View source for Juniper

{{Short description|Genus of plants}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| image = Juniperus osteosperma 1.jpg
| image_upright = 
| image_alt = 
| image_caption = [[Juniperus osteosperma|Utah juniper]] (''Juniperus osteosperma'') in [[Nevada, United States]]
| taxon = Juniperus
| authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
| type_species = ''[[Juniperus communis]]''
| type_species_authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = 72; [[#Species|see text]].
| synonyms = * ''Arceuthos'' <small>Antoine & Kotschy</small>
* ''Oxycedrus'' <small>Carrière</small>
* ''Sabina'' <small>Miller</small>
* ''Sabinella'' <small>Nakai</small>
* ''Thujiaecarpus'' <small>von Trautvetter</small>
}}

'''Junipers''' are [[conifer]]ous trees and shrubs in the [[genus]] '''''Juniperus''''' ({{IPAc-en|dʒ|uː|ˈ|n|ɪ|p|ər|ə|s}} {{respell|joo|NIP|ər|əs}})<ref>''Sunset Western Garden Book'', 1995: 606–607</ref> of the cypress family [[Cupressaceae]]. Depending on the [[taxonomy]], between 50 and 67 species of junipers are widely [[species distribution|distributed]] throughout the [[Northern Hemisphere]] as far south as tropical [[Africa]], including the [[Arctic]], parts of Asia, and [[Central America]].{{not in body|date=August 2024}} The highest-known juniper forest occurs at an altitude of {{Convert|4900|m}} in southeastern [[Tibet]] and the northern [[Himalayas]], creating one of the highest [[tree line]]s on earth.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hampe|first1=Hampe|last2=Petit|first2=Re´my J.|title=Cryptic forest refugia on the 'Roof of the World'|journal=New Phytologist|date=2010|issue=1|pages=5–7|doi=10.1111/j.1469-8137.2009.03112.x|pmid=20088971|volume=185|bibcode=2010NewPh.185....5H |hdl=10261/64089|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

==Description==
[[File:Juniperus communis cones.jpg|thumb|left|Cones and leaves of ''[[Juniperus communis]]'']]

Junipers vary in size and shape from tall [[tree]]s, {{convert|20|–|40|m|abbr=off}} tall, to columnar or low-spreading [[shrub]]s with long, trailing branches. They are [[evergreen]] with needle-like and/or scale-like [[leaves]]. They can be either [[monoecious]] or [[dioecious]]. The female [[Conifer cone|seed cones]] are very distinctive, with fleshy, [[fruit]]-like coalescing scales which fuse together to form [[Juniper berry|a&nbsp;berrylike structure]] ([[galbulus]]), {{convert|4|–|27|mm|abbr=off|frac=16}} long, with one to 12 unwinged, hard-shelled [[seed]]s. In some species, these "berries" are red-brown or orange, but in most, they are blue; they are often aromatic and can be used as a [[spice]]. The seed maturation time varies between species from 6 to 18 months after pollination. The male cones are similar to the other [[Cupressaceae]], with 6 to 20 scales.

In [[hardiness zone]]s 7 through 10, junipers can bloom and release [[pollen]] several times each year. Different junipers bloom in autumn, while most pollinate from early winter until late spring.<ref name=Ogren>{{cite book|last1=Ogren|first1=Thomas|title=The Allergy-Fighting Garden|date=2015|publisher=Ten Speed Press|location=Berkeley, CA|isbn=978-1-60774-491-7|pages=131–133}}</ref>

[[File:Jun chin close.jpg|thumb|left|Detail of ''[[Juniperus chinensis]]'' shoots, with juvenile (needle-like) leaves (left), adult scale leaves, and immature male cones (right)]]

Many junipers (e.g. ''[[J. chinensis]]'', ''[[Juniperus virginiana|J. virginiana]]'') have two types of leaves; seedlings and some twigs of older trees have needle-like leaves {{cvt|5|–|25|mm|frac=16}} long, on mature plants the leaves are overlapping like (mostly) tiny scales, measuring {{convert|2|–|4|mm|abbr=on|frac=32}}. When juvenile foliage occurs on mature plants, it is most often found on shaded shoots, with adult foliage in full sunlight. Leaves on fast-growing 'whip' shoots are often intermediate between juvenile and adult.

In some species (e.g. ''[[J. communis]]'', ''[[Juniperus squamata|J. squamata]]''), all the foliage is of the juvenile needle-like type, with no scale leaves. In some of these (e.g. ''J.&nbsp;communis''), the needles are jointed at the base, while in others (e.g. ''J.&nbsp;squamata''), the needles merge smoothly with the stem.
The needle leaves of junipers are hard and sharp, making the juvenile foliage very prickly to handle. This can be a valuable identification feature in seedlings, as the otherwise very similar juvenile foliage of cypresses (''[[Cupressus]], [[Chamaecyparis]]'') and other related genera are soft and not prickly.

