View source for Jiaozhi

{{Short description|Historical region in Vietnam}}
{{Cleanup lang|date=August 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{Infobox Chinese
|c={{linktext|交趾}}
|c2=交阯
|pic = File:Mainland Southeast Asia in 1415.jpg
|piccap = 1415 map of [[Jiaozhi Province]] in northern Vietnam
|p=Jiāozhǐ
|p2=Jiāozhǐ
|w=Chiāo<sup>1</sup>-chǐh<sup>4</sup>
|w2=Chiāo<sup>1</sup>-chǐh<sup>4</sup>
|qn=Giao Chỉ
|chuhan=交趾
|mc=''*kˠau-t͡ɕɨX'' ([[Zhengzhang Shangfang|ZS]])
|oc-bs={{IPA|*[k]ˁraw təʔ}}
}}
{{History of Vietnam/Geographical renaming}}

'''Jiaozhi''' ([[standard Chinese]], [[pinyin]]: ''Jiāozhǐ'', [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]: '''Giao Chỉ'''), was a historical region ruled by various [[Dynasties in Chinese history|Chinese dynasties]], corresponding to present-day northern [[Vietnam]]. The kingdom of [[Nanyue]] (204–111 BC) set up the '''Jiaozhi Commandery''' ({{cjkv|c={{linktext|交趾|郡}}, {{linktext|交阯|郡}}}}; {{langx|vi|Quận Giao Chỉ}}, [[chữ Hán]]: 郡交趾) an administrative division centered in the [[Red River Delta]] that existed through Vietnam's [[First Era of Northern Domination|first]] and [[Second Era of Northern Domination|second]] periods of Chinese rule. During the [[Han dynasty]], the [[commandery (China)|commandery]] was part of a province of the same name (later renamed to [[Jiaozhou (region)|Jiaozhou]]) that covered modern-day northern and central Vietnam as well as [[Guangdong]] and [[Guangxi]] in southern China. In 679&nbsp;AD, Jiaozhi was absorbed into the [[Annan (Tang protectorate)|Annan Protectorate]] established by the [[Tang dynasty]]. Afterwards, official use of the name Jiaozhi was superseded by "Annan" (Annam) and other [[names of Vietnam]], except during the brief [[Fourth Era of Northern Domination|fourth period of Chinese rule]] when the [[Ming dynasty]] administered Vietnam as the [[Jiaozhi Province]].

==Name==
Chinese chroniclers assigned various [[folk etymology|folk etymologies]] for the toponym. 
*In [[Book of Rites]]'s subsection Royal Regulations, 交趾 was used to describe the physical characteristics of [[Nanman]] - southern neighbours of the [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou]]. Late [[Han dynasty#Eastern Han|Eastern Han]] scholar [[Zheng Xuan]] (127 – c. 200 CE) interpreted 交趾 as "the appearance of feet turning in towards each other".<ref>禮記集說 (''Collected Remarks on Book of Rites'') [[Siku Quanshu]] version, "vols. 31–32", [https://ctext.org/library.pl?if=gb&file=2239&page=127#%E4%BA%A4%E8%B6%BE%E8%B6%B3%E7%9B%B8%E5%90%91%E7%84%B6 p. 127 of 160]; quote: "交趾足相向然"</ref> 交趾 was subsequently translated as either "feet turned in towards each other" ([[James Legge]])<ref>''Liji'', [https://ctext.org/liji/wang-zhi "Wangzhi"] "南方曰蠻，雕題交趾，有不火食者矣。" James Legge's translation: "Those on the south were called Man. They tattooed their foreheads, and had their feet turned in towards each other. Some of them (also) ate their food without its being cooked."</ref> or "toes... crossed" (James M. Hargett).<ref>"The people in the southern quarter are called [[Nanman|Man]]. Their foreheads are tattooed [''diaoti''] and their toes are crossed [''jiaozhi'']. And there are people among them who do not eat cooked food." quoted in James M. Hargett's 2010 translation of [[Fan Chengda]]'s ''Treatises of the Supervisor and Guardian of the Cinnamon Sea''. Publisher: University of Washington Press. Pp. 209–210</ref> 
*[[Book of Later Han]] also quoted the same passage from Book of Rites yet gave 交趾's etymology as: "[According to] their customs, men and women bathe in the same river; hence the appellation ''Jiāozhǐ''".<ref>Book of Later Han, [https://ctext.org/hou-han-shu/nan-man-xi-nan-yi-lie-zhuan/zh "Account of the Southern Man & Southwestern Yi"] text: "禮記稱「南方曰蠻，雕題交阯」。其俗男女同川而浴，故曰交阯。" Compare Zheng Xuan's comment on the same Liji's passage; recorded in 禮記集說 (''Collected Remarks on Book of Rites'') [[Siku Quanshu]] version, "vols. 31–32", [https://ctext.org/library.pl?if=gb&file=2239&page=127#%E6%B5%B4%E5%89%87%E5%90%8C%E5%B7%9D p. 127 of 160]; quote: "浴則同川"</ref> 
*[[Tang dynasty|Tang period]]'s encyclopedia [[Tongdian]] also stated that: "The southernmost people [have] tattooed foreheads (題額) and intersecting toes (交趾); [according to] their customs, men and women bathe in the same river. [By] tattooed foreheads (題額) it means they engrave their flesh with [[Blue–green distinction in language#East Asian languages|blue/green]] dye; [by] crossed toes (交趾), it means that each foot's big toe is spread widely outwards and crosses one another when [a person] stands [with feet] side-by-side."<ref>[[Du You]] et al. ''Tongdian'', [https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=en&chapter=136755 vol. 188], quote: "極南之人雕題交趾 其俗男女同川而浴 題額也雕謂刻其肌肉用青湼之 交趾謂足大趾開闊並立相交 "</ref> 
*[[Song dynasty|Song period]]'s encyclopaedia [[Taiping Yulan]] quoted [[Ying Shao]]'s "[[Han dynasty|Han]] Officials' Etiquettes" that "[[Emperor Wu of Han|Emperor Xiaowu]] leveled the [[Hundred Yue]] in the South [...] established '''Jiaozhi''' ('''交阯'''); [...] [People] started out in the North, then '''crossed''' ('''交 jiāo''') at the South, for their descendants [they laid their] basis (jī 基) & '''foundation''' ('''zhǐ 阯''') [there]".<ref>''Taiping Yulan'', [https://ctext.org/text.pl?node=370471&searchu=%E5%A7%8B%E9%96%8B%E5%8C%97%E6%96%B9%EF%BC%8C%E9%81%82%E4%BA%A4%E5%8D%97%E6%96%B9%EF%BC%8C%E7%82%BA%E5%AD%90%E5%AD%AB%E5%9F%BA%E9%98%AF%E4%B9%9F%E3%80%82&searchmode=showall&if=gb#result "3rd section on the Provinces & Prefectures: on the Provinces"] txt: "應劭《漢官儀》曰：孝武皇帝南平百越，...，置交阯、... 始開北方，遂交南方，為子孫基阯也。"</ref>

