View source for Jaffna kingdom

{{Short description|Tamil kingdom in present-day Sri Lanka (1215–1619)}}
{{Other uses|Jaffna (disambiguation)}}
{{Good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}}
{{Infobox former country
| native_name            = {{native name list|tag1=ta|name1=யாழ்ப்பாண அரசு|tag2=ta-Latn|name2=Yālppāṇa arasu|tag3=si|name3=යාපනය රාජධානිය|tag4=si-Latn|name4=Yāpanaya rājadhāniya|paren2=omit|paren4=omit}}
| conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Jaffna
| common_name            = Jaffna kingdom
| era                    = [[Transitional period of Sri Lanka|Transitional period]]
| government_type        = [[Monarchy]]
| year_start             = 1215
| year_end               = 1619
| event_start            = [[Kalinga Magha]]'s invasion of [[Sri Lanka]] led to the fall of the [[Polonnaruwa kingdom]].<ref name=DS91 /><ref name="Nadarajan p.72" /><ref name="Indrapala, K p.16" /><ref name=Cod74 />
| date_start             = 
| event_end              = [[Portuguese conquest of the Jaffna kingdom]]
| event1                 = Pandyas installed [[Aryacakravarti dynasty|Aryacakravarti]]
| date_event1            = 1277
| event2                 = Independence from [[Pandya dynasty]]
| date_event2            = 1323
| event3                 = [[Kingdom of Kotte|Jaffna in the kingdom of Kotte]]
| date_event3            = 1450
| event4                 = [[Aryacakravarti dynasty]] restored
| date_event4            = 1467
| event_pre              = 
| date_pre               = 
| event_post             = 
| date_post              = 
| p1                     = Kingdom of Polonnaruwa
| p2                     = Pandya dynasty
| p3                     = 
| s1                     = Portuguese Ceylon
| flag_s1                = Flag Portugal (1640).svg
| image_s1               = 

| symbol                 = Nandi (bull)
| symbol_type            = Royal emblem
| image_map2             = File:Jaffna Kingdom.svg
| image_map2_caption     = <small>{{legend|#F49D62|Jaffna kingdom at its greatest extent (circa 1350)}}
{{legend|#FF6F03|Jaffna kingdom in 1619}}</small>
| capital                = [[Nallur (Jaffna)|Nallur]]
| capital_exile          = 
| latd                   = 
| latm                   = 
| latNS                  = 
| longd                  = 
| longm                  = 
| longEW                 = 
| common_languages       = [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| religion               = {{nowrap|[[Hinduism]] ([[Shaivism]])}}
| currency               = [[Setu coins]]
| leader1                = [[Kalinga Magha|Kulankayan Cinkai Ariyan]] a.k.a. Kalinga Magha
| leader2                = [[Kulasekara Cinkaiariyan]]
| year_leader3           = 1617–1619
| leader3                = [[Cankili II]]
| year_leader1           = 1215–1255<ref name=DS91 /><ref name="Nadarajan p.72" /><ref name="Indrapala, K p.16" /><ref name=Cod74 />
| year_leader2           = 1277–1284
| title_leader           = [[List of Jaffna monarchs|Monarchs]]
| footnotes              = 
}}

The '''Jaffna kingdom''' ({{langx|ta|யாழ்ப்பாண அரசு}}, {{langx|si|යාපනය රාජධානිය}}; 1215–1619 CE), also known as '''Kingdom of Aryachakravarti''', was a historical kingdom of what today is northern Sri Lanka. It came into existence around the town of [[Jaffna]] on the [[Jaffna peninsula]] and was traditionally thought to have been established after the invasion of [[Kalinga Magha]] from [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kalinga]] in India.<ref name=DS91 /><ref name="Nadarajan p.72">Nadarajan, V. ''History of Ceylon Tamils'', p. 72</ref><ref name="Indrapala, K p.16">Indrapala, K. ''Early Tamil Settlements in Ceylon'', p. 16</ref><ref name=Cod74 /> Established as a powerful force in the north, northeast and west of the island, it eventually became a tribute-paying [[feudatory]] of the [[Pandyan Empire]] in modern [[South India]] in 1258, gaining independence<ref name=DS91 /><ref name=PP /> when the last Pandyan ruler of [[Madurai]] was defeated and expelled in 1323 by [[Malik Kafur]], the army general of the [[Delhi Sultanate]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=SxO0eISluqEC&pg=PA31 ''The History of Sri Lanka''] by Patrick Peebles, p. 31</ref> For a brief period in the early to mid-14th century it was an ascendant power in the island of Sri Lanka, to which all regional kingdoms accepted subordination. However, the kingdom was overpowered by the rival [[Kotte kingdom]] around 1450 when it was invaded by [[Bhuvanaikabahu VI of Kotte|Prince Sapumal]] under the orders of [[Parakramabahu VI]].<ref name=PP /><ref name=DS91 /><ref name="Nadarajan p.72">Nadarajan, V. ''History of Ceylon Tamils'', p. 72</ref><ref name="Indrapala, K p.16">Indrapala, K. ''Early Tamil Settlements in Ceylon'', p. 16</ref><ref name=Cod74 />

