godda of Jharkhand
| Marine Carrin <ref>Marine Carrin, [http://www.sociology.ed.ac.uk/sas/papers/panel20_carrin.rtf Santal autonomy as a social ecology]{{Dead link|date=February 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, 
16th European Conference on Modern South Asian Studies, Edinburgh, 2000</ref>
|-
| [[Karnataka]]
| 1424
| ''[[Devarakadu]]'',<br> ''Devkad''
| Gadgil et al.<ref>Gadgil, M., D. Subash Chandran, [http://www.ignca.nic.in/cd_08008.htm Sacred Groves and Sacred Trees of Uttara Kannada] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170331212350/http://www.ignca.nic.in/cd_08008.htm |date=31 March 2017 }}, Lifestyle and Ecology, edited by Baidyanath Saraswati. New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts 1998</ref>
|-
| [[Kerala]]
| 2000
| ''Kavu'', ''Sarpa Kavu''
| M. Jayarajan <ref>M. Jayarajan, [http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/92.pdf Sacred Groves of North Malabar] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326054142/http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/92.pdf |date=2009-03-26 }}, Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development, Centre for Development 
Studies, Thiruvananthapuram ({{ISBN|81-87621-95-8}})
</ref>
|-
| [[Maharashtra]]
| 1600
| ''Deorai''/''Devrai''<br>
([[Pune District|Pune]], [[Ratnagiri District|Ratnagiri]],<br>
[[Raigad District|Raigad]], [[Kolhapur District|Kolhapur]]<br>
districts)
| Waghchaure et al.<ref>Waghchaure, Chandrakant K.; Tetali, Pundarikakshudu; Gunale, Venkat R.; Antia, Noshir H.; Birdi, Tannaz J., 
[http://taylorandfrancis.metapress.com/index/GM4026112LVK5057.pdf Sacred Groves of Parinche Valley of Pune District of Maharashtra, India and their Importance],
Anthropology & Medicine, Volume 13, Number 1, April 2006, pp. 55-76(22)</ref>
|-
| [[Manipur]]
| 365
| ''Gamkhap'', ''Mauhak''<br>(sacred [[bamboo]]<br>reserves)
| Khumbongyam et al.<ref>Khumbongmayum, M.D., Khan, M.L., and Tripath, R.S,
[http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/aug252004/430.pdf Sacred groves of Manipur – ideal centres for biodiversity conservation], 
Current Science, Vol 87, No 4, 25 Aug 2004</ref>
|-
| [[Meghalaya]]
| 79
| ''Law kyntang'',<br>''Law Lyngdoh''
| Upadhyay et al.<ref>Upadhaya, K.; Pandey, H.N. 2; Law, P.S.; Tripathi, R.S; 
[https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1022401012824  Tree diversity in sacred groves of the Jaintia hills in Meghalaya, northeast India], Biodiversity and Conservation, Volume 12, Number 3, March 2003, pp. 583-597(15)</ref>
|-
| [[Orissa, India|Orissa]]
| 322*
| ''Jahera'', ''Thakuramma''
|
|-
| [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]]
| 108
| ''Kovil Kadu''
| Ramanujam et al.<ref>
M.P. Ramanujam and K. Praveen Kumar Cyril,
[https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1021926002101 Woody species diversity of four sacred groves in the Pondicherry region of South India],
Biomedical and Life Sciences and Earth and Environmental Science, Volume 12, Number 2 / February, 2003,
Springer Netherlands
</ref>
|-
| [[Rajasthan]]
| 9*
| ''Oran'' ([[Jaiselmer]],<br>[[Jodhpur]], [[Bikaner]]),<br>''Kenkri'' ([[Ajmer]]),<br>''Vani'' ([[Mewar]]),<br>''Shamlat deh'', ''Devbani'' <br>([[Alwar]]), ''Jogmaya'' 
|
|-
| [[Sikkim]]
| 56
| ''Gumpa forests''<br>(since attached<br>to monasteries)
| S. S. Dash <ref>
S. S. Dash, 
[http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/aug102005/427.pdf Kabi sacred grove of North Sikkim]
Current Science, Vol 89, No 3, 10 Aug 2005 
</ref><br>
Dudley et al.<ref name = "gum"/>
|-
| [[Tamil Nadu]]
| 503
| ''Kovil Kadu''
| M. Amrithalingam <ref>
M. Amirthalingam, Sacred Groves of Tamil Nadu – A Survey, CPR Environmental Education Centre, Chennai, India, p. 191, 1998</ref>
|-
| [[Telangana]]
| 65
| 
| Kailash C. Malhotra et al.<ref name="himalayanconnections.org"/>
|-
| [[Uttarakhand]]
| 18*
| ''Devbhumi'', ''Bugyal''<br>(sacred alpine<br>meadows)
| Anthwal et al.<ref>Ashish Anthwal, Ramesh C. Sharma, and Archana Sharma,
[http://www.americanscience.org/journals/am-sci/0202/07-0114-anthwal.doc Sacred Groves: Traditional Way of Conserving Plant Diversity in Garhwal Himalaya, Uttaranchal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070706223523/http://www.americanscience.org/journals/am-sci/0202/07-0114-anthwal.doc |date=6 July 2007 }},
The Journal of American Science, 2(2), 2006, Anthwal et al., Sacred Groves: Conserving Plant Diversity</ref>
|-
| [[West Bengal]]
| 670*
| ''Garamthan'', ''Harithan'',<br>''Jahera'', ''Sabitrithan'',<br>''Santalburithan''
| R. K. Bhakat <ref>
Ram Kumar Bhakat,
Socio-religious and ecological perspective of a sacred grove from Midnapore district, West Bengal,
Science and Culture (Sci. Cult.), 2003, vol. 69, no 11-12, pp. 371-374
</ref>
|}