According to [[Michel Ferlus]], the Sino-Vietnamese ''Jiao'' in Jiāozhǐ (交趾), together with the ethnonym and autonym of the [[Lao people]] (lǎo 獠), and the ethnonym [[Gelao people|Gēlǎo]] (仡佬), a [[Kra languages|Kra population]] scattered from [[Guizhou]] (China) to North Vietnam, would have emerged from '''*k(ə)ra:w'''.{{sfnp|Ferlus|2009|p=4}} The etymon '''*k(ə)ra:w''' would have also yielded the ethnonym Keo/ Kæw ''kɛːw<sup>A1</sup>'', a name given to the Vietnamese by Tai speaking peoples, currently slightly derogatory.{{sfnp|Ferlus|2009|p=4}} In [[Qabiao language|Pupeo]] ([[Kra languages|Kra branch]]), ''kew'' is used to name the [[Tay people|Tay]] ([[Central Tai languages|Central Tai]]) of North Vietnam.{{sfnp|Ferlus|2009|p=3}}

{{Quote box
|quote  = ''jiāo'' '''交''' < [[Middle Chinese|MC]] kæw < [[Old Chinese|OC]] *kraw ['''k.raw''']
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{{Quote box
|quote  = ''lǎo'' '''獠''' < [[Middle Chinese|MC]] lawX < [[Old Chinese|OC]] *C-rawʔ [C.'''rawˀ''']
|width  = 28%
|align  = center
}}

Frederic Pain proposes that '''*k(ə)ra:w''' means  'human being' and originates from [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]]:{{sfnp|Pain|2008|p=646}} he further links it to a local root *'''trawʔ'''{{refn|group=nb|as reconstructed up to Proto-Mon-Khmer level by [[Harry Leonard Shorto]]; Sidwell (2024:xx) reconstructs *''sroʔ''<ref>{{cite journal|last= Sidwell|first= Paul| author-link= Paul Sidwell|year= 2024|title= 500 Proto Austroasiatic Etyma: Version 1.0|journal=  Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society|volume = 17|issue= 1|url= https://evols.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/e0444bbd-db08-48ba-9d94-99f56d6f5d51/content}}</ref>{{rp|xi}}}}, which is associated with [[taro]], is ancestral to various Austroasiatic lexical items such as "Monic (Spoken Mon ''krao'' or Nyah-kur ''traw''), Palaungic (Tung-wa ''kraɷʔ'' or Sem ''klao''), or Katuic (Ong ''raw'' or Souei ''ʰraw'' < proto-Katuic *''craw'')", and possibly evoked "a particular (most probably tuber-based) cultivation practice used by small Mon-Khmer horticultural communities—as opposed to more complex and advanced cereal-growing (probably rice-based) societies"<ref>Frederic Pain. (2020) [https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-02956831/document "”Giao Chỉ” (”Jiāozhǐ” ffff) as a diffusion center of Chinese diachronic changes: syllabic weight contrast and phonologisation of its phonetic correlates"]. halshs-02956831</ref>