It gained independence from [[kingdom of Kotte]] control in 1467 after Kanakasooriya Cinkaiariyan and his two son's returned from [[Madurai]] with mercenaries to wrest the Jaffna Kingdom from Kotte's over lordship.<ref name=k>Kunarasa K, ''The Jaffna Dynasty'' p.68-72</ref><ref name=n>Nadarajan V, ''History of Ceylon Tamils'' p.81</ref><ref name=PP34>Peebles, ''History of Sri Lanka'', p. 34</ref> and its subsequent rulers directed their energies towards consolidating its economic potential by maximising revenue from pearls, elephant exports and land revenue.<ref name=PB /><ref name=TA29 /> It was less [[feudal]] than most of the other regional kingdoms on the island of Sri Lanka of the period.<ref name=TA29 /> During this period, important local [[Tamil language|Tamil]] literature was produced and [[Hindu]] temples were built, including an academy for language advancement.<ref name=g63 /><ref name=Kunarasap73 /><ref name=G64-65 /> The Sinhalese Nampota dated in its present form to the 14th or 15th century CE suggests that the whole of the Jaffna kingdom, including parts of the modern [[Trincomalee District]], was recognised as a Tamil region by the name Demala-pattanama (Tamil city).<ref>Indrapala, K – ''The Evolution of an Ethnic Identity: The Tamils in Sri Lanka C. 300 BCE to C. 1200 CE. Colombo: Vijitha Yapa.''</ref> In this work, a number of villages that are now situated in the [[Jaffna district|Jaffna]], [[Mullaitivu District|Mullaitivu]] and [[Trincomalee District|Trincomalee]] districts are mentioned as places in Demala-pattanama.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.e-thaksalawa.moe.gov.lk/web/si/component/k2/item/206-2014-08-04-07-05-10.html |title=''Nampota'' |access-date=2 March 2020 |archive-date=1 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801221045/http://www.e-thaksalawa.moe.gov.lk/web/si/component/k2/item/206-2014-08-04-07-05-10.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The arrival of the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] on the island of Sri Lanka in 1505, and its strategic location in the [[Palk Strait]] connecting all interior [[Sinhala kingdom|Sinhalese kingdoms]] to [[South India]], created political problems. Many of its kings confronted and ultimately made peace with the Portuguese. In 1617, [[Cankili II]], a usurper to the throne, confronted the Portuguese but was defeated, thus bringing the kingdom's independent existence to an end in 1619.<ref name=a58 /><ref name=g153>Gnanaprakasar, S. ''A critical history of Jaffna'', pp. 153–172</ref> Although rebels like [[Migapulle Arachchi]]—with the help of the [[Thanjavur Nayak]] kingdom—tried to recover the kingdom, they were eventually defeated.<ref name="Ceylon, Volume 1 pp.19-47">''An historical relation of the island Ceylon'', Volume 1, by Robert Knox and JHO Paulusz, pp. 19–47.</ref><ref name="Ceylon, Volume 1 p.43">''An historical relation of the island Ceylon'', Volume 1, by Robert Knox and JHO Paulusz, p. 43.</ref> [[Nallur (Jaffna)|Nallur]], a suburb of modern Jaffna town, was its capital.

