View source for Kapila

{{Short description|Vedic Sage in Hindu tradition}}
{{about|the Hindu sage Kapila}}
{{See also-text|[[Kapil Ashram]]}}{{EngvarB|date=September 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2014}}
{{Infobox Hindu leader
| image              = Kapila.jpg
| alt                = Kapila
| caption            = Watercolour painting on paper of Kapila, a [[rishi|sage]]
| religion           = [[Hinduism]]
| philosophy         = [[Samkhya]]
| parents            = Devahuti (mother), [[Kardama]] (father)
| influenced         = [[Buddha]], [[Vyasa]], [[Samkhya]] and [[Yoga]] philosophers
| spouse             = Dhriti <ref>{{cite web | url=https://archive.org/details/brahma-vaivarta-purana-all-four-kandas-english-translation/page/n168/mode/1up?q=Kapila | title=Brahma Vaivarta Purana - English Translation - All Four Kandas | date=January 2003 }}</ref>
}}
{{Hindu philosophy}}
'''Kapila''' ({{langx|sa|कपिल}}) (7th<ref name="Lochtefeld2002p350">{{cite book|author=James G. Lochtefeld|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M|url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch|url-access=registration|year=2002|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-8239-3179-8|page=350|access-date=28 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200316052117/https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch|archive-date=16 March 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>-6th-century BCE<ref name=encyclobritannicakapila/>), also referred to as '''Cakradhanus''',<ref name="www.wisdomlib.org">{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2019-01-28 |title=Story of Kapila |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/compilation/puranic-encyclopaedia/d/doc241684.html |access-date=2022-08-08 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref> is a Vedic sage in [[Hinduism|Hindu]] tradition,<ref name= britannicakapila/><ref name=kapilavedic2/>{{refn|group=note|The historicity of Kapila is debated. Several scholars have put forward that he is entirely mythological.}} regarded the founder of the [[Samkhya]] school of [[Hindu philosophy]].<ref name="Dhand2009p41">{{cite book|author=Arti Dhand|title=Woman as Fire, Woman as Sage|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rCopAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA41|year=2009|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-7988-9|pages=41–42|access-date=11 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170416134501/https://books.google.com/books?id=rCopAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA41|archive-date=16 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name= britannicakapila>{{cite book|author=((Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica))|title=The New Encyclopædia Britannica|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qH4xAQAAIAAJ|year=1998|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|isbn=978-0-85229-633-2|page=731|access-date=11 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170416130243/https://books.google.com/books?id=qH4xAQAAIAAJ|archive-date=16 April 2017|url-status=live}}, Quote:"Kapila (fl. 550 BC), Vedic sage and founder of the system of Samkhya, one of the six schools of Vedic philosophy."</ref>

His influence on [[Buddha]] and [[Buddhism]] has long been the subject of scholarly studies. There have been accusations by [[Theravada|orthodox Buddhists]] that [[Sarvastivada|Sarvastivadins]] are heavily influenced by [[Sankhya|Samkhya]] school of philosophy.<ref name="maxmuller9" /><ref>W. Woodhill Rockhill (2000 Reprint), The Life of the Buddha and the Early History of His Order, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-1-136-37937-6}}, pages 11–19</ref>

According to the [[Brahmanda Purana]], Kapila is described as an incarnation of [[Vishnu]]: "Bhagavān Nārāyaṇa will protect us all. The Lord of the universe has now been born in the world as Kapilācārya."<ref name="www.wisdomlib.org"/>

Many historic personalities in Hinduism and [[Jainism]], mythical figures, pilgrimage sites in Indian religion, as well as an ancient variety of cow, are named after Kapila, or share his name.<ref name="Lochtefeld2002p350" /><ref>{{cite book|author=Knut A. Jacobsen|title=Pilgrimage in the Hindu Tradition: Salvific Space|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kn6_3oBFAqIC&pg=PA114|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-59038-9|pages=114–115|access-date=11 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200119033408/https://books.google.com/books?id=Kn6_3oBFAqIC&pg=PA114|archive-date=19 January 2020|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="fynes144">{{cite book|author1=Hemacandra|translator1-first=R. C. C. |translator1-last=Fynes |title=The Lives of the Jain Elders|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=quNpKVqABGMC&pg=PA144|year=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-283227-6|pages=144–146, Canto Seven, verses 1–19|access-date=11 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200111181352/https://books.google.com/books?id=quNpKVqABGMC&pg=PA144|archive-date=11 January 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Kapila Maharshi Statue Nashik.jpg|thumb|Statue of Kapila Maharshi, [[Nashik]]]]
[[File:Statue of Kapila.jpg|thumb|Memorial Statue of the sage Kapila at the entrance gate of the [[Uchhaith|Uchchaith Bhagawati Mandir]] complex near [[Benipatti]] town in the [[Mithila (region)|Mithila region]] of Bihar ]]