Junipers are [[gymnosperm]]s, which means they have seeds, but no flowers or fruits. Depending on the species, the seeds they produce take 1–3 years to develop. The impermeable coat of the seed keeps water from getting in and protects the embryo when dispersed. It can also result in a long [[dormancy]] that is usually broken by physically damaging the seed coat. Dispersal can occur from being swallowed whole by frugivores and mammals. The resistance of the [[Seed-coat|seed coat]] allows it to be passed down through the digestive system without being destroyed along the way. These seeds last a long time, as they can be dispersed long distances over the course of a few years.<ref name=":9">{{cite journal | last1 = Chamber | first1 = J.C. | last2 = Vander Wall | first2 = S.B. | last3 = Schupp | first3 = E.W. | year = 1999 | title = Seed and seedling ecology of pinon and juniper species in the pygmy woodlands of western North America | journal = The Botanical Review | volume = 65 | issue = 1| pages = 1–38 | doi=10.1007/bf02856556| bibcode = 1999BotRv..65....1C | s2cid = 38377131 }}</ref>

==Classification==
[[File:Juniper needles.jpg|thumb|Juniper needles, magnified. Left, ''[[J.&nbsp;communis]]'' (''Juniperus'' sect. ''Juniperus'', needles 'jointed' at base). Right, ''[[J.&nbsp;chinensis]]'' (''Juniperus'' sect. ''Sabina'', needles merging smoothly with the stem, not jointed at base)]]
[[File:Juniperseeds.jpg|thumb|Cones and seeds]]

===Sections===
The genus has been divided into sections in somewhat different ways. A system based on [[Molecular phylogenetics|molecular phylogenetic]] data from 2013 and earlier used three sections:<ref name=AdamSchw13>{{Cite journal |last1=Adams |first1=Robert P. |last2=Schwarzbach |first2=Andrea E. |date=2013 |title=Phylogeny of ''Juniperus'' using nrDNA and four cpDNA regions |journal=Phytologia |volume=95 |issue=2 |pages=179–187 |url=http://www.juniperus.org/uploads/2/2/6/3/22639912/304.pdf |access-date=2022-04-22 |name-list-style=amp }}</ref>
* Section ''Caryocedrus'' – 1 species with large, blue, woody, 3-seeded cones; native to the Mediterranean
* Section ''Juniperus'' –  14 species with blue or red seed cones, often with 3 seeds; 12 species native to the [[eastern hemisphere]], one endemic to North America, and one species, ''J. communis'', circumboreal
* Section ''Sabina'' – about 60 species with variously coloured seed cones with 1 to 13 seeds; species about equally divided between the eastern and western hemispheres ''Juniperus'' sect. ''Sabina'' was further divided into clades.<ref name=AdamSchw13/>

A new classification of gymnosperms published in 2022 recognised the sections as three separate genera:  ''Arceuthos'' for section ''Caryocedrus'', ''Sabina'' for section ''Sabina'', and ''Juniperus'' ''sensu stricto'' for section ''Juniperus''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Yong |last2=Ferguson |first2=David Kay |last3=Liu |first3=Bing |last4=Mao |first4=Kang-Shan |last5=Gao |first5=Lian-Ming |last6=Zhang |first6=Shou-Zhou |last7=Wan |first7=Tao |last8=Rushforth |first8=Keith |last9=Zhang |first9=Zhi-Xiang |title=Recent advances on phylogenomics of gymnosperms and a new classification |year=2022  |journal=Plant Diversity |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=340–350 |doi=10.1016/j.pld.2022.05.003 |pmid=35967253 |pmc=9363647 |bibcode=2022PlDiv..44..340Y }}</ref>