All numbers are quoted from the records of the ''C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre'' of the Government of India. Starred numbers are likely to increase. The centre also maintains a complete list of identified sacred groves in India, most of which is online.<ref>[http://ecoheritage.cpreec.org/innerpageof.php?$mFJyBfKPkE6 Database] at the CPR Environmental Education Centre</ref>

==Uses==

'''Traditional uses''': One of the most important traditional uses of sacred groves was that it acted as a repository for various [[Ayurvedic]] medicines. Other uses involved a source of replenishable resources like fruits and honey. However, in most  sacred  groves it was taboo to hunt or chop wood. The vegetation cover helps reduce soil erosion and prevents [[desertification]], as in [[Rajasthan]]. The groves are often associated with ponds and streams, and meet water requirements of local communities. They sometimes help in recharging [[aquifer]]s as well.

'''Modern uses''': In modern times, sacred groves have become [[biodiversity hotspot]]s, as various species seek refuge in the areas due to progressive [[habitat destruction]], and hunting. Sacred groves often contain plant and animal species that have become extinct in neighboring areas. They therefore harbor great genetic diversity. Besides this, sacred groves in urban landscapes act as "lungs" to the city as well, providing much needed vegetation cover.

==Threats==
Threats to the grove include [[urbanization]], [[over-exploitation]] of resources (like [[overgrazing]] and excessive firewood collection), and environmental destruction due to religious practices. While many of the groves are looked upon as abodes of Hindu gods, in the recent past a number of them have been partially cleared for construction of shrines and temples.<ref name = "mal"/> Other threats to the sacred groves include invasion by [[invasive species]], like the [[invasive weed]]s ''[[Chromolaena odorata]]'', ''[[Lantana camara]]'' and ''[[Prosopis juliflora]]''.