==Biography==
The name Kapila appears in many texts, and it is likely that these names refer to different people.<ref name=rajusdit304/><ref>{{cite journal | last=Burley | first=M. | title=Kapila: Founder of Samkhya and Avatara of Visnu (with a Translation of Kapilasurisamvada). By Knut A. Jacobsen. | journal=The Journal of Hindu Studies | publisher=Oxford University Press | volume=2 | issue=2 | year=2009 | pages=244–246 | doi=10.1093/jhs/hip013 }}</ref> The most famous reference is to the sage Kapila with his student [[Asuri (Samkhya)|Āsuri]], who in the Indian tradition, are considered as the first masters of [[Samkhya]] school of [[Hindu philosophy]]. While he pre-dates [[Buddha]], it is unclear which century he lived in, with some suggesting 6th-century BCE.<ref name=encyclobritannicakapila>[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Kapila Kapila] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151116050816/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Kapila |date=16 November 2015 }} Encyclopædia Britannica (2014)</ref> Others place him in the 7th century BCE.<ref name=rajusdit304>PT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-88706-139-4}}, page 304</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=A. L. Herman|title=An Introduction to Buddhist Thought: A Philosophic History of Indian Buddhism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KJ8KAAAAYAAJ|year=1983|publisher=University Press of America|isbn=978-0-8191-3595-7|page=178|access-date=11 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170416134626/https://books.google.com/books?id=KJ8KAAAAYAAJ|archive-date=16 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> This places him in the late [[Vedic period]] (1500 BCE to 500 BCE), and he has been called a Vedic sage.<ref name= britannicakapila/><ref name=kapilavedic2>{{cite book|author=Guida Myrl Jackson-Laufer|title=Traditional Epics: A Literary Companion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LcLYAAAAMAAJ|year=1994|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-510276-5|page=321|access-date=11 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161223203151/https://books.google.com/books?id=LcLYAAAAMAAJ|archive-date=23 December 2016|url-status=live}}, '''Quote:''' "Kapila was a Vedic sage (ca. 550 B.C.) and founder of the Samkhya school of Vedic philosophy.";<br>{{cite book|author1=John Haldane|author2=Krishna Dronamraju|title=What I Require From Life|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5233gQF1kBEC&pg=PA225|year=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-923770-8|page=225|access-date=11 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170416132809/https://books.google.com/books?id=5233gQF1kBEC&pg=PA225|archive-date=16 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

Kapila is credited with authoring an influential [[sutra]], called Samkhya-sutra (also called Kapila-sutra), which aphoristically presents the dualistic philosophy of Samkhya.<ref name=ballantyne156>Kapila (James Robert Ballantyne, Translator, 1865), {{Google books|mOY9AAAAcAAJ|The Sāmkhya aphorisms of Kapila}}, pages 156–157</ref><ref>Max Muller et al. (1999 Reprint), Studies in Buddhism, Asian Educational Services, {{ISBN|81-206-1226-4}}, page 10 with footnote</ref> These sutras were explained in another well studied text of Hinduism called the [[Samkhyakarika]].<ref name=rajusdit304/> Beyond his Samkhya philosophy, he appears in many dialogues of Hindu texts, such as in explaining and defending the principle of [[ahimsa]] (non-violence) in the [[Mahabharata]].<ref name="Dhand2009p41"/>

== Hinduism ==
Kapila is the tenth child of the sage [[Kardama]] and Devahūti. Kardama is provided a boon by Narayana that he would himself be born as his son. After attaining this, Kardama wished to leave for the forest for penance and research and Vedic study. Kardama had nine daughters who were very learned and went ahead to marry great sages mentioned in ancient Indian history{{Note|Or Hindu mythology, as several scholars assert}}.

=== Vedic texts ===
The [[Rigveda]] X.27.16 mentions Kapila (''daśānām ekam kapilam'') which the 14th-century Vedic commentator [[Sayana]] thought refers to a sage; a view which Chakravarti in 1951 and Larson in 1987 consider unreliable, with Chakravarti suggesting that the word refers to one of the [[Maruts]],<ref name="chakravarthi">{{cite book |last=Chakravarti |first=Pulinbihari |title=Origin and Development of the Sāṃkhya System of Thought |url=http://theosnet.net/dzyan/hindu/samkhya_karika_and_yukti-dipika_intro.pdf |year=1951 |publisher=Oriental Books Reprint Corporation: exclusively distributed by Munshinam Manoharlal Publishers |page=6 |access-date=9 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160822014138/http://theosnet.net/dzyan/hindu/samkhya_karika_and_yukti-dipika_intro.pdf |archive-date=22 August 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> while Larson and Bhattacharya state kapilam in that verse means "tawny" or "reddish-brown";<ref name="larson">{{cite book|author1=Larson, Gerald James|author2=Potter, Karl H.|author3=Bhattacharya, Ram Shankar|title=The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Sāṃkhya, Volume 4 of The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies|year =1987| publisher=Princeton University Press, (Reprint: Motilal Banarsidass)| page=109|isbn=978-0-691-60441-1}}</ref> as is also translated by Griffith.{{refn|group=note|dashAnAmekaM kapilaM samAnaM taM hinvanti kratavepAryAya<br>
garbhaM mAtA sudhitaM vakSaNAsvavenantantuSayantI bibharti <ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.intratext.com/ixt/san0010/__POI.HTM | title=Rig Veda (Sanskrit): Text - IntraText CT | access-date=10 August 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826163922/http://www.intratext.com/ixt/san0010/__POI.HTM | archive-date=26 August 2016 | url-status=live }}</ref><br>Translated by Griffith as:<br>
One of the ten, the tawny, shared in common, they send to execute their final purpose.<br> The Mother carries on her breast the Infant of noble form and soothes it while it knows not.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.intratext.com/ixt/ENG0039/__PO0.HTM | title=Rig Veda (Griffith tr.): Text - IntraText CT | access-date=10 August 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826172005/http://www.intratext.com/ixt/ENG0039/__PO0.HTM | archive-date=26 August 2016 | url-status=live }}</ref>}}