== History ==
{{Main|History of the Jaffna kingdom}}

{{Sri Lankan former states}}
{{Sri Lankan Tamil history}}

=== Founding ===
The origin of the Jaffna kingdom is obscure and still the subject of controversy among historians.<ref>Gunasingam, M. ''Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism'', p. 53</ref><ref>Manogaran, C. ''The untold story of Ancient Tamils of Sri Lanka'', pp. 22–65</ref><ref>Kunarasa, K. ''The Jaffna Dynasty'', pp. 1–53</ref><ref>Rasanayagam, M. ''Ancient Jaffna'', pp. 272–321</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.infolanka.com/org/srilanka/hist/hist4.html
|title= The so-called Tamil Kingdom of Jaffna|access-date=2007-11-30|work= S. Ranwella}}</ref> Among mainstream historians, such as [[K. M. de Silva]], [[S. Pathmanathan]] and [[Karthigesu Indrapala]], the widely accepted view is that the kingdom of the [[Aryacakravarti dynasty]] in Jaffna began in 1215 with the invasion of a previously unknown chieftain called [[Kalinga Magha|Magha]], who claimed to be from [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kalinga]] in modern India.<ref name="Nadarajan p.72" /><ref name="Indrapala, K p.16" /><ref name=Cod74>Coddrington, K. ''Ceylon coins and currency'', pp. 74–76</ref> He deposed the ruling [[Parakrama Pandyan II]], a foreigner from the [[Pandyan Dynasty]] who was ruling the [[kingdom of Polonnaruwa]] at the time with the help of his soldiers and mercenaries from the Kalinga, modern [[Kerala]] and [[Tamil Nadu|Damila]] (Tamil Nadu) regions in India.<ref name=DS91 />

[[File:Pandya territories.png|240 px|thumbnail|left|Pandyan tribute paying territories circa 1250, includes what ultimately became the Jaffna kingdom in Sri Lanka]]
After the conquest of [[Rajarata]], he moved the capital to the [[Jaffna Peninsula|Jaffna peninsula]] which was more secured by heavy Vanni forest and ruled as a tribute-paying subordinate of the [[Chola empire]] of [[Tanjavur]], in modern Tamil Nadu, India.<ref name=DS91 /> During this period (1247), a [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malay]] chieftain from [[Tambralinga]] in modern [[Thailand]] named [[Chandrabhanu]] invaded the politically fragmented island.<ref name=DS91 /> Although King [[Parakkamabahu II of Dambadeniya|Parakramabahu II]] (1236–1270) from [[Dambadeniya]] was able to repulse the attack, Chandrabhanu moved north and secured the throne for himself around 1255 from Magha.<ref name=DS91 /> [[Sadayavarman Sundara Pandyan I]] invaded Sri Lanka in the 13th century and defeated Chandrabhanu the usurper of the Jaffna kingdom in northern Sri Lanka.<ref name="South-East Asia p.57">''Sri Lanka and South-East Asia: Political, Religious and Cultural Relations'' by W.M. Sirisena, p. 57</ref> [[Sadayavarman Sundara Pandyan I]] forced Chandrabhanu to submit to the Pandyan rule and to pay tributes to the [[Pandyan Dynasty]]. But later on when Chandrabhanu became powerful enough he again invaded the Singhalese kingdom but he was defeated by the brother of [[Sadayavarman Sundara Pandyan I]] called Veera Pandyan I and Chandrabhanu lost his life.<ref name="South-East Asia p.57" /> Sri Lanka was invaded for the 3rd time by the [[Pandyan Dynasty]] under the leadership of Arya Cakravarti who established the Jaffna kingdom.<ref name="South-East Asia p.57" />

