View source for John Diefenbaker

{{Short description|Prime Minister of Canada from 1957 to 1963}}
{{Redirect|Diefenbaker}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Use Canadian English|date=January 2012}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2025}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific_prefix    = [[The Right Honourable]]
| name                = John Diefenbaker
| honorific_suffix    = {{post-nominals|country=CAN|PC|CH|QC|FRSC|FRSA|size=100%}}
| caption             = Diefenbaker in 1957
| image               = John G. Diefenbaker.jpg
| order1              = 13th
| office1             = Prime Minister of Canada
| term_start1         = June 21, 1957
| term_end1           = April 22, 1963
| monarch1            = [[Elizabeth II]]
| governor_general1   = {{plainlist|
* [[Vincent Massey]]
* [[Georges Vanier]]
}}
| predecessor1        = [[Louis St. Laurent]]
| successor1          = [[Lester B. Pearson]]
| office2             = [[Leader of the Official Opposition (Canada)|Leader of the Opposition]]
| term_start2         = April 22, 1963
| term_end2           = September 8, 1967
| predecessor2        = Lester B. Pearson
| successor2          = [[Michael Starr (politician)|Michael Starr]]
| term_start3         = December 14, 1956
| term_end3           = June 20, 1957
| predecessor3        = [[William Earl Rowe]]
| successor3          = Louis St. Laurent
| office4             = Leader of the [[Progressive Conservative Party of&nbsp;Canada]]
| term_start4         = December 14, 1956
| term_end4           = September 9, 1967
| predecessor4        = William Earl Rowe (interim)
| successor4          = [[Robert Stanfield]]
| office5             = [[Secretary of State for External Affairs]]
| term5               = {{Start and end dates|1957|06|21|1957|09|12}}
| primeminister5      = ''Himself''
| predecessor5        = Lester B. Pearson
| successor5          = [[Sidney Earle Smith]]
| riding6             = [[Prince Albert (federal electoral district)|Prince Albert]]
| parliament6         = Canadian
| term_start6         = August 10, 1953
| term_end6           = August 16, 1979
| majority6           = 
| predecessor6        = [[Francis Helme]]
| successor6          = [[Stan Hovdebo]]
| riding7             = [[Lake Centre]]
| parliament7         = <!-- Canadian -->
| term_start7         = March 26, 1940
| term_end7           = August 10, 1953
| majority7           = 
| predecessor7        = [[John Frederick Johnston]]
| successor7          = ''Riding abolished''
| birth_name          = John George Diefenbaker
| birth_date          = {{Birth date|mf=yes|1895|9|18}}
| birth_place         = [[Neustadt, Ontario]], Canada
| death_date          = {{Death date and age|mf=yes|1979|8|16|1895|9|18}}
| death_place         = [[Ottawa]], Ontario, Canada
| resting_place       = Outside [[Diefenbaker Canada Centre]], Saskatoon, Saskatchewan
| party               = [[Progressive Conservative Party of Canada|Progressive Conservative]]
| spouse              = {{plainlist|
* {{Marriage|[[Edna Brower]]|1929|1951|reason=died}}
* {{Marriage|[[Olive Freeman|Olive Palmer]]|1953|1976|reason=died}}
}}
| alma_mater          = [[University of Saskatchewan]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]], [[Master of Arts|MA]], [[LLB]])
| occupation          = {{hlist|Politician|lawyer}}
| signature           = John Diefenbaker Signature-.svg
| signature_alt       = A scrawled "J Diefenbaker"
<!-- Military service -->| allegiance          = [[Canada]]
| branch              = [[Canadian Expeditionary Force]]
| serviceyears        = 1916–1917
| rank                = Lieutenant
| unit                = [[196th Battalion (Western Universities), CEF|196th Battalion]]
| battles             = [[World War I]]
| module              = {{Listen|embed=yes |filename =|title = John Diefenbaker's voice |type = speech |description = Diefenbaker's flag crusade, recorded in 1964 }}
}}

'''John George Diefenbaker'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ˈ|d|iː|f|ən|b|eɪ|k|ər}} {{respell|DEE|fən|bay|kər}}}} (September 18, 1895 – August 16, 1979) was the 13th [[prime minister of Canada]], serving from 1957 to 1963. He was the only [[Progressive Conservative Party of Canada|Progressive Conservative]]{{Efn|Known as the [[Conservative Party of Canada (1867–1942)|Conservatives]] before 1942.}} party leader between 1935 and 1979 to lead the party to an election victory, doing so three times, although only once with a [[majority government|majority of the seats]] in the [[Canadian House of Commons|House of Commons]].

Diefenbaker was born in the small town of [[Neustadt, Ontario|Neustadt]] in [[Southwestern Ontario]]. In 1903, his family migrated west to the portion of the [[North-West Territories]] that would soon become the province of [[Saskatchewan]]. He grew up in the province and was interested in politics from a young age. After service in [[World War I]], Diefenbaker became a noted criminal defence lawyer. He contested elections through the 1920s and 1930s with little success until he was finally elected to the House of Commons in [[1940 Canadian federal election|1940]]. Diefenbaker was repeatedly a candidate for the party leadership. He gained that position in [[1956 Progressive Conservative leadership convention|1956]], on his third attempt. 

In the [[1957 Canadian federal election|1957 federal election]], Diefenbaker led the Progressive Conservatives to its first electoral victory in 27 years; a year later, he called a [[snap election]] and spearheaded them to one of their [[1958 Canadian federal election|greatest triumphs]]. Diefenbaker appointed the first female minister in Canadian history to his cabinet ([[Ellen Fairclough]]), as well as the first [[Indigenous peoples in Canada|Indigenous]] member of the [[Senate of Canada|Senate]] ([[James Gladstone]]). During his six years as prime minister, his government obtained passage of the ''[[Canadian Bill of Rights]]'' and granted the vote to the [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]] and [[Inuit]] peoples. In 1959, Diefenbaker's government cancelled the [[Avro Arrow]] project, and in 1962, it eliminated racial discrimination in immigration policy. In foreign policy, Diefenbaker's stance against [[apartheid]] helped secure the departure of [[Union of South Africa|South Africa]] from the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], but his [[Bomarc Missile Crisis|indecision on whether to accept Bomarc nuclear missiles]] from the United States would lead to his government's downfall.

In the [[1962 Canadian federal election|1962 federal election]], the Progressive Conservatives narrowly won a [[minority government]] before losing power altogether in [[1963 Canadian federal election|1963]]. Diefenbaker stayed on as party leader, becoming [[Leader of the Official Opposition (Canada)|Opposition leader]], but his [[1965 Canadian federal election|second loss at the polls]] prompted opponents within the party to force him to [[Progressive Conservative leadership convention, 1967|a leadership convention in 1967]]. Diefenbaker stood for re-election as party leader at the last moment, but attracted only minimal support and withdrew. He remained in parliament until his death in 1979, two months after [[Joe Clark]] became the first Progressive Conservative prime minister since Diefenbaker. Diefenbaker ranks average in [[rankings of prime ministers of Canada]].

== Early life ==
[[File:John Diefenbaker's Birthplace.jpg|left|thumb|John Diefenbaker's birthplace]]
Diefenbaker was born on September 18, 1895, in [[Neustadt, Ontario]], to William Thomas Diefenbaker and Mary Florence Diefenbaker, née Bannerman.{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=1}} His father was the son of German immigrants from Adersbach (near [[Sinsheim]]) in Baden; Mary Diefenbaker was of Scottish descent and Diefenbaker was Baptist.{{efn|name=anglicized}} The family moved to several locations in Ontario in John's early years.{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=1}} William Diefenbaker was a teacher, and had deep interests in history and politics, which he sought to instill in his students. He had remarkable success doing so; of the 28 students at his school near Toronto in 1903, four, including his son, John, served as Conservative MPs in the [[19th Canadian Parliament]] beginning in 1940{{sfn|Diefenbaker|1975|pp=17–18}} (the others were [[Robert Henry McGregor]], [[Joseph Henry Harris]], and [[George Tustin]]).

The Diefenbaker family moved west in 1903, for William Diefenbaker to accept a position near [[Fort Carlton]], then in the [[Northwest Territories]] (now in Saskatchewan).{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=5–6}} In 1906, William claimed a [[Dominion Land Survey|quarter-section]], {{convert|160|acre|km2}} of undeveloped land near [[Borden, Saskatchewan]].{{sfn|Newman|1963|p=15}} In February 1910, the Diefenbaker family moved to [[Saskatoon]], the site of the [[University of Saskatchewan]]. William and Mary Diefenbaker felt that John and his brother Elmer would have greater educational opportunities in Saskatoon.{{sfn|Newman|1963|p=16}}

John Diefenbaker had been interested in politics from an early age and told his mother at the age of eight or nine that he would some day be prime minister. She told him that it was an impossible ambition, especially for a boy living on the prairies.{{efn|name=childhood ambition}} She would live to be proved wrong.{{efn|name=childhood ambition}} John claimed that his first contact with politics came in 1910, when he sold a newspaper to Prime Minister Sir [[Wilfrid Laurier]], in Saskatoon to lay the cornerstone for the university's first building. The present and future prime ministers conversed, and when giving his speech that afternoon, Laurier mentioned the newsboy, who had ended their conversation by saying, "I can't waste any more time on you, Prime Minister. I must get about my work."{{sfn|Newman|1963|p=16}}{{efn|name=phrasing}} The authenticity of the meeting was questioned in the 21st century, with an author suggesting that it was invented by Diefenbaker during an election campaign.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://thestarphoenix.com/news/local-news/meeting-between-diefenbaker-and-laurier-never-happened-author-says |title=Meeting in Saskatoon between Diefenbaker and Laurier never happened, author says |last=Charlton |first=Jonathan |work=[[The StarPhoenix]] |date=July 25, 2017 |access-date=January 27, 2019 |archive-date=November 9, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109033635/https://thestarphoenix.com/news/local-news/meeting-between-diefenbaker-and-laurier-never-happened-author-says |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/saskatchewan/author-calls-saskatoon-diefenbaker-statue-decommissioned-1.4221896 |title=Man calls for removal of Saskatoon Diefenbaker statue because he says it is based on lies |publisher=[[CBC News]] |date=July 27, 2017 |access-date=July 27, 2017 |archive-date=October 21, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021142601/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/saskatchewan/author-calls-saskatoon-diefenbaker-statue-decommissioned-1.4221896 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In a 1977 interview with the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]], Diefenbaker recalled he saw injustice first-hand in his youth against [[French Canadians]], [[Indigenous Canadians]] and the [[Métis]]. He said, "From my earliest days, I knew the meaning of discrimination. Many Canadians were virtually second-hand citizens because of their names and racial origin. Indeed, it seemed until the end of World War II that the only first-class Canadians were either of English or French descent. As a youth, l determined to devote myself to assuring that all Canadians, whatever their racial origin, were equal and declared myself to be a sworn enemy of discrimination."<ref name="cbc_ca">{{cite web |title=John Diefenbaker and the Canadian Bill of Rights |url=https://www.cbc.ca/archives/entry/john-diefenbaker-and-the-canadian-bill-of-rights |website=CBC |access-date=November 5, 2021 |archive-date=November 5, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211105161942/https://www.cbc.ca/archives/entry/john-diefenbaker-and-the-canadian-bill-of-rights |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Canadian Bill of Rights |url=https://diefenbaker.usask.ca/exhibits/online-exhibits-content/the-canadian-bill-of-rights.php#IamaCanadianafreeCanadian |website=Diefenbaker Canada Centre |access-date=November 5, 2021 |archive-date=November 5, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211105161943/https://diefenbaker.usask.ca/exhibits/online-exhibits-content/the-canadian-bill-of-rights.php#IamaCanadianafreeCanadian |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:John Diefenbaker (ca 1919).jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Formal photo portrait of Diefenbaker at age 23. His short dark hair is very thick and curly and has been combed back smoothly, and his face is thinner than at an older age. He is formally dressed with a stiffened shirt collar and wears an academic hood. Picture is inscribed "J.G. Diefenbaker, law".|Diefenbaker as a law student, {{circa}}&nbsp;1919]]

After graduating from high school in Saskatoon in 1912, Diefenbaker entered the University of Saskatchewan.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=15–16}} He received his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1915, and his [[Master of Arts]] the following year.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=19–20}}

Diefenbaker was commissioned a lieutenant into the [[196th (Western Universities) Battalion, CEF]],<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.bac-lac.gc.ca/eng/discover/military-heritage/first-world-war/first-world-war-1914-1918-cef/Pages/item.aspx?IdNumber=288501|title= Soldiers of the First World War – Item: DIEFENBAKER, JOHN GEORGE BANNERMAN|author= <!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|date= August 23, 2013|publisher= [[Library and Archives Canada]]|access-date= September 15, 2016|archive-date= October 27, 2020|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20201027160011/https://www.bac-lac.gc.ca/eng/discover/military-heritage/first-world-war/first-world-war-1914-1918-cef/Pages/item.aspx?IdNumber=288501|url-status= live}}</ref>{{sfn|Smith|2016}} in May 1916. In September of that year, Diefenbaker was part of a contingent of 300 junior officers sent to Britain for pre-deployment training. Diefenbaker related in his memoirs that he was hit by a shovel, and the injury eventually resulted in him being sent home as an invalid. Diefenbaker's recollections do not correspond with his army medical records, which show no contemporary account of such an injury, and his biographer, Denis Smith, speculates that any injury was [[psychosomatic]].{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=20–30}}

After leaving the military in 1917,{{sfn|Smith|2016}} Diefenbaker returned to Saskatchewan where he resumed his work as an [[articling student]] in law. He received his law degree in 1919,{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=31–33}} the first student to secure three degrees from the University of Saskatchewan.{{sfn|Diefenbaker|1975|p=79}} On June 30, 1919, he was [[called to the bar]], and the following day, opened a small practice in the village of [[Wakaw, Saskatchewan]].{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=31–33}}

== Barrister and candidate (1919–1940) ==
{{See also|Electoral history of John Diefenbaker}}

=== Wakaw days (1919–1924) ===
[[File:Dief shack.jpg|thumb|alt=Small wooden shack, painted white, with sign "J.G. Diefenbaker Law Office 1919–1925|left|Recreation of Diefenbaker's first office, Wakaw, Saskatchewan]]

Although Wakaw had a population of only 400, it sat at the heart of a densely populated area of rural [[Township (Canada)#Western Canada|townships]] and had its own [[Provincial Court of Saskatchewan|district court]]. It was also easily accessible to Saskatoon, [[Prince Albert, Saskatchewan|Prince Albert]] and [[Humboldt, Saskatchewan|Humboldt]], places where the [[Court of Queen's Bench for Saskatchewan|Court of King's Bench]] sat. The local people were mostly immigrants, and Diefenbaker's research found them to be particularly litigious. There was already one barrister in town, and the residents were loyal to him, initially refusing to rent office space to Diefenbaker. The new lawyer was forced to rent a vacant lot and erect a two-room wooden shack.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=34–35}}

