View source for Johnson v. McIntosh

{{Use American English|date=December 2022}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=December 2022}}
{{Infobox SCOTUS case
  |Litigants=Johnson v. McIntosh 
  |ArgueDateA=February 15
  |ArgueDateB=19
  |ArgueYear=1823
  |DecideDate=February 28
  |DecideYear=1823
  |FullName=Johnson and Graham’s Lessee v. William McIntosh
  |USVol=21
  |USPage=543
  |ParallelCitations=8 Wheat. 543; 5 [[L. Ed.]] 681; 1823 [[U.S. LEXIS]] 293
  |Prior=Appeal from the District Court of Illinois
  |Subsequent=None
  |Holding=Johnson's lessees cannot eject McIntosh because their title, derived from private purchases from Indians, could not be valid.
  |Majority=Marshall
  |JoinMajority=''unanimous''
  |LawsApplied=[[Custom (law)|Custom]]<ref>Kades, 148 U. Pa. L. Rev. at 1098 ("[T]he basis for the holding in M'Intosh: custom. Phrases like 'understood by all,' 'exercised uniformly,' and 'universal recognition' appeal to long-established practice, not to any specific constitutional, statutory, or common law rule.").</ref>
}}
'''''Johnson v. McIntosh''''',{{efn|This is the spelling used by the Supreme Court in modern cases, such as ''[[County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State]]'' (1985) (citing ''McIntosh''). In early volumes of the ''[[United States Reports]]'', cases with "Mac-" surnames were printed using a [[turned comma]] to represent a small superscript c.<ref>Michael G. Collins, ''M‘Culloch and the Turned Comma'', 12 [[The Green Bag (1997)|Greenbag 2d]] 265 (2009).</ref> For example, ''McIntosh'' and ''[[McCulloch v. Maryland]]'' were printed as ''[https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/usrep/usrep021/usrep021543/usrep021543.pdf M‘Intosh]'' and ''M‘Culloch''.}} 21 U.S. (8 Wheat.) 543 (1823), also written '''''M‘Intosh''''', is a landmark decision of the [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]] that held that private citizens could not purchase lands from [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]]. As the facts were recited by Chief Justice [[John Marshall]], the successor in interest to a private purchase from the [[Piankeshaw]] attempted to maintain an action of [[ejectment]] against the holder of a federal [[land patent]].

The case is one of the most influential and well-known decisions of the [[Marshall Court]], a fixture of the first-year curriculum in nearly all [[Law school in the United States|U.S. law schools]]. Marshall's opinion lays down the foundations of the doctrine of [[aboriginal title in the United States]], and the related [[Discovery doctrine|doctrine of discovery]]. However, the vast majority of the opinion is ''[[dicta]]''; as valid title is a basic element of the [[cause of action]] for ejectment, the holding does not extend to the validity of McIntosh's title, much less the property rights of the Piankeshaw. Thus, all that the opinion holds with respect to [[aboriginal title]] is that it is [[Alienation (property law)|inalienable]], a principle that remains well-established law in nearly all [[common law]] jurisdictions.

Citation to ''Johnson'' has been a staple of federal and state cases related to Native American land title for 200 years. Like ''Johnson'', nearly all of those cases involve land disputes between two non-Native parties, typically one with a [[chain of title]] tracing to a federal or state government and the other with a chain of title predating U.S. sovereignty. A similar trend can be seen in the early case law of Australia, Canada, and New Zealand. The first land dispute involving an indigenous party to reach to the Supreme Court was ''[[Cherokee Nation v. Georgia]]'' (1831).