Meanwhile, James Chamberlain claims that ''Jiao'' originated from a word also ancestral to [[Lao people|Lao]], thus meaning Jiao & Lao are cognates.{{sfnp|Chamberlain|2016|p=40}} Chamberlain, like Joachim Schlesinger, claim that the Vietnamese language was not originally based in the area of the [[Red River (Asia)|Red River]] in what is now northern Vietnam. According to them, the Red River Delta region was originally inhabited by [[Tai languages|Tai]]-[[Tai peoples|speakers]]. They claim that the area become Vietnamese-speaking only between the seventh and ninth centuries AD,{{sfnp|Chamberlain|2000|pp=97, 127}} or even as late as the tenth century, as a result of immigration from the south, i.e., modern [[North Central Coast|north-central Vietnam]].{{sfnp|Schliesinger|2018a|pp=21, 97}}{{sfnp|Schliesinger|2018b|pp=3–4, 22, 50, 54}} According to [[Han dynasty|Han]]-[[Tang dynasty|Tang]] records, east of Jiaozhi and the coast of [[Guangdong]], [[Guangxi]] was populated by [[Kra-Dai languages|Tai-Kadai]] speakers (whom Chinese contemporaries called ''Lǐ'' 俚 and ''Lǎo'' 獠).{{sfnp|Churchman|2011|p=70}}{{sfnp|Schafer|1967|p=58}}{{sfnp|Pulleyblank|1983|p=433}} Catherine Churchman proposes that the Chinese character 獠 transliterated a native term and was shortened from older two-character combinations (which were used transcribe the endonym's initial consonantal cluster); noting that the older two-character combinations 鳩獠 ''Qiūlǎo'', 狐獠 ''Húlǎo'', and 屈獠 ''Qūlǎo'' had been pronounced *''kɔ-lawʔ'', *''ɣɔ-lawʔ'', and *''kʰut-lawʔ'' respectively in [[Middle Chinese]], she reconstructs the endonym *''klao'', which is either related to the word ''klao'', meaning "person", in the [[Kra languages]], or is a compound, meaning "our people", of prefix ''k-'' for "people" and [[Proto-Tai]] first person plural pronoun *''rəu''{{refn|group=nb|Pittayaporn (2009:358, 386) reconstructs *''rawᴬ''}} "we, us".<ref>Churchman, Catherine (2016) ''The People between the Rivers: The Rise and Fall of a Bronze Drum Culture, 200–750 CE''. New York: Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 87–88</ref> Even so, Michael Churchman acknowledged that "The absence of records of large-scale population shifts indicates that there was a fairly stable group of people in Jiaozhi throughout the Han–Tang period who spoke Austroasiatic languages ancestral to modern Vietnamese."{{sfnp|Churchman|2010|p=36}}

Jiaozhi, pronounced ''{{lang|ms|Kuchi}}'' in the [[Malay language|Malay]], became the ''{{lang|pt|Cochin-China}}'' of the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] traders {{circa|lk=no|1516}}, who so named it to distinguish it from the [[Cochin|city]] and the [[Kingdom of Cochin]] in India, their first headquarters in the [[Malabar Coast]]. It was subsequently called "[[Cochinchina]]".{{sfnp|Yule|1995|p=34}}{{sfnp|Reid|1993|p=211}}

==History==
===Early Mentions===
Numerous Chinese sources, dated to the [[Spring and Autumn period|Spring & Autumn]] and [[Warring States period|Warring States]] periods, mentioned a place called ''Jiao(zhi)'' to the south of [[History of China#Ancient China|Ancient China]].<ref>''[[Book of Documents]]'' [https://ctext.org/shang-shu/canon-of-yao#n21034 "Canon of Yao"] quote: "申命羲叔，宅南'''交'''。平秩南訛，敬致。" Legge's translation: "He further commanded the third brother Xi to reside at Nan-'''jiao''', (in what was called the Brilliant Capital). to adjust and arrange the transformations of the summer, and respectfully-to observe the exact limit (of the shadow)."</ref><ref>''Records of ritual matters by Dai the Elder (大戴禮記)'' [https://ctext.org/da-dai-li-ji/shao-xian "A bit of leisure"] text: "昔虞舜以天德嗣堯，布功散德制禮。朔方幽都來服；南撫'''交趾'''..." translation: "In former times, Shun of [[Emperor Shun#Names|Yu]] used heavenly virtues when succeeding [[Emperor Yao|Yao]]. He deployed [public] work [projects], propagated virtues, and regulated [[Li (Confucianism)|propriety]]. In the North Youdu capitulated; in the South '''Jiaozhi''' was assuaged..."</ref><ref>''[[Mozi (book)|Mozi]]'' [https://ctext.org/mozi/economy-of-expenditures-ii/zh "Moderation in Use" A] text: "古者堯治天下，南撫'''交阯''' ..." translation: "In ancient times [[Emperor Yao|[Emperor] Yao]] governed [[Tianxia|all under Heaven]], assuaging '''Jiaozhi''' in the South ..."</ref><ref>''[[Han Feizi]]'' [https://ctext.org/hanfeizi/shi-guo/zh "Ten Excesses"] text: "由余對曰：「臣聞昔者堯有天下，... 其地南至'''交趾''' ..." tr: "You Yu replied: 'I hear that in former times [Emperor] Yao held all under Heaven... His realm reached '''Jiaozhi''' in the South...'"</ref><ref>''[[Lüshi Chunqiu]]'' [https://ctext.org/lv-shi-chun-qiu/qiu-ren/zh "Seeking People"] text: "禹... 南至'''交阯'''、孫樸、續樠之國，" translation: "[[Yu the Great|Yu]]['s realm]..., in the South, reaches the '''Jiaozhi''', Sunbu, Xuman nations..."</ref><ref>''Records of ritual matters by Dai the Elder (大戴禮記)'' [https://ctext.org/da-dai-li-ji/wu-di-de "Five Emperors' Virtues"] text: "孔子曰：「顓頊，... 乘龍而至四海：北至於幽陵，南至於'''交趾'''，西濟於流沙，東至於蟠木，..." translation: "Confucius said: 'Zhuanxu... when he passed away (lit. "rode the dragon"), [his realm] extended up to the Four Seas: reaching Youling in the North, reaching '''Jiaozhi''' in the South, fording the Flowing Sands in the West, reaching the Coiling Tree in the East,..."; text: "南撫'''交阯'''" translation: "(Confucius talking about [[Emperor Shun]] to [[Zai Yu]]): [Shun] assuaged '''Jiaozhi''' in the South"</ref> Book of Rites is the earliest extant source to associate the name Jiaozhi with the [[Nanman]].<ref>''Liji'', [https://ctext.org/liji/wang-zhi "Wangzhi"] "南方曰蠻，雕題交趾，有不火食者矣。"</ref> However, Vietnamese historian [[Đào Duy Anh]] locates Jiaozhi (which was mentioned in ancient texts) only south of Mount Heng (衡山) (aka 霍山 Mount Huo or 天柱山 [[Mount Tianzhu]]), within the lower part of [[Yangtze]]'s drainage basin, and nowhere farther than today [[Anhui province]] in China (i.e. not in today [[northern Vietnam]]); accordingly, Đào defines ''Jiao(zhi)'' as "lands in the south which bordered [ancient Chinese's] territories".<ref>Đào Duy Anh, [http://www.gocnhin.net/cgi-bin/viewitem.pl?3779 "Jiaozhi in Shujing"], excerpts from Đào's 2005 book ''Lịch Sử Cổ Đại Việt Nam''. Hanoi : Culture & Information Publisher.</ref>