Diefenbaker won the local people over through his success; in his first year in practice, he tried 62 jury trials, winning approximately half of his cases. He rarely called defence witnesses, thereby avoiding the possibility of rebuttal witnesses for the Crown, and securing the last word for himself.{{sfn|Newman|1963|p=18}} In late 1920, he was elected to the [[Town council|village council]] to serve a three-year term.{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=38}}

Diefenbaker would often spend weekends with his parents in Saskatoon. While there, he began to woo [[Olive Freeman]], daughter of the Baptist minister, but in 1921, she moved with her family to [[Brandon, Manitoba]], and the two lost touch for more than 20 years. He then courted Beth Newell, a cashier in Saskatoon, and by 1922, the two were engaged. However, in 1923, Newell was diagnosed with [[tuberculosis]], and Diefenbaker broke off contact with her. She died the following year. Diefenbaker was himself subject to internal bleeding, and may have feared that the disease would be transmitted to him. In late 1923, he had an operation at the [[Mayo Clinic]] for a [[gastric ulcer]], but his health remained uncertain for several more years.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=38–39}}

After four years in Wakaw, Diefenbaker so dominated the local legal practice that his competitor left town. On May 1, 1924, Diefenbaker moved to Prince Albert, leaving a law partner in charge of the Wakaw office.{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=41}}

=== Aspiring politician (1924–1929) ===
Since 1905, when Saskatchewan entered [[Canadian Confederation|Confederation]], the province had been dominated by the [[Liberal Party of Saskatchewan|Liberal Party]], which practised highly effective [[machine politics]]. Diefenbaker was fond of stating, in his later years, that the only protection a Conservative had in the province was that afforded by the [[game laws]].{{sfn|Diefenbaker|1975|p=64}}

Diefenbaker's father, William, was a Liberal; however, John Diefenbaker found himself attracted to the [[Conservative Party of Canada (historic)|Conservative Party]]. Free trade was widely popular throughout Western Canada, but Diefenbaker was convinced by the Conservative position that free trade would make Canada an economic dependent of the United States.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=41–42}} However, he did not speak publicly of his politics. Diefenbaker recalled in his memoirs that, in 1921, he had been elected as secretary of the Wakaw Liberal Association while absent in Saskatoon, and had returned to find the association's records in his office. He promptly returned them to the association president. Diefenbaker also stated that he had been told that if he became a Liberal candidate, "there was no position in the province which would not be open to him."{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=43}}

It was not until 1925 that Diefenbaker publicly came forward as a Conservative, a year in which both federal and Saskatchewan provincial elections were held. Journalist [[Peter C. Newman]], in his best-selling account of the Diefenbaker years, suggested that this choice was made for practical, rather than political reasons, as Diefenbaker had little chance of defeating established politicians and securing the Liberal nomination for either the House of Commons or the [[Legislative Assembly of Saskatchewan|Legislative Assembly]].{{sfn|Newman|1963|pp=19–20}} The [[1925 Saskatchewan general election|provincial election]] took place in early June; Liberals would later claim that Diefenbaker had campaigned for their party in the election. On June 19, however, Diefenbaker addressed a Conservative organizing committee, and on August 6, was nominated as the party's candidate for the federal riding of [[Prince Albert (federal electoral district)|Prince Albert]], a district in which the party's last candidate had lost his [[election deposit]]. A nasty campaign ensued, in which Diefenbaker was called a "[[List of terms used for Germans#Hun|Hun]]" because of his German-derived surname. The [[1925 Canadian federal election|1925 federal election]] was held on October 29; he finished third behind the [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal]] and [[Progressive Party of Canada|Progressive Party]] candidates, losing his deposit.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=44–46}}

[[File:Diefenbaker versus Mackenzie King.jpg|thumb|alt=Election flyer naming Diefenbaker and with his photograph, with a recreation of the ballot, urging his election. His hair is still short and dark, and is combed back, and his face appears much the way it will in later years. He wears a jacket and tie.|left|Handout for the Diefenbaker campaign 1926]]
The winning candidate, [[Charles McDonald (Canadian politician)|Charles McDonald]], did not hold the seat long, resigning it to open a place for the Prime Minister, [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]], who had been defeated in his Ontario riding. The Tories ran no candidate against King in the by-election on February 15, 1926, and he won easily. Although in the 1925 federal election, the Conservatives had won the greatest number of seats<!-- It was not a majority, please do not use that term. It was not a coalition either -->, King continued as prime minister with the support of the Progressives. Mackenzie King held office for several months until he finally resigned when the [[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]], [[Lord Byng]], [[King–Byng Affair|refused a dissolution]]. Conservative Party leader [[Arthur Meighen]] became prime minister, but was quickly defeated in the House of Commons, and Byng finally granted a [[dissolution of Parliament]]. Diefenbaker, who had been confirmed as Conservative candidate, stood against King in the [[1926 Canadian federal election|1926 election]], a rare direct electoral contest between two individuals who had or would become prime minister. King triumphed easily over Diefenbaker, the Liberals won the federal election, and King regained his position as prime minister.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=47–50}}

=== Perennial candidate (1929–1940) ===
[[File:Diefenbaker as King's Counsel 1929.jpg|upright|thumb|alt=Diefenbaker with an intense look in his eyes. Still a young man, he wears ceremonial robes in this portrait shot; the bands of the robes are visible.|Diefenbaker as King's Counsel, 1929]]

Diefenbaker stood for the Legislative Assembly in the [[1929 Saskatchewan general election|1929 provincial election]]. He was defeated,{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=56–57}} but Saskatchewan Conservatives formed their first government, with help from smaller parties. As the defeated Conservative candidate for [[Prince Albert (provincial electoral district)|Prince Albert]], he was given charge of political patronage there and was created a [[King's Counsel]].{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=70–71}} Three weeks after his electoral defeat, he married Saskatoon teacher [[Edna Brower]].{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=58–60}}

Diefenbaker chose not to stand for the House of Commons in the [[1930 Canadian federal election|1930 federal election]], citing health reasons. The Conservatives gained a majority in the election, and party leader [[R. B. Bennett]] became prime minister.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=70–71}} Diefenbaker continued a high-profile legal practice, and in 1933, ran for mayor of Prince Albert. He was defeated by 48 votes in an election in which over 2,000 ballots were cast.{{efn|name=H. J. Fraser}}

In 1934, when the Crown prosecutor for Prince Albert resigned to become the Conservative Party's legislative candidate, Diefenbaker took his place as prosecutor. Diefenbaker did not stand in the [[1934 Saskatchewan general election|1934 provincial election]], in which the governing Conservatives lost every seat. Six days after the election, Diefenbaker resigned as Crown prosecutor.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=76–77}} The federal government of Bennett [[1935 Canadian federal election|was defeated the following year]] and Mackenzie King returned as prime minister. Judging his prospects hopeless, Diefenbaker had declined a nomination to stand again against Mackenzie King in Prince Albert. In the waning days of the Bennett government, the [[Saskatchewan Conservative Party]] president was appointed a judge, leaving Diefenbaker, who had been elected the party's vice president, as acting president of the provincial party.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=81–83}}

[[File:John Diefenbaker (1939 election flyer).jpg|upright|thumb|alt=Election poster naming Diefenbaker and with his photograph, with blank spaces for the time and place at which he would speak. His hair is still short and dark, and is combed back, and his face appears much the way it will in later years. He wears a jacket and tie.|Poster to advertise a speech by John Diefenbaker as Conservative candidate, 1939 (leading up to the 1940 federal election)]]

Saskatchewan Conservatives eventually arranged a leadership convention for October 28, 1936. Eleven people were nominated, including Diefenbaker. The other ten candidates withdrew, and Diefenbaker won the position by default. Diefenbaker asked the federal party for $10,000 in financial support, but the funds were refused, and the Conservatives were shut out of the legislature in [[1938 Saskatchewan general election|the 1938 provincial elections]] for the second consecutive time. Diefenbaker himself was defeated in the [[Arm River (electoral district)|Arm River riding]] by 190 votes.{{sfn|Newman|1963|pp=22–23}} With the province-wide Conservative vote having fallen to 12 percent, Diefenbaker offered his resignation to a post-election party meeting in [[Moose Jaw]], but it was refused. Diefenbaker continued to run the provincial party out of his law office and paid the party's debts from his own pocket.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=98–99}}

Diefenbaker quietly sought the Conservative nomination for the federal riding of [[Lake Centre]] but was unwilling to risk a divisive intra-party squabble. In what Diefenbaker biographer Smith states "appears to have been an elaborate and prearranged charade", Diefenbaker attended the nominating convention as [[keynote speaker]], but withdrew when his name was proposed, stating a local man should be selected. The winner among the six remaining candidates, riding president W. B. Kelly, declined the nomination, urging the delegates to select Diefenbaker, which they promptly did.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=102–103}} Mackenzie King called [[1940 Canadian federal election|a general election]] for March 25, 1940.{{sfn|Newman|1963|pp=23–24}} The incumbent in Lake Centre was Liberal [[John Frederick Johnston]]. Diefenbaker campaigned aggressively in Lake Centre, holding 63 rallies and seeking to appeal to members of all parties. On election day, he defeated Johnston by 280 votes on what was otherwise a disastrous day for the Conservatives, who won only 39 seats out of the 245 in the House of Commons—their lowest total since Confederation.{{sfn|Newman|1963|pp=23–24}}

== Parliamentary rise (1940–1957) ==

=== Mackenzie King years (1940–1948) ===
Diefenbaker joined a shrunken and demoralized Conservative caucus in the House of Commons. The Conservative leader, [[Robert Manion]], failed to win a place in the Commons in the election, which saw the Liberals take 181 seats.{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=109}} The Tories sought to be included in a wartime coalition government, but Mackenzie King refused. The House of Commons had only a slight role in [[World War II|the war]] effort; under the state of emergency, most business was accomplished through the Cabinet issuing [[Orders in Council]].{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=116}}

Diefenbaker was appointed to the House Committee on the [[Defence of Canada Regulations]], an all-party committee which examined the wartime rules which allowed arrest and detention without trial. On June 13, 1940, Diefenbaker made his [[maiden speech]] in the House of Commons, supporting the regulations, and emphatically stating that most Canadians of German descent were loyal.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=114–115}} In his memoirs, Diefenbaker wrote he waged an unsuccessful fight against the forced relocation and [[Japanese Canadian internment|internment of many Japanese-Canadians]], but historians say that the fight against the internment never took place.{{sfn|Diefenbaker|1975|pp=223–224}}{{sfn|Bliss|2004|pp=194–195}}

According to Diefenbaker's biographer, Denis Smith, the Conservative MP quietly admired Mackenzie King for his political skills.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=120–122}} However, Diefenbaker proved a [[gadfly (social)|gadfly]] and an annoyance to Mackenzie King. Angered by the words of Diefenbaker and fellow Conservative MP [[Howard Charles Green|Howard Green]] in seeking to censure the government, the Prime Minister referred to Conservative MPs as "a mob".{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=120–122}} When Diefenbaker accompanied two other Conservative leaders to a briefing by Mackenzie King on [[World War II|the war]], the Prime Minister exploded at Diefenbaker (a constituent of his), "What business do you have to be here? You strike me to the heart every time you speak."{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=120–122}}

The Conservatives elected a [[floor leader]], and in 1941 approached former prime minister Meighen, who had been appointed as a senator by Bennett, about becoming party leader again. Meighen agreed, and resigned his Senate seat, but lost a by-election for an Ontario seat in the House of Commons.{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=125}} He remained as leader for several months, although he could not enter the chamber of the House of Commons. Meighen sought to move the Tories to the left, in order to undercut the Liberals and to take support away from the [[Co-operative Commonwealth Federation]] (CCF, the predecessor of the [[New Democratic Party]] (NDP)). To that end, he sought to draft the [[Liberal-Progressive#Manitoba|Liberal-Progressive]] premier of [[Manitoba]], [[John Bracken]], to lead the Conservatives. Diefenbaker objected to what he saw as an attempt to rig the party's choice of new leader{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=128–129}} and stood for the leadership himself at the [[Progressive Conservative leadership convention, 1942|party's 1942 leadership convention]].{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=130}} Bracken was elected on the second ballot; Diefenbaker finished a distant third in both polls. At Bracken's request, the convention changed the party's name to "Progressive Conservative Party of Canada."{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=131–134}} Bracken chose not to seek entry to the House through a by-election, and when the Conservatives elected a new floor leader, Diefenbaker was defeated by one vote.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=135–136}}

Bracken was elected to the Commons in the [[1945 Canadian federal election|1945 general election]], and for the first time in five years the Tories had their party leader in the House of Commons. The Progressive Conservatives won 67 seats to the Liberals' 125, with smaller parties and independents winning 52 seats. Diefenbaker increased his majority to over 1,000 votes, and had the satisfaction of seeing Mackenzie King defeated in Prince Albert—albeit by a CCF candidate. The Prime Minister was returned in an Ontario by-election within months.{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=155}}

Diefenbaker staked out a position on the populist left of the PC party. Though most Canadians were content to look to Parliament for protection of [[civil liberties]], Diefenbaker called for a Bill of Rights, calling it "the only way to stop the march on the part of the government towards arbitrary power".{{sfn|Bliss|2004|pp=194–195}} He objected to the great powers used by the Mackenzie King government to attempt to root out Soviet spies after the war, such as imprisonment without trial, and complained about the government's proclivity for letting its wartime powers become permanent.{{sfn|Bliss|2004|pp=194–195}}

=== Leadership contender (1948–1956) ===
{{For|further information on one of Diefenbaker's major legal cases during this time|Canoe River train crash}}
[[File:Johndiefenbaker.jpg|thumb|alt=Diefenbaker, standing in a legislative chamber, dramatically points in front of him. His hair is greying, and he appears much the way he will as Prime Minister.|Diefenbaker makes his point in the House of Commons, 1948]]