=== Aryacakravarti dynasty ===
{{Main|Aryacakravarti dynasty}}

When Chandrabhanu embarked on a second invasion of the south, the Pandyas came to the support of the Sinhalese king and killed Chandrabhanu in 1262 and installed [[Aryacakravarti]], a minister in charge of the invasion, as the king.<ref name=DS91 /> When the Pandyan Empire became weak due to [[Muslim]] invasions, successive Aryacakravarti rulers made the Jaffna kingdom independent and a regional power to reckon with in Sri Lanka.<ref name=DS91>de Silva, ''A History of Sri Lanka'', pp. 91–92</ref><ref name=PP>Peebles, ''History of Sri Lanka'', pp. 31–32</ref> All subsequent kings of the Jaffna kingdom claimed descent from one Kulingai Cakravarti who is identified with Kalinga Magha by Swami Gnanaprakasar and Mudaliar Rasanayagam while maintaining their Pandyan progenitor's family name.<ref>Kunarasa, K. ''The Jaffna Dynasty'', pp. 65–66</ref><ref>Coddrington, ''Short history of Ceylon'', pp. 91–92</ref>

Politically, the dynasty was an expanding power in the 13th and 14th century with all regional kingdoms paying tribute to it.<ref name=PP /> However, it met with simultaneous confrontations with the [[Vijayanagar empire]] that ruled from [[Vijayanagara]], southern India, and a rebounding [[Kingdom of Kotte]] from the south of Sri Lanka.<ref name=ds132 /> This led to the kingdom becoming a [[vassal]] of the Vijayanagar Empire as well as briefly losing its independence under the Kotte kingdom from 1450 to 1467.<ref name=PP /> The kingdom was re-established when Kanakasooriya Cinkaiariyan and his two son's returned from [[Madurai]] with mercenaries to wrest the Jaffna Kingdom from Kotte's over lordship.<ref name=k>Kunarasa K, ''The Jaffna Dynasty'' p.68-72</ref><ref name=n>Nadarajan V, ''History of Ceylon Tamils'' p.81</ref> It maintained very close commercial and political relationships with the [[Thanjavur Nayaks|Thanjavur Nayakar]] kingdom in southern India as well as the [[Kandyan kingdom|Kandyan]] and segments of the Kotte kingdom. This period saw the building of Hindu temples and a flourishing of literature, both in Tamil and Sanskrit.<ref name=ds132>de Silva,  ''A History of Sri Lanka'', pp. 132–133</ref><ref>Kunarasa, K. ''The Jaffna Dynasty'', pp. 73–75</ref><ref name=Codrington>{{cite web|author=Codrington, Humphry William |title=Short history of Sri Lanka: Dambadeniya and Gampola Kings (1215–1411)|url=http://lakdiva.org/codrington/chap05.html|publisher=Lakdiva.org|access-date=2007-11-25}}</ref>

=== Kotte conquest and restoration ===

The Kotte conquest of the Jaffna kingdom was led by king [[Parakramabahu VI of Kotte|Parakramabahu VI]]'s adopted son, [[Bhuvanekabahu VI of Kotte|Prince Sapumal]]. This battle took place in many stages. Firstly, the tributaries to the Jaffna kingdom in the [[Vanni (Sri Lanka)|Vanni]] area, namely the [[Vanniar (Sri Lanka)|Vanniar]] chieftains of the [[Vannimai]] were neutralised. This was followed by two successive conquests. The first war of conquest did not succeed in capturing the kingdom. It was the second conquest dated to 1450 that eventually was successful. Apparently connected with this war of conquest was an expedition to Adriampet in modern [[South India]], occasioned according to Valentyn by the seizure of a Lankan ship laden with [[cinnamon]]. The ''Tenkasi inscription'' of Arikesari Parakrama Pandya of [[Tirunelveli|Tinnevelly]] who saw the backs of kings at ''Singai'', ''Anurai'', and elsewhere, may refer to these wars; it is dated between 1449–50 and 1453–54.<ref>Humphrey William Codrington, ''A Short History of Ceylon'' Ayer Publishing, 1970; {{ISBN|0-8369-5596-X}}</ref> [[Kanakasooriya Cinkaiariyan]] the Aryacakravarti king fled to South India with his family. Then Kanakasooriya Cinkaiariyan and his two son's returned from [[Madurai]] with mercenaries to wrest the Jaffna Kingdom from Kotte's over lordship.<ref name=k>Kunarasa K, ''The Jaffna Dynasty'' p.68-72</ref><ref name=n>Nadarajan V, ''History of Ceylon Tamils'' p.81</ref>

=== Decline & dissolution ===
{{Main|Portuguese invasion of Jaffna kingdom (1560)|Portuguese invasion of Jaffna kingdom (1591)}}
{{See also|Portuguese Ceylon}}