The Śata-piṭaka Series on the Śākhās of the [[Yajurveda]] – estimated to have been composed between 1200 and 1000 BCE<ref name="mwitzel68">Michael Witzel (2003), "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism (Editor: Gavin Flood), Blackwell, {{ISBN|0-631-21535-2}}, pages 68–70</ref> – mention of a ''Kapila Śākhā'' situated in the Āryāvarta, which implies a Yajurveda school is named after Kapila.<ref name="larson" /> The term Kapileya, meaning "clans of Kapila", occurs in the [[Aitareya Brahmana]] VII.17 but provides no information on the original Kapila.{{refn|group=note|Quote from Chakravarti's work: These Kapileyas are the clans of Kapila, but who was the original Kapila, we cannot know; for the text does not supply us with any further data. In his article on the Śākhās of the Yajurveda, Dr. Raghuvira acquaints us with one ''Kapila Śākhā'' that was situated in the Āryāvarta. But we do not know anything else as regards the Kapila with whom the said branch was associated. Further in the ''khilas'' of the Rgveda, one Kapila is mentioned along with some other sages. But the account of all these Kapilas is very meagre and hence cannot be much estimated in discussing the attitude of Sāṃkhya Kapila towards the Vedas. Though the Sāṃkhya vehemently criticises the Vedic sacrifices, but thereby it does not totally set aside the validity of the Vedas. In that case it is sure to fall under the category of the nāstika philosophy and could not exercise so much influence upon the orthodox minds; for it is well known that most of the branches of orthodox literature are more or less replete with the praise of Samkhya".<ref>{{cite book|last=Chakravarti|first=Pulinbihari|title=Origin and Development of the Sāṃkhya System of Thought|url=http://theosnet.net/dzyan/hindu/samkhya_karika_and_yukti-dipika_intro.pdf|year=1951|publisher=Oriental Books Reprint Corporation: exclusively distributed by Munshinam Manoharlal Publishers|page=7|access-date=9 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160822014138/http://theosnet.net/dzyan/hindu/samkhya_karika_and_yukti-dipika_intro.pdf|archive-date=22 August 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>}} The pariśiṣṭa (addenda) of the [[Atharvaveda]] (at XI.III.3.4){{refn|group=note|The pariśiṣṭa to each Veda were composed after the Veda;<ref>{{cite book|author1=Moriz Winternitz|author2=V. Srinivasa Sarma|title=A History of Indian Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C|year=1996|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0264-3|pages=261–262|access-date=11 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160708015319/https://books.google.com/books?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C|archive-date=8 July 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Atharvaveda itself estimated to have been composed by about 1000 BCE.<ref name=mwitzel68/>}} mentions Kapila, Āsuri and Pañcaśikha in connection with a libation ritual for whom ''tarpana'' is to be offered.<ref name="larson" /> In verse 5.2 of [[Shvetashvatara Upanishad]], states Larson, both the terms Samkhya and Kapila appear, with Kapila meaning colour as well as a "seer" ([[Rishi]]) with the phrase "''ṛṣiṃ prasūtaṃ kapilam&nbsp;... tam agre..''"; which when compared to other verses of the [[Shvetashvatara Upanishad]] Kapila likely construes to Rudra and Hiranyagarbha.<ref name="larson" /> However, Max Muller is of view that Hiranyagarbha, namely Kapila in this context, varies with the tenor of the Upanishad, is distinct and is later used to link Kapila and assign the authorship of Samkya system to Hiranyagarbha in reverence for the philosophical system.<ref name="muller">{{cite book|last= Müller |first=F.Max |title=The Upanishads, Part 2| year =2012| publisher=Courier Corporation| page=xxxviii-xli| isbn =978-0-486-15711-5}}</ref>

=== Puranas ===
Kapila, states George Williams, lived long before the composition of the Epics and the Puranas, and his name is coopted in various later composed mythologies.<ref>{{cite book|author=George M. Williams|title=Handbook of Hindu Mythology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N7LOZfwCDpEC |year=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-533261-2|page=181}}</ref>