===Van Lang===
{{see also|Văn Lang}}
The native state of [[Văn Lang]] is not well attested, but much later sources name {{nowrap|Giao Chỉ}} as one of the realm's districts (''{{lang|vi|bộ}}''). Its territory purportedly comprised present-day [[Hanoi]] and the land on the right bank of the [[Red River (Asia)|Red River]]. According to tradition, the [[Hung kings]] directly ruled Mê Linh while other areas were ruled by dependent Lac lords.{{sfnp|Taylor|1983|pp=12–13}} The Van Lang kingdom fell to the [[Âu Việt|Âu]] under prince [[Thục Phán]] around 258&nbsp;BC.

===Âu Lạc===
{{see also|Âu Lạc}}
[[Thục Phán]] established his capital at [[Co Loa]] in Hanoi's [[Dong Anh]] [[Hanoi#Districts|district]]. The citadel was taken around 208&nbsp;BC by the [[Qin Empire|Qin]] general [[Zhao Tuo]].

===Nanyue===
{{see also|Nanyue}}
[[Zhao Tuo]] declared his independent kingdom of [[Nanyue]] in 204 and organized his Vietnamese territory as the two [[commandery (China)|commanderies]] of Jiaozhi and [[Jiuzhen]] ({{cjkv|v=Cửu Chân}}; present-day [[Thanh Hóa]], [[Nghệ An Province|Nghệ An]], and [[Hà Tĩnh]]). Following a native coup that killed the Zhao king and his [[Han Chinese|Chinese]] mother, the Han launched [[Han–Nanyue War|two invasions]] in 112 and 111&nbsp;BC that razed the Nanyue capital at [[Panyu]] ([[Guangzhou]]). When Han dynasty conquered [[Nanyue]] in 111 BC, the Han court divided it into 9 commanderies, one commandery called Jiaozhi was the center of Han administration and government for all 9 areas. Because of this, the entire areas of 9 commanderies was sometime called Jiaozhi. From Han to Tang, the names Jiaozhi and Jiao county at least was used for a part of the Han-era Jiaozhi. In 670, Jiaozhi was absorbed into a larger administrative called Annan (Pacified South). After this, the name Jiaozhi was applied for the [[Red River Delta]] and most or all of northern Vietnam (Tonkin).<ref>''[[Zhao Rukuo]], 46, n. 1''. As cited in {{harvnb|Fan|2011|p=209}}</ref>

===Han dynasty===
{{see also|First Chinese domination of Vietnam|Second Chinese domination of Vietnam|Southward expansion of the Han dynasty}}
[[File:Han provinces.jpg|thumb|Chinese provinces in the late Eastern Han dynasty period, 189 CE]]

The [[Han dynasty]] received the submission of the Nanyue commanders in Jiaozhi and [[Jiuzhen]], confirming them in their posts and ushering in the "[[First Era of Northern Domination]]" in [[Vietnamese history]]. These [[commandery (China)|commanderies]] were headed by [[grand administrator]]s (''taishou'') who were later overseen by the inspectors ({{lang|zh|{{linktext|刺史}}}}, ''cishi'') of [[Jiaozhou (region)|Jiaozhou]] or {{nowrap|"Jiaozhi Province"}} (''{{lang|vi|Giao Chỉ bộ}}''), the first of whom was [[Shi Dai]].

Under the Han, the political center of the former Nanyue lands was moved from Panyu ([[Guangzhou]]) south to Jiaozhi. The capital of Jiaozhi was first Mê Linh (Miling) (within modern [[Hanoi]]'s [[Mê Linh District|Me Linh]] [[Hanoi#Districts|district]]) and then [[Luy Lâu]], within [[Bac Ninh]]'s [[Thuan Thanh]] [[Bac Ninh#Districts|district]].{{sfnp|Taylor|1983|pp=12, 32–35}}{{sfnp|Xiong|2009}} According to the ''[[Book of Han]]''’s "Treatise on Geography", Jiaozhi contained 10 [[county (China)|counties]]: [[Luy Lâu|Leilou]] (羸𨻻), Anding (安定), Goulou (苟屚), Miling (麊泠), Quyang (曲昜), Beidai (北帶), Jixu (稽徐), Xiyu (西于), [[Long Biên|Longbian]] (龍編), and Zhugou (朱覯). [[Đào Duy Anh]] stated that Jiaozhi's territory contained all of [[Tonkin]], excluding the regions upstream of the [[Black River (Asia)|Black River]] and [[Ma River]].<ref name ="dda"/> Southwestern [[Guangxi]] was also part of Jiaozhi.<ref name ="dda">''Đất nước Việt Nam qua các đời'', Văn hóa Thông tin publisher, 2005</ref> The southwest area of present-day [[Ninh Bình]] was the border of Jiuzhen. Later, the Han dynasty created another commandery named [[Rinan Commandery|Rinan]] (''{{lang|vi|Nhật Nam}}'') located south of Jiuzhen, stretching from the [[Ngang Pass]] to [[Quảng Nam Province]].

