View source for Japanese missions to Imperial China

{{Short description|Diplomatic missions sent to the Chinese court}}[[Image:Kentoshi route.png|thumb|300px|right|Possible routes of embassy vessels to the Tang dynasty]]

The '''Japanese missions to Imperial China''' were [[Foreign relations of Japan|diplomatic]] [[wikt:embassy|embassies]] which were intermittently sent to the Chinese imperial court. Any distinction amongst diplomatic envoys sent from the Japanese court or from any of the Japanese shogunates was lost or rendered moot when the ambassador was received in the Chinese capital.

Extant records document missions to China between the years of 607 and 839 (a mission planned for 894 was cancelled). The composition of these imperial missions included members of the [[aristocracy|aristocratic]] ''[[kuge]]'' and  [[Buddhist monks]]. These missions led to the importation of [[culture of China|Chinese culture]], including advances in the sciences and technology. These diplomatic encounters produced the beginnings of a range of [[schools of Buddhism]] in Japan, including [[Zen]].

From the [[Sinocentrism|Sinocentric]] perspective of the Chinese court in [[Chang'an]], the several embassies sent from Kyoto were construed as [[List of tributaries of Imperial China|tributaries of Imperial China]]; but it is not clear that the Japanese shared this view.<ref>Yoda, Yoshiie ''et al.'' (1996). [https://books.google.com/books?id=97LTcTx8N98C&pg=PA40 ''The Foundations of Japan's Modernization: a comparison with China's Path towards Modernization,'' pp. 40-41.]</ref>

China seems to have taken the initiative in opening relations with Japan. The [[Emperor Yang of Sui]] dispatched a message in 605 which read:

<blockquote>The sovereign of Sui respectfully inquires about the sovereign of [[Wa (Japan)|Wa]].<ref>Varley, Paul. (1980). ''Jinnō Shōtōki'', p. 128.</ref></blockquote>

The court of [[Empress Suiko]] responded by sponsoring a mission led by [[Ono no Imoko]] in 607. A message carried by that mission, believed to have been written by [[Prince Shōtoku]], contains the earliest known written instance in which the Japanese archipelago is referred to by a term meaning "land of the rising sun."<ref>Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). [https://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&dq=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran&pg=PP9 ''Annales des empereurs du japon,'' p. 40.]</ref> The salutation read, in part:

<blockquote>From the sovereign of the land of the rising sun (''hi izuru tokoro'') to the sovereign of the land of the setting sun."<ref>Varley, Paul. (1973). ''Japanese Culture: A Short History''. p. 15.</ref></blockquote>

The {{nihongo|[[Japanese missions to Sui China]]|遣隋使|Kenzui-shi}} included representatives sent to study government and technology.

The {{nihongo|[[Japanese missions to Tang China]]|遣唐使|Kentō-shi}} are the best known; 19 missions were completed. A 20th mission had been planned for 894 (''[[Kanpyō (era)|Kanpyō]] 6, 8th month''), including the appointment of ambassadors. However, shortly before departure, the mission was halted by [[Emperor Uda]] because of reports of unsettled conditions in China.<ref>Titsingh, [https://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&dq=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran&pg=PP9  pp. 127-128.]</ref> The emperor's decision-making was influenced by the persuasive counsel of [[Sugawara no Michizane]].<ref>Kitagawa, Hiroshi. (1975). ''The Tale of the Heike,'' p. 222.</ref>

==Envoys to the Sui court==
{{main|Japanese missions to Sui China}}

Japanese envoys to the Sui court were received as ambassadors:

*'''607''': The first diplomatic mission was led by Japan's first ambassador to China. This Japanese envoy, [[Ono no Imoko]], had the title ''kenzuishi''.<ref>Nussbaum, "Kentōshi" at {{Google books|p2QnPijAEmEC|p. 511|page=511}}</ref> The delegation was received in the Imperial Court.<ref name="nussbaum">Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005). "''Ono no Imoko''" in {{Google books|p2QnPijAEmEC|''Japan encyclopedia,'' p. 755|page=755}}; n.b., Louis-Frédéric is pseudonym of Louis-Frédéric Nussbaum, ''see'' [http://dispatch.opac.ddb.de/DB=4.1/PPN?PPN=128842709 Deutsche Nationalbibliothek Authority File] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120524174828/http://dispatch.opac.ddb.de/DB=4.1/PPN?PPN=128842709 |date=2012-05-24 }}.</ref>
*'''608''': Ono no Imoko leads a returning embassy to China.<ref name="nussbaum"/> This mission included two others with the title ''kenzushi'': [[Takamuko no Kuromaro]] (no Genri)<ref>Nussbaum, "Takamuko no Kuromaro (No Genri)" at {{Google books|p2QnPijAEmEC|p. 935|page=935}}</ref> and [[Minabuchi no Shōan]].<ref>Nussbaum, "Minabuchi no Shōan" at {{Google books|p2QnPijAEmEC|p. 632|page=632}}</ref> Kuromaro and Shōan, along with the Buddhist monk Sōmin <ref>Nussbaum, "Sōmin" at {{Google books|p2QnPijAEmEC|p. 900|page=900}}</ref> remained in China for 32 years before returning to Japan.