Portuguese traders reached Sri Lanka by 1505 where their initial forays were against the south-western coastal Kotte kingdom due to the lucrative monopoly on trade in [[spices]] that the Kotte kingdom enjoyed that was also of interest to the Portuguese.<ref name=TA2 /> The Jaffna kingdom came to the attention of Portuguese officials in Colombo for multiple reasons which included their interference in [[Roman Catholic]] missionary activities,<ref name=TA2 /> (which was assumed to be patronizing Portuguese interests) and their support to anti-Portuguese factions of the Kotte kingdom, such as the chieftains from [[Sittawaka]].<ref name=TA2 /> The Jaffna kingdom also functioned as a logistical base for the [[Kandyan kingdom]], located in the central highlands without access to any seaports, as an entrypot for military aid arriving from [[South India]].<ref name=TA2 /> Further, due to its strategic location, it was feared that the Jaffna kingdom may become a beachhead for the [[Dutch Empire|Dutch]] landings.<ref name=TA2>Abeysinghe, T. ''Jaffna Under the Portuguese'', p. 2</ref> It was king [[Sankili Segarajasekaran|Cankili I]] who resisted contacts with the Portuguese and even massacred 600–700 [[Paravas|Parava]] [[Catholics]] in the [[Mannar Island|island of Mannar]]. These Catholics were brought from India to Mannar to take over the lucrative pearl fisheries from the Jaffna kings.<ref>Kunarasa, K. ''The Jaffna Dynasty'', pp. 82–84</ref><ref>Gnanaprakasar, S. ''A critical history of Jaffna'', pp. 113–117</ref>

==== Client state ====
[[File:Jaffna Royal family 280x190.jpg|thumb|right|The royal family. First from the right is Cankili I]]

The [[Portuguese invasion of Jaffna kingdom (1560)|first expedition]] led by Viceroy Dom [[Constantino de Bragança]] in 1560 failed to subdue the kingdom but wrested [[Mannar Island]] from it.<ref name=a3 /> Although the circumstances are unclear, by 1582 the Jaffna king was paying a tribute of ten elephants or an equivalent in cash.<ref name=TA2 /><ref name=a3 /> In 1591, during the [[Portuguese invasion of Jaffna kingdom (1591)|second expedition led by André Furtado de Mendonça]], king [[Puvirasa Pandaram]] was killed and his son [[Ethirimanna Cinkam]] was installed as the monarch. This arrangement gave the Catholic missionaries freedom and a monopoly in elephant exports to the Portuguese,<ref name=a3 /><ref name=ds166>de Silva,  ''A History of Sri Lanka'', p. 166</ref> which the incumbent king however resisted.<ref name=a3 /><ref name=ds166 /> He helped the [[Kandyan kingdom]] under kings [[Vimaladharmasuriya I]] and Senarat during the period 1593–1635 with the intent of securing help from South India to resist the Portuguese. He however maintained autonomy of the kingdom without overly provoking the Portuguese.<ref name=a3>Abeysinghe, T. ''Jaffna Under the Portuguese'', p. 3</ref><ref name=ds166 />

==== Cankili II the usurper ====
{{See also|Portuguese conquest of the Jaffna kingdom}}
With the death of Ethirimana Cinkam in 1617, his 3-year-old son was the proclaimed king with the late king's brother ''Arasakesari'' as [[regent]]. [[Cankili II]], a usurper, and nephew of the late king killed all the princes of royal blood including ''Arasakesari'' and the powerful chief ''Periya Pillai Arachchi''.<ref name="a58">Abeysinghe, T. ''Jaffna Under the Portuguese'', pp. 58–63</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GD_6ka-aYuQC|title=The Nayaks of Tanjore|last=Vriddhagirisan|first=V.|publisher=Annamalai University Historical Series|year=1942|isbn=9788120609969|location=Annamalai University|pages=80|language=en}}</ref> His cruel actions made him unpopular leading to a revolt by the nominal Christian [[Ceylonese Mudaliyars|Mudaliyars]] Dom Pedro and Dom Luis (also known as  [[Migapulle Arachchi]], the son of Periya Pillai Arachchi) and drove Cankili to hide in [[Kayts]] in August–September 1618.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DUEKAQAAIAAJ|title=The Portuguese in Ceylon, 1617–1638|last=DeSilva|first=Chandra Richard|date=1972|publisher=School of Oriental and African Studies|location=University of London|pages=96|language=en}}</ref> Unable to secure Portuguese acceptance of his kingship and to suppress the revolt, Cankili II invited military aid from the [[Thanjavur Nayaks]] who sent a troop of 5000 men under the military commander [[Varunakulattan]].<ref name="a58" /><ref name="Queyroz">De Queyroz, ''The Temporal and Spiritual Conquest of Ceylon'', pp. 51, 468</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E08HAQAAIAAJ|title=Journal of Tamil Studies|date=1981|publisher=International Institute of Tamil Studies|pages=44–45|language=en}}</ref>