===Species===
{{cladogram|title=Phylogeny of ''Juniperus''<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stull |first1=Gregory W. |last2=Qu |first2=Xiao-Jian |last3=Parins-Fukuchi |first3=Caroline |last4=Yang |first4=Ying-Ying |last5=Yang |first5=Jun-Bo |last6=Yang |first6=Zhi-Yun |last7=Hu |first7=Yi  |last8=Ma |first8=Hong |last9=Soltis |first9=Pamela S. |last10=Soltis |first10=Douglas E. |last11=Li |first11=De-Zhu |last12=Smith |first12=Stephen A. |last13=Yi |first13=Ting-Shuang |display-authors=et al. |year=2021 |title=Gene duplications and phylogenomic conflict underlie major pulses of phenotypic evolution in gymnosperms |journal=Nature Plants |url=https://www.biorxiv.org/content/biorxiv/early/2021/05/17/2021.03.13.435279.full.pdf |volume=7 |issue= 8|pages=1015–1025 |doi=10.1038/s41477-021-00964-4|biorxiv=10.1101/2021.03.13.435279 |pmid= 34282286|pmc= |bibcode= 2021NatPl...7.1015S|s2cid=232282918 |doi-access=}}</ref><ref>{{cite work |last1=Stull |first1=Gregory W. |display-authors=et al. |year=2021 |title=main.dated.supermatrix.tree.T9.tre |publisher=Figshare |doi=10.6084/m9.figshare.14547354.v1 |url=https://figshare.com/articles/dataset/Gene_duplications_and_genomic_conflict_underlie_major_pulses_of_phenotypic_evolution_in_gymnosperms/14547354 |doi-access=}}</ref>|
{{clade|style=font-size:90%;line-height:100%;width:400px
|1={{clade
  |1={{clade
    |label1=section
    |sublabel1=''Caryocedrus''
    |1=''[[Juniperus drupacea|J. drupacea]]'' <small>de Labillardière</small>
    |label2=section
    |sublabel2=''Juniperus''
    |2={{clade
      |1={{clade
        |1=''[[Juniperus cedrus|J. cedrus]]'' <small>Webb & Berthelot 1848</small>
        |2=''[[Juniperus oxycedrus|J. oxycedrus]]'' <small>von Linné</small>
         }}
      |2={{clade
        |1=''[[Juniperus rigida|J. rigida]]'' <small>von Siebold & Zuccarini</small>
        |2={{clade
          |1={{clade
            |1=''[[Juniperus formosana|J. formosana]]'' <small>Hayata</small>
            |2=''[[Juniperus deltoides|J. deltoides]]'' <small>Adams</small>
             }}
          |2={{clade
            |1=''[[Juniperus taxifolia|J. taxifolia]]'' <small>Hooker & Arn.</small>
            |2=''[[Juniperus communis|J. communis]]'' <small>von Linné</small>
             }}
           }}
         }}
       }}
     }}
  |2={{clade
    |label1=section
    |sublabel1=''Sabina''
    |1={{clade
      |1={{clade
        |1={{clade
          |1=''[[Juniperus flaccida|J. flaccida]]'' <small>von Schlechtendal</small>
          |2={{clade
            |1=''[[Juniperus standleyi|J. standleyi]]'' <small>Steyermark</small>
            |2=''[[Juniperus monticola|J. monticola]]'' <small> Martínez</small>
             }}
           }}
        |2={{clade
          |1={{clade
            |1=''[[Juniperus osteosperma|J. osteosperma]]'' <small>(Torrey) Little</small>
            |2=''[[Juniperus occidentalis|J. occidentalis]]'' <small>Hooker</small>
             }}
          |2={{clade
            |1={{clade
              |1=''[[Juniperus gamboana|J. gamboana]]'' <small>Martínez</small>
              |2=''[[Juniperus deppeana|J. deppeana]]'' <small>Steud.</small>
               }}
            |2={{clade
              |1={{clade
                |1=''[[Juniperus ashei|J. ashei]]'' <small>Buchholz</small>
                |2={{clade
                  |1=''[[Juniperus californica|J. californica]]'' <small>Carrière</small>
                  |2={{clade
                    |1=''[[Juniperus saltillensis|J. saltillensis]]'' <small>Hall</small>
                    |2=''[[Juniperus durangensis|J. durangensis]]'' <small>Martínez</small>
                     }}
                   }}
                 }}
              |2={{clade
                |1=''[[Juniperus monosperma|J. monosperma]]'' <small>(Engelmann) Sarg.</small>
                |2={{clade
                  |1=''[[Juniperus coahuilensis|J. coahuilensis]]'' <small>(Martínez) Gaussen ex Adams</small>
                  |2={{clade
                    |1=''[[Juniperus pinchotii|J. pinchotii]]'' <small>Sudworth</small>
                    |2={{clade
                      |1=''[[Juniperus angosturana|J. angosturana]]'' <small>Adams</small>
                      |2=''[[Juniperus comitana|J. comitana]]'' <small>Martínez</small>
                       }}
                     }}
                   }}
                 }}
               }}
             }}
           }}
         }}
      |2={{clade
        |1={{clade
          |1=''[[Juniperus pseudosabina|J. pseudosabina]]'' <small>Fisch. & von Meyer</small>
          |2={{clade
            |1=''[[Juniperus tibetica|J. tibetica]]'' <small>Kom.</small>
            |2={{clade
              |1={{clade
                |1=''[[Juniperus pingii|J. pingii]]'' <small>Cheng ex Cheng</small>
                |2={{clade
                  |1=''[[Juniperus przewalskii|J. przewalskii]]'' <small>Kom.</small>
                  |2=''[[Juniperus saltuaria|J. saltuaria]]'' <small>saltuaria Rehder & Wilson</small>
                   }}
                 }}
              |2={{clade
                |1=''[[Juniperus convallium|J. convallium]]'' <small>Rehder & Wilson</small>
                |2={{clade
                  |1=''[[Juniperus indica|J. indica]]'' <small>Bertoloni</small>
                  |2={{clade
                    |1={{clade
                      |1=''[[Juniperus coxii|J. coxii]]'' <small>Jackson</small>
                      |2=''[[Juniperus recurva|J. recurva]]'' <small>Buchanan-Hamilton ex Don</small>
                       }}
                    |2={{clade
                      |1=''[[Juniperus komarovii|J. komarovii]]'' <small>Florin</small>
                      |2=''[[Juniperus squamata|J. squamata]]'' <small>Buchanan-Hamilton ex Don</small>
                       }}
                     }}
                   }}
                 }}
               }}
             }}
           }}
        |2={{clade
          |1={{clade
            |1=''[[Juniperus phoenicea|J. phoenicea]]'' <small>von Linné</small>
            |2={{clade
              |1=''[[Juniperus procera|J. procera]]'' <small>Hochst. ex Endlicher</small>
              |2={{clade
                |1={{clade
                  |1=''[[Juniperus excelsa|J. excelsa]]'' <small>M. Bieb.</small>
                  |2=''[[Juniperus polycarpos|J. polycarpos]]'' <small>Koch</small>
                   }}
                |2={{clade
                  |1=''[[Juniperus thurifera|J. thurifera]]'' <small>von Linné</small>
                  |2={{clade
                    |1=''[[Juniperus procumbens|J. procumbens]]'' <small>(von Siebold ex Endlicher) Miquel</small>
                    |2={{clade
                      |1=''[[Juniperus gaussenii|J. gaussenii]]'' <small>Cheng</small>
                      |2=''[[Juniperus chinensis|J. chinensis]]'' <small>von Linné</small>
                       }}
                     }}
                   }}
                 }}
               }}
             }}
          |2={{clade
            |1=''[[Juniperus microsperma|J. microsperma]]'' <small>(Cheng & Fu) Adams</small>
            |2={{clade
              |1=''[[Juniperus blancoi|J. blancoi]]'' <small>Martínez</small>
              |2={{clade
                |1=''[[Juniperus horizontalis|J. horizontalis]]'' <small>Moench</small>
                |2={{clade
                  |1={{clade
                    |1=''[[Juniperus semiglobosa|J. semiglobosa]]'' <small>Regel</small>
                    |2=''[[Juniperus sabina|J. sabina]]'' <small>von Linné</small>
                     }}
                  |2={{clade
                    |1={{clade
                      |1=''[[Juniperus bermudiana|J. bermudiana]]'' <small>von Linné</small>
                      |2=''[[Juniperus gracilior|J. gracilior]]'' <small>Pilger</small>
                       }}
                    |2={{clade
                      |1=''[[Juniperus saxicola|J. saxicola]]'' <small>Britton & Wilson</small>
                      |2={{clade
                        |1=''[[Juniperus virginiana|J. virginiana]]'' <small>von Linné</small>
                        |2={{clade
                          |1=''[[Juniperus scopulorum|J. scopulorum]]'' <small>Sarg.</small>
                          |2=''[[Juniperus barbadensis|J. barbadensis]]'' <small>von Linné</small>
                           }}
                         }}
                       }}
                     }}
                   }}
                 }}
               }}
             }}
           }}
         }}
       }}
     }}
   }}
}}
}}