In early 1948, Mackenzie King, now aged 73, announced his retirement; later that year [[Louis St. Laurent]] succeeded him. Although Bracken had nearly doubled the Tory representation in the House, prominent Tories were increasingly unhappy with his leadership and pressured him to stand down. These party bosses believed that Ontario Premier [[George A. Drew]], who had won three successive provincial elections and had even made inroads in [[Francophone Canadian|francophone]] ridings, was the man to lead the Progressive Conservatives to victory. When Bracken resigned on July 17, 1948, Diefenbaker announced his candidacy. The party's backers, principally financiers headquartered on Toronto's [[Bay Street]], preferred Drew's conservative political stances to Diefenbaker's Western populism.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=166–167}} Tory leaders packed the [[Progressive Conservative leadership convention, 1948|1948 leadership convention]] in [[Ottawa]] in favour of Drew, appointing more than 300 delegates [[at-large]]. One cynical party member commented, "Ghost delegates with ghost ballots, marked by the ghostly hidden hand of Bay Street, are going to pick George Drew, and he'll deliver a ghost-written speech that'll cheer us all up, as we march briskly into a political graveyard."{{sfn|Newman|1963|p=28}} Drew easily defeated Diefenbaker on the first ballot. St. Laurent called [[1949 Canadian federal election|an election for June 1949]], and the Tories were decimated, falling to 41 seats, only two more than the party's 1940 nadir.{{sfn|Newman|1963|pp=29–30}} Despite intense efforts to make the Progressive Conservatives appeal to Quebecers, the party won only two seats in the province.{{sfn|Diefenbaker|1975|pp=268–269}}

Newman argued that but for Diefenbaker's many defeats, he would never have become prime minister:

<blockquote>If, as a neophyte lawyer, he had succeeded in winning the Prince Albert seat in the federal elections of 1925 or 1926&nbsp;... Diefenbaker would probably have been remembered only as an obscure minister in Bennett's Depression cabinet&nbsp;... If he had carried his home-town mayoralty in 1933&nbsp;... he'd probably not be remembered at all&nbsp;... If he had succeeded in his bid for the national leadership in 1942, he might have taken the place of John Bracken on his six-year march to oblivion as leader of a party that had not changed itself enough to follow a Prairie radical&nbsp;... <nowiki>[If he had defeated Drew in 1948, he]</nowiki> would have been free to flounder before the political strength of Louis St. Laurent in the 1949 and 1953 campaigns.{{sfn|Newman|1963|p=5}}</blockquote>

The governing Liberals repeatedly attempted to draw Diefenbaker's seat out from under him. In 1948, Lake Centre was redistricted to remove areas which strongly supported Diefenbaker. In spite of that, he was returned in the 1949 election, the only PC member from Saskatchewan. In 1952, a redistricting committee dominated by Liberals abolished Lake Centre entirely, dividing its voters among three other ridings.{{sfn|Newman|1963|pp=29–30}} Diefenbaker stated in his memoirs that he had considered retiring from the House; with Drew only a year older than he was, the Westerner saw little prospect of advancement and had received tempting offers from Ontario law firms. However, the [[gerrymandering]] so angered him that he decided to fight for a seat.{{sfn|Diefenbaker|1975|pp=271–272}} Diefenbaker's party had taken Prince Albert only once, in 1911, but he decided to stand in that riding for the [[1953 Canadian federal election|1953 election]] and was successful.{{sfn|Newman|1963|pp=29–30}} He would hold that seat for the rest of his life.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=573–574}} Even though Diefenbaker campaigned nationally for party candidates, the Progressive Conservatives gained little, rising to 51 seats as St. Laurent led the Liberals to a fifth successive majority.{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=195}} In addition to trying to secure his departure from Parliament, the government opened a home for unwed Indian mothers next door to [[Diefenbaker House|Diefenbaker's home]] in Prince Albert.{{sfn|Newman|1963|pp=29–30}}

Diefenbaker continued practising law. In 1951, he gained national attention by accepting the ''Atherton'' case, in which a young telegraph operator had been accused of negligently causing [[Canoe River train crash|a train crash]] by omitting crucial information from a message. Twenty-one people were killed, mostly Canadian troops bound for Korea. Diefenbaker paid $1,500 and sat a token [[bar exam]]ination to join the [[Law Society of British Columbia]] to take the case, and gained an acquittal, prejudicing the jury against the Crown prosecutor and pointing out a previous case in which interference had caused information to be lost in transmission.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=185–189}}

In the mid-1940s Edna began to suffer mental illness and was placed in a private psychiatric hospital for a time. She later fell ill from [[leukemia]] and died in 1951. In 1953, Diefenbaker married [[Olive Freeman|Olive Palmer]] (formerly Olive Freeman), whom he had courted while living in Wakaw. Olive Diefenbaker became a great source of strength to her husband. There were no children born of either marriage.{{sfn|Bliss|2004|p=202}} In 2013, claims were made that he fathered at least two sons out of wedlock, based a DNA test which, according to the test conductor, a 99.99% chance that the two individuals were related, with no other known commonality between them other than that Diefenbaker employed both mothers.{{sfn|Perkel|2013}}

Diefenbaker won Prince Albert in 1953, even as the Tories suffered a second consecutive disastrous defeat under Drew. Speculation arose in the press that the leader might be pressured to step aside. Drew was determined to remain, however, and Diefenbaker was careful to avoid any action that might be seen as disloyal. However, Diefenbaker was never a member of the "Five O'clock<!-- Capitalized in source! --> Club" of Drew intimates who met the leader in his office for a drink and gossip each day.{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=199}}{{efn|name=One Canada}} By 1955, there was a widespread feeling among Tories that Drew was not capable of leading the party to a victory. At the same time, the Liberals were in flux as the aging St. Laurent tired of politics.{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=200}} Drew was able to damage the government in a weeks-long battle over the [[TransCanada pipeline]] in 1956—the so-called [[Pipeline Debate]]—in which the government, in a hurry to obtain financing for the pipeline, imposed [[cloture|closure]] before the debate even began. The Tories and the CCF combined to obstruct business in the House for weeks before the Liberals were finally able to pass the measure. Diefenbaker played a relatively minor role in the Pipeline Debate, speaking only once.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=201–203}}
{{clear}}

=== Leader of the Opposition; 1957 election ===
{{main|1957 Canadian federal election}}

By 1956, the [[Social Credit Party of Canada|Social Credit Party]] was becoming a potential rival to the Tories as Canada's main right-wing party.{{sfn|Meisel|1962|pp=17–18}} Canadian journalist and author [[Bruce Hutchison]] discussed the state of the Tories in 1956:

<blockquote>When a party calling itself Conservative can think of nothing better than to outbid the Government's election promises; when it demands economy in one breath and increased spending in the next; when it proposes an immediate tax cut regardless of inflationary results&nbsp;... when in short, the Conservative party no longer gives us a conservative alternative after twenty-one years&nbsp;... then our political system desperately requires an opposition prepared to stand for something more than the improbable chance of quick victory.{{sfn|Meisel|1962|p=16}}</blockquote>

In August 1956, Drew fell ill and many within the party urged him to step aside, feeling that the Progressive Conservatives needed vigorous leadership with an election likely within a year. He resigned in late September, and Diefenbaker immediately announced his candidacy for the leadership.{{sfn|Bliss|2004|p=188}} A number of Progressive Conservative leaders, principally from the Ontario wing of the party, started a "Stop Diefenbaker" movement, and wooed [[University of Toronto]] president [[Sidney Earle Smith|Sidney Smith]] as a possible candidate. When Smith declined,{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=203–204}} they could find no one of comparable stature to stand against Diefenbaker. The only serious competition to Diefenbaker came from [[Donald Fleming]], who had finished third at the previous leadership convention, but his having repeatedly criticised Drew's leadership ensured that the critical Ontario delegates would not back Fleming, all but destroying his chances of victory. At the [[Progressive Conservative leadership convention, 1956|leadership convention in Ottawa in December 1956]], Diefenbaker won on the first ballot, and the dissidents reconciled themselves to his victory. After all, they reasoned, Diefenbaker was now 61 and unlikely to lead the party for more than one general election, an election they believed would be won by the Liberals regardless of who led the Tories.{{sfn|Bliss|2004|p=188}}

In January 1957, Diefenbaker took his place as [[Leader of the Official Opposition (Canada)|Leader of the Official Opposition]]. In February, St. Laurent informed him that Parliament would be dissolved in April for an [[1957 Canadian federal election|election on June 10]]. The Liberals submitted a budget in March; Diefenbaker attacked it for overly high taxes, failure to assist pensioners, and a lack of aid for the poorer provinces.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=217–218}} Parliament was dissolved on April 12.{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=224}} St. Laurent was so confident of victory that he did not even bother to make recommendations to the Governor General to fill the 16 vacancies in the Senate.{{sfn|English|1992|p=185}}{{sfn|Newman|1963|p=53}}

Diefenbaker ran on a platform which concentrated on changes in domestic policies. He pledged to work with the provinces to reform the Senate. He proposed a vigorous new agricultural policy, seeking to stabilize income for farmers. He sought to reduce dependence on trade with the United States, and to seek closer ties with the United Kingdom.{{sfn|Newman|1963|p=52}} St. Laurent called the Tory platform "a mere cream-puff of a thing—with more air than substance".{{sfn|Meisel|1962|p=158}} Diefenbaker and the PC party used television adroitly, whereas St. Laurent stated that he was more interested in seeing people than in talking to cameras.{{sfn|Newman|1963|p=54}} Though the Liberals outspent the Progressive Conservatives three to one, according to Newman, their campaign had little imagination, and was based on telling voters that their only real option was to re-elect St. Laurent.{{sfn|Newman|1963|p=53}}

Diefenbaker characterized the Tory program in a nationwide telecast on April 30:

<blockquote>It is a program&nbsp;... for a united Canada, for one Canada, for Canada first, in every aspect of our political and public life, for the welfare of the average man and woman. That is my approach to public affairs and has been throughout my life&nbsp;... A Canada, united from Coast to Coast,<!-- caps in original --> wherein there will be freedom for the individual, freedom of enterprise and where there will be a Government which, in all its actions, will remain the servant and not the master of the people.{{sfn|Meisel|1962|p=286}}</blockquote>

The final Gallup poll before the election showed the Liberals ahead, 48% to 34%.{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=235}} Just before the election, ''[[Maclean's]]'' magazine printed its regular weekly issue, to go on sale the morning after the vote, editorializing that democracy in Canada was still strong despite a sixth consecutive Liberal victory.{{sfn|Newman|1963|pp=57–58}} On election night, the Progressive Conservative advance started early, with the gain of two seats in reliably Liberal [[Newfoundland]].{{sfn|Newman|1963|p=56}} The party picked up nine seats in [[Nova Scotia]], five in Quebec, 28 in Ontario, and at least one seat in every other province. The Progressive Conservatives took 112 seats to the Liberals' 105: a plurality, but not a majority.{{efn|name=1957 seats}} While the Liberals finished some 200,000 votes ahead of the Tories nationally, that margin was mostly wasted in overwhelming victories in safe Quebec seats. St. Laurent could have attempted to form a government, however, with the minor parties pledging to cooperate with the Progressive Conservatives, he would have likely faced a quick defeat at the Commons.{{sfn|Newman|1963|p=58}} St. Laurent instead resigned, making Diefenbaker prime minister.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=238–240}}

== Prime Minister (1957–1963) ==
=== Domestic events and policies ===
==== Minority government ====
[[File:Queen Elizabeth II greeted by Prime Minister John Diefenbaker.jpg|thumb|Diefenbaker greeting Queen Elizabeth II, 1957]]
When John Diefenbaker took office as Prime Minister of Canada on June 21, 1957, only one Progressive Conservative MP, [[William Earl Rowe|Earl Rowe]], had served in federal governmental office, for a brief period under Bennett in 1935. Rowe was no friend of Diefenbaker – he had briefly served as the party's acting leader in-between Drew's resignation and Diefenbaker's election, and did not definitively rule himself out of running to succeed Drew permanently until a relatively late stage, contributing to Diefenbaker's mistrust of him – and was given no place in his government.{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=244}} Diefenbaker appointed [[Ellen Fairclough]] as [[Secretary of State for Canada]], the first woman to be appointed to a Cabinet post, and [[Michael Starr (politician)|Michael Starr]] as [[Minister of Labour (Canada)|Minister of Labour]], the first [[Ukrainian Canadian|Canadian of Ukrainian descent]] to serve in Cabinet.{{sfn|Daniell|1957}}

As [[Centre Block|the Parliament buildings]] had been lent to the [[Universal Postal Union]] for its 14th congress, Diefenbaker was forced to wait until the fall to convene Parliament. However, the Cabinet approved measures that summer, including increased price supports for butter and turkeys, and raises for federal employees.{{sfn|Newman|1963|pp=61–63}} Once the [[23rd Canadian Parliament]] was opened on October 14 by [[Queen Elizabeth II]] – the first to be opened by any [[Canadian monarch]] – the government rapidly passed legislation, including tax cuts and increases in old age pensions. The Liberals were ineffective in opposition, with the party in the midst of a leadership race after St. Laurent's resignation as party leader.{{sfn|Newman|1963|pp=63–65}}

With the Conservatives leading in the polls, Diefenbaker wanted a new election, hopeful that his party would gain a majority of seats. The strong Liberal presence meant that the Governor General could refuse a dissolution request early in a parliament's term and allow them to form government if Diefenbaker resigned.  Diefenbaker sought a pretext for a new election.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=272–273}}

Such an excuse presented itself when former Secretary of State for External Affairs [[Lester Pearson]] attended his first parliamentary session as Leader of the Opposition on January 20, 1958, four days after becoming the Liberal leader. In his first speech as leader, Pearson (recently returned from [[Oslo]] where he had been awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]]), moved an amendment to [[loss of supply|supply]], and called, not for an election, but for the Progressive Conservatives to resign, allowing the Liberals to form a government. Pearson stated that the condition of the economy required "a Government pledged to implement Liberal policies".{{sfn|English|1992|p=200}} Government MPs laughed at Pearson, as did members of the press who were present. Pearson later recorded in his memoirs that he knew that his "first attack on the government had been a failure, indeed a fiasco".{{sfn|English|1992|p=200}} Diefenbaker spoke for two hours and three minutes, and devastated his Liberal opposition. He mocked Pearson, contrasting the party leader's address at the Liberal leadership convention with his speech to the House:

<blockquote>On Thursday there was shrieking defiance, on the following Monday there is shrinking indecision&nbsp;... The only reason that this motion is worded as it is[,] is that my honourable friends opposite quake when they think of what will happen if an election comes&nbsp;... It is the resignation from responsibility of a great party.{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=276}}</blockquote>

Diefenbaker read from an internal report provided to the St. Laurent government in early 1957, warning that a recession was coming, and stated:

<blockquote>Across the way, Mr. Speaker, sit the purveyors of gloom who would endeavour for political purposes, to panic the Canadian people&nbsp;... They had a warning&nbsp;... Did they tell us that? No. Mr. Speaker, why did they not reveal this? Why did they not act when the House was sitting in January, February, March, and April? They had the information&nbsp;... You concealed the facts, that is what you did.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=287–288}}</blockquote>