== See also ==
* [[List of types of formally designated forests]]
* [[Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education]]

==Traditions==
A large number of distinct local art forms and folk traditions are associated with the deities of sacred groves, and are an important cultural aspect closely associated with sacred traditions. Ritualistic dances and dramatizations based on the local deities that protect the groves are called ''Theyyam'' in Kerala and ''Nagmandalam'', among other names, in [[Karnataka]]. Often, elaborate rituals and traditions are associated with sacred groves,<ref>Chris A. Gregory, [http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/JSS/JSS-08-0-000-000-2004-Web/JSS-08-2-085-178-2004-Abst-PDF/JSS-08-2-093-104-2004-Gregory/JSS-08-2-093-104-2004-Gregory.pdf The Oral Epics of the Women of the Dandakaranya Plateau: A Preliminary Mapping], J. Soc. Sci., 8(2): 93-104 (2004)</ref> as are associated [[Folklore|folk tale]]s and folk mythology.

==References==

===Notes===
{{reflist}}

===Further reading===
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721155335/http://www.ces.iisc.ernet.in/biodiversity/sahyadri_enews/newsletter/issue30/M%20D%20S%20Chandran.pdf Shifting Cultivation, Sacred Groves and Conflicts in Colonial Forest Policy in the Western Ghats.]M. D. Subash Chandran; Chapter Twenty-two. PDF [http://www.ces.iisc.ernet.in/biodiversity/sahyadri_enews/newsletter/issue30/M%20D%20S%20Chandran.pdf]
* [https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:gLUpPqllKpQJ:www.ces.iisc.ernet.in/biodiversity/sahyadri_enews/newsletter/issue4/Yogesh_CEdimensions.pdf+Floristic+elements+and+distribution+pattern+in+the+flora+of+Chotanagpur+%28Bihar%29+India&hl=en&gl=ca&sig=AHIEtbQIfGI5RwxoADEO9H5tn-PQY4ZvtA CULTURAL AND ECOLOGICAL DIMENSIONS OF SACRED GROVES IN INDIA] By Kailash C. Malhotra, Yogesh Gokhale, Sudipto Chatterjee, Sanjeev Srivastava. Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi & Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Manav Sangrahalaya, Bhopal; June, 2001. Published by: Indian National Science Academy, Bhopal. Printed at : Nirmal Vijay Printer, New Delhi. PDF [http://www.ces.iisc.ernet.in/biodiversity/sahyadri_enews/newsletter/issue4/Yogesh_CEdimensions.pdf]
* [https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:6GXHNAHh4BMJ:wgbis.ces.iisc.ernet.in/biodiversity/sahyadri_enews/newsletter/issue4/Yogesh_Anno_bib.pdf+Floristic+elements+and+distribution+pattern+in+the+flora+of+Chotanagpur+%28Bihar%29+India&hl=en&gl=ca&sig=AHIEtbTV62SpR0jZ-8bC4bOMZHXjgHf8Lw SACRED GROVES OF INDIA : AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY]; By Kailash C. Malhotra, Yogesh Gokhale, Ketaki Das. INDIAN NATIONAL SCIENCE ACADEMY AND DEVELOPMENT ALLIANCE; © Development Alliance, New Delhi (www.dev-alliance.com); August, 2001. PDF [http://wgbis.ces.iisc.ernet.in/biodiversity/sahyadri_enews/newsletter/issue4/Yogesh_Anno_bib.pdf]
* [http://www.ecoheritage.cpreec.org/Viewcontall.php?$mFiHPEyWNks6UXr4nWz SACRED GROVES SOURCES] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170331205935/http://www.ecoheritage.cpreec.org/Viewcontall.php?$mFiHPEyWNks6UXr4nWz |date=31 March 2017 }}; ENVIS; C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre is a Centre of Excellence of the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India.
* [http://www.ecoheritage.cpreec.org/index.php ENVIS Centre on Conservation of Ecological Heritage and Sacred Sights of India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190112195115/http://www.ecoheritage.cpreec.org/index.php |date=12 January 2019 }}; ENVIS; C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre is a Centre of Excellence of the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. 

{{Worship in Hinduism}}

{{commons category|Hindu shrines in Kerala}}

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[[Category:Communal forests of India]]
[[Category:Indian traditions]]
[[Category:Sacred groves]]
[[Category:Sacred trees in Hinduism]]
[[Category:Hindu temples in Kerala]]