*'''''As an ascetic and as sleeping Vishnu''''': In the [[Brahma Purana]], when the evil king [[Vena (Hindu king)|Vena]] abandoned the Vedas, declared that he is the only creator of [[dharma]], and broke all limits of righteousness. It is also believed that Kapila is the 5th incarnation of lord vishnu who was born in a village Mahangupur near the banks of river Saryu in Gonda district of Uttarpradesh<ref>{{cite book|author1=Söhnen-Thieme, Renate|author2=Söhnen, Renate|author3=Schreiner, Peter|title=Brahmapurāṇa, Volume 2 of Purāṇa research publications, Tübingen|pages=9–10|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|year=1989|isbn=3-447-02960-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J2c6-tAt4vwC|access-date=10 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222031509/https://books.google.com/books?id=J2c6-tAt4vwC|archive-date=22 December 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> and is killed, Kapila advises hermits to churn Vena's thigh from which emerged Nishadas, and his right hand from which Prthu originated who made earth productive again. Kapila and hermits then went to Kapilasangama, a holy place where rivers meet.<ref name="sohnen234">{{cite book|author1=Söhnen-Thieme, Renate|author2=Söhnen, Renate|author3=Schreiner, Peter|title=Brahmapurāṇa, Volume 2 of Purāṇa research publications, Tübingen|pages=234–235|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|year=1989|isbn=3-447-02960-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J2c6-tAt4vwC|access-date=10 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222031509/https://books.google.com/books?id=J2c6-tAt4vwC|archive-date=22 December 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The Brahma Purana also mentions Kapila in the context of [[King Sagara|Sagara]]'s 60,000 sons who looking for their Ashvamedha horse, disturbed Vishnu who is sleeping in the shape of Kapila. He woke up, the brilliance in his eyes burnt all but four of Sagara's sons to ashes, leaving few survivors carrying on the family lineage.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Söhnen-Thieme, Renate|author2=Söhnen, Renate|author3=Schreiner, Peter|title=Brahmapurāṇa, Volume 2 of Purāṇa research publications, Tübingen|pages=22, 141–142|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|year=1989|isbn=3-447-02960-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J2c6-tAt4vwC|access-date=10 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222031509/https://books.google.com/books?id=J2c6-tAt4vwC|archive-date=22 December 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> [[King Sagara|Sagara]]'s son is King Dilipa and his grandson is [[Bhagiratha]]. On the advice of his guru Trithala, Bhagiratha did penance for a thousand years (according to god timeline) to please Ganga, to gain the release his 60,000 great-uncles from the curse of saint Kapila.
*'''''As Vishnu's incarnation''''': The [[Narada Purana]] enumerates two Kapilas, one as the incarnation of [[Brahma]] and another as the incarnation of [[Vishnu]]. The Puranas [[Bhagavata Purana|Bhagavata]], [[Brahmanda]], [[Vishnu Purana|Vishnu]], [[Padma Purana|Padma]], [[Skanda Purana|Skanda]], [[Narada Purana]]; and the [[Valmiki Ramayana]] mentions Kapila is an incarnation of Vishnu. The Padma Purana and Skanda Purana conclusively call him Vishnu himself who descended on earth to disseminate true knowledge. Bhagavata Purana calls him ''Vedagarbha Vishnu''. The [[Vishnu sahasranama|Vishnusahasranama]] mentions Kapila as a name of Vishnu. In his commentary on the Samkhyasutra, [[Vijnanabhikshu]] mentions Kapila, the founder of Samkhya system, is Vishnu. Jacobsen suggests Kapila of the Veda, [[Śramaṇa]] tradition and the Mahabharata is the same person as Kapila the founder of Samkhya; and this individual is considered as an incarnation of Vishnu in the Hindu texts.<ref name="jacobsen">{{cite book |year=2008 |surname=Jacobsen |given=Knut A. |author-link=Knut A. Jacobsen |title=Kapila, Founder of Sāṃkhya and Avatāra of Viṣṇu: With a Translation of Kapilāsurisaṃvāda |place=New Delhi |publisher=[[Munshiram Manoharlal]] |isbn=978-81-215-1194-0 |pages=9–25}}</ref>
*'''''As son of Kardama muni''''': The Book 3 of the [[Bhagavata Purana]],<ref name="Sheridan" /><ref>{{cite book|last= Sen |first=Gunada Charan |title=Srimadbhagavatam: A Concise Narrative| year =1986| publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers| pages=26–28|isbn=81-215-0036-2}}</ref> states Kapila is the son of [[Kardama]] Prajapati and his wife Devahuti. Kardama is born from Chaya, the reflection of [[Brahma]]. Brahma asks Kardama to procreate upon which Kardama goes to the banks of [[Sarasvati river]], practices penance, visualizes [[Vishnu]] and is told by Vishnu that [[Manu (Hinduism)|Manu]], the son of Brahma will arrive there with his wife [[Shatarupa]] in search of a groom for their daughter Devahuti. Vishnu advises Kardama to marry Devahuti, and blesses Kardama that he himself will be born as his son. Besides Kapila as their only son, Kardama and Devahuti had nine daughters, namely Kala, [[Anusuya]], Sraddha, Havirbhu, Gati, Kriya, [[Khyati]], [[Arundhati (Hinduism)|Arundhati]] and Shanti who were married to [[Marichi|Marici]], [[Atri]], [[Angiras]], [[Pulastya]], [[Pulaha]], Kratu, [[Bhrigu]], [[Vashistha]], and [[Atharvan]] respectively. H.H.Wilson notes the Bhagavatha adds a third daughter Devahuti to introduce the long legend of Kardama, and of their son Kapila, an account not found elsewhere.<ref>{{cite book|last= Wilson |first=H.H |title=The Vishnu Purana| year =1961| publisher=Рипол Классик|page=108| isbn=5-87618-744-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EU8NAwAAQBAJ&q=kapila+kardama+%22legend+not+met+with+anywhere+else%22+wilson&pg=PA108}}</ref> Kapila is described, states Daniel Sheridan, by the redactor of the Purana, as an incarnation of the supreme being Vishnu, in order to reinforce the Purana teaching by linking it to the traditional respect to Kapila's Samkhya in Hinduism.<ref name="Sheridan" /> In the Bhagavata Purana, Kapila presents to his mother Devahuti, the philosophy of [[yoga]] and theistic dualism.<ref name="Sheridan" /> Kapila's Samkhya is also described through Krishna to [[Uddhava]] in Book 11 of the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'', a passage also known as the "[[Uddhava Gita]]".<ref name="Sheridan">{{cite book |last=Sheridan |first=Daniel |title=The Advaitic Theism of the Bhagavata Purana |pages=42–43 |publisher=South Asia Books |location=Columbia, Mo |year=1986 |isbn=81-208-0179-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qrtYYTjYFY8C |access-date=11 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215105221/https://books.google.com/books?id=qrtYYTjYFY8C |archive-date=15 February 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*'''''As son of Kashyapa''''': The Matsya Purana mentions Kapila as the son of [[Kashyapa]] from his wife [[Danu (Asura)|Danu]], daughter of Daksha Prajapati. Kapila is one among Danu's 100 sons, and her other sons (Kapila's brothers) mentioned in the Vishnu Purana include Dvimurddha, Shankara, Ayomukha, Shankhushiras, Samvara, Ekachakra, Taraka, Vrishaparvan, Svarbhanu, [[Puloman]], Viprachitti and other [[Danavas]].<ref>{{cite book|last= Dalal |first=Roshen |title=Hinduism--An Alphabetical Guide| year =2014| publisher=Penguin, UK| isbn=978-81-8475-277-9}}</ref>
*'''''As son of Vitatha or Bharadwaja''''': In the [[Brahma Purana]]<ref name="vp112">{{Cite web | url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp112.htm | title=The Vishnu Purana: Book IV: Chapter XIX | access-date=9 August 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160512051546/http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp112.htm | archive-date=12 May 2016 | url-status=live }}</ref> and in the [[Harivamsa]]<ref name="alan">{{cite book|last=Daniélou|first=Alan|title=The Myths and Gods of India: The Classic Work on Hindu Polytheism from the Princeton Bollingen Series|year=1991|publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Co|page=[https://archive.org/details/mythsgodsofindia00dani/page/183 183]|isbn=0-89281-354-7|url=https://archive.org/details/mythsgodsofindia00dani/page/183}}</ref> Kapila is the son of Vitatha. Daniélou translates Vitatha to inaccuracy;<ref name="alan" /> and Wilson notes Bharadwaja is also named Vitatha (unprofitable);<ref name="vp112" /> while he is given in adoption to Bharata. Vishnu Purana notes Bhavanmanyu is the son of Vitatha but Brahma Purana and Harivamsa omit this and make Suhotra, Anuhotra, Gaya, Garga, and Kapila the sons of Vitatha.<ref name="vp112" /> The Brahma Purana differs from other puranas in saying Vitatha is the son of [[Bharadwaja]]; and upon the death of Bharata, Bharadwaja installed Vitatha as the king, before leaving for the forest.<ref>{{cite book|last= Sarmah |first=Taneswar|title=Bharadvājas in Ancient India| year =1991| publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ| page=61|isbn=81-208-0639-5}}</ref>