According to the Minister of Finance, [[Donald Fleming]], "Pearson looked at first merry, then serious, then uncomfortable, then disturbed, and finally sick."{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=276}} Pearson recorded in his memoirs that the Prime Minister "tore me to shreds".{{sfn|English|1992|p=200}} Prominent Liberal frontbencher [[Paul Martin Sr.|Paul Martin]] called Diefenbaker's response "one of the greatest devastating speeches" and "Diefenbaker's great hour".{{sfn|Stursberg|1975|p=88}} On February 1, Diefenbaker asked the Governor General, [[Vincent Massey]], to dissolve Parliament, alleging that though St. Laurent had promised cooperation, Pearson had made it clear he would not follow his predecessor's lead. Massey agreed to the dissolution, and Diefenbaker set an election date of March 31, 1958.{{sfn|Stursberg|1975|p=89}}{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=278}}

==== 1958 election ====
The [[1958 Canadian federal election|1958 election]] campaign saw a huge outpouring of public support for the Progressive Conservatives. At the opening campaign rally in [[Winnipeg]] on February 12 voters filled the hall until the doors had to be closed for safety reasons. They were promptly broken down by the crowd outside.{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=279}} At the rally, Diefenbaker called for "<nowiki>[a]</nowiki> new vision. A new hope. A new soul for Canada."{{sfn|Nash|1990|p=49}} He pledged to open the Canadian North, to seek out its resources and make it a place for settlements.{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=279}} The conclusion to his speech expounded on what became known as "The Vision",

<blockquote>This is the vision: One Canada. One Canada, where Canadians will have preserved to them the control of their own economic and political destiny. Sir [[John A. Macdonald]] saw a Canada from east to west: he opened the west. I see a new Canada—a Canada of the North. This is the vision!{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=280}}</blockquote>

[[Pierre Sévigny (politician)|Pierre Sévigny]], who would be elected an MP in 1958, recalled the gathering, "When he had finished that speech, as he was walking to the door, I saw people kneel and kiss his coat. Not one, but many. People were in tears. People were delirious. And this happened many a time after."{{sfn|Stursberg|1975|p=98}} When Sévigny introduced Diefenbaker to a Montreal rally with the words ''"Levez-vous, levez-vous, saluez votre chef!"'' (Rise, rise, salute your chief!) according to [[Postmaster General of Canada|Postmaster General]] [[William McLean Hamilton|William Hamilton]] "thousands and thousands of people, jammed into that auditorium, just tore the roof off in a frenzy."{{sfn|Stursberg|1975|p=94}} Michael Starr remembered, "That was the most fantastic election&nbsp;... I went into little places. [[Smoky Lake, Alberta]], where nobody ever saw a minister. [[Canora, Saskatchewan]]. Every meeting was jammed&nbsp;... The halls would be filled with people and sitting there in the front would be the first Ukrainian immigrants with shawls and hands gnarled from work&nbsp;... I would switch to Ukrainian and the tears would start to run down their faces&nbsp;... I don't care who says what won the election; it was the emotional aspect that really caught on."{{sfn|Stursberg|1975|p=95}}

Pearson and his Liberals faltered badly in the campaign. The Liberal Party leader tried to make an issue of the fact that Diefenbaker had called a winter election, generally disfavoured in Canada due to travel difficulties. Pearson's objection cut little ice with voters, and served only to remind the electorate that the Liberals, at their convention, had called for an election.{{sfn|English|1992|pp=201–202}} Pearson mocked Diefenbaker's northern plans as "igloo-to-igloo" communications, and was assailed by the Prime Minister for being condescending.{{sfn|English|1992|p=203}} The Liberal leader spoke to small, quiet crowds, which quickly left the halls when he was done.{{sfn|English|1992|pp=201–202}} By election day, Pearson had no illusions that he might win the election, and hoped only to salvage 100 seats. The Liberals would be limited to less than half of that.{{sfn|English|1992|pp=201–202}}

On March 31, 1958, the Tories won what is still the largest majority (in terms of percentage of seats) in Canadian federal political history, winning 208 seats to the Liberals' 48, with the CCF winning 8 and Social Credit wiped out. The Progressive Conservatives won a majority of the votes and of the seats in every province except British Columbia (49.8%) and Newfoundland. Quebec's ''[[Union Nationale (Quebec)|Union Nationale]]'' political machine had given the PC party little support, but with Quebec voters minded to support Diefenbaker, ''Union Nationale'' boss [[Maurice Duplessis]] threw the machinery of his party behind the Tories.{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=282}}

==== Mandate (1958–1962) ====
[[File:John Diefenbaker and Charles de Gaulle 1958.jpg|thumb|Diefenbaker with Charles de Gaulle, 1958]]
An economic downturn was beginning in Canada by 1958. Because of tax cuts instituted the previous year, the government's budget predicted a small deficit for 1957–58 and a large one, $648&nbsp;million, for the following year. Minister of Finance Fleming and [[Bank of Canada]] Governor [[James Elliott Coyne|James Coyne]] proposed that the wartime [[War bond#Canada in World War II|Victory Bond]] issue, which constituted two-thirds of the national debt and which was due to be redeemed by 1967, be refinanced to a longer term. After considerable indecision on Diefenbaker's part, a nationwide campaign took place, and 90% of the bonds were converted. However, this transaction led to an increase in the [[money supply]], which in future years would hamper the government's efforts to respond to unemployment.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=287–289}}

As a trial lawyer, and in opposition, Diefenbaker had long been concerned with civil liberties. On July 1, 1960, [[Canada Day|Dominion Day]], he introduced the ''Canadian Bill of Rights'' in Parliament. The bill rapidly passed and was proclaimed on August 10, fulfilling a lifetime goal of Diefenbaker's, as he had begun drafting it as early as 1936.{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=335}}<ref name="cbc_ca" /> The document purported to guarantee fundamental freedoms, with special attention to the rights of the accused. However, as a mere piece of federal legislation, it could be amended by any other law, and civil liberties were to a large extent a matter of provincial, rather than federal, jurisdiction. One lawyer remarked that the document provided rights for all Canadians, "so long as they don't live in any of the provinces".{{sfn|Bliss|2004|pp=195–196}} Diefenbaker had appointed the first First Nations member of the Senate, [[James Gladstone]],  in January 1958,{{sfn|Newman|1963|p=101}} and in 1960, his government extended voting rights to all native people.{{sfn|Smith|2016}} In 1962, Diefenbaker's government eliminated race discrimination clauses in immigration laws.<ref>{{cite web |last1=McIntyre |first1=Tony |title=Visible majorities: History of Canadian immigration policy |url=http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/magazine/jf01/culture_acts.asp |access-date=October 27, 2021 |date=2001|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706171050/http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/magazine/jf01/culture_acts.asp |archive-date=July 6, 2011}}</ref>

Diefenbaker pursued a "One Canada" policy, seeking equality of all Canadians. As part of that philosophy, he was unwilling to make special concessions to Quebec's francophones. Thomas Van Dusen, who served as Diefenbaker's executive assistant and wrote a book about him, characterized the leader's views on this issue:

<blockquote>There must be no compromise with Canada's existence as a nation. Opting out, two flags, two pension plans, associated states, Two Nations and all the other baggage of political dualism was ushering Quebec out of Confederation on the instalment plan. He could not accept any theory of two nations, however worded, because it would make of those neither French nor English second-class citizens.{{sfn|Van Dusen|1968|p=79}}</blockquote>

Diefenbaker's disinclination to make concessions to Quebec, along with the disintegration of the ''Union Nationale'', the failure of the Tories to build an effective structure in Quebec, and Diefenbaker appointing few Quebeckers to his Cabinet (and none to senior positions), all led to an erosion of Progressive Conservative support in Quebec.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=284, 367, 414}} Diefenbaker did recommend the appointment of the first French-Canadian governor general, [[Georges Vanier]].{{sfn|Smith|2016}}

[[File:diefendollars.jpeg|thumb|Three "Diefendollars", used to mock Diefenbaker during the 1962 campaign.]]

By mid-1961, differences in [[monetary policy]] led to open conflict with Bank of Canada Governor Coyne, who adhered to a tight money policy. Appointed by St. Laurent to a term expiring in December 1961, Coyne could only be dismissed before then by the passing of an Act of Parliament.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=393–394}} Coyne defended his position by giving public speeches, to the dismay of the government.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=397–399}} The Cabinet was also angered when it learned that Coyne and his board had passed amendments to the bank's pension scheme which greatly increased Coyne's pension, without publishing the amendments in the ''[[Canada Gazette]]'' as required by law. Negotiations between Minister of Finance Fleming and Coyne for the latter's resignation broke down, with the governor making the dispute public, and Diefenbaker sought to dismiss Coyne by legislation.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=400–406}} Diefenbaker was able to get legislation to dismiss Coyne through the House, but the Liberal-controlled Senate invited Coyne to testify before one of its committees. After giving the governor a platform against the government, the committee then chose to take no further action, adding its view that Coyne had done nothing wrong. Once he had the opportunity to testify (denied him in the Commons), Coyne resigned, keeping his increased pension, and the government was extensively criticized in the press.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=412–413}}

By the time Diefenbaker called an [[1962 Canadian federal election|election for June 18, 1962]], the party had been damaged by loss of support in Quebec and in urban areas{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=442}} as voters grew disillusioned with Diefenbaker and the Tories. The PC campaign was hurt when the Bank of Canada was forced to devalue the [[Canadian dollar]] to {{frac|92|1|2}}&nbsp;US cents; it had previously hovered in the range from 95&nbsp;cents to par with the United States dollar. Privately printed satirical "Diefenbucks" swept the country.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=437–439}} On election day, the Progressive Conservatives lost 92 seats, but were still able to form a minority government. The New Democratic Party (the successor to the CCF) and Social Credit held the balance of power in the new Parliament.{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=442}}

=== Foreign policy ===
==== Britain and the Commonwealth ====
[[File:Queen Elizabeth II and the Prime Ministers of the Commonwealth Nations, at Windsor Castle (1960 Commonwealth Prime Minister's Conference).jpg|thumb|alt=A number of older men in formal dress surround a young woman with a white gown.|Diefenbaker stands to the right of Queen [[Elizabeth II]] at the 1960 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference.]]

Diefenbaker attended a [[1957 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference|meeting of the Commonwealth Prime Ministers]] in London shortly after taking office in 1957. He generated headlines by proposing that 15% of Canadian spending on US imports instead be spent on imports from the United Kingdom.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=251–53}} Britain responded with an offer of a free trade agreement, which was rejected by the Canadians.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=255–56}} As the [[Harold Macmillan]] government in the UK sought to enter the [[Common Market]], Diefenbaker feared that Canadian exports to the UK would be threatened. He also believed that the mother country should place the Commonwealth first, and sought to discourage Britain's entry. The British were annoyed at Canadian interference. Britain's initial attempt to enter the Common Market was vetoed by French President [[Charles de Gaulle]].{{sfn|Newman|1963|pp=272–274}}

Through 1959, the Diefenbaker government had a policy of not criticizing South Africa and its [[apartheid]] government.{{sfn|Gabriel|1987|p=53}} In this stance, Diefenbaker had the support of the Liberals but not that of CCF leader [[Hazen Argue]].{{sfn|Gabriel|1987|pp=56–57}} In 1960, however, the South Africans sought to maintain membership in the Commonwealth even if South African white voters chose to make the country a republic in a [[1960 South African republic referendum|referendum scheduled for later that year]]. South Africa asked that year's [[1960 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference|Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference]] to allow it to remain in the Commonwealth regardless of the result of the referendum. Diefenbaker privately expressed his distaste for apartheid to South African External Affairs Minister [[Eric Louw]] and urged him to give the black and coloured people of South Africa at least the minimal representation they had originally had. Louw, attending the conference as Prime Minister [[Hendrik Verwoerd]] recovered from an assassination attempt, refused.{{sfn|Gabriel|1987|pp=58–63}} The conference resolved that an advance decision would be interfering in South Africa's internal affairs.{{sfn|Diefenbaker|1976|pp=211–212}}

On October 5, 1960, South Africa's white voters decided to make the country a republic.{{sfn|Gabriel|1987|p=66}} At the [[1961 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference|Prime Ministers' Conference]] in 1961, Verwoerd formally applied for South Africa to remain in the Commonwealth. The prime ministers were divided; Diefenbaker broke the deadlock by proposing that South Africa only be re-admitted if it joined other states in condemning apartheid in principle. Once it became clear that South Africa's membership would be rejected, Verwoerd withdrew his country's application to remain in the Commonwealth and left the group. According to Peter Newman, this was "Diefenbaker's most important contribution to international politics&nbsp;... Diefenbaker flew home, a hero."{{sfn|Newman|1963|p=258}}

==== Policy towards the United States ====

===== Ike and John: the Eisenhower years =====
[[File:John Diefenbaker and Dwight Eisenhower at signing of Columbia River Treaty (January 1961).jpg|thumb|left|alt=Diefenbaker and a Dwight Eisenhower sit at a table. Two women and three men stand behind them.|Diefenbaker (seated left) and US President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] at the signing of the Columbia River Treaty, 1961.]]