==Background==
[[Thomas Johnson (jurist)|Thomas Johnson]], one of the first [[United States Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] justices, bought land from [[Piankeshaw]] Native American tribes in 1773 and 1775. The plaintiffs were lessees of Thomas Johnson's descendants, who had inherited the land. The defendant, [[William McIntosh (fur trader)|William McIntosh]], subsequently obtained a land patent, according to the facts as Marshall accepted them, to this same land from the [[United States]]. In fact, the two parcels did not overlap at all.<ref>Kades, 148 U. Pa. L. Rev. at 1092 ("Mapping the United Companies' claims alongside M'Intosh's purchases, as enumerated in the district court records, shows that the litigants' land claims did not overlap. Hence, there was no real '[[Case or Controversy clause|case or controversy]],' and ''M'Intosh'', like another leading early Supreme Court land case, ''[[Fletcher v. Peck]]'', appears to have been a sham." (footnotes omitted)).</ref> Further, there is evidence that the parties were aware the tracts did not overlap and purposely misrepresented the facts to the court to obtain a ruling.<ref>Kades, 148 U. Pa. L. Rev. at 1093 ("M'Intosh did not contest a single fact alleged in the complaint, jurisdictional or otherwise. Perhaps he participated in framing the complaint, which became the stipulated facts of the case. Neither the district court nor the Supreme Court questioned any of these facts. Everyone involved, it seems, wanted a decision on the legal question of the validity of private purchases from the Native Americans." (footnote omitted)).</ref>

==Prior history==
The plaintiffs brought an action for [[ejectment]] against McIntosh in the [[United States District Court for the District of Illinois]], contending that their chain of title was superior by virtue of Johnson's purchases. The District Court dismissed the claim on the grounds that the Piankeshaw were not able to convey the land.

==Opinion==
Marshall, writing for a unanimous court, affirmed the dismissal.

Marshall begins with a lengthy discussion of the history of the [[European colonization of the Americas]] and the legal foundations of the American Colonies. In particular, Marshall focuses on the manner in which each European power took land from the indigenous occupants. Synthesizing the law of colonizing powers, Marshall traces the outlines of the "[[discovery doctrine]]"—namely, that a European power gains [[radical title]] (also known as [[sovereignty]]) to the land it discovers. As a corollary, the "discovering" power gains the exclusive right to extinguish the "right of occupancy" of the Indigenous occupants, which otherwise survived the assumption of sovereignty.

Marshall further opined that when it declared independence from the [[The Crown|Crown]], the United States government inherited the right of preemption over Native American lands. The legal result is that the only Native American conveyances of land that can create valid title are sales of land to the federal government.<ref>Banner, 2005, pp. 178-188.</ref>

==Legacy==
===Law and economics===
At least one commentator has noted that ''Johnson'', by holding that only the federal government could purchase Native American lands, created a system of [[monopsony]], which avoided bidding competition between settlers and thus enabled the acquisition of Native American lands at the lowest possible cost.<ref>Kades, 148 U. Pa. L. Rev. at 1189 ("With its customary rule against private purchases of Native American land, reaffirmed in ''M'Intosh'', the state prevented competitive bidding for Native American lands. It drew on a special cadre of career Native American negotiators to buy land cheaply. . . . [T]he bottom line was the bottom line: acquiring Native American lands at least cost. . . . [M]inimizing cost were not simple. . . .  Threats . . . were often not credible, and so the United States pursued all the negotiating tricks . . . .").</ref>

===Role in law school curriculum===
Prof. Stuart Banner at [[UCLA School of Law]], writes of the case:
{{Blockquote|text=''Johnson''{{'}}s continuing prominence is reinforced every year in law schools, where it is the very first case most beginning students read in their required course in Property. The bestselling property casebook calls ''Johnson'' 'the genesis of our subject' because it lays 'the foundations of landownership in the United States.' Given current understandings surrounding Indigenous law, and the role of Native Americans in America, the outcome of the case has come to be viewed with disapproval in law school. ''Johnson'' has joined ''[[Dred Scott v. Sandford]]'' and a few others to form a small canon (or maybe an anti-canon) of famous cases law students are taught to criticize. The leading casebook describes the philosophy underlying ''Johnson'' as "discomforting" and quotes with approval the recent view of a law professor that Marshall's opinion "was rooted in a Eurocentric view of the inferiority of the Indian people." ''Johnson'', though, might be the only member of this anti-canon that remains the law, and that is still cited as authority by lower courts several times a year.<ref>Banner, 2005, p. 11-12.</ref>}}

In 1998, Native American legal scholar<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-10-18 |title=Matthew L.M. Fletcher {{!}} University of Michigan Law School |url=https://michigan.law.umich.edu/faculty-and-scholarship/our-faculty/matthew-lm-fletcher |access-date=2023-12-09 |website=michigan.law.umich.edu |language=en}}</ref> Matthew Fletcher reflected on his experience studying the case, portraying it as fundamental to founding injustices in American society:

{{Blockquote|text="Maybe you ''can'' kill people and destroy what they are and call it legal and fair play."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fletcher |first=Matthew L. M. |date=1998 |title=Listen |url=https://repository.law.umich.edu/mjrl/vol3/iss2/6/ |journal=Michigan Journal of Race & Law |volume=3 |page=530 |via=HeinOnline}}</ref>}}

===Catholic teaching on the Doctrine of Discovery===
The [[Holy See|Vatican]] on March 30, 2023 formally repudiated the "doctrine of discovery," officially declaring that that [[legal doctrine]], used historically to justify colonial exploitation, is "not part of the teaching of the Catholic Church," and that the [[papal bulls]] used to justify it (such as ''[[Inter caetera]]'') "have never been considered expressions of the Catholic faith."<ref>{{cite web|author=[[Dicastery for Culture and Education]] and [[Dicastery for Promoting Integral Human Development]]|title=Joint Statement on the 'Doctrine of Discovery'|url=https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/en/bollettino/pubblico/2023/03/30/230330b.html|date=30 March 2023}}</ref>

In commenting on this public statement, Cardinal [[Michael Czerny]] referred to ''Johnson v. McIntosh'' as "an invention or creation of the U.S. Supreme Court in the 19th century" and stated it was "unfortunate" that "a very strongly church related word is used by the U.S. Supreme Court to name an idea or a historical process" (referring to the word "doctrine," which is used in both law and theology).<ref>{{cite web |last1=White |first1=Christopher |title=Vatican formally repudiates 'Doctrine of Discovery' used to justify colonization |url=https://www.ncronline.org/vatican/vatican-news/vatican-formally-repudiates-doctrine-discovery-used-justify-colonial |website=National Catholic Reporter |access-date=March 30, 2023 }}</ref>

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}
==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Robert Williams, Jr., ''The American Indian in Western Legal Thought: The Discourses of Conquest'' (1989).
* Walter Echo-Hawk, ''[[In the Courts of the Conqueror|In the Courts of the Conqueror: The 10 Worst Indian Law Cases Ever Decided]]'' (2010).
* Stuart Banner, ''How the Indians Lost Their Land: Law and Power on the Frontier'' (2005).
* Lindsay G. Robertson, ''Conquest by Law: How the Discovery of America Dispossessed Indigenous Peoples of Their Lands'' (2005).
* [[Jean Edward Smith]], ''John Marshall: Definer Of A Nation'' (1996).
* Michael C. Blumm, Retracing the Discovery Doctrine, Aboriginal Title, Tribal Sovereignty, and Their Significance to Treaty-Making in the United States, 28 Vt. L. Rev. 713 (2004).
* Eric Kades, The Dark Side of Efficiency: ''Johnson v. M'Intosh'' and the Expropriation of American Indian Lands, 148 U. Pa. L. Rev. 1065 (2000).
* Eric Kades,  History and Interpretation of the Great Case of ''Johnson v. M'Intosh'', 19 L. & Hist. R. 67 (2001).
* Blake A. Watson ''Buying America From the Indians: "Johnson v. McIntosh" and the History of Native Land Rights'' (University of Oklahoma Press; 2012) 494 pages

==External links==
* {{wikisource-inline|Johnson v. M'Intosh|''Johnson v. McIntosh''}}
* {{caselaw source|case=''Johnson v. McIntosh'', {{ussc|21|543|1823|Wheat.|8|el=no}}|courtlistener=https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/85404/johnsons-lessee-v-mcintosh/|justia=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/21/543/|openjurist=https://openjurist.org/21/us/543|loc=http://cdn.loc.gov/service/ll/usrep/usrep021/usrep021543/usrep021543.pdf}}

{{Aboriginal title in the United States}}
{{Native American rights}}

[[Category:1823 in United States case law]]
[[Category:Aboriginal title case law in the United States]]
[[Category:United States Native American case law]]
[[Category:Race-related case law in the United States]]
[[Category:United States Supreme Court cases]]
[[Category:United States Supreme Court cases of the Marshall Court]]
[[Category:Miami tribe]]
[[Category:Indian Territory]]