==== ''Juniperus'' sect. ''Caryocedrus'' ====
Cones with three seeds fused together; needles with two stomatal bands.
One species:<ref name=UckeAdamSchwParc21>{{Cite journal |last1=Uckele |first1=Kathryn A. |last2=Adams |first2=Robert P. |last3=Schwarzbach |first3=Andrea E. |last4=Parchman |first4=Thomas L. |date=2021 |title=Genome-wide RAD sequencing resolves the evolutionary history of serrate leaf ''Juniperus'' and reveals discordance with chloroplast phylogeny |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=156 |page=107022 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2020.107022 |pmid=33242585 |bibcode=2021MolPE.15607022U |s2cid=227182680 |url=https://scholarworks.utrgv.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1025&context=hbs_fac |name-list-style=amp |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
*''[[Juniperus drupacea]]'' – Syrian juniper

==== ''Juniperus'' sect. ''Juniperus'' ====
Needle-leaf junipers; the adult leaves are needle-like, in whorls of three, and jointed at the base. Species:{{citation needed|date=April 2022}}
*''Juniperus'' sect. ''Juniperus'' subsect. ''Juniperus'' – cones with three separate seeds; needles with one stomatal band
**''[[Juniperus communis]]'' – common juniper
***''Juniperus communis'' subsp. ''alpina'' – alpine juniper
**''[[Juniperus conferta]]'', syn. ''Juniperus rigida'' var. ''conferta'' <small>(Parl.) Patschke</small> – shore juniper
**''[[Juniperus rigida]]'' – Temple juniper or needle juniper
*''Juniperus'' sect. ''Juniperus'' subsect. ''Oxycedrus'' – cones with three separate seeds; needles with two stomatal bands
**''[[Juniperus brevifolia]]'' – Azores juniper
**''[[Juniperus cedrus]]'' – Canary Islands juniper
**''[[Juniperus formosana]]'' – Chinese prickly juniper
**''[[Juniperus lutchuensis]]'', syn. ''Juniperus taxifolia'' var. ''lutchuensis'' <small>(Koidz.) Satake</small> – Ryukyu juniper
**''[[Juniperus oxycedrus]]'' – Western prickly juniper, cade juniper
**''[[Juniperus macrocarpa]]'' – large-berry juniper

==== ''Juniperus'' sect. ''Sabina'' ====
Scale-leaf junipers; adult leaves are mostly scale-like, similar to those of ''[[Cupressus]]'' species, in opposite pairs or whorls of three, and the juvenile needle-like leaves are not jointed at the base (including in the few that have only needle-like leaves; see below right). 

===== Old World species =====
[[File:SabinaChinensis.jpg|thumb|Avenue of ''Juniperus chinensis'']]
[[File:El Hierro Sabinar.JPG|thumb|''[[Juniperus phoenicea]]'' on [[El Hierro]], [[Canary Islands]]]]