American officials were uncomfortable with Diefenbaker's initial election, believing they had heard undertones of anti-Americanism in the campaign. After years of the Liberals, one U.S. [[State Department]] official noted, "We'll be dealing with an unknown quantity."{{sfn|Nash|1990|p=46}} U.S. officials viewed Diefenbaker's 1958 landslide with disappointment; they knew and liked Pearson from his years in diplomacy and felt the Liberal Party leader would be more likely to institute pro-American policies.{{sfn|Nash|1990|p=50}} However, U.S. President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] took pains to foster good relations with Diefenbaker. The two men found much in common, from Western farm backgrounds to a love of fishing, and Diefenbaker had an admiration for war leaders such as Eisenhower and [[Churchill]].{{sfn|Nash|1990|pp=54–55}} Diefenbaker wrote in his memoirs, "I might add that President Eisenhower and I were from our first meeting on an 'Ike–John' basis, and that we were as close as the nearest telephone."{{sfn|Diefenbaker|1976|p=157}} The Eisenhower–Diefenbaker relationship was sufficiently strong that the touchy Canadian Prime Minister was prepared to overlook slights. When Eisenhower addressed Parliament in October 1958, he downplayed trade concerns that Diefenbaker had publicly expressed. Diefenbaker said nothing and took Eisenhower fishing.{{sfn|Nash|1990|pp=56–57}}

Diefenbaker had approved plans to join the United States in what became known as [[NORAD]], an integrated air defence system, in mid-1957.{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=292}} Despite Liberal misgivings that Diefenbaker had committed Canada to the system before consulting either the Cabinet or Parliament, Pearson and his followers voted with the government to approve NORAD in June 1958.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=295–296}}

===== Avro CF-105 Arrow jet fighter affair ===== 

In 1959, the Diefenbaker government cancelled the development and manufacture of the [[Avro CF-105 Arrow]]. The Arrow was a supersonic jet interceptor built by [[Avro Canada]] in [[Malton, Ontario]], to defend Canada in the event of a [[Soviet]] attack. The interceptor had been under development since 1953, and had suffered from many cost overruns and complications.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=307–308}} In 1955, the [[RCAF]] stated it would need only nine squadrons of Arrows, down from 20, as originally proposed.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=307–308}} According to [[C. D. Howe]], the former minister responsible for postwar reconstruction, the St. Laurent government had serious misgivings about continuing the Arrow program, and planned to discuss its termination after the 1957 election.{{sfn|Stewart|1991|pp=254–255}} In the run-up to the 1958 election, with three Tory-held seats at risk in the Malton area, the Diefenbaker government authorized further funding.{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=309}} Even though the first test flights of the Arrow were successful, the US government was unwilling to commit to a purchase of aircraft from Canada.{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=310}} In September 1958, Diefenbaker warned{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=316}} that the Arrow would come under complete review in six months.{{sfn|Stewart|1991|pp=244–245}} The company began seeking out other projects including a US-funded "saucer" program that became the [[VZ-9 Avrocar]], and also mounted a public relations offensive urging that the Arrow go into full production.{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=317}} On February 20, 1959, the Cabinet decided to cancel the Avro Arrow, following an earlier decision to permit the United States to build two [[Bomarc]] missile bases in Canada. The Avro company immediately dismissed its 14,000 employees, blaming Diefenbaker for the firings, though it rehired 2,500 employees to fulfill existing obligations.{{efn|name=Avro jobs}}

Although Diefenbaker and Eisenhower had a strong relationship, by 1960 U.S. officials were becoming concerned by what they viewed as Canadian procrastination on vital issues, such as whether Canada should join the [[Organization of American States]] (OAS). Talks on these issues in June 1960 produced little in results.{{sfn|Nash|1990|pp=56–57}} Diefenbaker hoped that U.S. Vice President [[Richard Nixon]] would win the [[1960 United States presidential election|1960 presidential election]], but when Nixon's Democratic opponent, Senator [[John F. Kennedy]], won the race, he sent Kennedy a note of congratulations. Kennedy did not respond until Canadian officials asked what had become of Diefenbaker's note, two weeks later. Diefenbaker, for whom such correspondence was very meaningful, was annoyed <!-- suggest "aggravated" or "vexed" as more direct -->at the [[President-elect of the United States|President-elect]]'s slowness to respond.{{sfn|Nash|1990|pp=59–61}} In January 1961, Diefenbaker visited Washington to sign the [[Columbia River Treaty]]. However, with only days remaining in the Eisenhower administration, little else could be accomplished.{{sfn|Nash|1990|pp=61–62}}

===== Bilateral antipathy: the Kennedy administration =====
[[File:John Diefenbaker at the US Naval base at Argentia, Newfoundland (17 May 1962).jpg|thumb|alt=Diefenbaker, wearing a coat over his suit, shakes hands with a smiling man. Two other men are in the background.|Diefenbaker (front right) at the US Naval base in Argentia, Newfoundland, during the 1962 campaign.]]

Kennedy and Diefenbaker started off well, but matters soon worsened. When the two met in Washington on February 20, Kennedy impressed Diefenbaker, and the Prime Minister invited Kennedy to visit Ottawa.<ref>Asa McKercher, "Diefenbaker's World: One Canada and the History of Canadian–American Relations, 1961–63." ''The Historian'' 75.1 (2013): 94–120, at pp. 99–100.</ref>  Kennedy, however, told his aides that he never wanted "to see the boring son of a bitch again".{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=382}} The Ottawa visit began awkwardly. Kennedy accidentally left behind a briefing note suggesting he "push" Diefenbaker on several issues, including the decision to accept nuclear weapons on Canadian soil, which bitterly divided the Canadian Cabinet. Diefenbaker was also annoyed by Kennedy's speech to Parliament, in which he urged Canada to join the OAS (which Diefenbaker had already rejected),{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=385–388}} and by the President spending most of his time talking to Leader of the Opposition Pearson at the formal dinner.{{sfn|Nash|1990|pp=126–128}}{{sfn|''Montreal Gazette'' 1979-08-17, Obituary}} Both Kennedy and [[Jacqueline Kennedy|his wife Jackie]] were bored by Diefenbaker's Churchill anecdotes at lunch, stories that Jackie Kennedy later described as "painful".{{sfn|Druzin|2011}}

Diefenbaker was initially inclined to go along with Kennedy's request that nuclear weapons be stationed on Canadian soil as part of NORAD. However, when an August 3, 1961, letter from Kennedy which urged this was leaked to the media, Diefenbaker was angered and withdrew his support. The Prime Minister was also influenced by a massive [[Anti-nuclear movement in Canada|demonstration against nuclear weapons]], which took place on [[Parliament Hill]]. Diefenbaker was handed a petition containing 142,000 names.{{sfn|Nash|1990|pp=139–141}}

By 1962, the American government was becoming increasingly concerned at the lack of a commitment from Canada to take nuclear weapons. The interceptors and Bomarc missiles with which Canada was being supplied as a NORAD member were either of no use or of greatly diminished utility without nuclear devices.{{sfn|Nash|1990|p=144}} Canadian and American military officers launched a quiet campaign to make this known to the press, and to advocate Canadian agreement to acquire the warheads.{{sfn|Nash|1990|pp=144–146}} Diefenbaker was also upset when Pearson was invited to the White House for a dinner for Nobel Prize winners in April, and met with the President privately for 40 minutes.{{sfn|Nash|1990|pp=156–158}} When the Prime Minister met with retiring American Ambassador [[Livingston Merchant]], he angrily disclosed the paper Kennedy had left behind, and hinted that he might make use of it in the upcoming election campaign.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=433–435}} Merchant's report caused consternation in Washington, and the ambassador was sent back to see Diefenbaker again. This time, he found Diefenbaker calm, and the Prime Minister pledged not to use the memo, and to give Merchant advance word if he changed his mind.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=435–436}} Canada appointed a new [[Embassy of Canada in Washington, D.C.|ambassador to Washington]], [[Charles Ritchie (diplomat)|Charles Ritchie]], who on arrival received a cool reception from Kennedy, and found that the squabble was affecting progress on a number of issues.{{sfn|Nash|1990|pp=162–164}}

Kennedy was careful to avoid overt favouritism during the [[1962 Canadian election]] campaign. Several times during the campaign, Diefenbaker stated that the Kennedy administration desired his defeat because he refused to "bow down to Washington."{{sfn|Nash|1990|pp=167–168}} After Diefenbaker was returned with a minority, Washington continued to press for acceptance of nuclear arms, but Diefenbaker, faced with a split between Defence Minister [[Douglas Harkness]] and External Affairs Minister [[Howard Charles Green|Howard Green]] on the question, continued to stall, hoping that time and events would invite consensus.{{sfn|Nash|1990|pp=176–177}}

When the [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] erupted in October 1962, Kennedy chose not to consult with Diefenbaker before deciding on what actions to take. The President sent former Ambassador Merchant to Ottawa to inform the Prime Minister as to the content of the speech that Kennedy was to make on television. Diefenbaker was upset at both the lack of consultation and the fact that he was given less than two hours advance word.{{sfn|Nash|1990|pp=180–184}} He was angered again when the U.S. government released a statement stating that it had Canada's full support.{{sfn|Nash|1990|pp=189–190}} In a statement to the Commons, Diefenbaker proposed sending representatives of neutral nations to Cuba to verify the American allegations, which Washington took to mean that he was questioning Kennedy's word.{{sfn|Nash|1990|pp=188–189}} When American forces went to a heightened alert, [[DEFCON]] 3, Diefenbaker was slow to order Canadian forces to match it. Harkness and the Chiefs of Staff had Canadian forces clandestinely go to that alert status anyway,{{sfn|Nash|1990|p=194}} and Diefenbaker eventually authorized it.{{sfn|Nash|1990|p=200}} The crisis ended without war, and polls found that Canadians widely supported Kennedy's actions. Diefenbaker was severely criticized in the media.{{sfn|Nash|1990|pp=203–204}}

=== Downfall ===
[[File:Diefenbaker button.jpg|thumb|upright|alt= Button, "Keep the Chief"|Button urging Diefenbaker's re-election]]

On January 3, 1963, [[Supreme Allied Commander Europe|NATO Supreme Commander]] General [[Lauris Norstad]] visited Ottawa, in one of a series of visits to member nations prior to his retirement. At a news conference, Norstad stated that if Canada did not accept nuclear weapons, it would not be fulfilling its commitments to NATO. Newspapers across Canada criticized Diefenbaker, who was convinced the statement was part of a plot by Kennedy to bring down his government.{{sfn|Nash|1990|pp=223–225}} Although the Liberals had been previously indecisive on the question of nuclear weapons, on January 12, Pearson made a speech stating that the government should live up to its commitments.{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=469}}

With the Cabinet still divided between adherents of Green and Harkness, Diefenbaker made a speech in the Commons on January 25 that Fleming (by then [[Minister of Justice (Canada)|Minister of Justice]]) termed "a model of obfuscation."{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=471–472}} Harkness was initially convinced that Diefenbaker was saying that he would support nuclear warheads in Canada. After talking to the press, he realized that his view of the speech was not universally shared, and he asked Diefenbaker for clarification. Diefenbaker, however, continued to try to avoid taking a firm position.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=471–472}} On January 30, the U.S. State Department issued a press release suggesting that Diefenbaker had made misstatements in his Commons speech. For the first time ever, Canada recalled its ambassador to Washington as a diplomatic protest.{{sfn|Nash|1990|p=245}} Though all parties condemned the State Department action, the three parties outside the government demanded that Diefenbaker take a stand on the nuclear weapon issue.{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=475}}

The bitter divisions within the Cabinet continued, with Diefenbaker deliberating whether to call an election on the issue of American interference in Canadian politics. At least six Cabinet ministers favoured Diefenbaker's ouster. Finally, at a dramatic Cabinet meeting on Sunday, February 3, Harkness told Diefenbaker that the Prime Minister no longer had the confidence of the Canadian people, and resigned. Diefenbaker asked ministers supporting him to stand, and when only about half did, stated that he was going to see the Governor General to resign, and that Fleming would be the next Prime Minister. Green called his Cabinet colleagues a "nest of traitors," but eventually cooler heads prevailed, and Diefenbaker was urged to return and to fight the [[motion of non-confidence]] scheduled for the following day. Harkness, however, persisted in his resignation.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=478–479}} Negotiations with the [[Social Credit Party of Canada|Social Credit Party]], which had enough votes to save the government, failed, and the government fell, 142–111.{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=485}}

Two members of the government resigned the day after the government lost the vote.{{sfn|Stursberg|1976|p=80}} As the campaign opened, the Tories trailed in the polls by 15 points. To Pearson and his Liberals, the only question was how large a majority they would win.{{sfn|Nash|1990|p=273}} Peter Stursberg, who wrote two books about the Diefenbaker years, stated of that campaign:

<blockquote>For the old Diefenbaker was in full cry. All the agony of the disintegration of his government was gone, and he seemed to be a giant revived by his contact with the people. This was Diefenbaker's finest election. He was virtually alone on the hustings. Even such loyalists as [[Gordon Churchill]] had to stick close to their own bailiwicks, where they were fighting for their political lives.{{sfn|Stursberg|1976|p=89}}</blockquote>

Though the White House maintained public neutrality, Kennedy privately made it clear he desired a Liberal victory,{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=504}} and lent Lou Harris, his pollster to work for the Liberals again.{{sfn|Stursberg|1976|p=94}} On [[1963 Canadian federal election|election day]], April 8, 1963, the Liberals claimed 129 seats to the Tories' 95, five seats short of an absolute majority. Diefenbaker held to power for several days, until six [[Ralliement créditiste#Ralliement des créditistes du Canada|Quebec Social Credit]] MPs signed a statement that Pearson should form the government. These votes would be enough to give Pearson support of a majority of the House of Commons, and Diefenbaker resigned. The six MPs repudiated the statement within days. Nonetheless, Pearson formed a government with the support of the NDP.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=509–510}}

== Later years (1963–1979) ==
=== Return to opposition ===
Diefenbaker continued to lead the Progressive Conservatives, again as Leader of the Opposition. In November 1963, upon hearing of [[Kennedy's assassination]], the Tory leader addressed the Commons, stating, "A beacon of freedom has gone. Whatever the disagreement, to me he stood as the embodiment of freedom, not only in his own country, but throughout the world."{{sfn|Nash|1990|p=314}} In the 1964 [[Great Canadian Flag Debate]], Diefenbaker led the unsuccessful opposition to the [[Maple Leaf flag]], which the Liberals pushed for after the rejection of Pearson's preferred design showing three maple leaves. Diefenbaker preferred the existing [[Canadian Red Ensign]] or another design showing symbols of the nation's heritage.{{sfn|Diefenbaker|1977|p=223}} He dismissed the adopted design, with a single red maple leaf and two red bars, as "a flag that Peruvians might salute", a reference to [[Flag of Peru|Peru's red-white-red tricolour]].{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=522–524}} At the request of Quebec Tory [[Léon Balcer]], who feared devastating PC losses in the province at the next election, Pearson imposed closure, and the bill passed with the majority singing "[[O Canada]]" as Diefenbaker led the dissenters in "[[God Save the Queen]]".{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=522–524}}

In 1966, the Liberals began to make an issue of the [[Gerda Munsinger|Munsinger affair]]—two officials of the Diefenbaker government had slept with a woman suspected of being a Soviet spy. In what Diefenbaker saw as a partisan attack,{{sfn|Diefenbaker|1977|p=272}} Pearson established a one-man [[Royal Commission]], which, according to Diefenbaker biographer Smith, indulged in "three months of reckless political inquisition". By the time the commission issued its report, Diefenbaker and other former ministers had long since withdrawn their counsel from the proceedings. The report faulted Diefenbaker for not dismissing the ministers in question, but found no actual security breach.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=539–541}}

There were calls for Diefenbaker's retirement, especially from the [[Bay Street]] wing of the party as early as 1964. Diefenbaker initially beat back attempts to remove him without trouble.{{sfn|Van Dusen|1968|pp=61–62}} When Pearson called [[1965 Canadian federal election|an election in 1965]] in the expectation of receiving a majority, Diefenbaker ran an aggressive campaign. The Liberals fell two seats short of a majority, and the Tories improved their position slightly at the expense of the smaller parties.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=534–536}} After the election, some Tories, led by party president [[Dalton Camp]], began a quiet campaign to oust Diefenbaker.{{sfn|Smith|2016}}