One of the Grand Administrators of Jiaozhi was [[Su Ding]].{{sfnp|Kiernan|2019|p=78}} In AD 39, two sisters [[Trưng Trắc]] and Trưng Nhị who were daughters of the Lac lord of Mê Linh, led an [[Trung sisters' rebellion|uprising]] that quickly spread to an area stretching approximate modern-day Vietnam (Jiaozhi, [[Jiuzhen]], [[Hepu]] and [[Rinan]]), forcing Su Ding and the Han army to flee. All of Lac lords submitted to Trưng Trắc and crowned her Queen.{{sfnp|Kiernan|2019|p=79}} In AD 42 the Han empire struck back by sending an reconquest expedition led by [[Ma Yuan (Han dynasty)|Ma Yuan]]. [[Copper columns of Ma Yuan]] was supposedly erected by Ma Yuan after he had suppressed the uprising of the [[Trưng Sisters]] in AD 43.{{sfnp|Kiernan|2019|p=80}} Ma Yuan followed his conquest with a brutal course of assimilation,{{sfnp|Kiernan|2019|p=81}} destroying the natives' [[Đông Sơn drums|bronze drums]] in order to build the column, on which the inscription "If this bronze column collapses, Jiaozhi will be destroyed" was carved, at the edge of the Chinese empire.{{sfnp|Taylor|1983|p=48}} Following the defeat of Trưng sisters, thousands of Chinese immigrants (mostly soldiers) arrived and settled in Jiaozhi, adopted surname Ma, and married with local [[Lac Viet]] girls, began the developing of Han-Viet ruling class while local Lac ruling-class families who had submitted to Ma Yuan were used as local functionaries in Han administration and were natural participants in the intermarriage process.{{sfnp|Taylor|1983|pp=48, 50–53, 54}} 
In 100, [[Cham people]] in Xianglin county (near modern-day [[Huế]]) revolted against the Han rule due to high taxes. The Cham plundered and burned down the Han centers. The Han respond by putting down the rebellion, executed their leaders and granting Xianglin a two-year tax respite.{{sfnp|Kiernan|2019|p=85}} In 136 and 144, Cham people again launched another two rebellions which provoked mutinies in the Imperial army from Jiaozhi and Jiuzhen, then rebellion in Jiaozhi. The governor of Jiaozhi, according to Kiernan, "lured them to surrender" with "enticing words."{{sfnp|Kiernan|2019|p=85}}

In 115, the Wuhu Li of [[Cangwu]] district revolted against the Han. In the following year, thousand of rebels from Yulin and Hepu besieged Cangwu. [[Deng Sui|Empress Dowager Deng]] decided to avoid conflict and instead sent attendant censor Ren Chuo with a proclamation to grant them amnesty.{{sfnp|Churchman|2016|p=126}}

In 157, Lac leader [[Chu Đạt]] in Jiuzhen attacked and killed the Chinese magistrate, then marched north with an army of four to five thousand. The governor of Jiuzhen, Ni Shi, was killed. The Han general of Jiuzhen, Wei Lang, gathered an army and defeated Chu Đạt, beheading 2,000 rebels.{{sfnp|Taylor|1983|pp=64–66}}{{sfnp|Loewe|1986|p=316}}

In 159 and 161, Indian merchants arrived Jiaozhi and paid tributes to the Han government.{{sfnp|Li|2011|p=48}}

In 166, a Roman trade mission arrived Jiaozhi, bringing tributes to the Han, which "were likely bought from local markets" of Rinan and Jiaozhi.{{sfnp|Kiernan|2019|p=86}}

In 178, Wuhu people under [[Liang Long]] sparked a revolt against the Han in [[Hepu Commandery|Hepu]] and Jiaozhi. Liang Long spread his revolt to all northern Vietnam, [[Guangxi]] and central Vietnam as well, attracting all non-Chinese ethnic groups in Jiaozhi to join. In 181, the Han empire sent general Chu Chuan to deal with the revolt. In June 181 Liang Long was captured and beheaded, and his rebellion was suppressed.{{sfnp|Taylor|1983|pp=67–68}}

In 192, [[Cham people]] in Xianglin county led by [[Khu Liên]] successful revolted against the Han dynasty. Khu Liên found the independent kingdom of [[Lâm Ấp]].{{sfnp|Taylor|1983|p=69}}

Jiaozhi emerged as the economic center of gravity on the southern coast of the Han empire. In 2&nbsp;AD, the region reported four times as many households as [[Nanhai Commandery|Nanhai]] (modern Guangdong), while its population density is estimated to be 9.6 times larger than that of Guangdong. Jiaozhi was a key supplier of rice and produced prized handicrafts and natural resources. The region's location was highly favorable to trade. Well connected to central China via the [[Ling Canal]], it formed the nearest connection between the Han court and the [[Maritime Silk Road]].{{sfnp|Li|2011|pp=39–44}}