*''[[Juniperus chinensis]]'' – Chinese juniper
*''[[Juniperus convallium]]'' – Mekong juniper
*''[[Juniperus excelsa]]'' – Greek juniper
*''[[Juniperus foetidissima]]'' – stinking juniper
*''[[Juniperus indica]]'' – Himalayan black juniper
*''[[Juniperus komarovii]]'' – Komarov's juniper
*''[[Juniperus phoenicea]]'' – Phoenicean juniper
*''[[Juniperus pingii]]'' – Ping juniper
*''[[Juniperus procera]]'' – East African juniper
*''[[Juniperus procumbens]]'' – Ibuki juniper
*''[[Juniperus pseudosabina]]'' – Xinjiang juniper
*''[[Juniperus recurva]]'' – Himalayan juniper
*''[[Juniperus sabina]]'' – Savin juniper
*''[[Juniperus saltuaria]]'' – Sichuan juniper
*''[[Juniperus semiglobosa]]'' – Himalayan pencil juniper
*''[[Juniperus seravschanica]]'' – Pashtun juniper<ref>Adams, R.P., Al-Farsi, A. & Schwarzbach, A.E. (2014). Confirmation of the southern-most population of Juniperus seravschanica in Oman by DNA sequencing of nrDNA and four cpDNA regions Phytologia 96: 218–224.</ref>
*''[[Juniperus squamata]]'' – flaky juniper
*''[[Juniperus thurifera]]'' – Spanish juniper
*''[[Juniperus tibetica]]'' – Tibetan juniper

===== New World species =====
[[File:JuniperRockCreek.JPG|thumb|upright|''[[Juniperus grandis]]'' in the eastern [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]], Rock Creek Canyon, California]]
[[File:Juniper berries q.jpg|thumb|''[[Juniperus virginiana]]'' in October laden with ripe cones]]

*''[[Juniperus angosturana]]'' – Mexican one-seed juniper
*''[[Juniperus ashei]]'' – Ashe juniper
*''[[Juniperus arizonica]]'' – redberry juniper, roseberry juniper
*''[[Juniperus barbadensis]]'' – West Indies juniper
*''[[Juniperus bermudiana]]'' – Bermuda juniper
*''[[Juniperus blancoi]]'' – Blanco's juniper
*''[[Juniperus californica]]'' – California juniper
*''[[Juniperus coahuilensis]]'' – Coahuila juniper
*''[[Juniperus comitana]]'' – Comitán juniper
*''[[Juniperus deppeana]]'' – alligator juniper
*''[[Juniperus durangensis]]'' – Durango juniper
*''[[Juniperus flaccida]]'' – Mexican weeping juniper
*''[[Juniperus gamboana]]'' – Gamboa juniper
*''[[Juniperus grandis]]'' – Sierra juniper
*''[[Juniperus horizontalis]]'' – creeping juniper
*''[[Juniperus jaliscana]]'' – Jalisco juniper
*''[[Juniperus maritima]]'', syn. ''Juniperus scopulorum'' – seaside juniper
*''[[Juniperus monosperma]]'' – one-seed juniper
*''[[Juniperus monticola]]'' – mountain juniper
*''[[Juniperus occidentalis]]'' – western juniper
*''[[Juniperus osteosperma]]'' – Utah juniper
*''[[Juniperus pinchotii]]'' – Pinchot juniper
*''[[Juniperus saltillensis]]'' – Saltillo juniper
*''[[Juniperus scopulorum]]'' – Rocky Mountain juniper
*''[[Juniperus standleyi]]'' – Standley's juniper
*''[[Juniperus virginiana]]'' – eastern juniper, eastern redcedar
**''Juniperus virginiana'' subsp. ''silicicola'' – Southern juniper
*''[[Juniperus zanonii]]'' (proposed)<ref name="Phytologia">{{cite web|last=Adams|first=Robert|title=Phytologia (April 2010) 92(1)|url=http://www.juniperus.org/AdamsPapersPDFFiles/238-92%281%29105-117AdamsJzanoniiCerroPotosiandFcompataIxta.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721172241/http://www.juniperus.org/AdamsPapersPDFFiles/238-92(1)105-117AdamsJzanoniiCerroPotosiandFcompataIxta.pdf|archive-date=2011-07-21}}</ref>

====Additional species====
{{As of|2022|April}}, [[Plants of the World Online]] accepts the following additional species to those listed above:<ref name="POWO_60436243-2">{{cite web |title=''Juniperus'' L. |work=Plants of the World Online |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew|url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:60436243-2 |access-date=2022-04-22 }}</ref>
*''[[Juniperus canariensis]]'' <small>Guyot & Mathou</small>
*''[[Juniperus coxii]]'' <small>A.B.Jacks.</small>
*''[[Juniperus deltoides]]'' <small>R.P.Adams</small>
*''[[Juniperus gracilior]]'' <small>Pilg.</small>
*''[[Juniperus mairei]]'' <small>Lemée & H.Lév.</small>
*''[[Juniperus morrisonicola]]'' <small>Hayata</small>
*''[[Juniperus mucronata]]'' <small>R.P.Adams</small>
*''[[Juniperus navicularis]]'' <small>Gand.</small>
*''[[Juniperus poblana]]'' <small>(Martínez) R.P.Adams</small>
*''[[Juniperus polycarpos]]'' <small>K.Koch</small>
*''[[Juniperus przewalskii]]'' <small>Kom.</small>
*''[[Juniperus saxicola]]'' <small>Britton & P.Wilson</small>
*''[[Juniperus taxifolia]]'' <small>Hook. & Arn.</small>
*''[[Juniperus tsukusiensis]]'' <small>Masam.</small>
*''[[Juniperus turbinata]]'' <small>Guss.</small>