=== Dharmasutras and other texts ===
{{Quote box
 |quote  = '''Non-violence'''
<poem>
Fearlessness to all living beings from my side,
Svāhā!
</poem>
 |source = —''Kapila'', Baudhayana Grihya Sutra, 4.16.4<ref name="HoubenKooij1999p131"/><br>Translators: Jan E. M. Houben, Karel Rijk van Kooij
 |bgcolor=#FFE0BB
 |align  = right
}}'''As son of [[Prahlada]]''': The Baudhayana Dharmasutra mentions the Asura{{Refn|group=note|In Vedic texts, Asura refers to any spiritual or divine being.<ref name="HoubenKooij1999p131">{{cite book|author1=Jan E. M. Houben|author2=Karel Rijk van Kooij|title=Violence Denied: Violence, Non-Violence and the Rationalization of Violence in South Asian Cultural History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6znfIA3UfWcC&pg=PA131|year=1999|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-11344-4|pages=131–132, 143|access-date=11 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200112183407/https://books.google.com/books?id=6znfIA3UfWcC&pg=PA131|archive-date=12 January 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> Later, the meaning of Asura contrasts with Deva.<ref>Jeaneane D Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1-84519-346-1}}, pages 253–262</ref>}} Kapila is the son of Prahlada in the chapter laying rules for the [[Vaikhanasas]].{{refn|group=note|
Baudhayana Dharma Sutra, Prasna II, Adhyaya 6, Kandika 11, Verses 1 to 34:<br>
14. A hermit is he who regulates his conduct entirely according to the Institutes proclaimed by Vikhanas.(...)<br>
28. With reference to this matter they quote also (the following passage): 'There was, forsooth, an Âsura, Kapila by name, the son of Prahlâda. Striving with the gods, he made these divisions. A wise man should not take heed of them.'<ref>{{cite web| author=Georg Bühler| year=1898| title=The sacred laws of the Aryas : as taught in the schools of Apastamba, Gautama, Vasishtha and Baudhayana| website=Internet Archive| pages=256–262 (verses II.6.11.1–34)| url=https://archive.org/stream/sacredlawsofarya00buhliala#page/256/mode/2up| publisher=The Christian Literature Company| access-date=2016-08-09| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160319071743/https://archive.org/stream/sacredlawsofarya00buhliala#page/256/mode/2up| archive-date=19 March 2016| url-status=live}}</ref>}} The section IV.16 of ''Baudhāyana Gṛhyasūtra'' mentions Kapila as the one who set up rules for ascetic life.<ref name="larson" /> Kapila is credited, in the Baudhayana Dharmasutra, with creating the four [[Ashrama (stage)|Ashrama]] orders: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and sanyassa, and suggesting that renouncer should never injure any living being in word, thought or deed.<ref name="HoubenKooij1999p131" /> He is said to have made rules for renouncement of the sacrifices and rituals in the Vedas, and an ascetic's attachment instead to the [[Brahman]].<ref name="buhlerbaudh">{{cite web | author=Georg Bühler | year=1898 | title=The sacred laws of the Aryas : as taught in the schools of Apastamba, Gautama, Vasishtha and Baudhayana | website=Internet Archive | url=https://archive.org/stream/sacredlawsofarya00buhliala#page/260/mode/2up | publisher=The Christian Literature Company | access-date=2016-08-09 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160319071743/https://archive.org/stream/sacredlawsofarya00buhliala#page/260/mode/2up | archive-date=19 March 2016 | url-status=live }}</ref>{{refn|group=note|The Baudhayana Dharmasutra Prasna II, Adyaya 6, Kandiaka 11, Verses 26 to 34 dissuade the Vaikhanasas from sacrificial ritual works in the Vedas.<ref name="buhlerbaudh"/>}} In other Hindu texts such as the Mahabharata, Kapila is again the sage who argues against sacrifices, and for non-violence and an end to cruelty to animals, with the argument that if sacrifices benefited the animal, then logically the family who sacrifices would benefit by a similar death.<ref name="Dhand2009p41" />  According to Chaturvedi, in a study of inscriptions of Khajuraho temples, the early Samkhya philosophers were possibly disciples of female teachers.{{refn|group=note|Quote from p. 49–51: Of course, the Panchatantrikas accorded a place of honour to Kapila who was designated ''muni'' and ''paramarishi'', and even identified with Narayana. The original concept of Kapila, the ''asura exponent of one of the oldest systems of philosophy is, however, preserved in the present inscription''. (...) The Rūpamaņḍana and Aparājittapŗichha accounts of the deity mention a female face instead of Kapila which has puzzled scholars. In this connection, it may be pointed out that in the Mahabharata, Pañcaśīkha the disciple of Āsuri has been called Kapileya. He was so named because he was fed on the breast-milk of a brahmana lady, Kapila. According to Chattopadhyaya, "We have to take the story of Kapila breast-feeding Panchasikha ina figurative sense and if we do so the myth might suggest the story of an original female preceptor of the Samkhya system."<ref>{{cite journal |last=Chaturvedi |first=S.N. |year= 1985|title= The Vaikuṇtha image and the Khajurāho inscription of Yaśovarmmadeva|journal=Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art |volume=14 |pages=49–51 |publisher=Indian Society of Oriental Art }}</ref>}}