By the end of the second century AD, [[Buddhism]] (brought from India via sea by Indian Buddhists centuries earlier) had become the most common religion of Jiaozhi.{{sfnp|Kiernan|2019|p=92}}

===Three Kingdoms===
{{see also|Jiaozhi Campaign}}
During the [[Three Kingdoms]] [[History of China|period]], Jiaozhi's commanders pledged loyalty to [[Eastern Wu|Wu]] from the year 220. It was administered from [[Longbian]] (''{{lang|vi|[[Long Biên]]}}'') by [[Shi Xie]] on behalf of the [[Eastern Wu|Wu]]. This family controlled several surrounding commanderies, but upon the headman's death [[Guangzhou]] was formed as a separate province from northeastern [[Jiaozhou (region)|Jiaozhou]] and Shi Xie's son attempted to usurp his father's appointed replacement. In retaliation, [[Sun Quan]] executed the son and most of his brothers, demoting the remainder of the family to common status.{{sfnp|Kiernan|2019|p=91}} A local rebellion shifted control of the province to [[Cao Wei|Wei]] and then [[Sima Jin dynasty|Jin]] from 266{{ndash}}271 but Wu [[Jiaozhi Campaign|briefly regained control]] before its complete conquest in 280.

===Six Dynasties, Sui, and Tang===
Under the [[Six Dynasties]], Jiaozhi generally adhered to the southern dynasties based in [[Jiankang]] (modern [[Nanjing]]). Upon the [[Sui dynasty|Sui]] [[Sui conquest of Chen|conquest]] of [[Chen dynasty|Chen]], it formed part of the Sui and [[Tang Empire]]s until it was replaced in 679 by the new administration of Annam, the [[Annan Protectorate]].

===Ming dynasty===
{{main|Jiaozhi Province}}
During the [[Fourth Chinese domination of Vietnam]], the [[Ming dynasty]] revived the historical name Jiaozhi and created the [[Jiaozhi Province]] in northern Vietnam. After repelling the Ming forces, [[Lê Lợi]] dismissed all former administrative structure and divided the nation into 5 ''dao''. Thus, Giao Chỉ and Giao Châu have never been names of official administrative units ever since.

==Sino-Roman contact==
{{see also|Sino-Roman relations}}
[[File:Green glass Roman cup unearthed at Eastern Han tomb, Guixian, China.jpg|thumb|upright|Green [[Roman glass]] cup unearthed from an [[Eastern Han dynasty]] (25–220 AD) tomb, [[Guangxi]], [[China]]]]
In 166 CE An-tun ([[Marcus Aurelius|Marcus Aurelius Antoninus]]) of the state of [[Daqin|Ta Ch'in]] sent missionaries from beyond [[Rinan]] to offer presents of ivory, rhinoceros horn, and tortoise to the Han court.{{sfnp|Yu|1986|p=470}} Hou Han Shu records:

<blockquote>In the ninth Yanxi year [AD&nbsp;166], during the reign of [[Emperor Huan of Han|Emperor Huan]], the king of [[Daqin|Da Qin]] [the Roman Empire], Andun ([[Marcus Aurelius|Marcus Aurelius Antoninus]], {{abbr|r.|Ruled}}&nbsp;161–180), sent envoys from beyond the frontiers through Rinan...  During the reign of Emperor He [AD&nbsp;89–105], they sent several envoys carrying tribute and offerings. Later, the Western Regions rebelled, and these relations were interrupted. Then, during the second and the fourth Yanxi years in the reign of Emperor Huan [AD&nbsp;159 and 161], and frequently since, [these] foreigners have arrived [by sea] at the frontiers of Rinan [Commandery in modern central Vietnam] to present offerings.{{sfnp|Hill|2009|p=27}}{{sfnp|Hill|2009|p=31}}</blockquote>

The ''[[Book of Liang]]'' states:
<blockquote>The merchants of this country [the Roman Empire] frequently visit Funan [in the [[Mekong]] delta], Rinan ([[Annam (Chinese province)|Annam]]) and Jiaozhi [in the [[Red River Delta]] near modern [[Hanoi]]]; but few of the inhabitants of these southern frontier states have come to Da Qin. During the 5th year of the Huangwu period of the reign of Sun Quan [AD&nbsp;226] a merchant of Da Qin, whose name was Qin Lun came to Jiaozhi [Tonkin]; the prefect [''taishou''] of Jiaozhi, Wu Miao, sent him to [[Sun Quan]] [the Wu emperor], who asked him for a report on his native country and its people."{{sfnp|Hill|2009|p=292}}</blockquote>

{{anchor|Cattigara}}
The capital of Jiaozhi was proposed by [[Ferdinand von Richthofen]] in 1877 to have been the port known to the geographer [[Ptolemy]] and the Romans as [[Kattigara]], situated near modern [[Hanoi]].{{sfn|Richthofen|1944|p=387}}{{sfnp|Richthofen|1944|pp=410–411}} Richthofen's view was widely accepted until archaeology at [[Óc Eo]] in the [[Mekong Delta]] suggested that site may have been its location. Kattigara seems to have been the main port of call for ships traveling to China from the West in the first few centuries AD, before being replaced by [[Guangdong]].<ref>Hill 2004 – see: [http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30.html#11_1] and Appendix: F.</ref>