In the absence of a formal [[leadership review]] process, Camp was able to stage a de facto review by running for re-election as party president on the platform of holding a leadership convention within a year. His campaign at the Tories' 1966 convention occurred amidst allegations of vote rigging, violence, and seating arrangements designed to ensure that when Diefenbaker addressed the delegates, television viewers would see unmoved delegates in the first ten rows. Other Camp supporters tried to shout Diefenbaker down. Camp was successful in being re-elected thereby forcing [[Progressive Conservative leadership convention, 1967|a leadership convention for 1967]].{{sfn|Stursberg|1976|pp=171–176}} Diefenbaker initially made no announcement as to whether he would stand, but angered by a resolution at the party's policy conference which spoke of ''"deux nations"'' or "two founding peoples" (as opposed to Diefenbaker's "One Canada"), decided to seek to retain his leadership.{{sfn|Smith|2016}} Although Diefenbaker entered at the last minute to stand as a candidate for the leadership, he finished fifth on each of the first three ballots, and withdrew from the contest, which was won by Nova Scotia Premier [[Robert Stanfield]].{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=558–559}}

Diefenbaker addressed the delegates before Stanfield spoke:

<blockquote>My course has come to an end. I have fought your battles, and you have given me that loyalty that led us to victory more often than the party has ever had since the days of Sir John A. Macdonald. In my retiring, I have nothing to withdraw in my desire to see Canada, my country and your country, one nation.{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=559}}</blockquote>

=== Final years and death ===
Diefenbaker was embittered by his loss of the party leadership. Pearson announced his retirement in December 1967, and Diefenbaker forged a wary relationship of mutual respect with Pearson's successor, [[Pierre Trudeau]]. Trudeau called [[1968 Canadian federal election|a general election for June 1968]]; Stanfield asked Diefenbaker to join him at a rally in Saskatoon, which Diefenbaker refused, although the two appeared at hastily arranged photo opportunities. Trudeau obtained the majority against Stanfield that Pearson had never been able to obtain against Diefenbaker, as the PC party lost 25 seats, 20 of them in the West. The former prime minister, though stating, "The Conservative Party has suffered a calamitous disaster" in a [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]] interview, could not conceal his delight at Stanfield's humiliation, and especially gloated at the defeat of Camp, who made an unsuccessful attempt to enter the Commons.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=559–563}} Diefenbaker was easily returned for Prince Albert.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=559–563}}

Although Stanfield worked to try to unify the party, Diefenbaker and his loyalists proved difficult to reconcile. The division in the party broke out in well-publicised dissensions, as when Diefenbaker called on Progressive Conservative MPs to break with Stanfield's position on [[Official Languages Act (Canada)|the Official Languages bill]], and nearly half the caucus voted against their leader's will or abstained.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=563–564}} In addition to his parliamentary activities, Diefenbaker travelled extensively and began work on his memoirs, which were published in three volumes between 1975 and 1977. Pearson died of cancer in 1972, and Diefenbaker was asked if he had kind words for his old rival. Diefenbaker shook his head and said only, "He shouldn't have won the Nobel Prize."{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=565–567}}

By 1972, Diefenbaker had grown disillusioned with Trudeau, and campaigned wholeheartedly for the Tories in [[1972 Canadian federal election|that year's election]]. Diefenbaker was re-elected comfortably in his home riding, and the Progressive Conservatives came within two seats of matching the Liberal total. Diefenbaker was relieved both that Trudeau had been humbled and that Stanfield had been denied power. Trudeau regained his majority two years later in [[1974 Canadian federal election|an election]] that saw Diefenbaker, by then the only living former prime minister, have his personal majority grow to 11,000 votes.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=567–568}}

Diefenbaker served as [[Chancellor (education)|chancellor]] of the University of Saskatchewan from 1969 to his death in August 1979, a year into his fourth term.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chancellors - University Library |url=https://library.usask.ca/uasc/campus-history/chancellors.php |access-date=September 9, 2025 |website=University of Saskatchewan Library |language=en}}</ref> In the [[1976 New Year Honours]], Diefenbaker was created a [[Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour]], an honour bestowed as the personal gift of the Sovereign.{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=568}} After a long illness, Olive Diefenbaker died on December 22, a loss which plunged Diefenbaker into despair.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=570–571}}

[[Joe Clark]] [[Progressive Conservative leadership convention, 1976|succeeded Stanfield as party leader in 1976]], but as Clark had supported the leadership review, Diefenbaker held a grudge against him.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=571–574}} Diefenbaker had supported [[Claude Wagner]] for leader, but when Clark won, stated that Clark would make "a remarkable leader of this party".{{sfn|Stursberg|1976|pp=200–201}} However, Diefenbaker repeatedly criticized his party leader, to such an extent that Stanfield publicly asked Diefenbaker "to stop sticking a knife into Mr. Clark"—a request Diefenbaker did not agree to.{{sfn|''The Canadian Press'' 1977-09-23}} According to columnist [[Charles Lynch (journalist)|Charles Lynch]], Diefenbaker regarded Clark as an upstart and a pipsqueak.{{sfn|Lynch|1977}}

[[File:Diefengrave.jpg|left|thumb|alt=A grave marked by an angled slab of marble engraved with the names of Diefenbaker and his wife and surrounded by plantings of small marigolds, and an additional plaque in bronze. Beyond it a lawn stretches away.|The Diefenbaker grave, close by the [[Diefenbaker Centre]]]]

In 1978, Diefenbaker announced that he would stand in one more election, and under the slogan "Diefenbaker—Now More Than Ever", weathered a campaign the following year during which he apparently suffered a mild stroke, although the media were told he was bedridden with influenza. In [[1979 Canadian federal election|the May election]] Diefenbaker defeated NDP candidate [[Stan Hovdebo]] (who, after Diefenbaker's death, would win the seat in a by-election) by 4,000 votes. Clark had defeated Trudeau, though only gaining a minority government, and Diefenbaker returned to Ottawa to witness the swearing-in, still unreconciled to his old opponents among Clark's ministers. Two months later, Diefenbaker died of a heart attack in his study at age 83.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=571–574}}

Diefenbaker had extensively planned his funeral in consultation with government officials. He [[lay in state]] in the [[Hall of Honour]] in Parliament for two and a half days; 10,000 Canadians passed by his casket. The Maple Leaf Flag on the casket was partially obscured by the [[Canadian Red Ensign|Red Ensign]].{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=575–577}}{{sfn|Archbold|2002|p=147}} After the service, his body was taken by train on a slow journey to its final destination, Saskatoon; along the route, many Canadians lined the tracks to watch the funeral train pass. In Winnipeg, an estimated 10,000 people waited at midnight in a one-kilometre line to file past the casket which made the trip draped in a Canadian flag and Diefenbaker's beloved Red Ensign.{{sfn|''CBC Digital Archives'', Farewell Dief}} In Prince Albert, thousands of those he had represented filled the square in front of the railroad station to salute the only man from Saskatchewan ever to become prime minister. His coffin was accompanied by that of his wife Olive, disinterred from temporary burial in Ottawa. Prime Minister Clark delivered the eulogy, paying tribute to "an indomitable man, born to a minority group, raised in a minority region, leader of a minority party, who went on to change the very nature of his country, and change it forever".{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=575–577}} John and Olive Diefenbaker rest outside the [[Diefenbaker Centre]], built to house his papers, on the campus of the University of Saskatchewan.{{sfn|Smith|1995|pp=575–577}}{{sfn|''Parks Canada'', Historic Sites}}

== Legacy ==
[[File:John Diefenbaker Statue.jpg|[[Leo Mol]]'s statue of John Diefenbaker on Parliament Hill, Ottawa|thumb|upright|alt=Bronze statue of Diefenbaker, taken from one side. He is depicted wearing an overcoat over a suit. He carries the Bill of Rights under his arm.]] <!-- Please keep on right side of page -->

Some of Diefenbaker's policies did not survive the 16 years of Liberal government that followed his fall. This was especially true in the realm of foreign affairs: "By the time Diefenbaker left office," according to Canadian historian [[Robert Bothwell]], "his conduct of foreign policy was reviled by an important and growing number of Canadians, while his relations with both the Americans and the British were disastrous."<ref>Robert Bothwell, ''Alliance and Illusion: Canada and the World 1945–1984'' (2007) p. 135.</ref> By the end of 1963, the first of the Bomarc warheads entered Canada, where they remained until the last were finally phased out during [[John Turner]]'s brief government in 1984.{{sfn|Nash|1990|p=310}} Diefenbaker's decision to have Canada remain outside the [[Organization of American States|OAS]] was not reversed by Pearson, and it was not until 1989, under the Tory government of [[Brian Mulroney]], that Canada joined.{{sfn|Nash|1990|p=114}}

Historian [[Conrad Black]] writes that Diefenbaker:

<blockquote>was not a successful prime minister; he was a jumble of attitudes but had little in the way of policy, was a disorganized administrator, and was inconsistent, indecisive, and not infrequently irrational. But he was very formidable; a deadly campaigner, an idiosyncratic but often galvanizing public speaker, a brilliant parliamentarian, and a man of many fine qualities. He was absolutely honest financially, a passionate supporter of the average and the underprivileged and disadvantaged person, a fierce opponent of any racial or religious or socioeconomic discrimination&nbsp;...<ref>Conrad Black, ''Rise to Greatness: A History of Canada from the Vikings to the Present'' (2014) 819–20.</ref></blockquote>

However, some defining features of modern Canada can be traced back to Diefenbaker. Diefenbaker's Bill of Rights remains in effect, and signaled the change in Canadian political culture that would eventually bring about the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]], which came into force after his death.{{sfn|Smith|2016}} Canadian philosopher [[George Grant (philosopher)|George Grant]] saw Diefenbaker's career as emblematic of the broader trajectory of Canadian national identity:

<blockquote>Diefenbaker's confusions and inconsistencies are to be seen as essential to the Canadian fate. His administration was not an aberration from which Canada will recover under the sensible rule of the established classes. It was a bewildered attempt to find policies that were adequate to its noble cause. The 1957 election was the Canadian people's last gasp of nationalism. Diefenbaker's government was the strident swansong of that hope.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Grant |first1=George Parkin |title=Lament for a nation: the defeat of Canadian nationalism |last2=Potter |first2=Andrew |date=2005 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |isbn=978-0-7735-3010-2 |edition=40. anniversary |series=Carleton library series |location=Montréal Ithaca |pages=6–7}}</ref></blockquote>

Diefenbaker has had several locations named in his honour, some before his 1979 death (particularly in his home province of Saskatchewan, including [[Lake Diefenbaker]], the largest lake in Southern Saskatchewan, and the [[Diefenbaker Bridge]] in Prince Albert), others after (in 1993, Saskatoon renamed its airport the [[Saskatoon John G. Diefenbaker International Airport]]). The city of Prince Albert continues to maintain the house he resided in from 1947 to 1975 as a public museum known as [[Diefenbaker House]]; it was designated a [[National Historic Sites of Canada|National Historic Site]] in 2018.<ref>[https://www.canada.ca/en/parks-canada/news/2018/01/government_of_canadaannouncesnewnationalhistoricdesignations.html Government of Canada Announces New National Historic Designations] ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181124195524/https://www.canada.ca/en/parks-canada/news/2018/01/government_of_canadaannouncesnewnationalhistoricdesignations.html |date=November 24, 2018}}), Parks Canada news release, January 12, 2018.</ref>

Diefenbaker reinvigorated a moribund party system in Canada. Clark and Mulroney, two men who, as students, worked on and were inspired by his 1957 triumph, became the only other Progressive Conservatives to lead the party to election triumphs.{{efn|name=Kim Campbell}}{{sfn|Smith|1995|p=568}} Diefenbaker's biographer, Denis Smith, wrote of him, "In politics he had little more than two years of success in the midst of failure and frustration, but he retained a core of deeply committed loyalists to the end of his life and beyond. The federal Conservative Party that he had revived remained dominant in the prairie provinces for 25 years after he left the leadership."{{sfn|Smith|2016}} The [[Harper government]], believing that Tory prime ministers have been given short shrift in the naming of Canadian places and institutions, named the former Ottawa City Hall, now a federal office building, the [[John G. Diefenbaker Building]]. It also gave Diefenbaker's name to a human rights award and [[CCGS John G. Diefenbaker|an icebreaking vessel]]. [[Stephen Harper|Harper]] often invoked Diefenbaker's northern vision in his speeches.{{sfn|Cheadle|2011}}

Conservative Senator [[Marjory LeBreton]] worked in Diefenbaker's office during his second time as Opposition Leader, and has said of him, "He brought a lot of firsts to Canada, but a lot of it has been air-brushed from history by those who followed."{{sfn|Cobb|2011}} Historian [[Michael Bliss]], who published a survey of the Canadian Prime Ministers, wrote of Diefenbaker:

<blockquote>From the distance of our times, Diefenbaker's role as a prairie populist who tried to revolutionize the Conservative Party begins to loom larger than his personal idiosyncrasies. The difficulties he faced in the form of significant historical dilemmas seem less easy to resolve than Liberals and hostile journalists opined at the time. If Diefenbaker defies rehabilitation, he can at least be appreciated. He stood for a fascinating and still relevant combination of individual and egalitarian values&nbsp;... But his contemporaries were also right in seeing some kind of disorder near the centre of his personality and his prime-ministership. The problems of leadership, authority, power, ego, and a mad time in history overwhelmed the prairie politician with the odd name.{{sfn|Bliss|2004|p=186}}</blockquote>

== Honorary degrees ==
Diefenbaker received several [[honorary degrees]] in recognition of his political career:

{| class="wikitable"
! Location
! Date
! University
! Degree
|-
| [[Ontario]] || October 1952 || [[McMaster University]] || [[Doctor of Laws]] (LL.D)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mcmaster.ca/univsec/reports_lists/S_HD_Recipients.pdf|title=University Secretariat|access-date=May 21, 2018|archive-date=October 18, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018150541/http://www.mcmaster.ca/univsec/reports_lists/S_HD_Recipients.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| [[Nova Scotia]] || 1956 || [[Acadia University]] || [[Doctor of Civil Law]] (DCL)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www2.acadiau.ca/alumni-friends/alumni/awards/honorary-degrees.html|title=Honorary Degrees – Acadia University|website=www2.acadiau.ca|access-date=May 21, 2018|archive-date=April 29, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429092534/https://www2.acadiau.ca/alumni-friends/alumni/awards/honorary-degrees.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| [[Quebec]] || October 7, 1957 || [[McGill University]] || Doctor of Laws (LL.D)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mcgill.ca/senate/files/senate/list_of_mcgill_honorary_degree_recipients_from_1935_to_october_2019.pdf |title=List of McGill Honorary Degree Recipients from 1935 to October 2019 |access-date=July 11, 2021 |archive-date=January 22, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122231808/https://www.mcgill.ca/senate/files/senate/list_of_mcgill_honorary_degree_recipients_from_1935_to_october_2019.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
| [[Nova Scotia]] || February 12, 1958 || [[Saint Mary's University (Halifax)|Saint Mary's University]] || Doctor of Laws (LL.D)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.smu.ca/academics/archives/1952-1970.html|title=Saint Mary's University – 1952–1970|website=www.smu.ca|access-date=June 19, 2018|archive-date=June 10, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180610141019/http://www.smu.ca/academics/archives/1952-1970.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| [[Saskatchewan]] || May 9, 1958 || [[University of Saskatchewan]] || Doctor of Civil Law (DCL)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://library.usask.ca/archives/campus-history/honorary-degrees.php?id=105&view=detail&keyword=&campuses=|title=Honorary Degrees – University of Saskatchewan|publisher=library.usask.ca|access-date=May 21, 2018|archive-date=December 21, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181221023554/https://library.usask.ca/archives/campus-history/honorary-degrees.php?id=105&view=detail&keyword=&campuses=|url-status=live}}</ref> 
|-
| [[British Columbia]] || September 25, 1958 || [[University of British Columbia]] || Doctor of Laws (LL.D)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.library.ubc.ca/archives/hdcites/hdcites5.html#diefenbaker|title=UBC Archives – Honorary Degree Citations 1958–1962|website=www.library.ubc.ca|access-date=May 21, 2018|archive-date=July 29, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220729110947/https://www.library.ubc.ca/archives/hdcites/hdcites5.html#diefenbaker|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| [[New Brunswick]] || October 1958 || [[University of New Brunswick]] || Doctor of Laws (LL.D)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://graduations.lib.unb.ca/degree/16105|title=POMP AND CIRCUMSTANCE – Graduation Ceremonies 1828 – present|website=graduations.lib.unb.ca|access-date=May 21, 2018|archive-date=April 27, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180427045309/https://graduations.lib.unb.ca/degree/16105|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
| [[India]] || November 11, 1958 || [[University of Delhi]] || Doctor of Laws (LL.D)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-nov-11-1958-canadian-prime-minister-receives-honary-degree-at-delhi-69354940.html|title=Stock Photo – Nov. 11, 1958 – Canadian Prime Minister Receives {{sic|Hon|ary|nolink=y}} Degree at Delhi University. Photo shows Mr. John Diefenbaker, the Canadian Prime Minister, seen with Mr. Nehru, the|website=Alamy|access-date=May 21, 2018|archive-date=May 22, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180522111353/https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-nov-11-1958-canadian-prime-minister-receives-honary-degree-at-delhi-69354940.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| [[Ontario]] || May 15, 1959 || [[Royal Military College of Canada]] || Doctor of Laws (LL.D)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rmc-cmr.ca/en/royal-military-college-canada-honorary-degree-recipients|title=Royal Military College of Canada Honorary Degree Recipients|first=Pete|last=Bennett|date=July 19, 2016|website=www.rmc-cmr.ca|access-date=May 21, 2018|archive-date=March 21, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210321121749/https://www.rmc-cmr.ca/en/royal-military-college-canada-honorary-degree-recipients|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
| [[Ontario]] || May 30, 1959 || [[University of Western Ontario]] || Doctor of Civil Law (DCL)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.uwo.ca/univsec/pdf/senate/honorary/honorary_degrees_by_year.pdf |title=Honorary Degrees Awarded |publisher=University of Western Ontario |access-date=May 21, 2018 |archive-date=July 23, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210723022840/https://www.uwo.ca/univsec/pdf/senate/honorary/honorary_degrees_by_year.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| [[Ontario]] || 1959 || [[University of Toronto]] || Doctor of Laws (LL.D)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.governingcouncil.utoronto.ca/Assets/Governing+Council+Digital+Assets/Boards+and+Committees/Committee+for+Honorary+Degrees/degreerecipients1850tillnow.pdf |title=Honorary Degree Recipients |publisher=University of Toronto |date=September 14, 2016 |access-date=May 21, 2018 |archive-date=October 1, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001101642/http://www.governingcouncil.utoronto.ca/Assets/Governing+Council+Digital+Assets/Boards+and+Committees/Committee+for+Honorary+Degrees/degreerecipients1850tillnow.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| [[New Jersey]] || 1959 || [[Princeton University]] || Doctor of Laws (LL.D)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.princeton.edu/~compub/facts/honorary/|title=Facts & Figures|website=Princeton University|access-date=May 21, 2018|archive-date=May 14, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150514131341/http://www.princeton.edu/~compub/facts/honorary/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| [[Ontario]] || Fall 1959 || [[University of Windsor]] || Doctor of Laws (LL.D)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uwindsor.ca/secretariat/sites/uwindsor.ca.secretariat/files/honorary_degree_by_convocation.pdf|title=Honorary Degrees Conferred|publisher=University of Windsor|access-date=May 21, 2018|archive-date=April 29, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429092929/http://www.uwindsor.ca/secretariat/sites/uwindsor.ca.secretariat/files/honorary_degree_by_convocation.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| [[Ontario]] || 1960 || [[Queen's University at Kingston]] || Doctor of Laws (LL.D)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.queensu.ca/registrar/sites/webpublish.queensu.ca.uregwww/files/files/HDrecipients.pdf|title=Honorary Degrees|date=September 14, 2011|publisher=Queen's University|access-date=May 21, 2018|archive-date=February 27, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227133354/http://queensu.ca/registrar/sites/webpublish.queensu.ca.uregwww/files/files/HDrecipients.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| [[Ontario]] || 1960 || [[University of Ottawa]] || Doctor of Laws (LL.D)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.uottawa.ca/president/people/diefenbaker-john-g|title=DIEFENBAKER, John G.|website=Office of the President|access-date=May 21, 2018|archive-date=May 22, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180522042403/https://www.uottawa.ca/president/people/diefenbaker-john-g|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
| [[Newfoundland and Labrador]] || October 1961 || [[Memorial University of Newfoundland]] || Doctor of Laws (LL.D)<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.mun.ca/senate/honorary_degrees_by_conv.pdf |title=Honorary Graduates of Memorial University of Newfoundland 1960–Present |access-date=June 19, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429092708/http://www.mun.ca/senate/honorary_degrees_by_conv.pdf |archive-date=April 29, 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
| [[Nova Scotia]] || 1961 || [[Dalhousie University]] || Doctor of Laws (LL.D)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dal.ca/academics/convocation/history_traditions/honorary_degree_recipients/hon_degree_1892_1999.html|title=1892 ‑ 1999 Honorary Degree Recipients|website=Dalhousie University|access-date=May 21, 2018|archive-date=April 1, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401115142/https://www.dal.ca/academics/convocation/history_traditions/honorary_degree_recipients/hon_degree_1892_1999.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
| [[Ontario]] || November 1968 || [[Waterloo Lutheran University]] || Doctor of Laws (LL.D)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wlu.ca/about/governance/senate/honorary-degrees.html|title=Honorary Degrees – Wilfrid Laurier University|website=www.wlu.ca|access-date=May 21, 2018|archive-date=July 28, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220728142114/https://www.wlu.ca/about/governance/senate/honorary-degrees.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| [[Alberta]] || Fall 1974 || [[University of Alberta]] || Doctor of Laws (LL.D)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ualberta.ca/why-ualberta/administration/chancellor-and-senate/honorary-degrees/past-honorary-degree-recipients?0=Diefenbaker|title=University of Alberta|website=www.ualberta.ca|access-date=May 21, 2018|archive-date=April 1, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401100613/https://www.ualberta.ca/why-ualberta/administration/chancellor-and-senate/honorary-degrees/past-honorary-degree-recipients?0=Diefenbaker|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| [[Prince Edward Island]] || 1977 || [[University of Prince Edward Island]] ||<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.upei.ca/about-upei/governance-and-structure/senate/past-honorary-degree-recipients|title=Past Honorary Degree Recipients &#124; University of Prince Edward Island|website=UPEI|access-date=May 21, 2018|archive-date=October 24, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024203031/https://www.upei.ca/about-upei/governance-and-structure/senate/past-honorary-degree-recipients|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| [[Pakistan]] || 1969 || [[University of the Punjab]] || Doctor of Laws (LL.D)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.flickr.com/photos/nationalarchives/7831848926|title=CO 1069-515-5|date=August 21, 2012|access-date=May 21, 2018|archive-date=April 5, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190405232550/https://www.flickr.com/photos/nationalarchives/7831848926|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Canada|Politics}}
* "[[Dief Will Be the Chief Again]]"
* [[Diefenbunker]]
* [[List of people from Prince Albert]]

== References ==
=== Explanatory notes ===
{{notelist
| refs =
{{efn
| name = anglicized
| {{harvnb|Smith|1995|p=3}}. Following his father's death, William Diefenbaker anglicized the spelling of "Diefenbacher", and changed its pronunciation so that the "baker" part of the name is pronounced like the English word "baker".
}}
{{efn
| name = childhood ambition
| {{harvnb|Smith|1995|p=14}}. Upon his brother's accession to the prime ministership, Elmer Diefenbaker sent him a letter recalling this childhood ambition.
}}
{{efn
| name = phrasing
| The exact phrasing of what Diefenbaker said to Laurier varies from source to source.
}}
{{efn
| name = H. J. Fraser
| {{harvnb|Smith|1995|p=75}}. Thirty years later, the winning candidate, H. J. Fraser, challenged Diefenbaker for his parliamentary seat, and was defeated by a 5-to-1&nbsp;margin. {{harvnb|Newman|1963|p=21}}.
}}
{{efn
| name = 1957 seats
| {{harvnb|Meisel|1962|p=291}}. The 112th seat was not obtained until July 15, as the election in one riding was not held until then due to the death of the original Liberal candidate. {{harvnb|Meisel|1962|p=235}}. Additionally, the Liberal victory in Yukon was vacated by the [[Yukon Territorial Court]] and a Tory won the new election in December 1957. {{harvnb|Meisel|1962|p=239}}.
}}
{{efn
| name = Avro jobs
| {{harvnb|Smith|1995|pp=317–320}}. Over 50,000 other jobs were affected in the supply chain. {{harvnb|Peden|1987|p=157}}.
}}
{{efn
| name = Kim Campbell
| [[Kim Campbell]] also became a PC Prime Minister, but she never won an election to gain that role.
}}
{{efn
| name = One Canada
| Diefenbaker was a [[teetotaler]]. ({{harvnb|Diefenbaker|1976|pp=191}}) 
}}
}}

=== Citations ===
{{reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{citation |last=Archbold |first=Rick |title=I Stand For Canada; The Story of the Maple Leaf Flag |publisher=Macfarlane Walter and Ross |year=2002 |isbn=1-55199-108-X |url=https://archive.org/details/istandforcanadas0000arch |url-access=registration}}
* {{citation |last=Bliss |first=Michael |year=2004 |title=Right Honourable Men: The Descent of Canadian Politics from Macdonald to Chrétien |publisher=HarperCollins Publishers Ltd.|edition=revised |isbn=0-00-639484-1 }}
* Bothwell, Robert. ''Alliance and Illusion: Canada and the world 1945-1984'' (2007)
* {{citation |last=Diefenbaker |first=John |author-link=John Diefenbaker |year=1975 |title=One Canada, Memoirs of the Right Honourable John G. Diefenbaker: The Crusading Years 1895 to 1956 |publisher=Macmillan of Canada |isbn=0-7705-1331-X |url=https://archive.org/details/onecanadamemoirs0000dief |url-access=registration}}
** {{citation |last=Diefenbaker |first=John |author-link=John Diefenbaker |year=1976 |title=One Canada, Memoirs of the Right Honourable John G. Diefenbaker: The Years of Achievement 1956 to 1962 |publisher=Macmillan of Canada |isbn=0-7705-1443-X |url=https://archive.org/details/onecanadamemoirs0000dief |url-access=registration}}
** {{citation |last=Diefenbaker |first=John |author-link=John Diefenbaker |year=1977 |title=One Canada, Memoirs of the Right Honourable John G. Diefenbaker: The Tumultuous Years 1962 to 1967 |publisher=Macmillan of Canada |isbn=0-7705-1569-X |url=https://archive.org/details/onecanadamemoirs00dief |url-access=registration}}
* {{citation |last=English |first=John |year=1992 |title=The Worldly Years: The Life of Lester Pearson, 1949–1972 |publisher=Vintage Books |isbn=0-394-28015-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/lifeoflesterpear0000engl |url-access=registration }}
* {{citation |last=Gabriel |first=Soloman |year=1987 |title=Foreign Policy of Canada: A Study in Diefenbaker's Years |publisher=Uppal Publishing House |isbn=81-85024-24-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Granatstein |first=J.L. |title=Canada 1957-1967: The years of uncertainty and innovation |date=1986 |publisher=McClelland and Stewart |isbn=978-0-7710-3515-9}} the major scholarly survey
* {{cite book |last1=Kyba |first1=Patrick |first2=Wendy |last2=Green-Finlay |chapter=John Diefenbaker as prime minister |editor1=D.C. Story |editor2=R. Bruce Shepard |title=The Diefenbaker Legacy: Canadian Politics, Law and Society Since 1957 |date=1998 |pages=57–70 |publisher=Canadian Plains Research Center |location=Regina |isbn=978-0-8897-7091-1}}
* {{cite journal |last=McKercher |first=Asa |title=Diefenbaker's World: One Canada and the History of Canadian–American Relations, 1961–63 |journal=[[The Historian (journal)|The Historian]] |volume=75 |issue=1 |date=Spring 2013 |pages=94–120 |doi=10.1111/hisn.12003 |url=https://www.academia.edu/19981703 |url-access=subscription}}
* {{citation |last=Meisel |first=John |year=1962 |title=The Canadian General Election of 1957 |publisher=University of Toronto Press}}
* {{citation |last=Nash |first=Knowlton |year=1990 |title=Kennedy and Diefenbaker: Fear and Loathing Across the Undefended Border |publisher=McClelland & Stewart |isbn=0-7710-6705-4 }}
* {{citation |last=Newman |first=Peter |year=1989 |orig-year=1963 |title=Renegade in Power: The Diefenbaker Years |publisher=McClelland and Stewart |isbn=0-7710-6747-X |url=https://archive.org/details/renegadeinpowerd0000newm_q9o4 |ref={{SfnRef|Newman|1963}} |url-access=limited}}
* {{citation |last=Peden |first=Murray |year=1987 |title=Fall of an Arrow |publisher=Stoddart Publishing |isbn=0-7737-5105-X |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/fallofarrow0000pede }}
* {{cite journal |last=Prymak |first=Thomas M. |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07075332.2022.2116072 |title=Cold War Clash, New York City, September-October 1960: Comrade Khrushchev vs. 'Dief the Chief' |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230612065527/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07075332.2022.2116072 |archive-date=June 12, 2023 |journal=[[International History Review]] |volume=45 |issue=1 |date=2023 |pages=134–151 |doi=10.1080/07075332.2022.2116072|url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite book |last=Robinson |first=H. Basil |title=Diefenbaker's World: A Populist in Foreign Affairs |publisher=University of Toronto Press |date=1989 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WtQUAAAAYAAJ |isbn=978-0-8020-2678-1}}
* {{citation |last=Smith |first=Denis |year=1995 |title=Rogue Tory: The Life and Legend of John Diefenbaker |publisher=Macfarlane Walter & Ross |isbn=0-921912-92-7 }}
* {{cite DCB |last=Smith |first=Denis |volume=XX |url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/diefenbaker_john_george_20E.html |title=Diefenbaker, John George |year=2016}}
* {{cite book |last=Spencer |first=Dick |date=1994 |url=https://archive.org/details/trumpetsdrumsjoh0000spen |title=Trumpets and Drums: John Diefenbaker on the Campaign Trail |publisher= |url-access=registration}}
* {{citation |last=Stewart |first=Greig |year=1991 |title=Shutting Down the National Dream: A.V. Roe and the Tragedy of the Avro Arrow. |publisher=McGraw-Hill-Ryerson |isbn=0-07-551119-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/shuttingdownnati00 |url-access=registration }}
* {{citation |last=Stursberg |first=Peter |year=1975 |title=Diefenbaker: Leadership Gained 1956–62 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=0-8020-2130-1 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/diefenbakerleade0000unse }}
* {{citation |last=Stursberg |first=Peter |year=1976 |title=Diefenbaker: Leadership Lost 1962–67 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=0-8020-2225-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/diefenbakerleade0000unse |url-access=registration }}
* {{citation |last=Van Dusen |first=Thomas |year=1968 |title=The Chief |publisher=McGraw-Hill |isbn=0-665-25329-X }}
{{refend}}

