View source for Joseon

{{Short description|1392–1897 Korean dynasty}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Joseon
| native_name            = 조선
<hr />고려국<br />{{small|{{nobold|(1392–1393)}}<br />{{lang|ko|高麗國}}}}<hr />조선국<br />{{small|{{nobold|(1393–1894)}}<br />{{lang|ko|朝鮮國}}}}<hr />대조선국<br />{{small|{{nobold|(1894–1897)}}<br />{{lang|ko|大朝鮮國}}}}
| status                 = [[Tributary system of China|Tributary relations]] with the [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] and [[Qing dynasty|Qing]]<br />{{small|(1401–1895)}}<sup>a</sup><br/>[[Qing dynasty|Qing]] intervention<br/>{{small|(1882–1894)}}<sup>a</sup>{{sfn|Lin|2014|pp=69–71}}{{sfn|Kim|2012|p=293}}<ref>"[[Japan–South Korea Joint History Research Project]]" https://www.jkcf.or.jp/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/3-03j.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240508063152/https://www.jkcf.or.jp/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/3-03j.pdf |date=May 8, 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | publisher=The Institute of Foreign Affairs and National Security (외교안보연구소) | title=Was Korea Ever a Part of China?: A Historical Review | url=https://www.ifans.go.kr/knda/com/fileupload/FileDownloadView.do?storgeId=c61b04e5-0182-4c75-ad21-828ecacfb855&uploadId=346596669843959&fileSn=1}}</ref><br/>[[Empire of Japan|Japanese]] intervention <br/>{{small|(1894–1896)}}
| status_text            = 
| government_type        = [[Absolute monarchy]]<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vWNNWVwaUpMC&q=joseon+dynasty+absolute+monarchy&pg=PA16 |title=Interior Space and Furniture of Joseon Upper-class Houses |first=Sang-hun |last=Choi |year=2017 |publisher=Ewha Womans University Press |via=Google Books |page=16 |isbn=978-8973007202 |quote=Joseon was an absolute monarchy |access-date=November 1, 2020 |archive-date=April 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407111606/https://books.google.com/books?id=vWNNWVwaUpMC&q=joseon+dynasty+absolute+monarchy&pg=PA16 |url-status=live}}</ref>
| year_start             = 1392
| year_end               = 1897<ref>{{cite web |title=Chosŏn dynasty {{!}} Korean history |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Choson-dynasty |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=February 10, 2019 |language=en |archive-date=May 3, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503173429/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/653164/Choson-dynasty |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Confucianism">{{cite book |title=Women Our History |year=2019 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lxGnDwAAQBAJ&q=joseon+longest+confucian+dynasty+korea&pg=PA82 |page=82 |isbn=978-0241395332 |publisher=D.K. |access-date=November 1, 2020 |archive-date=April 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407111648/https://books.google.com/books?id=lxGnDwAAQBAJ&q=joseon+longest+confucian+dynasty+korea&pg=PA82 |url-status=live}}</ref> 
| event_start            = Coronation of [[Taejo of Joseon|Taejo]]
| date_start             = August 5,
| event1                 = Country renamed from Goryeo to Joseon
| date_event1            = March 28, 1393
| event2                 = [[Hunminjeongeum|Promulgation of the Korean alphabet]]
| date_event2            = October 9, 1446
| event3                 = [[Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)|Japanese invasions]]
| date_event3            = 1592–1598
| event4                 = [[Later Jin invasion of Joseon|First]] and [[Qing invasion of Joseon|second Manchu invasions]]
| date_event4            = 1627, 1636–1637
| event5                 = [[Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876]]
| date_event5            = February 26, 1876
| event6                 = [[Treaty of Shimonoseki]]
| date_event6            = April 17, 1895
| event_end              = [[Korean Empire|Proclamation of the Korean Empire]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |script-title=ko:조선 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]]}}</ref>
| date_end               = October 13,
| p1                     = Goryeo
| flag_p1                = Royal flag of Goryeo (Bong-gi).svg
| p2                     = Tamna
| s1                     = Korean Empire
| flag_s1                = Flag of Korea (1899).svg
| image_flag             = Flag of Korea (1882–1910).svg
| image_flag2            = Flag of the King of Korea (1882–1907).svg
| flag_type_article      = List of Korean flags#National
| flag_type              = Top: Flag (1883–1897)<br />Bottom: Royal standard
| image_coat             = Seal of Korea (1884–1897).svg
| coa_size               = 80px
| symbol_type            = Emblem<br />({{circa|1884–1897}})<!--
   symbol2               = --><div style="padding:3px 0;">[[File:Coat of Arms of Joseon Korea.svg|80px]]</div><!--
   symbol_type2          = -->Royal emblem
| other_symbol           = '''[[Seal (East Asia)#Government authorities|Royal Seal]]'''<br />[[File:Joseon wang bo (Royal Seal Treasure of the Joseon King).svg|85px]]
| image_map_caption      = Territory of Joseon after King Sejong's conquest of Jurchens in 1433 (with current borders)
| capital                = '''Main:'''<br />[[History of Seoul#Joseon period|Hanseong]]<br /> (now [[Seoul]]) {{small|(1394–1399/1405–1897)}}<br />'''Temporary:'''<br />[[Kaesong|Kaegyŏng]]<br />{{small|(1392–1394/1399–1405)}}
| official_languages     = [[Middle Korean]],<br />[[Korean language|Early Modern Korean]],<br />[[Classical Chinese]]<ref name="Met" /><ref name="Lee" />{{rp|243,  329}}<ref name="Orchiston-Green-Strom" />{{rp|74}} <small>(literary Chinese or ''[[Adoption of Chinese literary culture#Korea|Hanmun]]'' in Korean)</small>
| religion               = {{nowrap|[[Korean Confucianism|Confucianism]]<br />{{small|([[state religion|state ideology]])}}}},<br />[[Korean Buddhism|Buddhism]],<br />[[Korean shamanism|Shamanism]],<br />[[Taoism in Korea|Taoism]],<br />[[Christianity in Korea|Christianity]]<br />{{small|(recognized in 1886)}}
| currency               = [[Korean mun|Mun]]<br />{{small|(1423–1425, 1625–1892)}}<br />[[Korean yang|Yang]]<br />{{small|(1892–1897)}}
| title_leader           = [[King of Joseon|King]]
| leader1                = [[Taejo of Joseon|Taejo]] (first)
| year_leader1           = 1392–1398
| leader2                = [[Gojong of Korea|Gojong]] (last)
| year_leader2           = 1864–1897
| title_deputy           = [[Yŏngŭijŏng|Chief State Councillor]]{{NoteTag|Style: ''Yŏngŭijŏng'' (1401–1894); ''Naegak chongri daesin'' (1894–96); ''Uijeong'' (1896–1905)|name=Yŏngŭijŏng}}
| deputy1                = Bae Geuk-ryeom (first)
| year_deputy1           = 1392
| deputy2                = Kim Byeong-si (last)
| year_deputy2           = 1894–1898
| legislature            = None ([[rule by decree]]) {{small|(until 1894)}}<br/>{{interlanguage link|Jungchuwon|ko|대한제국 중추원|lt=Jungchuwon}} {{small|(from 1894)}}
| stat_year1             = 1519<ref name="한국경제통사">{{cite book |author=Sung-Ho Kang |title=Reorienting Reorient: East Asia and 15th–19th Century Joseon |year=2014}}</ref>
| stat_pop1              = 3,300,000
| stat_year2             = 1889 
| stat_pop2              = 16,000,000<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/55539/pg55539-images.html|quote=The population, according to the most reliable estimate, is a little more than sixteen millions.|last=Allen|first=Horace Newton|authorlink=Horace Newton Allen|location=Washington, D.C.|title=Korean Tales|year=1889}}</ref>
| today                  = [[North Korea]]<br />[[South Korea]]
| image_map              = Korea (orthographic projection).svg
| demonym                = [[Koreans|Korean]]
| area_km2               = 
| area_rank              = 
| GDP_PPP                = 
| GDP_PPP_year           = 
| HDI                    = 
| HDI_year               = 
| footnote_a             = The diplomatic system of East Asia was hierarchical, lacking in equality.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kang |first1=david |title=International Order in Historical East Asia: Tribute and Hierarchy Beyond Sinocentrism and Eurocentrism |journal=International Organization |date=2019 |volume=74 |pages=65–93 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/S0020818319000274 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-organization/article/abs/international-order-in-historical-east-asia-tribute-and-hierarchy-beyond-sinocentrism-and-eurocentrism/EE0208E015FFB0F8D433972B17FF26DC|url-access=subscription }}</ref>  Joseon Korea enjoyed a high level of independence and sovereignty in domestic and foreign affairs while ritually subordinate to the Ming and Qing dynasties of China.<ref name="Em"/> However, the Qing dynasty was directly involved in the affairs of Joseon from the [[Imo Incident]] of 1882 until the [[Treaty of Shimonoseki]] of 1895.{{sfn|Lin|2014|pp=69–71}}
| module = {{Infobox Korean name/auto
| hangul         = ^조선
| hanja          = 朝鮮
| ipa      = {{IPA|ko|tɕo.sʰʌn|}}
| othername1     = [[North Korean standard language|North Korean name]]
| hangul1        = ^조선_봉건_왕조
| hangulref1     = <ref>{{cite web |script-title=ko:조선력사 시대구분표 |website=[[Naenara]] |language=ko |url=http://www.naenara.com.kp/ko/history/period.php |access-date=July 1, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190701053405/http://www.naenara.com.kp/ko/history/period.php |archive-date=July 1, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.naenara.com.kp/en/history/period.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190701053644/http://www.naenara.com.kp/en/history/period.php |archive-date=July 1, 2019 |title=Korean History in Chronological Order |website=[[Naenara]] |access-date=July 1, 2019}}</ref>
| hanja1         = 朝鮮封建王朝
| othername2     = Official name
| hangul2        = ^대조선국
| hanja2         = 大朝鮮國
| ipa2            = {{IPA|ko|tʰɛ.dʑo.sʰʌn.ɡuk̚|}}
|child=yes
}}
}}

'''Joseon'''{{Efn|[[Middle Korean]]: 됴ᇢ〯션〮 '''Dywǒw syén''' or 됴ᇢ〯션〯 '''Dywǒw syěn'''|group=lower-alpha}} ({{IPAc-en|lang|ˈ|tʃ|oʊ|s|ʌ|n}} {{Respell|CHOH|sun}}; {{Korean/auto|hangul=^조선|hanja=朝鮮 |mr=yes|ko_ipa=tɕo.sʰʌn}}; also romanized as '''''Chosun'''''), officially '''Great Joseon''' ({{Korean/auto|hangul=대조선국|hanja=大朝鮮國|ko_ipa=tɛ.dʑo.sʰʌn.ɡuk̚|labels=no}}),<ref>{{cite news |author=Li, Jun-gyu (이준규) |date=July 22, 2009 |script-title=ko:(세상사는 이야기) 왜색에 물든 우리말-(10) |language=ko |publisher=Newstown |url=http://www.newstown.co.kr/newsbuilder/service/article/messmail.asp?P_Index=72824 |quote=1392년부터 1910년까지 한반도전역을 통치하였던 조선(朝鮮)은 일반적으로 조선왕조(朝鮮王朝)라 칭하였으며, 어보(御寶), 국서(國書)등에도 대조선국(大朝鮮國)이라는 명칭을 사용하였었다. (translation) Joseon which had ruled from 1392 to 1910 was commonly referred to as the "Joseon dynasty" while "Great Joseon" was used in the royal seal, national documents, and others.}}{{dead link|date=November 2017|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> was a dynastic kingdom of [[Korea]] that existed for 505 years. It was founded by [[Taejo of Joseon]] in July 1392 and replaced by the [[Korean Empire]] in October 1897. The kingdom was founded after the overthrow of [[Goryeo]] in what is today the city of [[Kaesong]]. Early on, Korea was retitled and the capital was moved to modern-day [[Seoul]]. The kingdom's northernmost borders were expanded to the natural boundaries at the rivers of [[Yalu River|Amnok]] and [[Tumen River|Tuman]] through the subjugation of the [[Jurchen people|Jurchens]].

Over the centuries, Joseon encouraged the entrenchment of [[Korean Confucianism|Confucian]] ideals and doctrines in Korean society. [[Neo-Confucianism]] was installed as the new state's ideology. [[Korean Buddhism|Buddhism]] was accordingly discouraged, and occasionally Buddhists faced persecution. Joseon consolidated its effective rule over the Korean peninsula and saw the height of classical Korean culture, trade, literature, and science and technology. The kingdom was severely weakened by failed [[Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)|Japanese invasions]] in 1592 and 1598, which were followed by invasions by the [[Later Jin (1616–1636)|Later Jin dynasty]] in [[Later Jin invasion of Joseon|1627]] and the [[Qing dynasty]] in [[Qing invasion of Joseon|1636–1637]]. The country pursued an increasingly harsh isolationist policy, becoming known as the "[[hermit kingdom]]" in [[Western literature]]. After the end of these invasions from [[Manchuria]], Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of peace and prosperity, along with cultural and technological development. What power the kingdom recovered during its isolation waned as the 18th century came to a close. Faced with internal strife, power struggles, international pressure, and rebellions at home, the kingdom declined rapidly in the late 19th century.

The Joseon period left a substantial legacy. Modern Korean bureaucracy and administrative divisions were established during it. The modern [[Korean language]] and [[Korean dialects|its dialects]] derive from the culture and traditions of Joseon, as does much of [[Culture of Korea|Korean culture]], etiquette, norms, and societal attitudes. 

{{TOC limit|4}}

==History==
{{Main|History of the Joseon dynasty}}
{{more citations needed section|date=May 2024}}

=== Early period (late 14th-mid 16th century) ===
{{History of Korea}}
[[File:King Taejo Yi 02.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Taejo of Joseon|King Taejo]]'s portrait]]

==== Founding ====
By the late 14th century, the nearly 500-year-old [[Goryeo]] established in 918 was tottering, its foundations collapsing from years of war spilled over from the disintegrating [[Yuan dynasty]]. Following the emergence of the [[Ming dynasty]], the royal court in Goryeo split into two conflicting factions, one favoring neutrality and the other wanting to retake the [[Liaodong Peninsula|Liaodong peninsula]], which many in Goryeo believed was [[Goguryeo|theirs]]. Goryeo remained a neutral third-party observer in the conflict between the Yuan and the Ming and had friendly diplomatic relations with both.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Robinson |first=David M. |date=2017 |title=Rethinking the Late Koryŏ in an International Context |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/ks.2017.0019 |journal=[[Korean Studies (journal)|Korean Studies]] |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=75–98 |doi=10.1353/ks.2017.0019 |issn=1529-1529|url-access=subscription }}</ref> In 1388, a Ming messenger came to Goryeo to demand that territories of the former [[Ssangseong Prefecture]] be handed over to Ming China. The tract of land was taken by Mongol forces during [[Mongol invasions of Korea|the invasion of Korea]], but had been reclaimed by Goryeo in 1356 as the Yuan dynasty weakened. The act caused an uproar among the Goryeo court, and General [[Ch'oe Yŏng]] seized the chance to argue for an invasion of the Ming-controlled [[Liaodong Peninsula]].

General [[Taejo of Joseon|Yi Sŏnggye]] was chosen to lead the attack; he revolted, [[Wihwado Retreat|swept back to the capital]] Kaegyŏng (now [[Kaesong]]) and initiated a [[coup d'état]], overthrowing [[U of Goryeo|King U of Goryeo]] in favor of his son, [[Chang of Goryeo]] (1388).<ref>{{Citation |script-title=ko:위화도회군 (威化島回軍) |work=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]] |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0041212 |access-date=May 23, 2025 |publisher=[[Academy of Korean Studies]] |language=ko}}</ref> Neo-Confucian scholars, who were a small and medium-sized power at the time, were able to use this incident as an opportunity to lay a political foundation, and in particular, [[Chŏng Tojŏn]], a friend of Yi Sŏnggye, wanted to use this incident as an opportunity to reform the corrupt nobles and the Buddhist community. He later killed King U and his son after a failed restoration and forcibly placed a royal named Wang Yo on the throne (he became King [[Gongyang of Goryeo]]). In 1392, Yi eliminated [[Chŏng Mong-ju]], a highly respected leader of a group loyal to the Goryeo dynasty, and dethroned King Gongyang, exiling him to [[Wonju]], and he ascended the throne himself. The Goryeo kingdom had come to an end after 474 years of rule.

At the beginning of his reign, Yi Sŏnggye, now ruler of Korea, intended to continue to use the name Goryeo for the country he ruled and simply change the royal line of descent to his own, thus maintaining the façade of continuing the 500-year-old Goryeo tradition. After numerous threats of mutiny from the drastically weakened but still influential Gwonmun nobles, who continued to swear allegiance to the remnants of the Goryeo and to the now-demoted [[House of Wang]], the consensus in the reformed court was that a new dynastic title was needed to signify the change. In naming the new kingdom, Taejo contemplated two possibilities – "Hwaryeong" (his place of birth) and "Joseon". After much internal deliberation, as well as endorsement by the neighboring Ming dynasty's emperor, Taejo declared the name of the kingdom to be Joseon, a tribute to the ancient Korean state of [[Old Chosŏn|Gojoseon]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Kang |first=Jae-eun |date=2006 |title=The Land of Scholars: Two Thousand Years of Korean Confucianism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XB4UYXNQK1wC&q=ming+taizu+joseon |publisher=Homa & Sekey Books |page=177 |access-date=August 7, 2015 |isbn=978-1931907309 |archive-date=April 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407111623/https://books.google.com/books?id=XB4UYXNQK1wC&q=ming+taizu+joseon |url-status=live}} "Yi Sŏng-gye issued a royal edict to proclaim the name of the new kingdom to "Joseon" and issued amnesty to all criminals who opposed the transition. The statement by Taizu about 'only the name of Joseon is beautiful and old' naturally refers to Gija Joseon."</ref> He also moved the capital to [[Capital of Korea#During Joseon|Hanseong]] (modern [[Seoul]]) from [[Capital of Korea#During Goryeo|Kaegyŏng]] (modern Kaesong).