==Envoys to the Tang court==
{{main|Japanese missions to Tang China}}

Japanese envoys to the Tang court were received as ambassadors:
Three missions to the Tang court were dispatched during the reign of [[Emperor Kōtoku]].<ref>Ponsonby-Fane, Richard. (1959). ''The Imperial House of Japan,'' p. 51.</ref>
[[Emperor Kanmu]]'s planned mission to the Tang court in 804 (''[[Enryaku]] 23'') included three ambassadors and several Buddhist priests, including {{nihongo|[[Saichō]]|最澄}} and {{nihongo|[[Kūkai]]|空海}}; but the enterprise was delayed until the end of the year. The ambassadors returned in the middle of 805 (''Enryaku 24, 6th month''). They were accompanied by the monk Saichō, also known by his posthumous name {{nihongo|Dengyō Daishi|伝教大師}}, whose teachings would develop into the [[Tendai]] school of Japanese Buddhism.<ref>Titsingh, [https://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&dq=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran&pg=PP9  pp. 92-94.]</ref> In 806 (''[[Daidō]] 1, 8th month''), the return of the monk Kūkai, also known posthumously as {{nihongo|Kōbō-Daishi|弘法大師}}, marks the beginning of what would develop into the [[Shingon]] school of Japanese Buddhism.<ref>Titsingh, [https://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&dq=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran&pg=PP9  p. 96.]</ref>

New ambassadors to China were appointed by [[Emperor Ninmyō]] in 834, but the mission was put off.  
*'''836–839''': The mission was postponed by a typhoon; but the ambassadors did eventually travel to the Tang court, returning in 839 with a letter from [[Emperor Tang Wenzong]].<ref>Titsingh, [https://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&dq=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran&pg=PP9  p. 108.]</ref>

In China, a steady and conservative Confucianist [[Song dynasty]] emerged after the end of the Tang dynasty and subsequent period of disunity during the [[Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period]]. During this time, although travel to China was generally safe, Japanese rulers believed there was little to learn from the Song, and so there were no major embassy missions to China.

===Adopting Tang models===
Ancient Japan was called [[Wa (Japan)|Wa]], which had a primitive culture when compared to [[Tang dynasty|Tang]] culture.{{cn|date=December 2017}} The Tang folks referred to [[Wa (Japan)|Wa]] as 東夷 (Eastern barbarians).

From 630 onward, [[Wa (Japan)|Wa]] sent large groups of monks, students and government officials, up to 600 each time, to the Tang capital of Chang'an to learn the then advanced production technology, social system, history, philosophy, arts and architecture.
Among many items adopted by [[Wa (Japan)|Wa]]:

*Tang political system
*[[Heian-kyō]], the new Japanese capital established in 794, and was a laid out in a grid similar to that of Chang'an, the Tang capital.<ref>Ponsonby-Fane, p. 61.</ref>
*[[Huaxia|Culture]], many Han Chinese characters (漢字) were borrowed from Tang civilization to build the Japanese culture.
*Tang dress codes (known today as Wafuku 和服), eating habits were the fashion which was imitated and popularized.

==Envoys to the Ming court==
{{main|Japanese missions to Ming China}}

Japanese envoys to the Ming court were received as ambassadors.<ref name="mizuno109">Mizuno, Norihito. (2003). [http://www.chinajapan.org/articles/15/mizuno15.108-144.pdf ''China in Tokugawa Foreign Relations: The Tokugawa Bakufu’s Perception of and Attitudes toward Ming-Qing China,'' pp. 109-112.]</ref>

*'''1373-1406''' (''[[Ōan]] 6'' &ndash; ''[[Ōei]] 13''): Embassies between China and Japan.<ref>Ackroyd, Joyce. (1982) ''Lessons from History: The "Tokushi Yoron",'' p. 329.</ref>
*'''1397''' (''Ōei 4, 8th month''): an Imperial ambassador is dispatched from [[Emperor Go-Komatsu]] to the Ming Court.<ref>Titsingh, [https://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&pg=PP322 p. 322.]</ref>
*'''1401''' (''Ōei 8''): [[Ashikaga Yoshimitsu]] sends a diplomatic mission to China as a tentative first step in re-initiating trade between [[Japan]] and [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] [[China]]. The formal diplomatic letter conveyed to the Emperor of China was accompanied by a gift of 1000&nbsp;ounces of gold and diverse objects.<ref>Titsingh, [https://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&pg=PP323 p. 323.]</ref>
*'''1402''' (''Ōei 9''): A letter from the [[Jianwen Emperor]] of China was received by Yoshimitsu; and this formal communication mistakenly accords the title "king of Japan" to the Japanese shōgun.<ref name="titsingh324">Titsingh, [https://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA324 p. 324.]</ref>