==Ecology==
Juniper plants thrive in a variety of environments. The junipers from [[Lahaul and Spiti district|Lahaul]] valley can be found in dry, rocky locations planted in stony soils. Grazing animals and the villagers are rapidly using up these plants. There are several important features of the leaves and wood of this plant that cause villagers to cut down these trees and make use of them.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Rawat|first1=Yashwant S.|last2=Everson|first2=Colin S.|date=2012-10-01|title=Ecological status and uses of juniper species in the cold desert environment of the Lahaul valley, North-western Himalaya, India|journal=Journal of Mountain Science|language=en|volume=9|issue=5|pages=676–686|doi=10.1007/s11629-012-2274-0|bibcode=2012JMouS...9..676R |s2cid=129730525|issn=1672-6316}}</ref> Additionally, the [[Juniperus occidentalis|western juniper]] plants, a particular species in the juniper genus, are found in [[woodland]]s where there are large, open spaces. Junipers are known to encompass open areas so that they have more exposure to rainfall.<ref name=":9" /> Decreases in fires and a lack of livestock grazing are the two major causes of western juniper takeover. This invasion of junipers is driving changes in the environment. For instance, the ecosystem for other species previously living in the environment and farm animals has been compromised.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Belsky|first=A. Joy|date=1996|title=Viewpoint: Western Juniper Expansion: Is It a Threat to Arid Northwestern Ecosystems?|journal=Journal of Range Management|volume=49|issue=1|pages=53–59|doi=10.2307/4002725|jstor=4002725|hdl=10150/644347|s2cid=55314700|hdl-access=free}}</ref> When junipers increase in population, there is a decrease in woody species like mountain big [[sagebrush]] and [[aspen]]. Among the juniper trees themselves, there is increased competition, which results in a decrease in berry production.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Richard F.|last2=Svejcar|first2=Tony J.|last3=Rose|first3=Jeffrey A.|date=2000|title=Impacts of Western Juniper on Plant Community Composition and Structure|journal=Journal of Range Management|volume=53|issue=6|pages=574–585|doi=10.2307/4003150|jstor=4003150|hdl=10150/643810|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Herbaceous cover decreases, and junipers are often mistaken for weeds. As a result, several farmers have thinned the juniper trees or removed them completely. However, this reduction did not result in any significant difference on wildlife survival. Some small mammals found it advantageous to have thinner juniper trees, while cutting down the entire tree was not favorable.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Bombaci|first1=Sara|last2=Pejchar|first2=Liba|title=Consequences of pinyon and juniper woodland reduction for wildlife in North America|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=365|pages=34–50|doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2016.01.018|year=2016|doi-access=free|bibcode=2016ForEM.365...34B }}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last1=Gallo|first1=Travis|last2=Stinson|first2=Lani T.|last3=Pejchar|first3=Liba|title=Pinyon-juniper removal has long-term effects on mammals|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=377|pages=93–100|doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2016.06.029|year=2016|bibcode=2016ForEM.377...93G }}</ref>

Some junipers are susceptible to ''[[Gymnosporangium]]'' rust disease and can be a serious problem for those people growing [[apple]] trees, an alternate [[host (biology)|host]] of the disease.

Juniper is the exclusive food plant of the [[larva]]e of some [[Lepidoptera|moths and butterflies]], including ''[[Bucculatrix inusitata]]'', [[juniper carpet]], ''[[Chionodes electella]]'', ''[[Chionodes viduella]]'', [[juniper pug]], and [[pine beauty]]. Those of the [[tortrix moth]] ''[[Cydia duplicana]]'' feed on the bark around injuries or [[canker]].

==Cultivation==
[[File:Juniperus × pfitzeriana 'Gold Coast' 03.jpg|thumb|''Juniperus'' × ''pfitzeriana'' 'Gold Coast']]
Junipers are among the most popular conifers to be cultivated as [[Ornamental plant|ornamental]] subjects for parks and gardens. They have been bred over many years to produce a wide range of forms, in terms of colour, shape and size. They include some of the dwarfest (miniature) cultivars. They are also used for [[bonsai]]. Some species found in cultivation include:

{{div col}}
*''[[Juniperus chinensis]]''
*''[[Juniperus communis]]''
*''[[Juniperus horizontalis]]''
*''Juniperus'' × ''pfitzeriana''
*''[[Juniperus procumbens]]''
*''[[Juniperus rigida]]''
*''[[Juniperus scopulorum]]''
*''[[Juniperus squamata]]''
{{div col end}}

== Toxicity ==
In drier areas, juniper pollen easily becomes airborne and can be inhaled into the lungs. This pollen can also irritate the skin and cause contact dermatitis.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}} Cross-allergenic reactions are common between juniper pollen and the pollen of all species of [[cypress]].<ref name="Ogren" />

Monoecious juniper plants are highly allergenic, with an [[Ogren Plant Allergy Scale]] (OPALS) rating of 9 out of 10.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}} Completely male juniper plants have an OPALS rating of 10,<ref name="OPALS">{{cite web|url=http://www.allergyfree-gardening.com/opals.html|title=OPALS — The World's First Plant-Allergy Scale}}</ref> and release abundant amounts of pollen. Conversely, all-female juniper plants have an OPALS rating of 1,<ref name="OPALS" /> and are considered "allergy-fighting".<ref name="Ogren" />

== Uses ==
[[File:Juniper wood pieces and 1 cent coin.jpg|thumb|''Juniperus communis'' wood pieces, with a [[U.S. penny]] for scale, showing the narrow [[growth ring]]s of the species]]
[[File:2008-06-18 GreatBritain Plymouth GinFactory.jpg|thumb|[[Plymouth Gin]] factory, United Kingdom]]