==== Strifes of princes ====
[[File:Gyeongbok-gung palace-01 (xndr).jpg|left|thumb|upright|The throne room at [[Gyeongbokgung]]]]

When the new dynasty was brought into existence, Taejo brought up the issue of which son would be his successor. Although [[Taejong of Joseon|Yi Pangwŏn]], Taejo's fifth son by [[Queen Sinui]], had contributed the most to assisting his father's rise to power, [[Yŏngŭijŏng|Chief State Councillor]] [[Chŏng Tojŏn]] and [[Nam Ŭn]] used their influence on the king to name Yi Pangsŏk, his eighth son (second son of [[Queen Sindeok]]), as crown prince in 1392. This conflict arose largely because Chŏng Tojŏn, who shaped and laid down ideological, institutional, and legal foundations of the new kingdom more than anyone else, saw Joseon as a kingdom led by ministers appointed by the king while Yi Bang-won wanted to establish an absolute monarchy ruled directly by the king. With Taejo's support, Chŏng Tojŏn kept limiting the royal family's power by prohibiting the political involvement of princes and attempting to abolish their private armies. Both sides were well aware of each other's great animosity and were getting ready to strike first.

After the sudden death of Queen Sindeok, while King Taejo was still in mourning for his second wife, Yi Pangwŏn struck first by raiding the palace and killed Chŏng Tojŏn and his supporters as well as Queen Sindeok's two sons (his half-brothers) including the crown prince in 1398. This incident became known as the "First Strife of Princes".

Aghast at the fact that his sons were willing to kill each other for the crown, and psychologically exhausted from the death of his second wife, King Taejo abdicated and immediately crowned his second son Yi Bang-gwa as [[Jeongjong of Joseon|King Jeongjong]]. One of King Jeongjong's first acts as monarch was to revert the capital to Kaegyŏng, where he is believed to have been considerably more comfortable, away from the toxic power strife. Yet Yi Pangwŏn retained real power and was soon in conflict with his disgruntled older brother, Yi Panggan, who also yearned for power. In 1400, the tensions between Yi Pangwŏn's faction and Yi Panggan's camp escalated into an all-out conflict that came to be known as the "Second Strife of Princes". In the aftermath of the struggle, the defeated Yi Panggan was exiled to [[Tosan County|Dosan]] while his supporters were executed. Thoroughly intimidated, King Jeongjong immediately invested Yi Pangwŏn as heir presumptive and voluntarily abdicated. That same year, Yi Pangwŏn assumed the throne of Joseon as [[Taejong of Joseon|King Taejong]], third king of the dynasty.

=====Consolidation of royal power=====
At the beginning of Taejong's reign, the former King Taejo refused to relinquish the royal seal that signified the legitimacy of any king's rule. Regardless, Taejong initiated policies he believed would prove his qualification to rule. One of his first acts as king was to abolish the privilege enjoyed by the upper echelons of government and the aristocracy to maintain private armies. His revocation of such rights to field independent forces effectively severed their ability to muster large-scale revolts, and drastically increased the number of men employed in the national military. Taejong's next act as king was to revise the existing legislation concerning the taxation of land ownership and the recording of state of subjects. With the discovery of previously hidden land, national income increased twofold.

In 1399, Taejong had played an influential role in scrapping the [[Dopyeong Assembly]], a council of the old government administration that held a monopoly in court power during the waning years of [[Goryeo]], in favor of the [[State Council of Joseon]], a new branch of central administration that revolved around the king and his edicts. After passing the subject documentation and taxation legislation, he issued a new decree in which all decisions passed by the State Council could only come into effect with the approval of the king. This ended the custom of court ministers and advisors making decisions through debate and negotiations amongst themselves, and thus brought the royal power to new heights.

Shortly thereafter, Taejong installed an office, known as the [[Sinmun Office]], to hear cases in which aggrieved subjects felt that they had been exploited or treated unjustly by government officials or [[Yangban|aristocrats]]. He kept Chŏng Tojŏn's reforms intact for the most part. In addition, Taejong executed or exiled many of his supporters who had helped him ascend the throne to strengthen his own royal authority. To limit the influence of in-laws, he killed all four of [[Queen Wongyeong|his wife]]'s brothers and [[Sim On]], the father-in-law of his son [[Sejong the Great|Sejong]].

Taejong remains a controversial figure who killed many of his rivals and relatives to gain power and yet ruled effectively to improve the populace's lives, strengthen national defense, and lay down a solid foundation for his successor Sejong's rule.

=====Sejong the Great=====
[[File:영의정하연부부영정3.jpg|thumb|upright|Portrait of [[Ha Yeon]], who served as [[Yŏngŭijŏng|Chief State Councillor]] during [[Sejong the Great|King Sejong]]'s reign]]
[[File:Hunmin jeong-eum.jpg|thumb|right|A page from the ''Hunmin Jeongeum Eonhae'', a partial translation of ''[[Hunminjeongeum]]'', the original promulgation of the [[Hangul|Korean alphabet]]]]

In August 1418, following Taejong's abdication two months earlier, [[Sejong the Great]] ascended the throne. In May 1419, King Sejong, under the advice and guidance of his father Taejong, embarked upon the [[Ōei Invasion|Gihae Eastern Expedition]] to remove the nuisance of [[Wokou|waegu]] (coastal pirates) who had been operating out of [[Tsushima Island]].

In September 1419, the ''[[Daimyo|daimyō]]'' of Tsushima, Sadamori, capitulated to the Joseon court. In 1443, The [[Treaty of Gyehae]] was signed in which the ''daimyō'' of Tsushima was granted rights to conduct trade with Korea using fifty ships per year in exchange for sending tribute to Korea and aiding to stop any Waegu coastal pirate raids on Korean ports.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Korea |first=Richard |last=Rutt |publisher=Routledge/Curzon |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-7007-0464-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vj8ShHzUxrYC&q=kyehae%20treaty&pg=PA255 |display-authors=etal |access-date=November 1, 2020 |archive-date=April 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407111547/https://books.google.com/books?id=vj8ShHzUxrYC&q=kyehae%20treaty&pg=PA255 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Cambridge history of Japan |volume=3 |trans-title=Medieval Japan |first=John W. |last=Hall |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1990 |isbn=978-0-521-22354-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lCd4reJRaG8C&q=kyehae%20treaty&pg=PA442 |display-authors=etal |access-date=November 1, 2020 |archive-date=April 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407111626/https://books.google.com/books?id=lCd4reJRaG8C&q=kyehae%20treaty&pg=PA442 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{in lang|ko}} [http://100.nate.com/dicsearch/pentry.html?s=B&i=112816&v=42 계해약조 癸亥約條] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610053214/http://100.nate.com/dicsearch/pentry.html?s=B&i=112816&v=42 |date=June 10, 2011 }} [[Nate (web portal)|Nate]] / [[Britannica]]</ref><ref>{{in lang|ko}}[http://100.nate.com/dicsearch/pentry.html?s=K&i=236670&v=42 계해조약 癸亥約條] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610053227/http://100.nate.com/dicsearch/pentry.html?s=K&i=236670&v=42 |date=June 10, 2011 }} [[Nate (web portal)|Nate]] / [[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]]</ref>

On the northern border, Sejong established four forts and six posts to safeguard his people from the [[Jurchen people|Jurchens]], who later became the [[Manchu people|Manchus]], living in Manchuria. In 1433, Sejong sent [[Kim Chongsŏ]], a government official, north to fend off the Jurchens. Kim's military campaign captured several castles, pushed north, and expanded Korean territory, roughly the current border between North Korea and China.<ref>{{cite book |author=박영규 |script-title=ko:한권으로 읽는 세종대왕실록 |publisher=웅진, 지식하우스 |year=2008 |isbn=978-89-01-07754-3}}</ref>

During the rule of Sejong, Korea saw advances in [[natural science]], [[agriculture]], [[literature]], [[traditional Chinese medicine]], and [[engineering]]. Because of such success, Sejong was given the title "Sejong the Great".<ref name="asiasociety">{{cite web |url=http://www.asiasociety.org/countries-history/traditions/king-sejong-great |title=King Sejong the Great And The Golden Age Of Korea |date=August 19, 2008 |publisher=Asia Society |access-date=November 27, 2009 |archive-date=June 14, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614223619/http://asiasociety.org/countries-history/traditions/king-sejong-great |url-status=live}}</ref> The most remembered contribution of King Sejong is the creation of [[Hangul]], the Korean alphabet, in 1443. Rejected in its time by the scholarly elite, the everyday use of [[Hanja]] in writing was eventually surpassed by Hangul in the latter half of the 20th century.

=====Six martyred ministers=====
After King Sejong's death, his son [[Munjong of Joseon|Munjong]] continued his father's legacy but soon died of illness in 1452, just two years after his coronation. He was succeeded by his twelve-year-old son, [[Danjong of Joseon|Danjong]]. In addition to two regents, [[Princess Gyeonghye]] also served as Danjong's guardian and, along with general Kim Chongsŏ, attempted to strengthen royal authority.<ref name="an">{{cite web |url=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2016/05/628_153138.html |title=Forgotten story of Princess Gyeonghye |last1=An |first1=Seung-jun |website=[[The Korea Times]] |date=April 4, 2014 |access-date=February 22, 2018 |archive-date=February 22, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180222225504/http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2016/05/628_153138.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Danjong's uncle, [[Sejo of Joseon|Grand Prince Suyang]], gained control of the government and eventually deposed his nephew to become the seventh king of Joseon himself in 1455, taking the name Sejo. After [[Six martyred ministers|six ministers loyal to Danjong]] attempted to assassinate Sejo to return Danjong to the throne, Sejo executed the six ministers and also killed Danjong in his place of exile.

King Sejo enabled the government to determine exact population numbers and to mobilize troops effectively. He also revised the land ordinance to improve the national economy and encouraged the publication of books. Most importantly, he compiled the [[Kyŏngguk taejŏn|Grand Code for State Administration]], which became the cornerstone of dynastic administration and provided the first form of constitutional law in written form in Korea.

Sejo undermined much of the foundation of many existing systems, including the [[Hall of Worthies|Jiphyeonjeon]] which his predecessors, Sejong and Munjong, had carefully laid down. He cut down on everything he deemed unworthy and caused countless complications in the long run. Many of these adjustments were made for his own power, not regarding the consequences and problems that would occur. The favoritism he showed toward the ministers who aided him in taking the throne led to increased corruption in the higher echelons of the political field.

=====Institutional arrangements and Prosper culture=====
Sejo's weak son [[Yejong of Joseon|Yejong]] succeeded him as the eighth king, but died two years later in 1469. Yejong's nephew [[Seongjong of Joseon|Seongjong]] ascended the throne. His reign was marked by the prosperity and growth of the national economy and the rise of [[Neo-Confucianism|neo-Confucian]] scholars called [[sarim]] who were encouraged by Seongjong to enter court politics. He established [[Hongmun'gwan]], the royal library and advisory council composed of Confucian scholars, with whom he discussed philosophy and government policies. He ushered in a cultural golden age that rivaled Sejong's reign by publishing numerous books on geography, ethics, and various other fields.

He also sent several military campaigns against the Jurchens on the northern border in 1491, like many of his predecessors. The campaign, led by General [[Heo Jong]], was successful, and the defeated Jurchens, led by the Udige clan (兀狄哈), retreated to the north of the [[Yalu River]]. King Seongjong was succeeded by his son, [[Yeonsangun of Joseon|Yeonsangun]], in 1494.

====Literati purges====
{{Main|Korean literati purges}}
[[File:Cho Kwang-jo in 1750.jpg|thumb|upright|Portrait of the neo-Confucian scholar, [[Cho Kwangjo]] (1482–1519)]]

[[Yeonsangun of Joseon|Yeonsangun]] is often considered the worst tyrant in Joseon's history, whose reign was marked by [[Korean literati purges|literati purges]] between 1498 and 1506. His behavior became erratic after he learned that his biological mother was not Queen Junghyeon but the [[deposed Queen Yun]], who was forced to drink poison after poisoning one of Seongjong's concubines out of jealousy and leaving a scratch mark on Seongjong's face. When he was shown a piece of clothing that was allegedly stained with his mother's blood vomited after drinking poison, he beat two of Seongjong's concubines, who had accused Queen Yun of death, and pushed his grandmother, [[Queen Insu|Grand Queen Dowager Insu]], who died afterward. He executed government officials who supported Queen Yun's death along with their families. He also executed [[sarim]] scholars for writing phrases critical of Sejo's usurpation of the throne.

Yeonsangun also seized a thousand women from the provinces to serve as palace entertainers and appropriated the [[Sungkyunkwan]] as a personal pleasure ground. He abolished the Office of Censors, whose function was to criticize inappropriate actions and policies of the king, and Hongmungwan. He banned the use of hangul when the common people used it on posters to criticize the king. After twelve years of misrule, he was finally deposed in a coup which placed his half-brother [[Jungjong of Joseon|Jungjong]] on the throne in 1506.

Jungjong was a fundamentally weak king because of the circumstances that placed him on the throne, but his reign also saw a period of significant reforms led by his minister [[Cho Kwangjo]], the charismatic leader of sarim. He established a local self-government system called [[hyangyak]] to strengthen local autonomy and communal spirit among the people, sought to reduce the gap between the rich and poor with a land reform that would distribute land to farmers more equally and limit the amount of land and number of slaves that one could own, promulgated Confucian writings with vernacular translations widely among the populace, and sought to trim the size of government by reducing the number of bureaucrats. According to the ''[[Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty]]'', it was said that no official dared to receive a bribe or exploit the populace during this time because as Inspector General, he applied the law strictly.

These radical reforms were very popular with the populace but were fiercely opposed by the conservative officials who had helped to put Jungjong on the throne. They plotted to cause Jungjong to doubt Cho's loyalty. Cho Kwangjo was executed, and most of his reform measures died with him in the resulting [[Korean literati purges#Third literati purge of 1519|third literati purge]]. For nearly 50 years afterward, the court politics were marred by bloody and chaotic struggles between factions backing rival consorts and princes. In-laws of the royal family wielded great power and contributed to much corruption in that era.

===Middle period (mid 16th-mid 17th century)===
[[File:정철.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Chŏng Ch'ŏl]] (1536–1593), head of the [[Westerners (Korean political faction)|Western faction]]]]

The middle Joseon period was marked by intense and bloody power struggles between political factions that weakened the country, and by large-scale invasions by Japan and Manchu which nearly toppled the kingdom.

====Factional struggle====
{{Main|Political factions in Joseon dynasty}}

The [[Sarim]] faction had suffered a series of political defeats during the reigns of Yeonsangun, Jungjong, and [[Myeongjong of Joseon|Myeongjong]], but it gained control of the government during the reign of [[Seonjo of Joseon|King Seonjo]]. It soon split into opposing factions known as the [[Easterners (Korean political faction)|Easterners]] and the [[Westerners (Korean political faction)|Westerners]] by their political or philosophical masters. [[Easterners (Korean political faction)|Easterners]] mainly followed the teachings and philosophy of Yi Hwang and Jo Sik while the [[Westerners (Korean political faction)|Westerners]] followed the philosophy of Yi I and Song Hon.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0028128 |script-title=ko:서인-한국민족대백과 사전 |access-date=July 31, 2023 |archive-date=May 8, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240508063155/https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0028128 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0016736 |script-title=ko:동인-한국민족대백과 사전}}</ref> Within decades the Easterners themselves divided into the [[Southerners (Korean political faction)|Southerners]] and the [[Northerners (Korean political faction)|Northerners]]; in the seventeenth century the Westerners also permanently split into the [[Noron (Korean political faction)|Noron]] and the [[Soron (Korean political faction)|Soron]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ebrey |first1=Patricia |last2=Walthall |first2=Ann |date=2013 |title=East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, Volume II: From 1600 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5pLGIcp4PMgC&q=patriarchs+joseon+faction&pg=PA255 |publisher=Cengage Learning |page=255 |isbn=978-1133606499 |access-date=July 15, 2015}}</ref> Factions in the Joseon dynasty were formed based on their different interpretations of Confucian philosophy, which mainly differed according to who their master was and what they believed in.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0025062 |script-title=ko:붕당정치-한국민족대백과 사전}}</ref> The alternations in power among these factions were often accompanied by charges of treason and bloody purges, initiating a cycle of revenge with each change of regime.

One example is the [[1589 rebellion of Chŏng Yŏrip]], one of the bloodiest political purges of Joseon. [[Chŏng Yŏrip]], an Easterner, had formed a society with a group of supporters that also received military training to fight against [[Wokou|Waegu]]. There is still a dispute about the nature and purpose of his group, which reflected the desire for a classless society and spread throughout [[Honam]]. He was subsequently accused of conspiracy to start a rebellion. [[Chŏng Ch'ŏl]], head of the Westerner faction, was in charge of investigating the case and used this event to affect the widespread purge of Easterners who had the slightest connection to Chŏng Yŏrip. Eventually 1000 Easterners were killed or exiled in the aftermath.

====Japanese invasions====
{{Main|Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)}}
[[File:Korea-Tongyeong Port-Turtle ship replica-02.jpg|thumb|[[turtle ship|The Turtle ship]] (replica)]]
Throughout Korean history, there was frequent [[piracy]] on the sea and brigandage on land. The only purpose of the Joseon navy was to secure the maritime trade against the [[wokou|Waegu]]. The navy repelled pirates using an advanced form of gunpowder technologies including cannons and [[fire arrow]]s in the form of [[singijeon]] deployed by [[hwacha]].

During the [[Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)|Japanese invasions in the 1590s]], [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]], plotting the conquest of [[Ming dynasty|Ming China]] with [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] guns, invaded Korea with his ''[[Daimyo|daimyōs]]'' and their troops, intending to use Korea as a stepping stone. Factional division in the Joseon court, inability to assess Japanese military capability, and failed attempts at diplomacy led to poor preparation on Joseon's part. The use of superior firearms by the Japanese left most of the southern part of the Korean Peninsula occupied within months, with both [[Seoul|Hanseong]] (present-day [[Seoul]]) and [[Pyongyang]] captured.
[[File:Korea-Tongyeong Port-Turtle ship replica-Inside-02.jpg|thumb|The Turtle Ship interior]]

The invasion was slowed when Admiral [[Yi Sun-sin]] destroyed the Japanese invasion fleet. The guerrilla resistance that eventually formed also helped. Local resistance slowed down the Japanese advance and decisive naval victories by Admiral Yi left control over sea routes in Korean hands, severely hampering Japanese supply lines. Furthermore, Ming China intervened on the side of the Koreans, sending a large force in 1593 which pushed back the Japanese together with the Koreans.