==Envoys to the Qing court==
{{See also|Qing dynasty}}

During Japan's [[sakoku|self-imposed isolation]] in the [[Edo period]] (1603–1868), Japan's vicarious relationships with China evolved through the intermediary of the [[Kingdom of Ryukyu]]. Japan's view of external relations was ambivalent.<ref name="mizuno109"/>

*'''1853''' (''[[Kaei]] 6''): [[Hayashi Akira]] completed ''[[Tsūkō ichiran]]''. The work was created under orders from the bakufu to compile and edit documents pertaining to East Asian trade and diplomacy; and, for example, it includes a detailed description of a Ryukyuan tribute embassy to the [[Qing]] Chinese court in [[Beijing]].<ref>Smits, Gregory. (1999). ''Visions of Ryukyu: Identity and Ideology in Early-Modern Thought and Politics,'' p. 37.</ref>

==See also==
*[[History of China]]
*[[History of Japan]]
*''[[Iki no Hakatoko no Sho]]'', 7th-century text
*[[Little China (ideology)]]
*[[Chinese influence on Japanese culture]]
*[[Japanese missions to Joseon]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
* [[Joyce Ackroyd|Ackroyd]], Joyce. (1982) ''Lessons from History: The [[Tokushi Yoron]].'' Brisbane: [[University of Queensland Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-7022-1485-1}}
* Goodrich, Luther Carrington and Zhaoying Fang. (1976). [https://books.google.com/books?id=067On0JgItAC&q=luther+carrington+goodrich ''Dictionary of Ming biography, 1368-1644'' (明代名人傳), Vol. I]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=JWpF-dObxW8C&q=luther+carrington+goodrich ''Dictionary of Ming biography, 1368-1644'' (明代名人傳), Vol. II.]  New York: [[Columbia University Press]]. {{ISBN|9780231038010}}; {{ISBN|9780231038331}}; [http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1622199  OCLC 1622199]
* Kitagawa, Hiroshi and Bruce T. Tsuchida. (1977). [https://books.google.com/books?id=fz2BAAAAIAAJ&q=The+Tale+of+the+Heike+and+Kitagawa  ''The Tale of the Heike.''] Tokyo: [[University of Tokyo Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-86008-128-9}}; {{OCLC|1684591}}
*Mizuno, Norihito. (2003). [http://www.chinajapan.org/articles/15/mizuno15.108-144.pdf ''China in Tokugawa Foreign Relations: The Tokugawa Bakufu’s Perception of and Attitudes toward Ming-Qing China,'' p. 109.] excerpt from ''Japan and Its East Asian Neighbors: Japan's Perceptionf of China and Korea and the Making of Foreign Policy from the Seventeenth to the Nineteenth Century,'' Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio State University, 2004, as cited in Tsutsui, William M. (2009). [https://books.google.com/books?id=KC2T9HchWTEC&pg=PT95 ''A Companion to Japanese History,'' p. 83.]
* Nussbaum, Louis Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). ''Japan Encyclopedia.'' Cambridge: [[Harvard University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-674-01753-5}}; [http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/48943301/editions?editionsView=true&referer=br OCLC 48943301]
* [[Richard Ponsonby-Fane|Ponsonby-Fane]], Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). [https://books.google.com/books?id=SLAeAAAAMAAJ&q=The+Imperial+House+of+Japan ''The Imperial House of Japan.''] Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. [http://www.worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/194887 OCLC 194887]
* [[Isaac Titsingh|Titsingh, Isaac.]] (1834). ''[[Nihon Odai Ichiran]]''; ou, [https://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&q=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran ''Annales des empereurs du Japon.''] Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. [https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/5850691  OCLC 5850691]
* [[H. Paul Varley|Varley, H. Paul]]. (1973). [https://books.google.com/books?id=niMEGQAACAAJ&q=Japanese+Culture:+A+Short+History ''Japanese Culture: A Short History.''] New York: [[Greenwood Publishing Group|Praeger Publishers]]. [http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/590531&referer=brief_results  OCLC 590531]
* [[H. Paul Varley|Varley, H. Paul]]. (1980). [https://books.google.com/books?id=tVv6OAAACAAJ ''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns.''] New York: Columbia University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-231-04940-5}}; [https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/59145842  OCLC 59145842]
* Yoda, Yoshiie. (1996). ''The Foundations of Japan's Modernization: a comparison with China's Path towards Modernization.'' Leiden: Brill. {{ISBN|978-9-004-09999-9}}; [http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/246732011  OCLC 246732011]

==External links==
*[http://www.zdrbs.com/japanese/text/index.htm 中日交渉史料目録] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090616061546/http://www.zdrbs.com/japanese/text/index.htm |date=2009-06-16 }}

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