=== Imagery in the [[Agama (Hinduism)|Agamas]] ===
Kapila's imagery is depicted with a beard, seated in ''padmāsana'' with closed eyes indicating ''dhyāna'', with a ''jaṭā-maṇḍala'' around the head, showing high shoulders indicating he is greatly adept in controlling breath, draped in deer skin, wearing the yagñopavīta, with a ''kamaṇḍalu'' near him, with one hand placed in front of the crossed legs, and feet marked with lines resembling outline of a lotus. This Kapila is identified with Kapila the founder of Sāṅkhya system;<ref name="rao">{{cite book|first= Rao |last=T.A.Gopinatha |title=Elements of Hindu iconography| year =1993| publisher=Motilal Banarsidass| pages=247–248|isbn=81-208-0878-9}}</ref> while the Vaikhānasasāgama gives somewhat varying description. The Vaikhānasasāgama places Kapila as an āvaraņadēvāta and allocates the south-east corner of the first āvaraņa.<ref name="rao"/> As the embodiment of the Vedas his image is seated facing east with eight arms; of which four on the right should be in abhaya mudra, the other three should carry the Chakra, Khaḍga, Hala; one left hand is to rest on the hip in the ''kațyavarlambita'' pose and other three should carry the Ṡaṅkha, Pāśa and Daṇḍa.<ref name="rao"/>

=== Other descriptions ===
*The name Kapila is sometimes used as an epithet for [[Vasudeva]] with Vasudeva having incarnated in the place named Kapila.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Ānandavardhana |author2=Ingalls, Daniel Henry Holmes |title=Locana: Volume 49 of The Dhvanyāloka of Ānandavardhana with the Locana of Abhinavagupta| year =1990| publisher=Harvard University Press| page=694|isbn=0-674-20278-3}}</ref>
*Pradyumna assumed the form of Kapila when he became free from desire of worldly influences.<ref name="rao"/>
*Kapila is as one of the seven [[Guardians of the directions|Dikpalas]] with the other six being Dharma, Kala, Vasu, Vasuki, Ananta.
*The Jayakhya Samhita of 5th century AD alludes to the Chaturmukha Vishnu of Kashmir and mentions Vishnu with Varaha, [[Nrsimha]] and Kapila defeated the asuras who appeared before them in zoomorphic forms with Nrsimha and Varaha posited to be incarnations of Vishnu and Kapila respectively.<ref>{{cite book|last= Malla| first= Bansi Lal|title=Vaiṣṇava Art and Iconography of Kashmir| year =1996| publisher=Abhinav Publications| page=20|isbn=81-7017-305-1}}</ref>
*In the Vamana Purana, the Yakshas were sired by Kapila with his consort Kesini who is from the Khasa class; though the epics attribute the origin of Yakshas to a cosmic egg or to the sage Pulastya; while other puranas posit Kashyapa as the progenitor of Yakshas with his consort Vishva or Khasha.<ref name=misra>{{cite book|last= Misra |first=Ram Nath |title=Yaksha cult and iconography| year =1981| publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal| pages=6, 22}}</ref>
*In some puranas, Kapila is also mentioned as a female, a daughter of Khaśā and a Rākșasī, after whom came the name Kāpileya gaņa.<ref>{{cite book|last= Dikshitar |first=V.R.Ramachandra |title=The Purana Index: Volume I (from A to N)| year =1995| publisher=Motilal Banarsidass| page=314}}</ref> In the Mahabharat, Kapila is a daughter of Daksha{{refn|group=note|Section LXV of the Sambhava Parva of the Mahabharat states: The daughters of Daksha are, O tiger among men and prince of the Bharata race, Aditi, Diti, Danu, Kala, Danayu, Sinhika, Krodha, Pradha, Viswa, Vinata, Kapila, Muni, and Kadru&nbsp;... The Brahmanas, kine, Gandharvas, and Apsaras, were born of Kapila as stated in the Purana.<ref name="sacred-texts.com">{{Cite web | url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m01/m01066.htm | title=The Mahabharata, Book 1: Adi Parva: Sambhava Parva: Section LXV | access-date=9 August 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160618180243/http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m01/m01066.htm | archive-date=18 June 2016 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://eremita.di.uminho.pt/gutenberg/1/5/4/7/15474/15474-h/15474-h.htm |title=The Mahabharata, Volume I., Book 1-3 by Kisari Mohan Ganguli |access-date=9 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827045158/http://eremita.di.uminho.pt/gutenberg/1/5/4/7/15474/15474-h/15474-h.htm |archive-date=27 August 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>}} and having married Kashyapa gave birth to the Brahmanas, Kine, Gandharvas and Apsaras.<ref name="sacred-texts.com">{{Cite web | url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m01/m01066.htm | title=The Mahabharata, Book 1: Adi Parva: Sambhava Parva: Section LXV | access-date=9 August 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160618180243/http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m01/m01066.htm | archive-date=18 June 2016 | url-status=live }}</ref>
*Kapila being a great teacher also had gardening as a hobby focusing his time around the babool (Acacia) tree everywhere he lived.