During the war, Koreans developed powerful firearms and the [[turtle ship]]s. The Joseon and Ming forces defeated the Japanese at a deep price. Following the war, relations between Korea and Japan were completely suspended until 1609.

====Manchu invasions====
{{see also|First Manchu invasion of Korea|Second Manchu invasion of Korea}}
[[File:Jurchen warriors.jpg|thumb|left|A Korean painting depicting two Jurchen warriors and their horses]]

After the Japanese invasions, the Korean Peninsula was devastated. Meanwhile, [[Nurhaci]] (r. 1583–1626), the chieftain of the [[Jianzhou Jurchens]], was unifying the [[Jurchen people|Jurchen]] tribes of [[Manchuria]] into a strong coalition that his son [[Hong Taiji]] (r. 1626–1643) would eventually rename the "Manchus". After he declared the [[Seven Grievances]] against Ming China in 1618, Nurhaci and the Ming engaged in several military conflicts. On such occasions, Nurhaci required help from [[Gwanghaegun of Joseon]] (r. 1608–1623), putting the Korean state in a difficult position because the Ming court was also requesting assistance.<ref name="Ebrey 349">{{harvnb|Ebrey|Walthall|Palais|2006|p=349}}.</ref> Gwanghaegun tried to maintain neutrality, but most of his officials opposed him for not supporting Ming China, which had saved Joseon during Hideyoshi's invasions.<ref name="Ebrey 349"/>

In 1623, Gwanghaegun was deposed and replaced by [[Injo of Joseon]] (r. 1623–1649), who banished Gwanghaegun's supporters. Reverting his predecessor's foreign policy, the new king decided to openly support the Ming, but a [[Yi Gwal's Rebellion|rebellion]] led by military commander [[Yi Kwal]] erupted in 1624 and wrecked Joseon's military defenses in the north.<ref name="Ebrey 349"/> Even after the rebellion had been suppressed, King Injo had to devote military forces to ensure the stability of the capital, leaving fewer soldiers to defend the northern borders.<ref name="Ebrey 349"/>

In 1627, a Jurchen army of 30,000 led by Nurhaci's nephew [[Amin (Qing dynasty)|Amin]] overran Joseon's defenses.<ref>{{harvnb|Kennedy|1943|}} (leader of the expedition); {{harvnb|Ebrey|Walthall|Palais|2006|p=350}} (number of troops).</ref> After a quick campaign that was assisted by northern [[yangban]] who had supported Gwanghaegun, the Jurchens imposed a treaty that forced Joseon to accept "brotherly relations" with the Jurchen kingdom.<ref name="Larsen 2008 36">{{harvnb|Larsen|2008|p=36}}.</ref> Because Injo persisted in his anti-Manchu policies, [[Qing dynasty|Qing]] emperor Hong Taiji sent a punitive expedition of 120,000 men to Joseon in 1636.<ref>{{harvnb|Ebrey|Walthall|Palais|2006|p=350}}.</ref> Defeated, King Injo was forced to end his relations with the Ming and recognize the Qing as suzerain instead.<ref>{{harvnb|Lee|de Bary|1997|p=269}}.</ref> Injo's successor [[Hyojong of Joseon]] (r. 1649–1659) tried to form an army to keep his enemies away and conquer the Qing for revenge, but could never act on his designs.<ref>{{harvnb|Larsen|2008|p=36}}; {{harvnb|Ebrey|Walthall|Palais|2006|p=350}}.</ref>

Despite reestablishing economic relations by officially entering the [[Tributary system of China|imperial Chinese tributary system]], Joseon leaders and intellectuals remained resentful of the Manchus, whom they regarded as barbarians, and<ref name="Larsen 2008 36"/> regarded the Ming dynasty as the center of the civilized world.<ref name="google books1">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NoFSDwAAQBAJ&dq=little+china+ideology+sojunghwa&pg=PA220 |title=A History of Chinese Political Thought |isbn=978-1509523160 |last1=Kim |first1=Youngmin |pages=219–223 |date=2018 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |access-date=April 23, 2022 |archive-date=April 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407111627/https://books.google.com/books?id=NoFSDwAAQBAJ&dq=little+china+ideology+sojunghwa&pg=PA220 |url-status=live}}</ref> Joseon intellectuals, who had political and cultural allegiances to the Ming dynasty,<ref name="MingLoyalismAndForeignLineages">{{cite journal |last1=Bohnet |first1=Adam |date=January 1, 2011 |title=Ruling Ideology and Marginal Subjects: Ming Loyalism and Foreign Lineages in Late Chosŏn Korea |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/jemh/15/6/article-p477_1.xml |journal=[[Journal of Early Modern History]] |volume=15 |issue=6 |pages=477–505 |doi=10.1163/157006511X604013 |access-date=November 24, 2022 |archive-date=November 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211109075544/https://brill.com/view/journals/jemh/15/6/article-p477_1.xml |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}</ref> were forced to reexamine their state identity when the Qing overthrew the Ming,<ref name="google books1"/> leading to an influx of Ming [[refugee]]s into Joseon.<ref name="MingLoyalismAndForeignLineages" /> As a result, Joseon created the [[Little China (ideology)|Little China ideology]], known as sojunghwa.<ref name="google books1"/> According to Youngmin Kim, "It held that the Joseon embodied Chineseness authentically while other neighboring countries failed to do so in the face of the barbarian domination of the center of the civilized world."<ref name="google books1"/> A set of standardized rites and unifying symbols were developed in Late Joseon Korea to maintain that sense of cultural identity.<ref name="google books1"/> Long after submitting to the Qing, the Joseon court and many Korean intellectuals kept using Ming [[Chinese era name|reign periods]], as when a scholar marked 1861 as "the 234th year of [[Chongzhen Emperor|Chongzhen]]".<ref>{{harvnb|Kim Haboush|2005|p=132}}.</ref>

===Late period (mid 17th-late 19th century)===
====Emergence of Silhak and renaissance of the Joseon====
[[File:Kim Yuk 02.jpg|thumb|upright|Portrait of Kim Yuk 김육 (1570–1658), an early Silhak philosopher of the Joseon period]]
[[File:Hwaseong2.jpg|thumb|[[Hwaseong Fortress]] in [[Suwon]]. Also one of [[UNESCO World Heritage Sites]]]]

After invasions from Japan and Manchuria, Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of peace. Joseon witnessed the emergence of [[Silhak]] (Practical Learning). The early group of Silhak scholars advocated comprehensive reform of civil service examination, taxation, natural sciences and the improvement in agromanagerial and agricultural techniques. It aimed to rebuild Joseon society after it had been devastated by the two invasions. Under the leadership of [[Kim Yuk]], the chief minister of [[Hyeonjong of Joseon|King Hyeonjong]], the implementation of reforms proved highly advantageous both to state revenues and to the lot of the peasants.

In 1666, during Hyeonjong's reign, Dutchman [[Hendrick Hamel]] left Korea after more than thirteen years of captivity.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sohn |first1=JiAe |title=Dutch museum opens in honor of Hamel |url=https://www.korea.net/NewsFocus/Society/view?articleId=127968 |website=Korea. Net |access-date=January 14, 2024}}</ref> From 1670 to 1671, Korea endured a devastating [[famine]] brought on by cold weather and poor harvests. While the death toll remains difficult to measure, hundreds of thousands of Koreans may have died. In total, scholars estimate that the [[Kyŏngsin Famine]] and the Eulbyeong famine in the years 1695–1696 may have killed 23–33% of Korea's population. The countryside remained scarred by these calamities and population growth would remain depressed for most of the 18th century.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lee |first1=De-nin |title=Eco–Art History in East and Southeast Asia |date=2019 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |page=9 |isbn=9781527527300 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qlmGDwAAQBAJ |access-date=June 24, 2022}}</ref>

The co-existence system between Southerners and Westerners which was established after the Injo coup started to fall.<ref name="yesong">{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0037964 |title=yesong |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]] |access-date=November 2, 2023}}</ref> After the Yesong debate, factional conflict grew particularly intense under the reigns of the kings [[Sukjong of Joseon|Sukjong]] and [[Gyeongjong of Joseon|Gyeongjong]], with major rapid reversals of the ruling faction, known as hwanguk (換局; literally ''change in the state of affairs''), being commonplace. During the early reign of [[Sukjong of Joseon|Sukjong]], the southerners managed to become a ruling faction and made westerners lose power. But the southerners' rise to power was temporary. [[Sukjong of Joseon|Sukjong]], who believed that political factions would weaken the king's power started rapid reversals of the ruling faction, which resulted in bloody killings between factions. After the three bloody hwanguk, the Southerners lost their influence in the central government, and the ruling Westerners were divided into hard-line Noron who rejected the Southerners and moderate Soron who were friendly to the Southerners. This shift resulted in political radicalism which viewed other factions as the ones that should be eliminated.<ref name="yesong"/><ref>{{cite web |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E00318370 |title=sukjong |access-date=July 31, 2023 |archive-date=May 8, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240508063252/https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In response, the next kings, [[Yeongjo of Joseon|Yeongjo]] (r. 1724–1776) and [[Jeongjo of Joseon|Jeongjo]] (r. 1776–1800), generally pursued the ''Tangpyeongchaek'' – a policy of maintaining balance and equality between the factions.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |script-title=ko:탕평책 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=이 |first=성무 |date=2007 |script-title=ko:조선당쟁사 2 탕평과 세도정치: 숙종조~고종조 |publisher=아름다운날 |isbn=978-8989354833}}</ref>

The two kings led a second renaissance of the Joseon kingdom.<ref>{{cite book |title=A Brief History of Korea |date=2005 |publisher=Ewha Womans University Press |isbn=978-8973006199 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o-WlUd3cjh0C&pg=PT98 |access-date=December 23, 2016 |language=en |archive-date=January 24, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230124010158/https://books.google.com/books?id=o-WlUd3cjh0C&pg=PT98 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Beirne |first1=Paul |title=Su-un and His World of Symbols: The Founder of Korea's First Indigenous Religion |date=2016 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1317047490 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8OPeCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT38 |access-date=December 23, 2016 |language=en |archive-date=January 24, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230124010159/https://books.google.com/books?id=8OPeCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT38 |url-status=live}}</ref> Yeongjo's grandson, the enlightened King Jeongjo enacted various reforms throughout his reign, notably establishing [[Kyujanggak]], a royal library to improve the cultural and political position of Joseon and to recruit gifted officers to run the nation. King Jeongjo also spearheaded bold social initiatives, opening government positions to those who would previously have been barred because of their social status. King Jeongjo had the support of many Silhak scholars. King Jeongjo's reign also saw the further growth and development of Joseon's popular culture. At that time, the group of Silhak scholars encouraged the individual to reflect on state traditions and lifestyle, initiating the studies of Korea that addressed its history, geography, [[epigraphy]] and language.

[[File:Empress sin-jung-ik2.PNG|thumb|upright|[[Queen Sinjeong|Sinjeong]], Queen Regent of Joseon. She served as nominal regent of Joseon, who selected [[Gojong of Korea|Gojong]] to place upon the throne.]]

====Architecture====
During the late Joseon period of the 18th and 19th centuries, Joseon started to change its perceptions of the Qing dynasty.<ref name="Changing perceptions of the Qing Dy">{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/13467581.2021.1928504 |title=Changing perceptions of the Qing Dynasty in the Late Joseon Dynasty and Chinese style architecture that emerged in Joseon in the 18th century |date=2022 |last1=Seo |first1=Myengsoo |journal=Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=849–864 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The shift in perceptions commenced through the introduction of Qing dynasty culture to Joseon society by Yeonhaengsa, Korean envoys to the Qing dynasty.<ref name="Changing perceptions of the Qing Dy"/> Progressive-thinking Joseon intellectuals advocated the [[Pak Chega|Bukhak theory]], which argued that Joseon should adopt Qing and Western culture through the Qing dynasty.<ref name="Changing perceptions of the Qing Dy"/> Joseon scholars became intrigued by the sophisticated architectural technology of China, encompassing construction techniques, wagon utilization, and the [[ondol]] heating system.<ref name="Changing perceptions of the Qing Dy"/> Particularly fascinated by brick, the proponents of Bukhak endeavored to popularize its usage across Joseon, and eventually succeeded.<ref name="Changing perceptions of the Qing Dy"/> [[Pak Chiwŏn (philosopher)|Pak Chiwŏn]] was among the first to construct brick Chinese-style buildings in Anui, Gyeongsang Province, and Gyedong, Seoul, towards the end of the 18th century.<ref name="Changing perceptions of the Qing Dy"/> Following the establishment of the Suwon [[Hwaseong Fortress]], which was influenced by Qing construction technology and techniques, Qing-style architectural style and techniques started to become more widespread in Joseon society.<ref name="Changing perceptions of the Qing Dy"/>

==== Government by in-law families ====
After the death of King Jeongjo, the Joseon faced difficult external and internal problems. Internally, the foundation of national law and order weakened as a result of "Sedo Politics" (in-law government) by royal in-laws.

The young [[Sunjo of Joseon|Sunjo]] succeeded his father, King Jeongjo, in 1800. With Jeongjo's death the [[Noron (Korean political faction)|Noron]] seized power with the regency of [[Queen Jeongsun|Queen Dowager Jeongsun]], whose family had strong ties to the faction, and initiated a [[Catholic Persecution of 1801|persecution of Catholics]]. However, after the retirement and death of the Queen Dowager, the Norons were gradually ousted, while the [[Andong Kim clan]] of [[Kim Jo-sun (politician)|Kim Jo-sun]], the father of the [[Queen Sunwon]], gained power. Gradually the Andong Kims came to dominate the court.<ref>{{cite book |last=오 |first=영교 |date=2007 |script-title=ko:세도정권기 조선사회와 대전회통 |publisher=혜안 |isbn=978-8984943131}}</ref>

With the domination of the Andong Kims, the era of Sedo Politics began. The formidable in-law lineage monopolized the vital positions in government, holding sway over the political scene, and intervening in the succession of the throne. These kings had no monarchic authority and could not rule over the government. The other aristocratic families, overwhelmed by the power exercised by the royal in-laws, could not speak out. As the power was concentrated in the hands of the royal in-law lineage, there was disorder in the governing process, and corruption became rampant. Large sums were offered in bribes to the powerful lineages to obtain positions with nominally high rank. Even the low-ranking posts were bought and sold. This period, which spanned 60 years, saw the manifestation of both severe poverty among the Korean population and ceaseless rebellions in various parts of the country.

Externally, Joseon became increasingly [[Isolationism|isolationist]]. Its rulers sought to limit contact with foreign countries.

==== End of the dynasty ====
[[File:Korean headgear-Waryonggwan-01.jpg|left|thumb|upright|[[Heungseon Daewongun]]]]
<!--[[File:Flag of Korea 1882.svg|thumb|upright|The Joseon flag from 1882 to 1897]]-->

In 1863, [[Gojong of Korea|King Gojong]] took the throne. His father, [[Heungseon Daewongun]], ruled for him until Gojong reached adulthood. During the mid-1860s the Regent was the main proponent of isolationism and the instrument of the persecution of native and foreign Catholics, a policy that led directly to the [[French expedition to Korea|French Campaign against Korea]] in 1866. The early years of his rule also witnessed a large effort to restore the dilapidated [[Gyeongbokgung]], the seat of royal authority. From 1862 to 1864, an insurgency movement driven by [[Donghak]] followers and religious leader [[Choe Je-u]] gathered a peasant army to take over southern parts of Korea until Choe was executed in 1864.<ref name=":19">{{Cite book |title=A Handbook of Korea |date=1993 |publisher=[[Korean Culture and Information Service|Korean Overseas Culture and Information Service]] |isbn=978-1-56591-022-5 |edition=9th |location=Seoul |pages=142–143}}</ref>

During his reign, the power and authority of the in-law families such as the Andong Kims sharply declined. To get rid of the Andong Kim and [[Pungyang Jo clan|Pungyang Jo]] clans, he promoted persons without making references to political party or family affiliations, and to reduce the burdens of the people and solidify the basis of the nation's economy, he reformed the tax system. In 1871, [[United States expedition to Korea|U.S. and Korean forces clashed]] in a U.S. attempt at [[gunboat diplomacy]] following on the [[General Sherman incident]] of 1866.

[[file:남산 정상에서 바라본 서울 풍경 (1884).jpg|left|thumb|upright|Seoul in 1884, photographed by [[George Clayton Foulk]]]]

In 1873, King Gojong announced his assumption of royal rule. With the subsequent retirement of Heungseon Daewongun, Queen Min (later called [[Empress Myeongseong]]) became a power in the court, placing [[Yeoheung Min clan|her family]] in high court positions.

Japan, after the [[Meiji Restoration]], acquired Western military technology, and forced Joseon to sign the [[Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876|Treaty of Ganghwa]] in 1876, opening three ports to trade and granting the Japanese extraterritoriality. [[Port Hamilton incident|Port Hamilton was briefly occupied]] by the [[Royal Navy]] in 1885.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jin |first=Sangpil |date=March 4, 2019 |title=The Port Hamilton (Geomundo) Incident (1885–1887): Retracing Another Great Game in Eurasia |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07075332.2017.1409791 |journal=The International History Review |language=en |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=280–303 |doi=10.1080/07075332.2017.1409791 |issn=0707-5332|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

[[File:Portrait_of_Gojong_01.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Gojong of Korea|Emperor Gojong]]]]
Many Koreans despised Japanese and foreign influences over their land and the corrupt oppressive rule of the Joseon dynasty. In 1881, the [[Pyŏlgigun|Byeolgigun]], a modern elite military unit, was formed with Japanese trainers. The salaries of the other soldiers were held back, and in 1882 [[Imo Incident|rioting soldiers]] attacked the Japanese officers and even forced the queen to take refuge in the countryside. In 1894, the [[Donghak Peasant Revolution]] saw farmers rise up in a mass rebellion, with peasant leader [[Jeon Bongjun|Jeon Bong-jun]] defeating the forces of local ruler Jo Byong-gap at the battle of [[Jeongeup|Gobu]] on January 11, 1894; after the battle, Jo's properties were handed out to the peasants. By May, the peasant army had reached [[Jeonju]], and the Joseon government asked the [[Qing dynasty]] government for assistance in ending the revolt. The Qing sent 3,000 troops, and the rebels negotiated a truce, but the Japanese considered the Qing presence a threat and sent in 8,000 troops of their own, [[Japanese occupation of Gyeongbokgung Palace|seizing the Royal Palace]] in Seoul and installing a pro-Japanese government on June 8, 1894. This soon escalated into [[First Sino-Japanese War|a war]] (1894–1895) between Japan and the Qing Empire, fought largely in Korea. (The king made a deal with Japan, partially out of a distrust of the queen's support for open trade policies toward Western civilizations and China. He ended up preempting a specific disadvantageous, exclusive negotiation with Japan previous to the Queen's decision, which was later used as a political premise for Japan to wage military action. Scholars, particularly during the Joseon era, were touted for expressing allegiance to the king.)