===Ethnic and herbal use===
Most species of juniper are flexible and have a high compression strength-to-weight ratio.<ref name="Hamm">{{cite book |last1=Hamm |first1=Jim |title=Traditional Bowyers Bible, Volume 2 |date=March 2001 |publisher=Lyons Press |isbn=1585740861 |page=117}}</ref> This has made the wood a traditional choice for the construction of hunting bows among some of the [[Indigenous Peoples of North America|Native American cultures]] in the [[Great Basin]] region.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Millar CI, Smith KT |year=2017 |title=Reconsidering the process for bow-stave removal from juniper trees in the Great Basin |url=https://www.fs.fed.us/nrs/pubs/jrnl/2017/nrs_2017_millar-c_001.pdf |journal=Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=125–131}}</ref> These bow staves are typically backed with sinew to provide tension strength that the wood may lack.<ref name="Hamm" />

Ancient Mesopotamians believed that juniper oil could be used to ward off the [[evil eye]].<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bXOeCwAAQBAJ&dq=evil+eye+juniper+oil+from%3A%2A.edu&pg=PT120 | title=Beware the Evil Eye Volume 1: The Evil Eye in the Bible and the Ancient World—Introduction, Mesopotamia, and Egypt | isbn=9781498273657 | last1=Elliott | first1=John H. | date=11 November 2015 | publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers }}</ref>

Embalming vessels in the burial chambers from a 26th Dynasty embalming workshop at Saqqara have shown the usage of Juniper oil/tar.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rageot |first1=Maxime |last2=Hussein |first2=Ramadan B. |last3=Beck |first3=Susanne |last4=Altmann-Wendling |first4=Victoria |last5=Ibrahim |first5=Mohammed I. M. |last6=Bahgat |first6=Mahmoud M. |last7=Yousef |first7=Ahmed M. |last8=Mittelstaedt |first8=Katja |last9=Filippi |first9=Jean-Jacques |last10=Buckley |first10=Stephen |last11=Spiteri |first11=Cynthianne |last12=Stockhammer |first12=Philipp W. |date=2023-02-01 |title=Biomolecular analyses enable new insights into ancient Egyptian embalming |journal=Nature |volume=614 |issue=7947 |language=en |pages=287–293 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-05663-4 |pmid=36725928 |pmc=9908542 |bibcode=2023Natur.614..287R |issn=1476-4687}}</ref>

Some [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas]] use juniper in [[traditional medicine]]; for instance the [[Navajo people|Dineh (Navajo)]], who use it for [[diabetes]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=McCabe |first1=Melvina |last2=Gohdes |first2=Dorothy |last3=Morgan |first3=Frank |last4=Eakin |first4=Joanne |last5=Sanders |first5=Margaret |last6=Schmitt |first6=Cheryl |year=2005 |title=Herbal therapies and diabetes among Navajo Indians |url=http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/diacare/28/6/1534.2.full.pdf |journal=[[Diabetes Care]] |volume=28 |issue=6 |pages=1534–1535 |doi=10.2337/diacare.28.6.1534-a |pmid=15920089 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Juniper ash has also been historically consumed as a source of [[calcium]] by the Navajo people.<ref name=":52">{{Cite journal |last1=Christensen |first1=Nedra K |last2=Sorenson |first2=ANN W |last3=Hendricks |first3=Deloy G |last4=Munger |first4=Ronald |year=1998 |title=Juniper Ash as a Source of Calcium in the Navajo Diet |journal=Journal of the American Dietetic Association |volume=98 |issue=3 |pages=333–4 |doi=10.1016/s0002-8223(98)00077-7 |pmid=9508018}}</ref><ref name=":62">{{Cite journal |last1=Ballew |first1=Carol |last2=White |first2=Linda L. |last3=Strauss |first3=Karen F. |last4=Benson |first4=Lois J. |last5=Mendlein |first5=James M. |last6=Mokdad |first6=Ali H. |date=1997-10-01 |title=Intake of Nutrients and Food Sources of Nutrients among the Navajo: Findings from the Navajo Health and Nutrition Survey |journal=The Journal of Nutrition |language=en |volume=127 |issue=10 |pages=2085S–2093S |doi=10.1093/jn/127.10.2085s |issn=0022-3166 |pmid=9339174 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Juniper is traditionally used in [[Scottish culture|Scottish]] folkloric and [[Celtic reconstructionism|Gaelic Polytheist]] [[saining]] rites, such as those performed at [[Hogmanay]] ([[New Year]]), where the smoke of burning juniper, accompanied by traditional prayers and other customary rites, is used to cleanse, bless, and protect the household and its inhabitants.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McNeill |first=F. Marian |title=The Silver Bough, Vol.3: A Calendar of Scottish National Festivals, Halloween to Yule |publisher=William MacLellan |year=1961 |isbn=978-0-948474-04-0 |location=Glasgow |page=113 |chapter=X Hogmany Rites and Superstitions}}</ref>

Local people in Lahaul Valley present juniper leaves to their deities as a folk tradition. It is also useful as a folk remedy for pains and aches, as well as [[epilepsy]] and [[asthma]]. They are reported to collect large amounts of juniper leaves and wood for building and religious purposes.<ref name=":0" />

===General use===
{{Further|Juniper berry}}
Juniper berries are a spice used in a wide variety of culinary dishes and are best known for the primary flavoring in [[gin]] (and responsible for gin's name, which is a shortening of the Dutch word for juniper, ''jenever''). A juniper-based spirit is made by fermenting juniper berries and water to create a "wine" that is then distilled. This is often sold as a juniper brandy in eastern Europe.  Juniper berries are also used as the primary flavor in the liquor [[jenever]].  Juniper berry sauce is often a popular flavoring choice for [[quail]], [[pheasant]], [[veal]], [[rabbit]], [[venison]], and other game dishes.