=== Kapila Devahuti Samvada ===
[[File:Kapila Devahuti discussions.jpg|thumb]]
Kapila-Devahuti Samvada is the basis of ''[[Samkhya]] Philosophy''. Shri [[Krishna]] also mentioned this concept briefly to Arjun amidst their conversation during the [[Mahabharata]] war, which has been mentioned in the [[Bhagavad Gita]], Chapter 2, called Samkhya Yog.<ref>Easy Bhagavada Gita [https://www.google.ca/books/edition/Easy_Shrimad_Bhagavad_Gita/76IX0AEACAAJ?hl=en] Chapter Two. Retrieved on 18 January 2024.</ref> for which Kapila is well known. Kapila-Devahuti Samvada which roughly translates to "The Discussions between Kapila and Devahuti", touches topics on how to control oneself effectively and truly become the master of oneself.  Kapila Devahuti Samvada is a text where Devahuti approaches Kapila with a dilemma. She mentions that she is fed up of satisfying her five senses. She states that all her life, she has been giving in to these senses. but they are never satisfied. Kapila explains the [[Samkhya]] philosophy to set her mind at ease and give her inner peace. This discussion is in the form of question and answers format. This has been mentioned in detail in the third canto of [[Shrimad Bhagavata Purana]].<ref>Shrimad Bhagwatam.[https://books.google.com/books?id=BYVOCgAAQBAJ&dq=srimad+bhagavatam+canto+third&pg=PT766] Canto Three, Chapter 25. Retrieved on 18 January 2022.</ref>

== Jainism ==
Kapila is mentioned in chapter VIII of the '' [[Uttaradhyayana|Uttaradhyayana-sutra]]'', states Larson and Bhattacharya, where a discourse of poetical verses is titled as ''Kaviliyam'', or "Kapila's verses".<ref name=larson/>

The name Kapila appears in Jaina texts. For example, in the 12th century [[Hemacandra]]'s epic poem on Jain elders, Kapila appears as a Brahmin who converted to Jainism during the [[Nanda Empire]] era.<ref name=fynes144/>
 
According to ''Jnatadharmakatha'', Kapila is a contemporary of Krishna and the ''Vasudeva'' of ''Dhatakikhanda''. The text further mentions that both of them blew their ''[[shankha]]'' (conch shell) together.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1999|p=287}}

== Buddhism ==
Buddhists literature, such as the [[Jataka tales]], state the Buddha is Kapila in one of his previous lives.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Āryaśūra|translator1-first=Justin |translator1-last=Meiland |title=Garland of the Buddha's Past Lives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OOJAAQAAIAAJ|year=2009|publisher=New York University Press|isbn=978-0-8147-9581-1|pages=172, 354|access-date=11 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191219032758/https://books.google.com/books?id=OOJAAQAAIAAJ|archive-date=19 December 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Aiyangar Narayan|title=Essays On Indo-Aryan Mythology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Oym17qIeB-0C|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0140-6|page=472|access-date=11 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128201247/https://books.google.com/books?id=Oym17qIeB-0C|archive-date=28 January 2020|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=JF Fleet|title=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8t0sAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA164|year=1906|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=164|access-date=11 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171105145949/https://books.google.com/books?id=8t0sAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA164|archive-date=5 November 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

Scholars have long compared and associated the teachings of Kapila and Buddha. For example, [[Max Muller]] wrote (abridged),

{{Blockquote|
There are no doubt certain notions which Buddha shares in common, not only with Kapila, but with every Hindu philosopher. (...) It has been said that Buddha and Kapila were both atheists, and that Buddha borrowed his atheism from Kapila. But atheism is an indefinite term, and may mean very different things. In one sense, every Indian philosopher was an atheist, for they all perceived that the gods of the populace could not claim the attributes that belong to a Supreme Being (Absolute, the source of all that exists or seems to exist, [[Brahman]]). (...) Kapila, when accused of atheism, is not accused of denying the existence of an Absolute Being. He is accused of denying the existence of an [[Ishvara]].
|Max Muller et al.|Studies in Buddhism<ref name=maxmuller9>Max Muller et al. (1999 Reprint), Studies in Buddhism, Asian Educational Services, {{ISBN|81-206-1226-4}}, pages 9–10</ref>}}

Max Muller states the link between the more ancient Kapila's teachings on Buddha can be overstated.<ref name=maxmuller9/> This confusion is easy, states Muller, because Kapila's first [[sutra]] in his classic Samkhya-sutra, "the complete cessation of pain, which is of three kinds, is the highest aim of man", sounds like the natural inspiration for Buddha.<ref name=maxmuller9/> However, adds Muller, the teachings on how to achieve this, by Kapila and by Buddha, are very different.<ref name=maxmuller9/>

As Buddhist art often depicts Vedic deities, one can find art of both Narayana and Kapila as kings within a Buddhist temple, along with statues of Buddhist figures such as Amitabha, Maitreya, and Vairocana.<ref>P. 269 ''Introduction to Buddhist art'' By Chikyō Yamamoto</ref>