[[Empress Myeongseong]] (referred to as Queen Min)<ref name="queen min">[https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1895/11/10/106073098.pdf Characteristics of Queen of Corea] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210228135115/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1895/11/10/106073098.pdf |date=February 28, 2021 }} ''[[The New York Times]]'' November 10, 1895</ref> had attempted to counter Japanese interference in Korea and was considering turning to the [[Russian Empire]] and to China for support. In 1895, [[Assassination of Empress Myeongseong|Empress Myeongseong was assassinated]] by Japanese agents.<ref name="Dong-a 2002">{{cite news |url=http://www.donga.com/docs/magazine/shin/2004/11/09/200411090500053/200411090500053_1.html |script-title=ko:일본인 폭도가 가슴을 세 번 짓밟고 일본도로 난자했다 |newspaper=[[The Dong-A Ilbo]] |author=Park Jong-hyo (박종효), former professor at [[Lomonosov Moscow State University]] |date=January 1, 2002 |issue=508 |pages=472–485 |language=ko |access-date=January 16, 2009 |archive-date=March 14, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090314035233/http://www.donga.com/docs/magazine/shin/2004/11/09/200411090500053/200411090500053_1.html |url-status=live}}</ref> The Japanese minister to Korea, [[Lieutenant general|Lieutenant-General]] [[Miura Gorō|Viscount Miura]], almost certainly orchestrated the plot against her. A group of Japanese agents<ref name="Dong-a 2002"/> entered the palace [[Gyeongbokgung]] in Seoul, which was under Japanese control,<ref name="Dong-a 2002"/> and Queen Min was killed and her body desecrated in the north wing of the palace.

The Qing acknowledged defeat in the [[Treaty of Shimonoseki]] (April 17, 1895), which officially guaranteed Korea's independence from China.<ref name="britannica">{{Britannica|540685}}</ref> It was a step toward Japan gaining regional [[hegemony]] in Korea.

==== Establishment of the Empire and Colonization ====
The Joseon court, pressured by encroachment from larger powers, felt the need to reinforce national integrity and declared the [[Korean Empire]], along with the [[Gwangmu Reform]] in 1897. [[Gojong of Korea|King Gojong]] assumed the title of [[Korean imperial titles|Emperor]] to assert Korea's independence. In addition, other foreign powers were sought for military technology, especially Russia, to fend off the Japanese. Technically, 1897 marks the end of the Joseon period, as the official name of the empire was changed; the Joseon dynasty still reigned, albeit perturbed by Japan and Russia.

In a complicated series of maneuvers and counter-maneuvers, Japan pushed back the Russian fleet at the [[Battle of Port Arthur]] in 1904. With the conclusion of the 1904–1905 [[Russo-Japanese War]] with the [[Treaty of Portsmouth]], the way was open for Japan to take control of Korea. After the signing of the [[Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905|Protectorate Treaty]] in 1905, Korea became a [[protectorate]] of Japan. [[Itō Hirobumi|Prince Itō]] was the first [[Japanese Resident-General of Korea|Resident-General of Korea]], although he was assassinated by [[Korean independence movement|Korean independence activist]] [[An Jung-geun]] in 1909 at the train station in [[Harbin]]. In 1910 the [[Empire of Japan|Japanese Empire]] finally [[Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910|annexed]] Korea.

==Government==
{{See also|Joseon Dynasty politics}}
{{more citations needed section|date=January 2021}}

Joseon was a highly centralized monarchy, and neo-Confucian bureaucracy as codified by ''[[Kyŏngguk taejŏn]]'', a sort of Joseon constitution.

=== King ===
{{see also|List of Joseon monarchs|House of Yi#House of Yi family tree|Styles and titles in the Joseon dynasty|label 2=Joseon kings family tree|label 3= Royal titles and styles during the Joseon Period}}
[[File:Seoul Gyeongbokgung Throne.jpg|thumb|The [[Phoenix Throne]] of the king of Joseon in [[Gyeongbokgung]]

The picture in the background is [[Irworobongdo]].]]
[[File:종묘 정전 전면.jpg|thumb|Jeongjeon of [[Jongmyo (Seoul)|Jongmyo Shrine]] – As the dynasty continued, it was expanded horizontally.]]

The king had absolute authority, but his actual power varied with political circumstances. He was bound by tradition, precedents set by earlier kings,''[[Kyŏngguk taejŏn]]'', and Confucian teachings. The king commanded absolute loyalty from his officials and subjects, but the officials were also expected to persuade the king to the right path if the latter was thought to be mistaken. Natural disasters were thought to be due to the king's failings, and therefore, Joseon kings were very sensitive to their occurrences. When there was a severe drought or a series of disasters, the king often formally sought criticism from officials and the citizenry. On those occasions, critics were immune from prosecution, regardless of what they said or wrote (although there were a few exceptions).

Direct communication between the king and the common people was possible through the ''sangeon'' ({{Korean|hangul=상언|hanja=上言|labels=no}}) written petition system and the ''gyeokjaeng'' ({{Korean|hangul=격쟁|hanja=擊錚|labels=no}}) oral petition system. Through the ''gyeokjaeng'' oral petition system, commoners could strike a gong or drum in front of the palace or during the king's public processions to appeal their grievances or petition the king directly. This allowed even the illiterate members of Joseon society to make a petition to the king. More than 1,300 ''gyeokjaeng''-related accounts are recorded in the [[Ilseongnok]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Ilseongnok: Records of Daily Reflections |url=http://www.unesco.org/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CI/CI/pdf/mow/nomination_forms/Korea%20Ilseongnok.pdf |website=Memory of the World Register |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=December 6, 2017 |archive-date=April 17, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170417001124/http://www.unesco.org/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CI/CI/pdf/mow/nomination_forms/Korea%20Ilseongnok.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lee |first1=Injae |last2=Miller |first2=Owen |last3=Park |first3=Jinhoon |last4=Yi |first4=Hyun-Hae |title=Korean History in Maps |date=2014 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1107098466 |page=93 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=46OTBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA93 |access-date=December 6, 2017 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |script-title=ko:상언격쟁 |url=http://www.culturecontent.com/content/contentView.do?content_id=cp021002840001 |website=문화콘텐츠닷컴 |publisher=Korea Creative Content Agency |access-date=December 6, 2017 |archive-date=December 6, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206144858/http://www.culturecontent.com/content/contentView.do?content_id=cp021002840001 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Royal seals ====

<gallery>
Image:Joseon wang bo (Royal Seal Treasure of the Joseon King).svg|Seal used from 1392 to 1401.
Image:Joseongukwangjiin (The Seal of the King of Joseon).svg| Seal used from 1401 to 1637, for use in Ming-related state documents.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kca_10106012_002 |title=Veritable Records of Taejong, vol. 1, year of 1401, 6th month, 12nd day |access-date=29 May 2021 |archive-date=2 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602214519/http://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kca_10106012_002 |url-status=live}}</ref> 
Image:Joseongukwangjiin (The Seal of the King of Joseon, 1637-1653).svg| Seal used between 1637<ref>[http://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kpa_11511020_001 Veritable Records of Injoo, vol. 35, year of 1637, 11th month, 20nd day] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602214520/http://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kpa_11511020_001 |date=2 June 2021 }}.</ref> and 1653, for use in Qing-related state documents.<ref>{{cite book |author=김지남 |date=1888 |title=Record of Joseon Diplomacy |volume=3 |chapter=9 |url=https://kyudb.snu.ac.kr/book/view.do?book_cd=GK00882_00 |pages=126–127 |access-date=29 May 2021 |archive-date=2 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602212415/https://kyudb.snu.ac.kr/book/view.do?book_cd=GK00882_00 |url-status=live}}</ref>
Image:Joseongukwangjiin (The Seal of the King of Joseon, 1653-1776).svg|Seal used between 1653 and 1776, for use in Qing-related state documents.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kva_10008018_001 |title=Veritable Records of Jeongjo, vol. 2, year of 1776, 8th month, 18nd day |access-date=29 May 2021 |archive-date=2 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602214726/http://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kva_10008018_001 |url-status=live}}</ref>
Image:Joseongukwangjiin (The Seal of the King of Joseon, 1776-1876).svg|Seal used between 1776 and 1876, for use in Qing-related state documents.
Image:Daejoseongukjusangjibo.svg|The seal was produced on December 15, 1876, for use in Japanese-related state documents.
Image:Daegunjubo.svg|"Daegunju bo" designed to replace the former sergeant "Joseon gukwang jiin", used as the seal of the king for documents such as appointment documents for high-ranking government officials and ordinances proclaimed in Korea, between 1882 and 1897<ref name="great">{{Cite web |url=http://kyudb.snu.ac.kr/pf01/rendererImg.do?item_cd=SJW&book_cd=GK12788_00&vol_no=2902&page_no=003a |title=Journal of the Royal Secretariat, vol. 2902, year of 1882, 7th month, 1st day |access-date=29 May 2021 |archive-date=2 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602213548/http://kyudb.snu.ac.kr/pf01/rendererImg.do?item_cd=SJW&book_cd=GK12788_00&vol_no=2902&page_no=003a |url-status=live}}</ref>
Image:DaejoseonDaegunjubo.svg|"Daejoseon Daegunju bo" were used as the 'seal of state' for credentials in diplomatic relations with other countries, between 1882{{clarify|date=April 2022}}<ref name="great"/>
</gallery>

===Officials===
Government officials were ranked in 18 levels, ranging from first senior rank ({{Korean|hangul=정1품|hanja=正一品|labels=no}}) down to ninth junior rank ({{Korean|hangul=종9품|hanja=從九品|labels=no}}). Seniority and promotion were achieved through royal decree, based on examination or recommendation. The officials from 1st senior rank to 3rd senior rank wore red robes. Those from 3rd junior rank to 6th junior rank wore blue. Those below wore green robes.{{cn|date=May 2025}}

Here, "government official" means one who occupied an office which gave its holder [[yangban]] status – hereditary nobility for three generations. To become such an official, one had to pass a series of [[gwageo]] examinations. There were three kinds of gwageo exams – literary, military, and miscellaneous. The literary route was the most prestigious. Many key posts, including all [[#Three Offices|Censorate]] posts, were open only to officials who advanced through literary exam. The literary route involved a series of four tests. To qualify, one had to pass them all. 33 candidates who were chosen in this manner would take the final exam, before the king. The candidate with the highest score was appointed to a position of 6th junior rank (a jump of six ranks). The two candidates with the next highest scores were appointed to a position of 7th junior rank. The seven candidates with next highest scores were assigned to 8th junior rank. The remaining 23 candidates were given 9th junior rank, the lowest of 18 ranks.

The officials of 1st senior rank, 1st junior rank, and 2nd senior rank were addressed with the honorific "daegam" ({{Korean|hangul=대감|hanja=大監|labels=no}}) while those of 2nd junior rank and 3rd senior rank were addressed with the honorific "[[yeonggam]]" ({{Korean|hangul=영감|hanja=令監|labels=no}}).<ref>Kyujanggak Institute for Korean Studies, "About Rank of Joseon Officials"</ref> These red-robed officials, collectively called "dangsanggwan" ({{Korean|hangul=당상관|hanja=堂上官|labels=no}}), took part in deciding government policies by attending cabinet meetings. The rest of the ranked officials were called "danghagwan" ({{Korean|hangul=당하관|hanja=堂下官|labels=no}}).

===Central government===
[[File:Joseon-Portrait_of_Cha_Jegong-Geumgwanjobok.jpg|thumb|upright|Portrait of [[Yŏngŭijŏng|Chief State Councillor]] [[Ch'ae Chegong]] (1720–1799)]]

====State Council====

[[State Council of Joseon|State Council]] (Uijeongbu, 의정부, 議政府) was the highest deliberative body, whose power declined over the course of the period. The Chief State Councillor ([[Yŏngŭijŏng]]), Left State Councillor ([[Chwaŭijŏng]]), and Right State Councillor ([[Uŭijŏng]]) were the highest-ranking officials in the government (all three were of 1st senior rank). They were assisted by Left Minister (Jwachanseong, 좌찬성, 左贊成) and Right Minister (Uichangseong, 우찬성, 右贊成), both of 1st junior rank, and seven lower-ranking officials. The power of State Council was inversely proportional to the king's power. There were periods when it directly controlled the [[Six Ministries of Joseon|Six Ministries]], the chief executive body of Joseon government, but it primarily served in an advisory role under stronger kings. State councillors served in several other positions concurrently.

====Six Ministries====
[[File:이항복 호성공신상 후모본.jpg|thumb|Yi Hang-bok – He was appointed and served as Byeongjo Panseo, Minister of National Defense during the [[Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)|Japanese invasions of Korea]]|371x371px]]
[[Six Ministries of Joseon|Six Ministries]] (Yukjo, 육조, 六曹) make up the chief executive body. Each minister (Panseo, 판서, 判書) was of 2nd senior rank and was assisted by a deputy minister (Champan, 참판, 參判), who was of 2nd junior rank. The  Ministry of Personnel was the most senior of six ministries. As the influence of  the State Council waned over time, the Minister of Personnel was often the de facto head of ministers. Six ministries are in order of seniority.

:*Ministry of Personnel (Ijo, 이조, 吏曹) – was primarily concerned with the appointment of officials
:*Ministry of Taxation (Hojo, 호조, 戶曹) – taxation, finances, census, agriculture, and land policies
:*Ministry of Rites (Yejo, 예조, 禮曺) – rituals, culture, diplomacy, gwageo exam
:*Ministry of Defense (Byeongjo, 병조, 兵曺) – military affairs
:**Office of Police Bureau ([[Podocheong]], 포도청, 捕盜廳) – office for public order
:*Ministry of Justice (Hyeongjo, 형조, 刑曺) – administration of law, slavery, punishments
:*Ministry of Commerce (Gongjo, 공조, 工曹) – industry, public works, manufacturing, mining
:
Government offices of each organization were located where the current [[Gwanghwamun Plaza]] is located. So it was also called <nowiki>'''Yukjo street'''</nowiki> after the six ministries.

====Three Offices====
[[File:윤봉구 초상.jpg|thumb|upright|Portrait of the Inspector General {{ill|Yun Ponggu|ko|윤봉구}} (1681–1767)]]
[[Three offices of Joseon|Three Offices]], or ''Samsa'' ({{Korean|hangul=삼사|labels=no}}), is a collective name for three offices that functioned as a major organ of the press and provided checks and balances on the king and the officials. While modeled after the Chinese system, they played much more prominent roles in the Joseon government than their Chinese counterparts. In their role as organ of press, they did not have actual authority to decide or implement policies, but had influential voice in the ensuing debate.

The officials who served in these offices tended to be younger and of lower rank compared to other offices but had a strong academic reputation and enjoyed special privileges and great prestige (for instance, censors were permitted to drink during working hours because of their function of criticizing the king). To be appointed, they went through more thorough review of character and family background. Three Offices provided the fastest route of promotion to high posts and was almost a requirement to becoming a State Councillor.
:*Office of the Inspector General ([[Sahŏnbu]], 사헌부) – It monitored government administration and officials at each level in both central and local governments for corruption, malfeasance, or inefficiency. It was also in charge of advancing public morals and Confucian customs and redressing grievances of the populace. It was headed by Inspector General (Daesaheon, 대사헌), a position of 2nd junior rank, who oversaw 30 largely independent officials.
:*Office of Censors ([[Saganwon]], 사간원) – Its chief function was to remonstrate with the king if there was wrong or improper action or policy. Important decrees of the king were first reviewed by censors, who could ask for them to be withdrawn if they judged them improper. It also issued opinions about the general state of affairs. It was composed of five officials, led by the Chief Censor (Daesagan, 대사간), of 3rd senior rank.
While the primary focus for Office of Inspector General is the government officials and Office of Censors is focused on the king, two offices often performed each other's functions, and there was much overlap. Together they were called "Yangsa", ({{Korean|hangul=양사|labels=no}}) which literally means "Both Offices", and often worked jointly especially when they sought to reverse the king's decision.
:*Office of Special Advisors ([[Hongmun'gwan]], 홍문관, 弘文館) – It oversaw the royal library and served as research institute to study Confucian philosophy and answer the king's questions. Its officials took part in the daily lessons called ''gyeongyeon'' ({{Korean|hangul=경연|labels=no}}), in which they discussed history and Confucian philosophy with the king. Since these discussions often led to commentary on current political issues, its officials had significant influence as advisors. It was headed by Chief Scholar (Daejehak, 대제학), a part-time post of 2nd senior rank that served concurrently in another high post (such as in State Council), and Deputy Chief Scholar (Bujehak, 부제학), a full-time post of 3rd senior rank that actually ran the office. There was great prestige attached to being Chief Scholar in this deeply Confucian society. The office was established to replace [[Hall of Worthies]] (Jiphyeonjeon, 집현전) after the latter was abolished by [[Sejo of Joseon|King Sejo]] in the aftermath of [[Six martyred ministers]].