In terms of archaeological finds, a [[Roman Republic|Republican]]-era [[Roman glass]]ware has been found at a [[Western Han]] tomb in [[Guangzhou]] along the [[South China Sea]], dated to the early 1st century BC.{{sfnp|An|2002|p=83}} In addition, from a site near the [[Red River (Asia)|Red River]] in the northern Vietnamese province of [[Lao Cai]] (borders with [[Yunnan]]), a glass bowl dated from late first century BC to early first century AD was recovered along with 40 ancient artifacts including seven [[Dong Son drum|Heger type I drum]]s.{{sfnp|Borell|2012|pp=70–71}} At Óc Eo, then part of the [[Kingdom of Funan]] near Jiaozhi, Roman golden medallions made during the reign of [[Antoninus Pius]] and his successor Marcus Aurelius have been found.{{sfnp|Young|2001|pp=29–30}}{{sfnp|Osborne|2006|pp=24–25}} This may have been the port city of Kattigara [[Geography (Ptolemy)|described by Ptolemy]], laying beyond the [[Golden Chersonese]] (i.e. [[Malay Peninsula]]).{{sfnp|Young|2001|pp=29–30}}{{sfnp|Osborne|2006|pp=24–25}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=nb}}

==See also==
{{Portal|History|Vietnam|China}}
*[[Kang Senghui]], a Buddhist monk of [[Sogdia]]n origin who lived in Jiaozhi during the 3rd century
*[[Tonkin]], an exonym for northern Vietnam, approximately identical to the Jiaozhi region
*[[Cochinchina]], an exonym for (southern) Vietnam, yet cognate with the term Jiaozhi

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
===Articles===
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Borell |first1=Brigitte |title=The Han period glass dish from Lao Cai, Northern Vietnam|journal=Journal of Indo-Pacific Archaeology|date=2012 |volume=32}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Chamberlain |first1=James R. |title=Kra-Dai and the Proto-History of South China and Vietnam |journal=Journal of the Siam Society |date=2016 |volume=104}}
*{{cite journal|last= Churchman|first= Michael|title= Before Chinese and Vietnamese in the Red River Plain: The Han–Tang Period|journal= Chinese Southern Diaspora Studies|url= http://chl-old.anu.edu.au/publications/csds/csds2010/04-2_Churchman_2010.pdf|volume= 4|year= 2010|access-date= 29 August 2020|archive-date= 9 March 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210309155610/https://chl-old.anu.edu.au/publications/csds/csds2010/04-2_Churchman_2010.pdf|url-status= dead}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Ferlus|first=Michel|date=2009|title=Formation of Ethnonyms in Southeast Asia|url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01182596/document|journal=42nd International Conference on Sino-Tibetan Languages and Linguistics|volume=31|pages=1–6|via=[[HAL (open archive)|HAL]]}} 
*{{cite journal |title=Settlement patterns on the Red River plain from the late prehistoric period to the 10th century AD
|last=Masanari |first=Nishimura | author-mask = |journal=Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association|year=2005 |volume=25 |issue= |pages=99–107 |doi = 10.7152/bippa.v25i0.11920|doi-broken-date=12 July 2025 |doi-access=free}}
*{{cite journal |title=An Introduction to Dr. Nishimura Masanari's Research on the Lung Khe Citadel|last=Noriko|first=Nishino | author-mask = |journal=Asian Review of World Histories|year=2017 |volume=5 |issue=2|pages=11–27 |doi = 10.1163/22879811-12340003|doi-access=free|via=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Pain|first=Frédéric|date=2008|title=An Introduction to Thai Ethnonymy: Examples from Shan and Northern Thai|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25608449|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume=128|issue=4|pages=641–662|jstor=25608449}}
*{{cite journal |title=What Lies Behind the Earliest Story of Buddhism in Ancient Vietnam?|last=Taylor|first=K. | author-mask = |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies|year=2017 |volume=77 |issue=1|pages=107–122 |doi = 10.1017/S0021911817000985|doi-access=free|via=[[Cambridge University Press]]}}