A tea can be made from the young twigs.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/277203364 |title=The Complete Guide to Edible Wild Plants |publisher=[[Skyhorse Publishing]] |others=[[United States Department of the Army]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-60239-692-0 |location=New York |pages=63 |language=en-US |oclc=277203364}}</ref> Twigs or needles are used to flavour the traditional Finnish junperbeer, [[sahti]] as well.

Dense and rot resistant, the irregular trunks of junipers have been used as fence posts and firewood. Stands that produce enough wood for specialty uses generally go under the common name "cedar",<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last1=Arno |first1=Stephen F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qDD4DwAAQBAJ |title=Northwest Trees: Identifying & Understanding the Region's Native Trees |last2=Hammerly |first2=Ramona P. |publisher=[[Mountaineers Books]] |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-68051-329-5 |edition=field guide |location=Seattle |pages=177, 179–180 |language=en |oclc=1141235469 |orig-date=1977}}</ref> including ''Juniperus virginiana'', the "red cedar" that is used widely in cedar drawers and closets.<ref name=mdc>{{cite web |title=Eastern Red Cedar |url=https://nature.mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/field-guide/eastern-red-cedar |website=MDC Discover Nature |publisher=Missouri Department of Conservation |access-date=15 July 2019 |language=en}}</ref> The lack of space or a hyphen between the words "red" and "cedar" is sometimes used to indicate that this species is not a true cedar (''[[Cedrus]]'').<ref name=reededu>{{cite web |title=Cedars - Trees of Reed |url=https://blogs.reed.edu/trees/cedars/ |access-date=15 July 2019}}</ref>

Juniper in weave is a traditional [[cladding (construction)|cladding]] technique used in Northern Europe, e.g. at [[Havrå]], Norway.<ref>{{cite book |first=Bjørn |last=Berge |title=The Ecology of Building Materials |publisher=Taylor & Francis |edition=2nd |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-85617-537-1}}</ref>

Juniper berries are [[steam distillation|steam distilled]] to produce an [[essential oil]] that may vary from colorless to yellow or pale green.<ref name="Cantrell">{{cite journal |last1=Cantrell |first1=Charles L. |last2=Zheljazkov |first2=Valtcho D. |last3=Carvalho |first3=Camila R. |last4=Astatkie |first4=Tess |last5=Jeliazkova |first5=Ekaterina A. |last6=Rosa |first6=Luiz H. |editor-last=Chang |editor-first=Ing-Feng |title=Dual Extraction of Essential Oil and Podophyllotoxin from Creeping Juniper (''Juniperus horizontalis'') |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=9 |issue=9 |date=9 September 2014 |issn=1932-6203 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0106057 |pmid=25203255 |pmc=4159210 |page=e106057|bibcode=2014PLoSO...9j6057C |doi-access=free }}</ref> Some of its chemical components are [[terpenoid]]s and [[Aromaticity|aromatic compounds]], such as [[cadinene]], a [[sesquiterpene]].<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Int J Toxicol|year=2001|volume=20|issue=Suppl 2|pages=41–56|title=Final report on the safety assessment of ''Juniperus communis'' extract, Juniperus oxycedrus extract, Juniperus oxycedrus tar, ''Juniperus phoenicea'' extract, and ''Juniperus virginiana'' extract|pmid=11558640|doi=10.1080/10915810160233758|s2cid=40114722|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*Adams, R. P. (2004). ''Junipers of the World: The genus Juniperus''. Victoria: Trafford. {{ISBN|1-4120-4250-X}}
*Farjon, A. (2001). ''World Checklist and Bibliography of Conifers''. Kew. {{ISBN|1-84246-025-0}}
*Farjon, A. (2005). ''Monograph of Cupressaceae and Sciadopitys''. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. {{ISBN|1-84246-068-4}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Mao |first1=K. |last2=Hao |first2=G. |last3=Liu |first3=J. |last4=Adams |first4=R. P. |last5=Milne |year=2010 |title=Diversification and biogeography of ''Juniperus'' (Cupressaceae): variable diversification rates and multiple intercontinental dispersals |journal=New Phytologist |volume=188 |issue=1|pages=254–272 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-8137.2010.03351.x |pmid=20561210|doi-access=free |bibcode=2010NewPh.188..254M }}

==External links==
{{Commonscat}} 
* [http://www.juniperus.org/ Junipers of the world]
* [http://www.conifers.org/cu/ju/index.htm Gymnosperm Database – ''Juniperus'']
* [http://www.pinetum.org/cones/JUcones.htm Arboretum de Villardebelle] Photos of cones and foliage of selected species
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Juniper |short=x}}
* {{Cite Americana|wstitle=Juniper|year=1920 |short=x}}

{{Woodworking|state=collapsed}}
{{Acrogymnospermae classification}}
{{Cupressaceae}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q25662}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Juniperus|Juniperus]]