====Other offices====
The major offices include the following:
*Royal Secretariat (Seungjeongwon, 승정원) served as a liaison between the king and the Six Ministries. There were six royal secretaries ({{Korean|hangul=승지|labels=no}}), one for each ministry, and all were of the 3rd senior rank. Their primary role was to pass down royal decrees to the ministries and submit petitions from the officials and the populace to the king, but they also advised the king and served in other key positions close to the king. In particular the Chief Royal Secretary ({{Korean|hangul=도승지|labels=no}}), a liaison to the Ministry of Personnel, served the king in the closest proximity of all government officials and often enjoyed great power that was derived from the king's favor. [[Hong Guk-yeong]] (during [[Jeongjo of Joseon|Jeongjo]]'s reign) and [[Han Myŏnghoe]] (during [[Sejo of Joseon|Sejo]]) are some examples of chief royal secretaries who were the most powerful officials of their time.
*Capital Bureau (Hanseongbu, 한성부) was in charge of running the capital, ''Hanseong'' (now Seoul). It was led by ''Panyoon'' ({{Korean|hangul=판윤|labels=no}}), of the 2nd senior second rank equivalent to today's mayor of Seoul.
*Royal Investigation Bureau (Uigeumbu, 의금부) was an investigative and enforcement organ under direct control of the king. It chiefly dealt with treason and other serious cases that concerned the king and royal family and served to arrest, investigate, imprison, and carry out sentences against the suspected offenders, who were often government officials.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.doopedia.co.kr/doopedia/master/master.do?_method=view&MAS_IDX=130510001403866 |script-title=ko:한성부 |publisher=[[Doosan Encyclopedia]] |access-date=March 1, 2014 |language=ko |archive-date=September 23, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923231447/http://www.doopedia.co.kr/doopedia/master/master.do?_method=view&MAS_IDX=130510001403866 |url-status=live}}</ref>
*Office of Records (Ch'unch'ugwan, 춘추관) officials wrote, compiled, and maintained the government and historical records. It was headed by State Councillors, and many posts were held by officials serving in other offices concurrently. There were eight historiographers whose sole function was to record the meetings for history.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.doopedia.co.kr/doopedia/master/master.do?_method=view&MAS_IDX=101013000868787 |script-title=ko:춘추관 |publisher=[[Doosan Encyclopedia]] |access-date=March 1, 2014 |language=ko |archive-date=September 23, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923230216/http://www.doopedia.co.kr/doopedia/master/master.do?_method=view&MAS_IDX=101013000868787 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Sungkyunkwan]] or Royal Academy ({{Korean|hangul=성균관|labels=no}}) prepared future government officials. Those who passed the first two stages of the [[gwageo]] examinations (literary exam) were admitted to Sungkyunkwan. The class size was usually 200 students, who lived in the residential hall and followed a strict routine and school rules. (Tuition, room and board were provided by the government.) It also served as the state shrine for [[Confucianism|Confucian]] and [[Korean Confucianism|Korean Confucian]] sages. The students' opinions on government policies, especially collective statements and demonstrations, could be influential as they represented the fresh and uncorrupted consensus of young scholars. The official in charge was Daesaseong ({{Korean|hangul=대사성|labels=no}}), of 3rd senior rank, and 36 other officials including those from other offices were involved in running the academy.

===Local government===
The officials of high rank were sent from the central government. Sometimes a [[secret royal inspector]] (Amhaengeosa, 암행어사) was appointed by the king to travel incognito and monitor the provincial officials. These undercover inspectors were generally young officials of lower rank but were invested with the royal authority to dismiss corrupt officials.
* Provinces (Do, 도, 道) – There were eight provinces, each of which was governed by a Governor (Gwanchalsa, 관찰사, 觀察使), a position of 2nd junior rank.
* Bu ({{Korean|hangul=부|labels=no}}) – administrative offices in charge of major cities in provinces. Each bu was led by Buyun ({{Korean|hangul=부윤|labels=no}}), which was equivalent to Governor in rank.
* Mok ({{Korean|hangul=목|hanja=牧|labels=no}}) – There were twenty moks, which governed large counties named ju ({{Korean|hangul=주|hanja=州|labels=no}}). They were run by Moksa ({{Korean|hangul=목사|hanja=牧使|labels=no}}), of the 3rd senior rank.
* County (Gun, 군, 郡) – There were eighty counties in Joseon, each governed by Gunsu ({{Korean|hangul=군수|hanja=郡守|labels=no}}), a 4th junior rank.
* Hyeon ({{Korean|hangul=현|hanja=縣|labels=no}}) – Large hyeons were governed by Hyeonryeong ({{Korean|hangul=현령|hanja=縣令|labels=no}}) of 5th junior rank while smaller hyeons were governed by Hyeongam ({{Korean|hangul=현감|hanja=縣監|labels=no}}) of 6th junior rank.

=== Administrative divisions ===
{{Main|Eight Provinces of Korea}}
[[File:8 Provinces of Korea.png|thumb|The eight provinces of Joseon]]

During most of the Joseon period, Korea was divided into [[Eight Provinces of Korea|eight provinces]] (do, 도, 道). The eight provinces' boundaries remained unchanged for almost five centuries from 1413 to 1895, and formed a geographic paradigm that is still reflected today in the Korean Peninsula's administrative divisions, dialects, and regional distinctions. The names of all eight provinces are still preserved today, in one form or another.
[[File:김후영정.jpg|thumb|upright|Portrait of Kim Hu (1751–1805), a military officer of the Joseon dynasty]]

=== Military ===
{{See also|Korean armour|Korean cannon|Gakgung|Korean sword}}

==== Army ====
{{main|Joseon Army|Joseon Army (late 19th century)}}
The army consists of the central army and the provincial armies. Each is made of peasant soldiers, cavalry, ''pengbaesu'' and ''gabsa'' elite soldiers, archers, musketeers, and artillery. The king appointed their generals.

==== Navy ====
{{main|Joseon Navy}}
The Joseon Navy consists of two types of main warships, the [[panokseon]] and the [[turtle ship]]. They also used small vessels and fishing boats for reconnaissance and landings. The king also appoints their admirals.

==== Royal Guard ====
{{main|Naegeumwi|Wanggung Sumunjang}}
The [[Naegeumwi]] were royal guards defending the king, queen, and ministers. These were soldiers hand-selected by the king. The King's Royal Palace Gatekeepers, the ''[[Wanggung Sumunjang]]'' ({{Korean|hangul=왕궁수문장|labels=no}}) were a royal guard unit tasked with defending the gates of the five palaces and Hanseong's city gates.

== Foreign relations ==
{{main|Joseon diplomacy}}
Joseon was a tributary state of [[China]] that was ritually subordinate to the [[Ming dynasty]] and [[Qing dynasty]] but exercised a high level of independence and sovereignty.<ref name="Em">{{cite book |last1=Em |first1=Henry |title=The Great Enterprise: Sovereignty and Historiography in Modern Korea |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0822353720 |pages=23–30 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DxAd2Aw_jP0C |language=en |date=March 25, 2013 |archive-date=April 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407111632/https://books.google.com/books?id=DxAd2Aw_jP0C |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lee |first1=Seokwoo |last2=Lee |first2=Hee Eun |title=The Making of International Law in Korea: From Colony to Asian Power |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9004315754 |oclc=1006718121 |page=21 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bCoiDAAAQBAJ |access-date=July 28, 2016 |language=en |date=May 12, 2016 |archive-date=January 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126050937/https://books.google.com/books?id=bCoiDAAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> The ruling Yi family proclaimed their indigenous legitimacy but institutionalized structures that limited Joseon monarch power, which modern scholars view as producing contradictory statuses from a modern view of sovereignty.<ref name="Em"/> Joseon maintained the highest position among China's tributary states,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wang |first1=Yuan-kang |title=Harmony and War: Confucian Culture and Chinese Power Politics |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0231522403 |oclc=774509438 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gxVfTuKsaJQC&q=seating+arrangement+highest |access-date=July 20, 2016 |language=en |date=December 15, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Seth |first1=Michael J. |title=A History of Korea: From Antiquity to the Present |title-link=A History of Korea (2011 book) |date=October 16, 2010 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |isbn=978-0742567177 |page=144 |language=en |oclc=644646716}}</ref> which also included countries such as Japan, Vietnam, [[Ryukyu Kingdom|Ryukyu]], Burma, Thailand, Laos, Brunei,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gambe |first1=Annabelle R. |title=Overseas Chinese Entrepreneurship and Capitalist Development in Southeast Asia |publisher=LIT Verlag Münster |isbn=978-3825843861 |page=99 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZUfNRG8IR44C |access-date=July 19, 2016 |language=en |year=2000 |archive-date=April 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407111628/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZUfNRG8IR44C |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Chinvanno |first1=Anuson |title=Thailand's Policies towards China, 1949–54 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1349124305 |page=24 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0vywCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA24 |access-date=July 19, 2016 |language=en |date=June 18, 1992 |archive-date=April 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407111657/https://books.google.com/books?id=0vywCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA24 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Leonard |first1=Jane Kate |title=Wei Yuan and China's Rediscovery of the Maritime World |publisher=Harvard Univ Asia Center |isbn=978-0674948556 |pages=137–138 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wQCm-bequYgC&pg=PA137 |access-date=July 19, 2016 |language=en |year=1984 |archive-date=April 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407111553/https://books.google.com/books?id=wQCm-bequYgC&pg=PA137 |url-status=live}}</ref> and the Philippines, among others.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tsai |first1=Shih-shan Henry |title=The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0791426876 |pages=119–120 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ka6jNJcX_ygC&pg=PA119 |access-date=July 20, 2016 |language=en |date=January 1996}}</ref><ref name="Routledge">{{cite book |last1=Eisemann |first1=Joshua |last2=Heginbotham |first2=Eric |last3=Mitchell |first3=Derek |title=China and the Developing World: Beijing's Strategy for the Twenty-first Century |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1317282945 |page=23 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nM5mCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA23 |access-date=July 20, 2016 |language=en |date=August 20, 2015}}</ref> In addition, Joseon received tribute from Jurchens and [[Sō clan]] of [[Tsushima Island|Tsushima]] until the 17th century,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=James B. |title=Frontier Contact Between Choson Korea and Tokugawa Japan |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1135795986 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z2SQAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT139 |access-date=July 20, 2016 |language=en |date=November 2, 2005}} "Tribute trade was the oldest and most important component of the trade structure, not for its volume or content, but for its symbolism. Japanese brought items to 'offer' to Korea and received in exchange 'gifts' of higher value, since Korea was a greater land receiving supplicants. Koreans viewed tribute trade as a 'burden' and a favor extended to needy islanders; the significance was diplomatic not economic."</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kang |first1=David C. |title=East Asia Before the West: Five Centuries of Trade and Tribute |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0231153195 |page=122 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jgk0buCaLJ0C&pg=PT138 |access-date=July 20, 2016 |language=en |year=2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kayoko |first1=Fujita |last2=Momoki |first2=Shiro |last3=Reid |first3=Anthony |title=Offshore Asia: Maritime Interactions in Eastern Asia Before Steamships |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |isbn=978-9814311779 |page=198 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lcT3AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA198 |access-date=July 20, 2016 |language=en |year=2013}}</ref> and had a small enclave in the Ryukyu Kingdom that engaged in trade with Siam and Java.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kim |first1=Chun-gil |title=The History of Korea |year=2005 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0313332968 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofkorea0000kimc/page/77 77] |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofkorea0000kimc |url-access=registration |access-date=July 28, 2016 |language=en}}</ref>

===China===
{{Main|Joseon missions to Imperial China}}
In 1392, General [[Yi Sŏng-gye]] led a [[Wihwado Retreat|successful coup]] to take political power in Korea from [[U of Goryeo|the King]]. [[Yi Sŏng-gye|General Yi]]'s followers forced him to take the crown as Taejo of Joseon, thus establishing a new dynasty.<ref name="Joongang126">Jang, Pyun-soon. pp.&nbsp;123–132.</ref> In search of a justification for its rule given the lack of a royal bloodline, the new regime wanted recognition from other countries such as China. Furthermore, the only way to establish diplomatic relations and trade with China was to accept the tributary system of China. Thus, Joseon joined the [[Tributary system of China|Imperial Chinese tributary system]] in 1401 within the context of the [[Mandate of Heaven]], in return for recognition.<ref name="Edward7">Rockstein, Edward D., PhD p.&nbsp;7.</ref><ref name="Edward10-11">Rockstein, Edward D., PhD pp.&nbsp;10–11.</ref><ref>Villiers p.&nbsp;71.</ref> Within this tributary system, China assumed the role of a "big brother", with Korea maintaining the highest position among the [[List of tributaries of Imperial China|tributary states]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Wang |first=Yuan-kang |author-link=Yuan-kang Wang |title=Harmony and War: Confucian Culture and Chinese Power Politics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gxVfTuKsaJQC |year=2010 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0231522403}}</ref>{{sfn|Seth|2010|p=144}} which also included countries such as the [[Ashikaga shogunate]], [[Ryukyu Kingdom]], [[Lan Xang]], [[Đại Việt]], and the [[Ayutthaya Kingdom]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tsai |first1=Shih-shan Henry |title=The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0791426876 |pages=119–120 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ka6jNJcX_ygC&pg=PA119 |access-date=July 20, 2016 |language=en |year=1996}}</ref><ref name="Routledge"/> in return for accepting the subordinate tributary role of a "younger brother".<ref name="Alagappa117">{{cite book |last=Alagappa |first=Muthiah |title=Asian Security Order: Instrumental and Normative Features |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rnNnOxvm3ZwC&pg=PA117 |year=2003 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0804746298 |page=117}}</ref><ref name="kang49">Kang, Etsuko H. (1997). [https://books.google.com/books?id=4f0jnNzdRb4C&pg=PA49 ''Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations: from the Fifteenth to the Eighteenth Century,'' p. 49.] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407111619/https://books.google.com/books?id=4f0jnNzdRb4C&pg=PA49 |date=April 7, 2023 }}</ref> A series of diplomatic ventures illustrate the persistence of Joseon's ''[[sadae]]'' (serving the great or serving Ming China)<ref name="jstor.org">{{Cite journal |last1=Seung |first1=B. Kye |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41490257 |title=Huddling under the Imperial Umbrella: A Korean Approach to Ming China in the Early 1500s |journal=[[The Journal of Korean Studies]] |year=1979 |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=41–42 |jstor=41490257 |access-date=December 3, 2017 |archive-date=September 22, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922065137/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41490257 |url-status=live }}</ref> diplomacy in dealings with [[Ming dynasty]].  ''[[Sadae]]'' construes China as the center of a Confucian moral universe<ref>Mansourov, Alexandre Y. [http://www.asiaquarterly.com/content/view/174/43/ "Will Flowers Bloom without Fragrance? Korean-Chinese Relations"], {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080108074830/http://www.asiaquarterly.com/content/view/174/43/ |date=January 8, 2008 }} ''Harvard Asia Quarterly'' (Spring 2009).</ref>{{sfn|Walker|1971|pp=3–4}} and describes a foreign policy characterized by the various ways a weaker nation-state such as Korea acknowledges the strength of a greater power such as China. ''Sadae'' is made manifest in the actions of the weaker nation-state as it conveys goodwill and respect through its envoys. ''[[Sadaejuui]]'' conflates an attitude of subservience with the political realism which accompanies the prudent recognition of greater power.<ref>Armstrong, Charles K. (2007). {{Google books|_mh4Qv4lAkQC|''The Koreas,'' p. 57-58.|page=57}}</ref> As a foundation of diplomacy, the Joseon kingdom presumed that the Korean state was positioned within a Sinocentristic milieu.<ref>Kang, Etsuko H. (1997). [https://books.google.com/books?id=4f0jnNzdRb4C&pg=PA49 ''Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations: from the Fifteenth to the Eighteenth Century,'' p. 49.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407111619/https://books.google.com/books?id=4f0jnNzdRb4C&pg=PA49 |date=April 7, 2023 }}</ref>

During the 1400s, the connection between Ming and Joseon was mainly pragmatic and somewhat contractual.<ref name="jstor.org"/> The concept of Sadae implied a commitment to serve Ming China, and depending on the international context, the dominant state could be substituted.<ref name="jstor.org"/> However, by the early 1500s, the relationship between Ming and Joseon was reinforced through a father-son dynamic, as Joseon elites began to regard the Ming emperor not just as a [[suzerain]] but also as a ritual father figure.<ref name="jstor.org"/> This transformation held significant weight because, unlike the changeable loyalty to a ruler, the Confucian principle of filial piety was considered immutable and irrevocable.<ref name="jstor.org"/> The lasting effect of the Ming-Joseon relationship on the Joseon elites endured well beyond the collapse of the Ming dynasty in the mid-1600s, molding the prevailing political and intellectual developments within Joseon Korea.<ref name="jstor.org"/> This influence is evident in the construction of the Taebodan, the Altar of Great Gratitude, and the Mandongmyo, an Eastern Shrine dedicated to Ming emperors, within Korea.<ref name="jstor.org"/> These structures, erected in 1704 within a palace courtyard and a local private academy respectively, served as tributes to the memory of selected Ming emperors, to honor the memory of specific Ming emperors.<ref name="jstor.org"/>

Joseon's perceptions of the Qing dynasty were significantly influenced by Sungmyeongbancheong, which means worship of the Ming and disdain for Qing, prior to the middle of the 18th century.<ref name="Changing perceptions of the Qing Dy"/> The Joseon dynasty was characterized by strong anti-Qing sentiments and allegiance to the Ming dynasty. According to the ''[[Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty]]'', Joseon regarded the Ming Empire as its ancestral homeland and considered the Qing dynasty barbaric, maintaining loyalty to the Ming even after its collapse.<ref name="Changing perceptions of the Qing Dy"/> Due to their adherence to the China-centric perspective called Hwai-gwan, intellectuals in Joseon held profound disdain for the Qing dynasty.<ref name="Changing perceptions of the Qing Dy"/>

{{blockquote| China [Ming Dynasty] is the mother and father of our country; thus, those barbarians [Qing Dynasty] are the enemy of our parents. As a civil servant, how can you abandon your parents and become the brother of your parents' enemy? The work [Ming's help to Joseon] during the Imjinwaeran (Japanese invasion of Joseon, 1592) was thanks to the power of the [Ming] emperor. It is difficult to forget the grace of the emperor as long as our country lives and breathes. ... we [Joseon Dynasty] shall not abandon our loyalty even if our country disappears ([[Injo of Joseon]] Citation 1636).<ref name="Changing perceptions of the Qing Dy"/>}}

Joseon wanted to dispatch envoys as often as possible for economic and cultural interests as well as diplomatic purposes.<ref name="History net">History net [http://contents.history.go.kr/mobile/nh/view.do?levelId=nh_022_0030_0020_0020_0010 "조공횟수의 문제 (The problem of the frequency of tributes)"], {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405113815/http://contents.history.go.kr/mobile/nh/view.do?levelId=nh_022_0030_0020_0020_0010 |date=April 5, 2023 }}</ref> China demanded that Joseon pay tribute only once in a three-year cycle. However, Joseon strongly opposed this measure and demanded that Joseon pay tribute to China three times a year.<ref name="History net" /> In response, China put pressure on them by banning envoy delegates from entering the country or demanding unreasonable tributes, but in the end Joseon, which had a theoretical advantage, got the privilege of paying tribute at least one or two times a year.<ref name="History net" /> Joseon enjoyed the most opportunities for tribute trade with China, and the tribute trade with China was considered as a privilege not easily granted in Asia. China had to give a higher value than the tribute it received to maintain face, and Joseon abused it.<ref name="History net" /> Joseon experienced numerous economic and cultural benefits through gifts from imperial China. The purpose of the tribute varied depending on the circumstances, but it was usually for economic or diplomatic gain.