In Chinese Buddhism, the Buddha directed the Yaksha Kapila and fifteen daughters of Devas to become the patrons of China.<ref>{{cite book|last=Edkins|first=Joseph|title=Chinese Buddhism: A Volume of Sketches, Historical, Descriptive and Critical|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|page=39|isbn=978-1-136-37881-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RVH_AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA39|access-date=18 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191219011536/https://books.google.com/books?id=RVH_AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA39|archive-date=19 December 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Works==
The following works were authored by Kapila, some of which are lost, and known because they are mentioned in other works; while few others are unpublished manuscripts available in libraries stated:{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}
*Manvadi Shrāddha - mentioned by Rudradeva in ''Pakayajna Prakasa''.
*Dṛṣṭantara Yoga - also named ''Siddhāntasāra'' available at Madras Oriental Manuscripts Library.
*Kapilanyayabhasa - mentioned by Alberuni in his works.
*Kapila Purana - referred to by Sutasamhita and Kavindracharya. Available at Sarasvati Bhavana Library, Varanasi.
*Kapila Samhita - there are 2 works by the same name. One is the samhita quoted in the ''Bhagavatatatparyanirnaya'' and by Viramitrodaya in ''Samskaras''. Another is the Samhita detailing pilgrim centers of Orissa.
*Kapilasutra - Two books, namely the Samkya Pravacana Sutra and the Tattvasamasasutra, are jointly known as Kapilasutra. Bhaskararaya refers to them in his work Saubhagya-bhaskara.
*Kapila Stotra - Chapters 25 to 33 of the third khanda of the Bhagavata Mahapurana are called Kapila Stotra.
*Kapila Smriti - Available in the work ''Smriti-Sandarbha'', a collection of Smritis, from Gurumandal Publications.
*Kapilopanishad - Mentioned in the ''Anandasrama'' list at 4067 (Anandasrama 4067).
*Kapila Gita - also known as Dṛṣṭantasara or ''Siddhāntasāra''.
*Kapila [[Pancharatra]] - also known as Maha Kapila Pancharatra. Quoted by Raghunandana in ''Saṃskāra Mayukha''.
Ayurveda books mentioning Kapila's works are:
# Vagbhatta mentions Kapila's views in ''Sutrasthana''.
# Nischalakara mentions Kapila's views in his commentary on ''Chikitsa Sangraha''.
# Kapila's views are quoted in ''Ayurvedadipika''.
# The Kavindracharya list at 987 mentions a book named Kapila ''Siddhanta Rasayana''.
# Hemadri quotes Kapila's views in ''Ashtangahradaya'' (16th verse) of the commentary ''Ayurveda Rasayana''.
# Sarvadarsanasamgraha (''Sarva-darśana-saṃgraha'') mentions Kapila's views on [[Raseśvara]] school of philosophy.

==Significance==
Kapila, the founder of Samkhya, has been a highly revered sage in various schools of Hindu philosophy. [[Gaudapada]] (~500 CE), an [[Advaita Vedanta]] scholar, in his [[Bhasya]] called Kapila as one of the seven great sages along with Sanaka, Sananda, Sanatana, Asuri, Vodhu and Pancasikha.<ref name="larson108" /> [[Patanjali]], the [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]] scholar, in his ''[[Yogasutra]]-bhasya'' wrote Kapila to be the "primal wise man, or knower".<ref name="larson108">{{cite book|author1=Larson, Gerald James|author2=Potter, Karl H.|author3=Bhattacharya, Ram Shankar|title=The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Sāṃkhya, Volume 4 of The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies|year =1987| publisher=Princeton University Press, (Reprint: Motilal Banarsidass)| page=108|isbn=978-0-691-60441-1}}</ref> The Buddhist sources mention that the city of [[Kapilavastu (ancient city)|Kapilavastu]] is built in the honor of Kapila. It is in Kapilavastu that the [[Buddha]] is born; and, it is here he spent the first twenty-nine years of his life.<ref>{{Cite web|title=K Definitions|url=https://www.eastern-spirituality.com/glossary/spirituality-terms/k-definitions|access-date=2021-06-16|website=Eastern Spirituality|language=en-GB}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Prahlada]]
*[[Narada]]
*[[Vyasa]]
*[[Bhakti yoga]]
*[[Samkhya]]
*[[Ancient Mithila University]]
*[[Kapila Theertham]]
*[[Kapileshwar Temple, Bihar]]
*[[Kaul Village]]
*[[Kalayat]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Sources==
* {{Citation | last =Flood | first =Gavin D. | author-link = Gavin Flood | year =1996 | title =An Introduction to Hinduism | publisher =Cambridge University Press}}
* {{citation |last=von Glasenapp |first=Helmuth |author-link=Helmuth von Glasenapp |others=Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.) |title=Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation |date=1999 |location = [[Delhi]] |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC |isbn=81-208-1376-6 |trans-title=Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion}}
* {{cite book |year=2008 |surname=Jacobsen |given=Knut A. |author-link=Knut A. Jacobsen |title=Kapila, Founder of Sāṃkhya and Avatāra of Viṣṇu: With a Translation of Kapilāsurisaṃvāda |place=New Delhi |publisher=[[Munshiram Manoharlal]] |isbn=978-81-215-1194-0}}
* {{Cite FTP |last=Witzel |first=Michael |year=1995 |title=Early Sanskritization: Origin and Development of the Kuru state |volume=1 |issue=4 |server=EJVS |url-status=dead |url=ftp://ftp.uic.edu/pub/library/scua/Vedic%20Studies/1995.01.04.EJVS.pdf }}

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*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sak/ The Sánkhya Aphorisms of Kapila], 1885 translation by James R. Ballantyne, edited by Fitzedward Hall.

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