===Books===
*{{citation| surname =  An | given = Jiayao | chapter = When Glass Was Treasured in China| pages = 79–94| title = Silk Road Studies VII: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road| editor-given1 = Annette L. | editor-surname1 = Juliano| editor-given2 = Judith A. | editor-surname2 = Lerner| publisher = Brepols Publishers| year = 2002 | isbn = 2503521789}} 
*{{cite book|last1=Chamberlain|first1=James R.|editor1-last=Burusphat|editor1-first=Somsonge|title=Proceedings of the International Conference on Tai Studies, July 29–31, 1998|date=2000|publisher=Institute of Language and Culture for Rural Development, Mahidol University|location=Bangkok, Thailand|isbn=974-85916-9-7|chapter-url=http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf8/chamberlain1998origin.pdf|access-date=29 August 2014|chapter=The origin of the Sek: implications for Tai and Vietnamese history}}
*{{cite book |last=Churchman|first=Catherine|year=2016|title=The People Between the Rivers: The Rise and Fall of a Bronze Drum Culture, 200–750 CE|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn=978-1-442-25861-7}}
*{{citation| surname =  Churchman | given = Michael | chapter = "The People in Between": The Li and the Lao from the Han to the Sui| pages = 67–86| title = The Tongking Gulf Through History| editor-given1 = Tana | editor-surname1 = Li| editor-given2 = James A. | editor-surname2 = Anderson| location = Pennsylvania | publisher = University of Pennsylvania Press| year = 2011 | isbn = 978-0-812-20502-2}}
*{{cite book |last1=Li |first1=Tana |editor1-last=Cooke |editor1-first=Nola |editor2-last=Li |editor2-first=Tana |editor3-last=Anderson |editor3-first=James A. |title=The Tongking Gulf Through History |date=2011 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=9780812205022 |pages=39–53 |chapter=Jiaozhi (Giao Chỉ) in the Han period Tongking Gulf}}
*{{cite book| last = [[Fan Chengda|Fan]]| first = Chengda|editor-last = Hargett| editor-first = James M.| title =Treatises of the Supervisor and Guardian of the Cinnamon Sea: The Natural World and Material Culture of Twelfth-Century China| publisher = University of Washington Press | year = 2011| isbn = 978-0-29599-079-8}} 
*{{cite book|last=Hill|first=John E.|year=2009|title=Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE|location=Charleston, South Carolina|publisher=BookSurge|isbn=978-1-4392-2134-1}} 
* {{cite book|last=Kiernan|first=Ben|author-link=Ben Kiernan|year=2019|title=Việt Nam: a history from earliest time to the present|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}
*{{citation| surname =  Loewe | given = Michael | chapter = The conduct of government and the issues at stake (A.D. 57-167) | pages = 291–316| title = The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC–AD 220| editor-given1 = Denis C. | editor-surname1 = Twitchett | editor-given2= John King | editor-surname2 = Fairbank| location = Cambridge | publisher = Cambridge University Press| year = 1986 }}
*{{cite book|last=Osborne|first=Milton|year=2006|title=The Mekong: Turbulent Past, Uncertain Future|publisher=Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin|isbn=1-74114-893-6}}
*{{cite book |last1=Pulleyblank |first1=E.G. |title= The Origins of Chinese Civilization|editor-first1= David N.|editor-last1=Keightly|chapter= The Chinese and their neighbors in prehistoric and early historic times|date=1983|publisher= University of California Press |location=Berkeley}} 
*{{Citation |last=Reid |first=Anthony |title=Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce |volume=2: Expansion and Crisis |location=New Haven |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1993}} 
*{{citation| surname =  Richthofen | given = Ferdinand von | chapter = China| pages = 387, 410–411| title = Terrae incognitae : eine Zusammenstellung und kritische Bewertung der wichtigsten vorcolumbischen Entdeckungsreisen an Hand der daruber vorliegenden Originalberichte,'' Band I, ''Altertum bis Ptolemäus| editor-given1 = Richard| editor-surname1 = Hennig | location = Leiden | publisher = Brill| year = 1944 }} 
*{{citation|last = Schafer |first= Edward Hetzel |author-link=Edward H. Schafer|year = 1967 |title = The Vermilion Bird: T'ang Images of the South |publisher = University of California Press|location = Los Angeles}} 
*{{cite book |last1=Schliesinger |first1=Joachim |title=Origin of the Tai People 5 – Cradle of the Tai People and the Ethnic Setup Today Volume 5 of Origin of the Tai People|year=2018a|publisher=Booksmango |isbn=978-1641531825}}
*{{cite book |last1=Schliesinger |first1=Joachim |title=Origin of the Tai People 6 – Northern Tai-Speaking People of the Red River Delta and Their Habitat Today Volume 6 of Origin of the Tai People |year=2018b|publisher=Booksmango |isbn=978-1641531832}}
*{{cite book|last=Taylor|first=Keith Weller|year=1983|title=The Birth of the Vietnam|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-07417-0}} 
* {{Citation |last=Xiong |first=Victor Cunrui<!--sic--> |contribution=Jiaozhi |page=251 |contribution-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UD8Nvn7Ca18C&pg=PA251 |title=Historical Dictionary of Medieval China |isbn=978-0-8108-6053-7 |date=2009 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |location=[[Lanham, Maryland|Lanham]] }}
*{{citation| surname =  Yu | given = Ying-shih | chapter = Han foreign relations | pages = 377–463| title = The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC–AD 220| editor-given1 = Denis C. | editor-surname1 = Twitchett | editor-given2 = John King | editor-surname2 = Fairbank| location = Cambridge | publisher = Cambridge University Press| year = 1986 }}
*{{cite book| last = Yule| first = Henry| title = A glossary of colloquial Anglo-Indian words and phrases: Hobson-Jobson| publisher = Routledge | year = 1995| isbn = 978-0-7007-0321-0}} 
*{{cite book|last=Young|first=Gary K.|year=2001|title=Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy, 31 BC – AD 305|location =London & New York|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-415-24219-3}}
* Zürcher, Erik (2002): "Tidings from the South, Chinese Court Buddhism and Overseas Relations in the Fifth Century AD." Erik Zürcher in: ''A Life Journey to the East. Sinological Studies in Memory of Giuliano Bertuccioli (1923–2001)''. Edited by Antonio Forte and Federico Masini. Italian School of East Asian Studies. Kyoto. Essays: Volume 2, pp.&nbsp;21–43.
{{refend}}

==External links==
*[https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/content/did-you-know-southern-silk-roads "The Southern Silk Roads" on Silk Roads Programme]

{{Han dynasty provinces}}
{{coord missing|Guangxi}}
{{coord missing|Guangdong}}
{{coord missing|Vietnam}}


[[Category:Commanderies of the Han dynasty]]
[[Category:Commanderies of the Jin dynasty (266–420)]]
[[Category:Commanderies of the Southern dynasties]]
[[Category:Commanderies of the Sui dynasty]]
[[Category:Former commanderies of China in Vietnam]]
[[Category:Historical regions of China]]
[[Category:Historical geography of Vietnam]]
[[Category:Populated places along the Silk Road]]
[[Category:Regions of Vietnam]]