At the time of the 1882 [[Imo Incident]], the [[Qing dynasty]] had a ''laissez-faire'' policy toward Joseon; despite being a tributary state of China, Joseon was independent in its internal and external affairs, and China did not manipulate or interfere in them. After the Imo Incident, China abandoned its ''laissez-faire'' policy, signed the [[China–Korea Treaty of 1882]], and became directly involved in the affairs of Joseon.{{sfn|Lin|2014|pp=69–71}}

====Sino-Korean relationship after the Imo Incident====
After the [[Imo Incident]] in 1882, early reform efforts in Korea suffered a major setback.{{sfn|Seth|2010|p=237}} In the aftermath of the incident, the Chinese reasserted their influence over the peninsula, where they began to interfere in Korean internal affairs directly.{{sfn|Seth|2010|p=237}} After stationing troops at strategic points in the capital Seoul, the Chinese undertook several initiatives to gain significant influence over the Korean government.{{sfnm|Kim|2012|1p=293|Seth|2010|2p=237}} The Qing dispatched two special advisers on foreign affairs representing Chinese interests to Korea: the German [[Paul Georg von Möllendorff]], a close confidant of [[Li Hongzhang]], and the Chinese diplomat [[Ma Jianzhong]].{{sfn|Kim|2012|p=293}} The Chinese supervised the creation of a Korean Maritime Customs Service headed by von Möllendorff.{{sfn|Seth|2010|p=237}} A staff of Chinese officers also took over the training of the army, providing the Koreans with 1,000 rifles, two cannons, and 10,000 rounds of ammunition.{{sfn|Duus|1998|p=54}} Furthermore, the {{lang|ko-Latn|Chingunyeong}} (Capital Guards Command), a new Korean military formation, was created and trained along Chinese lines by [[Yuan Shikai]].{{sfn|Kim|2012|p=293}}

In October 1882, the two countries signed the [[China–Korea Treaty of 1882]], and Korea was reduced to a semi-colonial tributary state of China with [[Gojong of Korea|King Gojong]] unable to appoint diplomats without Chinese approval,{{sfn|Kim|2012|p=293}} and with troops stationed in the country to protect Chinese interests.{{refn|group=nb|A Korean historian stated that "the Chinese government began to turn its former tributary state into a semi-colony and its policy toward Korea substantially changed to a new imperialistic one where the suzerain state demanded certain privileges in her vassal state".{{sfn|Duus|1998|p=54}}}} China's new policy toward Joseon was set by [[Li Hongzhang]] and implemented by [[Yuan Shikai]]. According to Ming-te Lin: "Li's control of Korea from 1885 to 1894 through [[Yuan Shikai]] as resident official represented an anachronistic policy of intervention toward Korea."{{sfn|Lin|2014|pp=69–71}}

===Gyorin===
{{Main|Gyorin}}

This long-term, strategic policy contrasts with the ''[[gyorin]]'' (''kyorin'') (neighborly relations) diplomacy in dealings with [[Jurchen people|Jurchens]], Japan, [[Ryukyu Kingdom]], [[Thailand|Siam]] and [[Java]].<ref>Chun-gil Kim [https://books.google.com/books?id=WBZjBPt1H8AC&pg=PA76 ''The History of Korea,'' pp. 76–77.] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405113815/https://books.google.com/books?id=WBZjBPt1H8AC&pg=PA76 |date=April 5, 2023 }} 7</ref> Gyorin was applied to a multi-national foreign policy.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://enc.daum.net/dic100/contents.do?query1=b10s4187a |script-title=ko:사대교린 (조선 외교), Britannica online Korea}}</ref> The unique nature of these bilateral diplomatic exchanges evolved from a conceptual framework developed by the Chinese. Gradually, the theoretical models would be modified, mirroring the evolution of a unique relationship.<ref>Toby, Ronald P. (1991). [https://books.google.com/books?id=2hK7tczn2QoC&dq=korean+diplomacy+1711&pg=PA87 ''State and Diplomacy in Early Modern Japan: Asia in the Development of the Tokugawa Bakufu,'' p. 87.] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405113816/https://books.google.com/books?id=2hK7tczn2QoC&dq=korean+diplomacy+1711&pg=PA87 |date=April 5, 2023 }}</ref>

====Japan====
{{Main|Joseon missions to Japan}}

As an initial step, a diplomatic mission was dispatched to Japan in 1402. The Joseon envoy sought to bring about the re-establishment of amicable relations between the two countries and he was charged to commemorate the good relations which existed in ancient times. This mission was successful, and ''[[Shogun|shōgun]]'' [[Ashikaga Yoshimitsu]] was reported to have been favorably impressed by this initial embassy.<ref name="Titsingh, p. 320">Titsingh, p. 320.</ref> Not less than 70 diplomatic missions were dispatched from the Joseon capital to Japan before the beginning of Japan's [[Edo period]].<ref>Lewis, James Bryant. ''Frontier contact between chosŏn Korea and Tokugawa Japan'', p. 269 n. 89, citing ''Hanguk Chungse tae-il kysōpsa yŏngu'' (1996) by Na Chongpu.</ref>

Reciprocal missions were construed as a means of communication between Korean kings and Japanese ''shōguns'' of almost equal ranking. The emperors of Japan at the time were figureheads with no actual political or military power,<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FwztKKtQ_rAC&pg=PA1 |title=The Emperors of Modern Japan |isbn=978-9004168220 |last1=Shillony |first1=Ben-Ami |year=2008 |publisher=BRILL |access-date=November 1, 2020 |archive-date=April 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407111633/https://books.google.com/books?id=FwztKKtQ_rAC&pg=PA1 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OvzPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA40 |title=Jews & the Japanese: The Successful Outsiders |isbn=978-1462903962 |last1=Shillony |first1=Ben-Ami |date=2012 |publisher=Tuttle |access-date=November 1, 2020 |archive-date=April 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407111621/https://books.google.com/books?id=OvzPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA40 |url-status=live}}</ref> and the actual political and military rulers of Japan that Joseon communicated with were the shoguns who were represented as [[Tycoon of Japan]] in many foreign communications to avoid the conflict with the [[Sinocentrism|Sinocentric system]] in which the [[emperor of China]] was the highest authority, and all rulers of tributary states were known as "kings".<ref>Kang, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4f0jnNzdRb4C&pg=PA206 ''Diplomacy and Ideology'', p. 206.] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405113818/https://books.google.com/books?id=4f0jnNzdRb4C&pg=PA206 |date=April 5, 2023 }}</ref>

== Society ==
{{main|Society in the Joseon Dynasty}}
[[File:朝鲜传统丧服方笠.jpg|thumb|upright|Woman's mourning clothes in Joseon]]
[[File:허전초상.jpg|thumb|upright|A portrait of a civil [[bureaucrat]] in the Joseon period]]

The exact population figures of Joseon-era Korea are disputed as government records of households are considered unreliable in this period.<ref>Ch'oe YH, PH Lee & WT de Bary (eds.) (2000), Sources of Korean Tradition: Volume II: From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Centuries. [[Columbia University Press]], p. 6</ref> Between 1810 and 1850, the population declined approximately 10% and remained stable.<ref>Jun SH, JB Lewis & H-R Kang (2008), ''Korean Expansion and Decline from the Seventeenth to the Nineteenth Century: A View Suggested by Adam Smith''. J. Econ. Hist. 68: 244–82.</ref> Before the [[Gwangmu Reform#Health care system|introduction of modern medicine]] by the [[Korean Empire]] government in the early 20th century, the average life expectancy for peasant and commoner Korean males was 24 years and for females 26 years, accounting for infant mortality.<ref>"... before the introduction of modern medicine in the early 1900s the average life expectancy for Koreans was just 24 for males and 26 for females." {{Cite book |last=Lankov |first=Andrei |author-link=Andrei Lankov |author2=Kim EunHaeng |title=The Dawn of Modern Korea |publisher=EunHaeng Namu |year=2007 |location=Seoul, South Korea |page=47 |url=http://www.ehbook.co.kr/ |isbn=978-89-5660-214-1 |access-date=February 16, 2010 |archive-date=November 1, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101083035/http://www.ehbook.co.kr/ |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Joseon Korea installed a centralized administrative system controlled by civil [[bureaucrat]]s and military officers who were collectively called [[yangban]]. By the end of the 18th century, the yangban had acquired most of the traits of a hereditary nobility except that the status was based on a unique mixture of family position, [[gwageo]] examinations for Confucian learning, and a civil service system. The family of a yangban who did not succeed in becoming a government official for the third generation lost their yangban status and became commoners. For most part, the only way to become a government official was to pass a series of gwageo exams (one had to pass the "lesser gwageo" exam ({{Korean|hangul=소과|labels=no}}) in both of two stages to qualify for the greater gwageo exam, which again one had to pass in both of two stages to become a government official). The yangban and the king, in an uneasy balance, controlled the central government and military institutions. The proportion of yangban may have reached as high as 30% by 1800, due to the later practices of transaction of yangban status to peasants, although there was considerable local variation.<ref>Oh SC (2006), ''Economic growth in P'yongan Province and the development of Pyongyang in the Late Choson Period''. ''Korean Studies''. 30: 3–22</ref> As the government was small, a great many yangban were local gentry of high social status, but not always of high income.<ref>Haboush JHK (1988), A Heritage of Kings: One Man's Monarchy in the Confucian World. Columbia University Press, pp. 88–89.</ref>

Another portion of the population was slaves or [[Serfdom|serfs]] (''[[nobi]]''), "low-borns" (''[[cheonmin]]'') or [[untouchability|untouchable]] outcastes (''[[baekjeong]]''). [[Slavery in Korea]] was hereditary, as well as a form of legal punishment. The nobi were socially indistinct from freemen other than the ruling [[yangban]] class, and some possessed property rights, legal entities and civil rights. Hence, some scholars argue that it is inappropriate to call them "slaves",<ref>{{cite web |first1=Young-hoon |last1=Rhee |first2=Donghyu |last2=Yang |title=Korean Nobi in American Mirror: Yi Dynasty Coerced Labor in Comparison to the Slavery in the Antebellum Southern United States |url=https://ideas.repec.org/p/snu/ioerwp/no26.html |work=Working Paper Series |date=December 1999 |publisher=Institute of Economic Research, Seoul National University |access-date=February 13, 2016 |archive-date=November 6, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106230507/https://ideas.repec.org/p/snu/ioerwp/no26.html |url-status=live}}</ref> while some scholars describe them as [[Serfdom|serfs]].<ref>{{cite book |editor=Gwyn Campbell |title=Structure of Slavery in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |author=Bok Rae Kim |chapter=Nobi: A Korean System of Slavery |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J0iRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA153 |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-75917-9 |pages=153–157}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Palais |first1=James B. |title=Views on Korean social history |publisher=Institute for Modern Korean Studies, Yonsei University |isbn=978-8971414415 |page=50 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xxi5AAAAIAAJ |access-date=February 15, 2017 |language=en |quote=Another target of his critique is the insistence that slaves (nobi) in Korea, especially in Choson dynasty, were closer to serfs (nongno) than true slaves (noye) in Europe and America, enjoying more freedom and independence than what a slave would normally be allowed. |year=1998}}</ref> There were both government- and privately owned nobi, and the government occasionally gave them to yangban. Privately owned nobi could be inherited as personal property. During poor harvests, many [[sangmin]] people would voluntarily become nobi to survive.{{Citation needed|date=May 2009}} The nobi population could fluctuate up to about one-third of the population, but on average the nobi made up about 10% of the total population.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rodriguez |first1=Junius P. |title=The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0874368857 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historicalencycl01rodr/page/392 392] |url=https://archive.org/details/historicalencycl01rodr |url-access=registration |quote=10 percent of the total population on average, but it could rise up to one-third of the total. |access-date=February 14, 2017 |language=en |year=1997}}</ref> Joseon slaves could, and often did, own property.<ref>Haboush (1988: 88); Ch'oe et al. (2000: 158)</ref> Private slaves could buy their freedom.

[[File:Middle Class in Joseon.jpg|left|thumb|A Joseon painting which represents the Chungin (literally "middle people"), equivalent to the [[petite bourgeoisie]]]]
Many of the remaining 40–50% of the population were surely farmers,<ref>Haboush, 1988: 89</ref> but recent work has raised important issues about the size of other groups: merchants and traders, local government or quasi-governmental clerks (''[[Jungin]]''), craftsmen and laborers, textile workers, etc.<ref>Jun SH & JB Lewis (2004), On double-entry bookkeeping in Eighteenth-century Korea: A consideration of the account books from two clan associations and a private academy. [http://www.iisg.nl/hpw/korea2.pdf International Institute of Social History, Amsterdam, Netherlands (080626)] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924044149/http://www.iisg.nl/hpw/korea2.pdf |date=September 24, 2015 }}</ref> Given the size of the population, it may be that a typical person had more than one role. Most farming was, at any rate, commercial, not subsistence.<ref>Jun et al. (2008).</ref> In addition to generating additional income, a certain amount of occupational dexterity may have been required to avoid the worst effects of an often heavy and corrupt tax system.<ref>Ch'oe et al. (2000: 73).</ref>

Gender roles tightened during the Joseon period compared to the Goryeo era. The influence of [[Neo-Confucianism]] contributed to the increasingly male-dominated society of the time. Women were expected to be silent and not socialize with men who were not their relatives. They were required to be chaste to their husbands, and widows were not allowed to remarry. Any doubt of a woman's chastity would bring dishonor to the family. To protect the family's honor, young girls would carry a small knife (''paedo''), and with this they were expected to take their own lives if they were raped or even rumored to be caught in an affair. Laws were also enacted to prohibit women from riding horses or playing sports.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Seth |first=Michael J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6rYhwAEACAAJ |title=A Brief History of Korea: Isolation, War, Despotism and Revival : the Fascinating Story of a Resilient But Divided People |date=2019 |publisher=Tuttle Publishing |isbn=978-0-8048-5102-2 |language=en |chapter=Chapter 3}}</ref>
[[File:Hyewon-Jusa.geobae.jpg|210px|thumb|Holding a drinking party, from ''[[Hyewon pungsokdo]]'']]
During the Late Joseon, the Confucian ideals of propriety and "filial piety" gradually came to be equated with a strict observance of a complex social hierarchy, with many fine gradations. By the early 18th century, the social critic [[Yi Chung-hwan]] (1690–1756) sarcastically complained that "[W]ith so many different ranks and grades separating people from one another, people tend not to have a very large circle of friends."<ref>이중환, "총론" in 택리지, p. 355, quoted in translation in Choe et al. (2000: 162).</ref> But, even as Yi wrote, the informal social distinctions of the Early Joseon were being reinforced by legal discrimination, such as [[Sumptuary law]]<ref>Haboush (1988: 78)</ref> regulation of the dress of different social groups, and laws restricting inheritance and property ownership by women.<ref>Haboush JHK (2003), ''Versions and subversions: Patriarchy and polygamy in Korean narratives'', in D Ko, JHK Haboush & JR Piggott (eds.), Women and Confucian Cultures in Premodern China, Korea and Japan. [[University of California Press]], pp. 279–304.</ref> Precisely because of the tenets of the Confucian ''[[Classic of Filial Piety]]'', the adult male practice of Joseon prescribed to keep both hair and beard, in contrast to the Japanese [[Tokugawa shogunate|Tokugawa]] period.
[[File:Danwon-Hwal.ssogi.jpg|thumb|170px|left|Shooting an arrow, from ''[[Danwon pungsokdo cheop]]'']]
Yet, these laws may have been announced precisely because social mobility was increasing, particularly during the prosperous century beginning about 1710.<ref>Haboush (1988: 88–89); Oh (2006)</ref> The original social hierarchy of the Joseon era was developed based on the social hierarchy of the [[Goryeo]] era. In the 14th–16th centuries, this hierarchy was strict and stable. Since economic opportunities to change status were limited, no law was needed.

In the late 17th to 19th centuries, new commercial groups emerged, and the old class system was extremely weakened. The situation was most marked in the [[Daegu]] region's Yangban class, where they were expected to reach nearly 70% in 1858.<ref>{{cite book |author=아틀라스 한국사 편찬위원회 |script-title=ko:아틀라스한국사 |publisher=사계절 |year=2004 |isbn=978-89-5828-032-3 |pages=132–133}}</ref>

In 1801, government-owned slaves were all emancipated, and the institution gradually died out over the next century.<ref>Ch'oe et al., 2000:7.</ref> By 1858 the nobi population stood at about 1.5 percent of the total population of Korea.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Gwyn |title=Structure of Slavery in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1135759179 |page=163 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J0iRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA163 |access-date=February 14, 2017 |language=en |date=2004}}</ref> The institution was completely abolished as part of a social plan in the [[Kabo Reform]] of 1894.
<!--===Laws===
===Customs===
== Religion ==-->

===Seonbis===
{{main|Seonbi}}
[[Seonbi]]s ({{Korean|hangul=선비}}) played a major role within [[Political factions during the Joseon dynasty|political factions of the Joseon dynasty]]. Etymologically derived from a native Korean word meaning "someone who is wise and knowledgeable", the word later became synonymous with the Chinese character 士 (shì), which meant "scholar" or "retainer". As the Joseon dynasty encouraged the study of [[Confucianism]], ''seonbis'' were interpreted as "students who study Confucianism" in Joseon-era Korean society.