=== Online sources ===
<!-- These are in inline-use order and should be revisited as not all have authors. Maybe italics need to shift too. -->
{{refbegin}}
* {{citation
 | last = Daniell
 | first = Raymond
 | date = June 22, 1957
| title = Conservatives take the reins in Canada
 | periodical = The New York Times
 | url = http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F50D14FB3E5A177B93C0AB178DD85F438585F9&scp=18&sq=john%20diefenbaker&st=cse
 | url-access = subscription
 | access-date = December 27, 2009
| archive-date = November 3, 2012
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121103120422/http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F50D14FB3E5A177B93C0AB178DD85F438585F9&scp=18&sq=john%20diefenbaker&st=cse
 | url-status = live
 }}
* {{citation
 | title = Nation left in sadness at the loss of a man who left 'em laughing: From prairie to pinnacle, Dief was with the people
 | date = August 17, 1979
| periodical = Montreal Gazette
 | url = https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=PhgyAAAAIBAJ&dq=diefenbaker&pg=1712,374515
 | access-date = January 7, 2010
| ref = {{sfnRef|''Montreal Gazette'' 1979-08-17, Obituary}}
 | archive-date = June 11, 2021
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210611233337/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=PhgyAAAAIBAJ&dq=diefenbaker&pg=1712,374515
 | url-status = live
 }}
* {{citation 
 |last=Druzin 
 |first=Randi 
 |date=September 14, 2011 |title=Canadian PM Diefenbaker bored Jackie Kennedy, tapes reveal 
 |periodical=Global News 
 |url=http://www.globalnews.ca/retrospective/6442481930/story.html 
 |access-date=October 7, 2011 |url-status=dead 
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111120080420/http://www.globalnews.ca/retrospective/6442481930/story.html 
 |archive-date=November 20, 2011 }}
* {{citation
 | author = The Canadian Press
 | date = September 23, 1977
| title = Stanfield tells Diefenbaker to button up about Clark
 | periodical = Ottawa Citizen
 | url = https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=ceQyAAAAIBAJ&pg=997,1002486
 | access-date = January 3, 2010
| ref = {{sfnRef|''The Canadian Press'' 1977-09-23}}
 | archive-date = June 11, 2021
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210611233132/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=ceQyAAAAIBAJ&pg=997,1002486
 | url-status = live
 }}
* {{citation
 | last = Lynch
 | first = Charles
 | author-link = Charles Lynch (journalist)
 | date = September 23, 1977
| title = Big Thunder sounds off
 | periodical = Ottawa Citizen
 | url = https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=ceQyAAAAIBAJ&dq=diefenbaker%20clark%20pipsqueak&pg=5045,1011793
 | access-date = January 3, 2010
| archive-date = June 11, 2021
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210611233335/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=ceQyAAAAIBAJ&dq=diefenbaker%20clark%20pipsqueak&pg=5045,1011793
 | url-status = live
 }}
* {{cite news
 | title = Farewell Dief
 | date = August 16, 1979
| publisher = CBC Digital Archives
 | url = http://www.cbc.ca/archives/categories/politics/prime-ministers/john-diefenbaker-dief-the-chief/farewell-dief.html
 | access-date = January 19, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|''CBC Digital Archives'', Farewell Dief}}
 | archive-date = August 26, 2012
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120826074547/http://www.cbc.ca/archives/categories/politics/prime-ministers/john-diefenbaker-dief-the-chief/farewell-dief.html
 | url-status = live
 }}
* {{citation
 | last = Cheadle
 | first = Bruce
 | date = September 19, 2011
| title = Diefenbaker tributes part of Tory efforts to rebrand Canadian history
 | periodical = Canadian Press Via Global News
 | url = http://globalnews.ca/news/156622/diefenbaker-tributes-part-of-tory-effort-to-rebrand-canadian-history/
 | access-date = December 1, 2014
| archive-date = March 4, 2016
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304063741/http://globalnews.ca/news/156622/diefenbaker-tributes-part-of-tory-effort-to-rebrand-canadian-history/
 | url-status = live
 }} <!-- Please be cautious in using this source, two paragraphs (one describing Dief and one the building) are clearly borrowed from Wikipedia. -->
* {{citation
 |last         = Cobb
 |first        = Chris
 |date         = September 20, 2011
|title        = Old rivals .. new neighbours
 |periodical   = Ottawa Citizen
 |url          = http://www2.canada.com/ottawacitizen/news/story.html?id=942b8255-2822-4d40-822c-70d8b0212305
 |access-date  = December 1, 2014
|url-status   = dead
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20141201190014/http://www2.canada.com/ottawacitizen/news/story.html?id=942b8255-2822-4d40-822c-70d8b0212305
 |archive-date = December 1, 2014
|df           = mdy-all
}}
* {{citation
 |title        = Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada – Former Prime Ministers and Their Grave Sites – The Right Honourable John George Diefenbaker
 |date         = March 7, 2014
|publisher    = Parks Canada
 |url          = http://www.pc.gc.ca/clmhc-hsmbc/sep-gra/pms/diefenbaker.aspx
 |access-date  = December 1, 2014
|ref          = {{sfnRef|''Parks Canada'', Historic Sites}}
 |url-status   = dead
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20150926180407/http://www.pc.gc.ca/clmhc-hsmbc/sep-gra/pms/diefenbaker.aspx
 |archive-date = September 26, 2015
|df           = mdy-all
}}
* {{citation
 | last = Perkel
 | first = Colin
 | date = December 13, 2013
| title = Several 'Diefenbabies' suspected across nation
 | periodical = Winnipeg Free Press
 | url = http://www.winnipegfreepress.com/canada/several-diefenbabies-suspected-across-nation-235698331.html
 | access-date = December 1, 2014
| archive-date = March 4, 2016
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304061919/http://www.winnipegfreepress.com/canada/several-diefenbabies-suspected-across-nation-235698331.html
 | url-status = live
 }}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
* Bothwell, Robert, Ian Drummond, and John English. "The Diefenbaker Years 1957-63." in ''Canada Since 1945'' (University of Toronto Press, 2018). pp 181–252; university textbook
* Boyko, John. ''Cold fire: Kennedy's northern front'' (Alfred A. Knopf Canada, 2016)
* Carter, Mark. "Diefenbaker's Bill of Rights and the Counter-Majoritarian Difficulty: The Notwithstanding Clause and Fundamental Justice as Touchstones for the Charter Debate." ''Saskatchewan Law Review'' 82 (2019): 121+ [https://www.canlii.org/w/canlii/2019CanLIIDocs2717.pdf online] ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211013014227/https://www.canlii.org/w/canlii/2019CanLIIDocs2717.pdf |date=October 13, 2021 }}).
* Cavell, Janice, and Ryan M. Touhey, eds. ''Reassessing the Rogue Tory: Canadian Foreign Relations in the Diefenbaker Era'' (UBC Press, 2018).
* Empey, Sarah. "John G. Diefenbaker and Cross Border Relations During the Bomarc Missile Crisis." ''Waterloo Historical Review'' 8 (2016). [https://openjournals.uwaterloo.ca/index.php/whr/article/download/68/60 online] ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707114047/https://openjournals.uwaterloo.ca/index.php/whr/article/download/68/60 |date=July 7, 2022 }})
* Hilliker, John. "The Politicians and the 'Pearsonalities': The Diefenbaker Government and the Conduct of Canadian External Relations", in ''Canadian Foreign Policy: Historical Readings'' ed. J. L. Granatstein (Toronto: Copp Clark Pitman, 1993), pp 152–167.
* Kyba, Patrick. ''Alvin: A Biography of the Honourable Alvin Hamilton, PC'' (Regina: Canadian Plains Research Center, 1989).
* McKercher, Asa. "No, Prime Minister: Revisiting Diefenbaker and the 'Pearsonalities'." ''Canadian Journal of History'' 52.2 (2017): 264–289. [https://www.academia.edu/download/58382440/Pearsonalities.pdf online]{{dead link|date=January 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}
* McKercher, Asa. "Sound and Fury: Diefenbaker, Human Rights, and Canadian Foreign Policy." ''Canadian Historical Review'' 97.2 (2016): 165–194. [https://www.academia.edu/download/58382438/Sound_and_Fury.pdf online]{{dead link|date=January 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}
* McKercher, Asa. "The trouble with self-determination: Canada, Soviet colonialism and the United Nations, 1960–1963." ''The International Journal of Human Rights'' 20.3 (2016): 343–364. 
* McMahon. Patricia I. ''Essence of Indecision: Diefenbaker's Nuclear Policy, 1957–1963'' (McGill-Queen's University Press, 2009) [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=36675 online review] ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105130300/https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=36675 |date=November 5, 2013 }})
* Molinaro, Dennis. "'Calculated Diplomacy': John Diefenbaker and the Origins of Canada's Cuba Policy." in ''Our place in the sun'' (University of Toronto Press, 2016) pp.&nbsp;75–95.
* Manulak, Daniel. "Blood Brothers: Moral Emotion, the Afro-Asian-Canadian Bloc, and South Africa's Expulsion from the Commonwealth, 1960–1." ''Canadian Historical Review'' (2021): e20200041.
* Morris-Hurl, Rebecca. "Diefenbaker's Canada: A Vision for Human Rights and Multiculturalism in the Speeches from the Throne." in ''Canada and Speeches from the Throne'' (2020). [https://opentextbooks.uregina.ca/primeministers2020/chapter/johndiefenbaker/ online] ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211222221608/https://opentextbooks.uregina.ca/primeministers2020/chapter/johndiefenbaker/ |date=December 22, 2021 }}
* Neary, Peter. "High Commissioner JJS Garner on Joey Smallwood versus John Diefenbaker, 1959." ''Newfoundland and Labrador Studies'' 32.1 (2017): 229–240. [https://www.erudit.org/en/journals/nflds/1990-v6-n1-nflds32_1/nflds32_1doc02/ online] ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211222214809/https://www.erudit.org/en/journals/nflds/1990-v6-n1-nflds32_1/nflds32_1doc02/ |date=December 22, 2021 }})
* Parker, Oliver. "Canadian Concerns of a Different Kind of Brexit: Britain's First Application to the EEC and Canada's Commonwealth Appeal." ''The Round Table'' 108.1 (2019): 81–85.
* Story, D. C. and R. Bruce Shepard, eds. ''Diefenbaker legacy: Canadian politics, law and society since 1957''. (Canadian Plains Research Center, University of Regina, 1998). 13 essays by experts.
* Stevenson, Michael D. "George Drew, the Law of the Sea, and the Diefenbaker Government, 1957-1963." ''Diplomacy & Statecraft'' 31.2 (2020): 326–349. 
* Urban, Michael Crawford. "A fearful asymmetry: Diefenbaker, the Canadian military and trust during the Cuban missile crisis." ''Canadian Foreign Policy Journal'' 21.3 (2015): 257–271. [https://www.academia.edu/download/43425858/Urban_2015_A_fearful_asymmetry_-_Prize.pdf online]{{dead link|date=January 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}
* Wiseman, Nelson. "Minority Governments: The Diefenbaker-Pearson Years." in ''Partisan Odysseys'' (University of Toronto Press, 2020) pp.&nbsp;67–82.

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100113101117/http://www2.parl.gc.ca/Parlinfo/Files/Parliamentarian.aspx?Item=84909dc1-9a60-44b3-a939-2393ab563089&Language=E Political Biography from the Library of Parliament], and [https://web.archive.org/web/20090609211221/http://www2.parl.gc.ca/Sites/LOP/HFER/hfer.asp?Language=E Diefenbaker's electoral results]
* [http://wascanapark.tripod.com/diefenbakerhomestead/index.html Diefenbaker Homestead] ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100328051726/http://wascanapark.tripod.com/diefenbakerhomestead/index.html |date=March 28, 2010 }}
* [http://www.cbc.ca/archives/topic/john-diefenbaker-dief-the-chief CBC Digital Archives&nbsp;– Dief the Chief] ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180308051536/http://www.cbc.ca/archives/topic/john-diefenbaker-dief-the-chief |date=March 8, 2018 }}
* [http://www.depauw.edu/news/index.asp?id=21911 1960 Commencement Address at DePauw University] ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610120222/http://www.depauw.edu/news/index.asp?id=21911 |date=June 10, 2011 }})
* [http://www.nfb.ca/film/dief/ ''Dief''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120920071811/http://www.nfb.ca/film/dief/ |date=September 20, 2012 }}, documentary film, [[National Film Board of Canada]]
* [https://parli.ca/dief-the-chief/ "Dief the Chief"] ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304003750/https://parli.ca/dief-the-chief/ |date=March 4, 2021 }}, entry in ''Parli'', the dictionary of Canadian politics

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