''Seonbis'' lived under strict, standardized Confucianist guidelines. Although they were encouraged to participate in politics and act as advisors to the King, many ''seonbis'' lived quiet lives in secluded regions, unaffiliated with any government office. These ''seonbis'' often organized scholarly communities which often imposed a huge influence over local regions. Those who became office-holders acted as aristocrats, boasting influence over Joseon politics.<ref name="seonbi">{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0028737 |script-title=ko:선비 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]] |access-date=November 2, 2023}}</ref>

''Seonbis'' consistently used debate as a major decision-making method. Seonbis expressed their views on problems to be solved in front of the king and discussed the wrongdoings of the other faction's argument. These political clashes often led to violence, such as the [[Korean literati purges]].<ref name="seonbi"/>

Seonbis also participated in [[righteous armies]] during times of war, as archery was taught as a liberal arts subject for ''seonbis''. Seonbis such as [[Kwak Chaeu]], [[Ko Kyŏngmyŏng]], and [[Cho Hŏn]] led armies in battle. As ''seonbis'' also acted as village leaders, they often united local peasants and led armies into war.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0043232 |script-title=ko:의병 |website= [[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]] |access-date=August 3, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cha.go.kr/cop/bbs/selectBoardArticle.do?nttId=60538&bbsId=BBSMSTR_1008&pageIndex=5&pageUnit=10&searchtitle=title&searchcont=&searchkey=&searchwriter=&searchdept=&searchWrd=&searchCnd=&ctgryLrcls=&ctgryMdcls=&ctgrySmcls=&ntcStartDt=&ntcEndDt=&mn=NS_01_09_01 |script-title=ko:문화재청-흐트러진 마음을 가담고 각궁으로 활을 쏘다 |author=Korea Heritage Service |date=September 28, 2017}}</ref>

== Culture ==
{{more citations needed section|date=May 2024}}

The Joseon dynasty presided over two periods of great cultural growth, during which Joseon culture created the first [[Korean tea ceremony]], [[Korean garden]]s, and extensive historic works. The royal dynasty also built several fortresses and palaces.

Noble Korean women during this time were suppressed, along with shamans, in the 15th century because of Neo-Confucianist social norms when they previously led some of the least restricted lives out of anyone in [[Asia]].<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Seth |first=Michael J. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/1110485163 |title=Korea: A Very Short Introduction |date=2020 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-883077-1 |edition=Illustrated |location=New York |pages=32–33 |language= |oclc= |access-date=May 1, 2023 |archive-date=May 8, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240508063906/https://search.worldcat.org/title/1110485163 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Clothing ===
[[File:Hyewon-Wolha-jeongin-2.jpg|thumb|Men's (right) and women's (left) clothes ([[Hanbok]]) of Joseon period. A portrait painted by [[Sin Yun-bok|Shin Yun-bok]] (1758–?).|200x200px]]
[[File:Korea-Yi Chegwan-Portrait of a Confucian scholar.jpg|thumb|upright|Male dress of a [[Seonbi]]. A portrait painted by [[Yi Jaegwan|Yi Jae-gwan]] (1783–1837).]]
During the Joseon period, jeogori of women's [[hanbok]] became gradually tightened and shortened. In the 16th century, jeogori was baggy and reached below the waist, but by the 19th century, jeogori was shortened to the point that it did not cover the breasts, so another piece of cloth (''heoritti'') was used to cover them. At the end of the 19th century, [[Heungseon Daewongun]] introduced [[Magoja]], a [[Manchu people|Manchu]]-style jacket, to Korea, which is often worn with hanbok to this day.

Chima was full-skirted and jeogori was short and tight in the late Joseon period. Fullness in the skirt was emphasized round the hips. Many undergarments were worn underneath chima such as darisokgot, soksokgot, dansokgot, and gojengi to achieve a desired silhouette. Because jeogori was so short it became natural to expose heoritti or ''heorimari'' which functioned like a corset. The white linen cloth exposed under the jeogori in the picture is heoritti.
[[File:Korea-Seoul-Royal wedding ceremony 1366-06a.jpg|thumb|Royal ceremony with Joseon era clothing]]
The upper classes wore hanbok of closely woven [[ramie]] cloth or other high-grade lightweight materials in warm weather and of plain and patterned silks the rest of the year. Commoners were restricted by law as well as resources to cotton at best. The upper classes wore a variety of colors, though bright colors were generally worn by children and girls and subdued colors by middle-aged men and women. Commoners were restricted by law to everyday clothes of white, but for special occasions they wore dull shades of pale pink, light green, gray, and charcoal. Formally, when Korean men went outdoors, they were required to wear overcoats known as ''durumagi'' which reach the knees.

=== Art ===
{{See also|Joseon white porcelain|List of Korean painters#Joseon period}}
[[File:백자 청화매죽문 항아리.jpg|thumb|upright|15th century. Joseon period, Korea. Blue and white porcelain jar with plum and bamboo design.]]
[[File:김홍도 금강사군첩 - 옹천.jpg|thumb|Landscape of Mt. Geumgang by [[Gim Hongdo|Kim Hong-do]] (1745–1806) in 1788|210x210px]]
[[File:Scholar's books and things, Yi Eungrok, Asian Art Museum San Franscisco 1998.111.jpg|thumb|[[Chaekgeori]] a type of [[Minhwa]]|210x210px]]
[[File:Mogyeon.jpg|thumb|Mogyeon by [[Yi Am]]|257x257px]]
The Mid-Joseon period painting styles moved toward increased [[Realism (arts)|realism]]. A national painting style of landscapes called "true view" began – moving from the traditional Chinese style of idealized general landscapes to particular locations exactly rendered. While not photographic, the style was academic enough to become established and supported as a standardized style in Korean painting. At this time China ceased to have pre-eminent influence, Korean art took its own course, and became increasingly distinctive to the traditional Chinese painting.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.minbaek.kr/Contents/Item/E0052156 |script-title=ko:조선예술(朝鮮藝術) |website=minbaek.kr |access-date=February 3, 2020 |archive-date=February 3, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203224644/http://www.minbaek.kr/Contents/Item/E0052156 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[Ceramic art|Ceramics]] are a form of popular art during the Joseon period. Examples of ceramics include white porcelain or white porcelain decorated with cobalt, copper red [[underglaze]], blue underglaze and iron underglaze. Ceramics from the Joseon period differ from other periods because artists felt that each piece of art deserved its own uniquely cultivated personality.<ref name="BMA">{{cite book |last=[[Birmingham Museum of Art]] |title=Birmingham Museum of Art : guide to the collection |year=2010 |publisher=Birmingham Museum of Art |location=[Birmingham, Ala] |isbn=978-1-904832-77-5 |pages=35–39 |url=http://artsbma.org/ |access-date=January 29, 2012 |archive-date=May 14, 1998 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19980514044647/http://www.artsbma.org/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

Beginning in the 10th century, white porcelain has been crafted in [[Korea]]. Historically overshadowed by the popularity of [[celadon]], it was not until the 15th and 16th centuries that white porcelain, also known as [[Joseon white porcelain|baekje]], was recognized for its artistic value. Among the most prized of Korean ceramics are large white jars. Their shape is symbolic of the moon and their color is associated with the ideals of purity and modesty of [[Confucianism]]. During this period, the bureau that oversaw the meals and court banquets of the royal family strictly controlled the production of white porcelain.<ref name="BMA"/>

[[Blue and white pottery|Blue and white porcelain]] artifacts decorating white porcelain with paintings and designs in [[underglaze]] by using natural [[cobalt]] pigment are another example of popular wares of the Joseon period. Many of these items were created by court painters employed by the royal family. During this period, the popular style of landscape paintings is mirrored in the decoration of ceramics.<ref name="BMA"/> Initially developed by the Chinese at the [[Jingdezhen porcelain|Jingdezhen kilns]] in the mid-14th century, Joseon began to produce this type of porcelain from the 15th century under Chinese influence. The first cobalt imported from China was used by Korean artists. In 1463 when sources of cobalt were discovered in [[Korea]], artists and their buyers found the material was inferior in quality and preferred the more expensive imported cobalt. Korean porcelain with imported cobalt decoration contradict the emphasis of an orderly, frugal and moderate life in [[Neo-Confucianism]].<ref name="BMA"/>

Strikingly different from cobalt, porcelain items with a copper-red [[underglaze]] are the most difficult to successfully craft. During production, these items require great skill and attention or will turn gray during the process of firing. While the birthplace of ceramics with copper red underglaze is widely disputed, these items originated during 12th century in [[Korea]] and became increasingly popular during the second half of the Joseon period. Some experts have pointed to the kilns of Bunwon-ri in [[Gwangju, Gyeonggi|Gwangju]], a city that played a significant role in the production of ceramics during the Joseon period, as a possible birthplace.<ref name="BMA"/>

Porcelain was also decorated with iron. These items commonly consisted of jars or other utilitarian pieces.<ref name="BMA"/>

===Literature===
During the Joseon period, the yangban scholars and educated literati studied [[Thirteen Classics|Confucian classics]] and [[Neo-Confucianism|Neo-Confucian]] literature.<ref name="Met">{{cite web |last=Lee |first=Soyoung |author-link=Soyoung Lee |date=October 2004 |title=Yangban: The Cultural Life of the Joseon Literati |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/yang/hd_yang.htm |access-date=June 15, 2020 |publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] |archive-date=November 22, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211122180613/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/yang/hd_yang.htm |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Lee">{{cite book |title=A New History of Korea |first=Ki-baik |last=Lee |author-link=Lee Ki-baik |translator-last1=Wagner |translator-first1=Edward Willett |translator-link1=Edward Willett Wagner |translator-last2=Schultz |translator-first2=Edward J. |year=1984 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]}}</ref>{{rp|204}}

The middle and upper classes of Joseon society were proficient in [[Classical Chinese]].<ref name="Lee" />{{rp|329}} The Joseon official records (such as the ''[[Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty]]'' and ''[[Seungjeongwon ilgi]]'') and the written works of the Yangban literati were written in Classical Chinese.<ref name="Met"/><ref name="Lee"/>{{rp|243, 329}}<ref name="Orchiston-Green-Strom">{{cite book |title=New Insights From Recent Studies in Historical Astronomy: Following in the Footsteps of F. Richard Stephenson |first1=Wayne |last1=Orchiston |first2=David A. |last2=Green |first3=Richard |last3=Strom |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |year=2014}}</ref>{{rp|74}}

Newspapers like the ''[[Hwangsŏng sinmun]]'' toward the end of the period were written in the [[Korean language]] using the [[Korean mixed script]].<ref name="Lee"/>{{rp|329}}

====''Annals of the Joseon Dynasty''====
{{main|Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty}}
The ''Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty'' (also known as the ''Annals of the Joseon Dynasty'') are the annual records of the Joseon dynasty, which were kept from 1413 to 1865. The annals, or ''sillok'', consist of 1,893 volumes and are thought to cover the longest continual period of a single dynasty in the world. With the exception of two ''sillok'' compiled during the [[Korea under Japanese rule|colonial era]], the ''Annals'' are the 151st [[National Treasure (South Korea)|national treasure of Korea]] and listed in [[UNESCO]]'s [[Memory of the World Programme|Memory of the World]] registry.

====Uigwe====
{{main|Uigwe}}
''[[Uigwe]]'' is a collection of royal [[Protocol (diplomacy)|protocol]]s of the Joseon period, which records and prescribes through text and stylized illustration the important ceremonies and rites of the royal family.

===Education===
{{main|Education in the Joseon dynasty}}
<!--===Poetry===
===Food and cuisine===

===Philosophy===

====Silhak====
{{Main|Silhak}}

===Popular cultures===

== Military and warfare ==
[[File:Joseon plate mail in Gyeongbokgung Palace.jpg|thumb|Korean [[plated mail]]]]-->

===Religion and philosophy===
{{disputed section|date=April 2021}}
The Joseon kingdom was noted for having [[Confucianism]] as its main philosophy, and also included some [[Buddhism]]. The study of literary exchanges between Confucian scholar officials and Buddhists shows that Buddhism was not cast out. There literary exchanges show a middle ground of both philosophies. "scholar-officials – Some who in public castigated Buddhism as a heresy and deluded tradition, in private visited temples and associated closely with monks."{{citation needed|date=April 2021}} This shows that while in public some scholars shamed Buddhists, their exchanges with Buddhists show that at the very least it was not cast outside of the kingdom.

One example of this is a famous Joseon scholar official Park Se-dang (박세당, 朴世堂, 1629–1703). He argues against Buddhism with the following, "People say that [[Han Yu]] and [[Ouyang Xiu]] have harshly criticized Buddhism and therefore have only discussed what is aberrant and have not fully investigated what is profound. People say, their understanding is lacking and they have not fully examined it [its profoundness]. I, myself, don't think that is the case… The heresies under heaven, they are also rather foul. Among them, Buddhism is the worst. If a person is inclined to Buddhism, then he is of the kind that pursues what is foul. Is it not clear that there is nothing further to discuss? It is like Mencius who [also felt no need to argue in detail when he] criticized Yang Zhu and Mozi.<ref name="Kim 59–82">{{cite journal |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/589236 |title=A Shared Cultural Realm: Literary Exchanges between Scholar-Officials and Poet-Monks in the Mid Joseon Period |first=Sung-Eun Thomas |last=Kim |date=20 August 2015 |journal=Seoul Journal of Korean Studies |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=59–82 |via=Project MUSE |doi=10.1353/seo.2015.0015 |hdl=10371/164813 |s2cid=145807329 |access-date=15 September 2016 |archive-date=7 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161007221947/https://muse.jhu.edu/article/589236 |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Surely, he did not argue further than to say [[Yang Zhu]] and [[Mozi]] did not respect their fathers and their emperors."<ref name="Kim 59–82"/> He wrote a poem:

{| class="wikitable"
|久離塵俗萬緣虛
|For long, I have left the mundane world whose innumerable conditions are empty;
|-
|只愛游方不戀居
|I have but travelled here and there, finding no enjoyment in settled life.
|-
|明日又浮滄海去
|Tomorrow once again I leave for Changhae;
|-
|沃州寥落舊精廬
|The old, pure and simple hut of Okju province looks lonely.
|}

Buddhism was a part of the Joseon kingdom. While not supported publicly, privately it was very prevalent in Confucian-scholar officials.{{unbalanced opinion|date=April 2021}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cho |first=Kyuhee |date=2015 |title=Pathways to Korean Culture: Paintings of the Joseon Period (1392–1910) by Burglind Jungmann (review) |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/589236 |journal=Seoul Journal of Korean Studies |doi=10.1353/seo.2015.0011 |s2cid=142352051 |access-date=April 30, 2016 |archive-date=October 7, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161007221947/https://muse.jhu.edu/article/589236 |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Many monarchs and members of the royal court also practiced or tolerated Buddhism among their family and court advisors and commissioned or were patrons of Buddhist art.<ref>{{cite web |title=Buddhist paintings: Artworks Filled with Beauty and Hope |url=https://issuu.com/museumofkorea/docs/nmk_v55/s/12209442 |publisher=[[National Museum of Korea]]: Quarterly Magazine |volume=55 |author=Suran, Yoo |access-date=November 18, 2023 |archive-date=May 8, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240508063656/https://issuu.com/museumofkorea/docs/nmk_v55/s/12209442 |url-status=live }} issuu.com</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Art of the Korean Renaissance, 1400–1600 |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/kore/hd_kore.htm |date=September 2010 |author=Lee, Soyoung |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |access-date=November 18, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Four Preaching Buddhas |url=https://smarthistory.org/four-preaching-buddhas-joseon/ |website=Smarthistory.org |author=Kyunghee, Ryun |quote=During the Joseon period, the official government policy was to suppress Buddhism in favor of Neo-Confucianism. Paradoxically, however, queens, consorts, and other members of the royal court frequently commissioned Buddhist dedications and offerings. In the sixteenth century, for example, numerous Buddhist paintings were commissioned by female members of the royal court |access-date=November 18, 2023}}</ref>

[[Pope Gregory XVI]] established an [[Apostolic Vicariate]] for the Kingdom of Korea on September 8, 1831, to provide for the spiritual care of [[Catholic Church|Catholics]] in the kingdom and separating Korea from the jurisdiction of the [[Bishop of Beijing]].<ref>Pope Gregory XVI, [https://www.vatican.va/content/gregorius-xvi/it/documents/breve-ex-debito-pastoralis-9-settembre-1831.html Breve Ex debito pastoralis], in Italian, published on September 9, 1831, retrieved August 24, 2024.</ref>

=== Music ===
{{main|Traditional music of Korea}}

The ''Joseon'' period developed several musical forms. The form with the most extant pieces is ''[[sijo]]'' ({{Korean|hangul=시조|hanja=時調|labels=no}}).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kim |first=Hyŭnggyu |title=Understanding Korean Literature |pages=66}}</ref> ''Sijo'' is a poetic form consisting of three lines, each with four feet, traditionally sung very slowly. In Korean verse, a foot is generally a short syntactic unit, such as a noun with an adjective or a verb with an adverb. For example:
{| class="wikitable"
|+
|어인

Why<sup>COP.ATTR</sup>
|벌리완대 &nbsp;

insect-ceaselessly
|낙락장송(落落長松)

tall and full pine tree 
|다 먹는고

all eat<sup>Q</sup>
|-
|부리 긴

beak long<sup>ATTR</sup>
|져고리는

woodpecker<sup>TOP</sup>
|어느 곳에

which place<sup>LOC</sup>
|가 있는고

go exist<sup>Q</sup>
|-
|空山에

deserted mountain<sup>LOC</sup>
|落木聲 들릴제

sound of a tree falling audible <sup>FUT.ATTR</sup>
|내 안 들데

cause <sup>NEG</sup> actively <sup>AUX</sup> experienced
|업세라

not exist<sup>EMP</sup>
|}

==== Translation ====
''Can tiny insects devour a whole great spreading pine?''

''Where is the long-billed woodpecker? Why is he not here?''

''When I hear the sound of falling trees, I cannot contain myself for sorrow.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rutt |first=Richard |title=The Bamboo Grove: An Introduction to Sijo |pages=No.15}}</ref>''

Here, like other Korean musical forms, each foot can stand on its own. As ''sijo'' were sung in Korean, the pioneering of Hangul created the possibility for ''sijo'' to be written down without the use of substitutions such as [[Idu script]]. The first copy of ''sijo'' is of the 'Twelve Songs of ''Dosan''<nowiki/>' by ''Yi Hwang'' written in 1565, which were written 100 years after the proclamation of [[Hangul]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rutt |first=Richard |title=The Bamboo Grove: An Introduction to Sijo |page=157}}</ref> Additionally, the first anthology of ''sijo'' was compiled by ''Kim Cheontaek'' in 1728;<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rutt |first=Richard |title=The Bamboo Grove: An Introduction to Sijo |pages=158}}</ref> before the anthology few ''sijo'' were written.

''Kim Cheontaek''<nowiki/>'s anthology represents a change in the authorship of ''sijo''. At first, ''sijo'' were primarily composed by the yangban aristocracy and entertainers of the [[Kisaeng]] class. By the mid-seventeenth century, the [[jungin]] or "professional class" were composing ''sijo'' as well. This also coincided with a new form of ''sijo'' called "narrative ''sijo''" ({{Korean|hangul=사설시조|hanja=辭說時調|labels=no}}), in which the first two lines were greatly lengthened.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kim |first=Hyŭnggyu |title=Understanding Korean Literature |page=71}}</ref> This expansion is likely a development from the so-called "irregular ''sijo''" ({{Korean|hangul=엇시조|hanja=旕時調|labels=no}}), in which there was a minor lengthening of one of the first two lines.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.naver.com/ |script-title=ko:네이버 |website=[[Naver]] |access-date=July 29, 2021 |archive-date=February 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200224051156/https://www.naver.com/ |url-status=live}}</ref> While there are very few remaining irregular ''sijo'', and the form has not been revived, there is a sizable body of narrative ''sijo'' and the form continues to evolve.

''[[Pansori]]'' ({{Korean|hangul=판소리|labels=no}}) is another musical form that combines singing and prose to portray a story. Its development likely originates from shaman rituals and the songs within the [[Jeolla Province]]. It became a full-fledged musical form by the middle of the eighteenth century, and not long thereafter the yangban aristocracy also became interested in it. Originally there was a set of twelve stories that were sung, but only five were written down, and hence those five are the only ones sung today. Having been developed by commoners, ''p'ansori'' usually reflected their attitudes and aspirations, but by becoming popular with the ''yangban'', ''p'ansori'' shifted somewhat toward ''yangban'' sensibilities and restrictions. ''P'ansori'' had a strong influence of the writing of the time, both because of the ''p'ansori'' novel (each based on one of the twelve stories) and by increasing the realism of the classical novel.

== Science and technology ==
{{See also|History of science and technology in Korea}}
{{more citations needed section|date=January 2021}}
[[File:Korean celestial globe.jpg|thumb|Korean [[celestial globe]] first made by the scientist [[Chang Yŏngsil]] during the reign of [[Sejong the Great|King Sejong]]]]
[[File:BoRuGak Jagyeongnu.JPG|thumb|upright|Surviving portion of the Water Clock (Jagyeongnu)]]

=== 15th century ===
The Joseon period under the reign of [[Sejong the Great]] was Korea's greatest period of scientific advancement. Under Sejong's new policy, [[Cheonmin]] (low-status) people such as [[Chang Yŏngsil]] were allowed to work for the government. At a young age, Chang displayed talent as an inventor and engineer, creating machines to facilitate agricultural work. These included supervising the building of aqueducts and canals.

Some of his inventions were an automated (self-striking) [[water clock]] (the Jagyeokru) which worked by activating motions of wooden figures to indicate time visually (invented in 1434 by Chang), a subsequent more complicated water-clock with additional astronomical devices, and an improved model of the previous metal movable printing type created in the [[Goryeo]] period. The new model was of even higher quality and was twice as fast. Other inventions were the [[sight glass]], and the [[Rain gauge|udometer]].

The highpoint of Korean astronomy was during the Joseon period, where men such as Chang created devices such as celestial globes which indicated the positions of the sun, moon, and the stars.<ref>{{cite book |author=백석기 |script-title=ko:웅진위인전기 #11 장영실 |publisher=웅진출판사 |year=1987 |page=56}}</ref> Later celestial globes (Kyup'yo, 규표) were attuned to the seasonal variations.

The apex of astronomical and calendarial advances under [[Sejong the Great|King Sejong]] was the [[Chiljeongsan]], which compiled computations of the courses of the seven heavenly objects (five visible planets, the sun, and moon),
developed in 1442. This work made it possible for scientists to calculate and accurately predict all the major heavenly phenomena, such as solar eclipses and other stellar movements.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.indiana.edu/~easc/resources/korea_slides/science/9-1.htm |title=Korea And The Korean People<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=February 14, 2006 |archive-date=July 6, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070706045214/http://www.indiana.edu/~easc/resources/korea_slides/science/9-1.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Honcheonsigye]] is an astronomical clock created by [[Song I-yeong]] in 1669. The clock has an armillary sphere with a diameter of 40&nbsp;cm. The sphere is activated by a working clock mechanism, showing the position of celestial objects at any given time.

[[Gangnido]], a Korean-made map of the world was created in 1402 by {{Ill|Kim Sa-hyeong|ko|김사형}}, {{Ill|Yi Mu (early Joseon)|lt=Yi Mu|ko|이무}}, and {{ill|Yi Hoe|ko|이회 (고려)}}. The map was created in the second year of the reign of [[Taejong of Joseon]]. The map was made by combining Chinese, Korean and Japanese maps.

=== 16th–19th century ===
The scientific and technological advance in the late Joseon period progressed slower than the early Joseon period.

16th-century court physician, [[Heo Jun]] wrote a number of medical texts, his most significant achievement being [[Dongui Bogam]], which is often noted as the defining text of [[Traditional Korean medicine]]. The work spread to China and Japan, where it is still regarded as one of the classics of [[Traditional Asian medicine|Oriental medicine]] today.

The first soft [[Bulletproof vest|ballistic vest]], [[Myunjebaegab|myeonjebaegab]], was invented in Joseon [[Korea]] in the 1860s shortly after the [[French expedition to Korea|French campaign against Korea]]. [[Heungseon Daewongun]] ordered development of bulletproof armor because of increasing threats from Western armies. [[Kim Gi-du]] and [[Gang Yun]] found that [[cotton]] could protect against bullets if thick enough, and devised bullet-proof vests made of 30 layers of cotton. The vests were used in battle during the [[United States expedition to Korea]] (1871), when the US Navy attacked [[Ganghwa Island]] in 1871. The US Army captured one of the vests and took it to the US, where it was stored at the [[Smithsonian Institution|Smithsonian Museum]] until 2007. The vest has since been sent back to Korea and is currently on display to the public.

== House of Yi ==
{{Main|House of Yi}}
{{see also|House of Yi#House of Yi family tree|label 1=The family tree of Joseon kings}}{{Overly detailed|section|details=not clear why this list is exclusive to the end of the dynasty, with some being post-Joseon. Possibly a brief prose description of the dynasty (with no explicit list) is better|date=June 2024}}[[File:Fuuzokugahou-Myeongseong.gif|thumb|upright=1.15|Japanese illustration of [[Gojong of Korea|King Gojong]] and [[Empress Myeongseong|Queen Min]] receiving [[Inoue Kaoru]]]]
[[File:Choseon Imperial family.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|This compilation photo, taken about 1915, shows the following royal family members, from left: [[Yi Kang|Yi Kang, Prince Imperial Ui]], the 6th son of Gojong; [[Sunjong of Korea|Yi Cheok, Emperor Sunjong]], the 2nd son and the last monarch of Korea; [[Yi Un|Yi Un, Prince Imperial Yeong]], the 7th son; [[Gojong of Korea|Gojong]], the Retired Emperor; [[Empress Sunjeonghyo|Empress Yun]], wife of Sunjong; [[Kim Sudeok|Lady Kim, Consort Princess Imperial Ui]], wife of Prince Imperial Ui; and [[Yi Geon]], the eldest son of Prince Ui. The seated child in the front row is [[Princess Deokhye]], Gojong's 5th daughter and youngest (14th) child. (This is a compilation of individual photographs since the Japanese did not allow them to be in the same room at the same time, and some were forced to leave Korea).]]

The following is a simplified relation of Joseon royalty (Korean Imperial Family) during the late period of the dynasty:
* [[Gojong of Korea|Emperor Gojong]] (1852–1919) – 26th head of the Korean Imperial Household, adoptive heir to [[Crown Prince Hyomyeong]]
** [[Sunjong of Korea|Emperor Sunjong]] (1874–1926) – 27th head of the Korean Imperial Household
** [[Yi Kang]], Prince Imperial Ui (1877–1955) – 5th son of Gojong
*** Prince [[Yi Geon]] (1909–1991) – eldest son of Yi Kang; renounced the Imperial title and heritage by becoming a Japanese citizen in 1947
*** Prince [[Yi U]] (1912–1945) – 2nd son of Yi Kang; adopted as the heir to [[Yi Jun-yong]], grandson of [[Heungseon Daewongun]]
**** [[Yi Cheong]] (1936–)
**** Yi Jong (1940–1966)
*** [[Yi Hae-won]] (1919–2020) – 2nd daughter of Yi Kang; married in 1936 to Yi Seung-gyu from the Yongin Yi clan
*** Yi Gap (1938–2014) – 9th son of Yi Kang
**** [[Yi Won]] (1962–) – eldest son of Yi Gap; adopted by Yi Ku as the 30th head of the Korean Imperial Household
***** 1st son (1998–)
***** 2nd son (1999–)
*** [[Yi Seok]] (1941–) – 10th son of Yi Kang; self-claimed head of the Korean Imperial Household
**** [[Yi Hong]] (1976–), first daughter of Yi Seok 
***** 1st daughter (2001–)
**** Yi Jin (1979–), 2nd daughter of Yi Seok
**** Yi Jeong-hun (1980–), son of Yi Seok
** [[Yi Un]], Imperial Crown Prince (1897–1970) – 28th head of the Korean Imperial Household; married in 1920 to [[Yi Bangja|Princess Masako of Nashimoto]] (Yi Bang-ja), an imperial member of the [[Empire of Japan]].
*** Prince Yi Jin (1921–1922)
*** Prince [[Yi Ku]] (1931–2005) – 29th head of the Korean Imperial Household; son of Yi Un
** [[Princess Deokhye]] (1912–1989) – married in 1931 to [[Sō Takeyuki|Count Sō Takeyuki]]
*** Countess Sō Masae (1932–?), disappeared since 1956, thought to have committed suicide<ref>[https://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/2005/01/23/features/91THIS-WEEK-IN-HISTORY93A-life-of-tears-and-regret-for-last-Korean-princess/2520836.html Korea Joong-Ang Daily] koreajoongangdaily.joins.com accessed November 2, 2023</ref>

==See also==

* [[History of Korea]]
* [[Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty]]
* [[List of Joseon monarchs]]
* [[House of Yi#House of Yi family tree|Kings family tree]]
* [[Politics of the Joseon dynasty|Joseon dynasty politics]]
* [[Korean Empire]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}
{{NoteFoot}}
{{reflist|group="nb"}}

== References ==
'''Citations'''
{{Reflist}}

== Sources ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Duus |first=Peter |title=The Abacus and the Sword: The Japanese Penetration of Korea |publisher=University of California Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-520-92090-3}}
* {{cite book |last1=Ebrey |first1=Patricia Buckley |last2=Walthall |first2=Ann |last3=Palais |first3=James B. |title=East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History |year=2006 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Press |location=Boston and New York |isbn=978-0-618-13384-0 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/eastasiacultural00ebre_0 }}.
* {{cite ECCP |last=Kennedy |first=George A. |title=Amin |pages=8–9 |date=1943}}
* {{cite book |last=Kim Haboush |first=JaHyun |chapter=Contesting Chinese Time, Nationalizing Temporal Space: Temporal Inscription in Late Chosŏn Korea |pages=115–141 |title=Time, Temporality, and Imperial Transition |year=2005 |publisher=University of Hawai'i Press |location=Honolulu |editor-last=Lynn A. Struve |isbn=978-0-8248-2827-1}}.
* {{cite book |last=Kim |first=Jinwung |title=A History of Korea: From "Land of the Morning Calm" to States in Conflict |year=2012 |location=New York |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-00024-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Larsen |first=Kirk W. |title=Tradition, Treaties, and Trade: Qing Imperialism and Chosŏn Korea, 1850–1910 |year=2008 |publisher=Harvard University Asia Center |location=Cambridge, Mass. |isbn=978-0-674-02807-4}}.
* {{cite book |last1=Walker |first1=Hugh D. |editor1-last=Jo |editor1-first=Yung-hwan |title=Korea's Response to the West |date=1971 |publisher=The Korea Research and Publications, Inc. |pages=1–14 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EQBFAAAAIAAJ |chapter=The Weight of Tradition: Preliminary Observations on Korea's Intellectual Response |access-date=February 7, 2024 |archive-date=May 8, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240508063702/https://books.google.com/books?id=EQBFAAAAIAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Lee |first1=Peter H. |last2=de Bary |first2=William Theodore |title=Sources of Korean Tradition, ''Volume I:'' From Early Times Through the Sixteenth Century |year=1997 |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-231-10567-5}}.
* {{cite journal |last1=Lin |first1=Ming-te |title=Li Hung-chang's Suzerain Policy toward Korea, 1882–1894 |journal=Chinese Studies in History |date=December 8, 2014 |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=69–96 |doi=10.2753/CSH0009-4633240469}}.
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
* ''A Cultural History of Modern Korea'', Wannae Joe, ed. with intro. by Hongkyu A. Choe, Elizabeth, N.Y., and Seoul Korea: Hollym, 2000. {{ISBN?}}
* ''An Introduction to Korean Culture'', ed. Koo & Nahm, Elizabeth NJ, and Seoul Korea: Hollym, 1998. 2nd ed. {{ISBN?}}
* ''Noon Eu Ro Bo Neun Han Gook Yuk Sa #7'' by Jang Pyung Soon. Copyright 1998 Joong Ang Gyo Yook Yun Goo Won, Ltd, pp.&nbsp;46–47.
* [https://www.jstor.org/stable/23718933 Alston, Dane. 2008. "Emperor and Emissary: The Hongwu Emperor, Kwŏn Kŭn, and the Poetry of Late Fourteenth Century Diplomacy". ''Korean Studies'' 32. University of Hawai'i Press: 104–147.] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922070606/https://www.jstor.org/stable/23718933 |date=September 22, 2018 }}
* [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41490257 Kye, Seung B.. 2010. "Huddling Under the Imperial Umbrella: A Korean Approach to Ming China in the Early 1500s". The Journal of ''Korean Studies'' 15 (1). University of Washington Center for Korea Studies: 41–66.] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922065137/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41490257 |date=September 22, 2018 }}
* [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41485331 Robinson, David M.. 2004. "Disturbing Images: Rebellion, Usurpation, and Rulership in Early Sixteenth-century East Asia" – "Korean Writings on Emperor Wuzong". ''The Journal of Korean Studies'' 9 (1). University of Washington Center for Korea Studies: 97–127.] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922070641/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41485331 |date=September 22, 2018 }}
* [https://www.jstor.org/stable/23720024 Robinson, Kenneth R. 1992. "From Raiders to Traders: Border Security and Border Control in Early Chosŏn, 1392–1450". ''Korean Studies'' 16. University of Hawai'i Press: 94–115.] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922065059/https://www.jstor.org/stable/23720024 |date=September 22, 2018 }}
* Ji-Young Lee. 2020. "The Founding of the Korean Chosŏn Dynasty, 1392". in ''[[doi:10.1017/9781108807401|East Asia in the World: Twelve Events That Shaped the Modern International Order]]''. Cambridge University Press.
* {{cite book |last1=Hatada |first1=Takashi |last2=Smith |first2=Warren W. Jr. |last3=Hazard |first3=Benjamin H. |title=A History of Korea |title-link=A History of Korea (Hatada book) |year=1969 |publisher=ABC-Clio |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-0-87436-064-6}}.
* {{cite book |last=Nahm |first=Andrew C. |title=Korea: Tradition & Transformation: A History of the Korean People |year=1988 |publisher=Hollym |location=Elizabeth, N.J. |isbn=978-0-930878-56-6}}.
* {{cite book |last=Zhao |first=Quansheng |chapter=China and the Korean peace process |pages=98–118 |title=The Korean Peace Process and the Four Powers |year=2003 |publisher=Ashgate |location=Hampshire |editor=Tae-Hwan Kwak |editor2=Seung-Ho Joo |isbn=978-0-7546-3653-3}}.
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Joseon Dynasty}}
{{Wiktionary|Joseon}}
* {{Cite book |author=[[:ja:三谷博|三谷博]] |date=January 2016 |title=グローバル化への対応－中・日・韓三国の分岐－ |publisher=[[:ja:統計研究会|統計研究会]]『学際』第1号 |url=http://www.isr.or.jp/TokeiKen/pdf/gakusai/1_05.pdf |ref=三谷 |access-date=July 28, 2021 |archive-date=December 25, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161225214545/http://www.isr.or.jp/TokeiKen/pdf/gakusai/1_05.pdf |url-status=dead}}
* {{Cite book |author=[[:ja:原田環|原田環]] |date=June 2005 |title=東アジアの国際関係とその近代化－朝鮮と－ |publisher=[[Japan–South Korea Joint History Research Project]]報告書（第1期） |url=http://www.jkcf.or.jp/history_arch/first/3/02-0j_harada_j.pdf |ref={{Harvid|原田|2005}} |access-date=July 28, 2021 |archive-date=September 10, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910140201/http://www.jkcf.or.jp/history_arch/first/3/02-0j_harada_j.pdf |url-status=dead}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928110202/http://www.instrok.org/instrok/lesson1/page01.html?thisChar=4 Cultural Values of the Choson Dynasty] – from Instrok.org, created by the [[East Rock Institute]].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150510203519/http://www.sungjinyang.com/history/hermit.html "Click into the Hermit Kingdom" (Written by Yang Sung-jin and published by Dongbang Media in Seoul, South Korea) – 100 articles in English on the Joseon dynasty]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050207052645/http://royalcity.or.kr/ Korean royal family website] – currently available only in Korean.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050313144134/http://myhome.shinbiro.com/~mss1/choson.html Choson dynasty]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050113191703/http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200501/200501120024.html "Japanese Document Sheds New Light on Korean Queen's Murder"] – Ohmynews.com's uncovered document about murder of Queen Minbi
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060202204421/http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200601/200601270013.html "E-Annals Bring Chosun History to Everyman"], ''The Chosun Ilbo'', January 27, 2006.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080604062746/http://www.bennettsfineart.com/lee%20dynasty.htm "Korean Lee (Yi) Dynasty Granite Sculptures"]

{{Clear}}
{{Five Grand Palaces (Joseon)}}
{{Joseon}}
{{House of Yi}}
{{Coord|37.58|N|126.98|E|type:country|display=title}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Joseon| ]]
[[Category:1392 establishments in Asia]]
[[Category:14th-century establishments in Korea]]
[[Category:1897 disestablishments in Korea]]
[[Category:Former countries in Korean history]]
[[Category:House of Yi]]
[[Category:Korean royalty]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1897]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1392]]
[[Category:Tributaries of Imperial China]]