Cankili II was supported by the Kandy rulers. After the fall of the Jaffna kingdom, the two unnamed princesses of Jaffna had been married to Senarat's stepsons, Kumarasingha and Vijayapala.<ref name="Ceylon, Volume 1 p.43" />  Cankili II expectably received military aid from the Thanjavur Nayak Kingdom. On his part, [[Thanjavur Nayak kingdom#Raghunatha Nayak|Raghunatha Nayak]] of Thanjavur made attempts to recover the Jaffna kingdom for his protege, the Prince of Rameshwaram.<ref name="Ceylon, Volume 1 p.43" /> However, all attempts to recover the Jaffna kingdom from the Portuguese met with failure.

By June 1619, there were two Portuguese expeditions: a naval expedition that was repulsed by the [[Karaiyar]]s and another expedition by [[Filipe de Oliveira]] and his 5,000 strong land army which was able to inflict defeat on Cankili II.<ref name=a58 /> Cankili, along with every surviving member of the royal family were captured and taken to [[Goa]], where he was hanged. The remaining captives were encouraged to become monks or nuns in the holy orders, and as most obliged, it avoided further claimants to the Jaffna throne.<ref name=a58 /> In 1620 [[Migapulle Arachchi]], with a troop of Thanjavur soldiers, revolted against the Portuguese and was defeated.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hsYLAAAAIAAJ&q=migapulle|title=Jaffna under the Portuguese|last=Abeyasinghe|first=Tikiri|date=1986|publisher=Lake House Investments|isbn=9789555520003 |language=en}}</ref> A second rebellion was led by a chieftain called ''[[Varunakulattan]]'' with the support of [[Raghunatha Nayak]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GD_6ka-aYuQC&q=varunakulattan|title=Nayaks of Tanjore|last=Vriddhagirisan|first=V.|date=1995|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=9788120609969|page=91|language=en}}</ref>

== Administration ==
[[File:Mantri Manai.JPG|thumb|right|''[[Mantri Manai]]'' – The surviving remains of the minister's quarters that was reused by the Portuguese and Dutch colonials<ref>Kunarasa, K. ''The Jaffna Dynasty'', p. 2</ref>]]

According to [[Ibn Batuta]], a traveling [[Morocco|Moroccan]] historian of note, by 1344, the kingdom had two capitals: one in [[Nallur, Sri Lanka|Nallur]] in the north and the other in [[Puttalam]] in the west during the pearling season.<ref name=PP /><ref name=Codrington /><ref>Gunasingam, M. ''Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism'', p. 54</ref> The kingdom proper, that is the Jaffna peninsula, was divided into various provinces with subdivisions of ''parrus'' meaning property or larger territorial units and ''ur'' or villages, the smallest unit, was administered on a hierarchical and regional basis.<ref name=admin /> At the summit was the king whose kingship was hereditary; he was usually succeeded by his eldest son. Next in the hierarchy stood the ''adikaris'' who were the provincial administrators.<ref name=PP /><ref name=admin /> Then came the ''[[mudaliyars]]'' who functioned as judges and interpreters of the laws and customs of the land.<ref name=admin /> It was also their duty to gather information of whatever was happening in the provinces and report to higher authorities. The title was bestowed on the [[Karaiyar]] generals who commanded the navy and also on [[Sri Lankan Vellalar|Vellalar]] chiefs.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U08LAQAAIAAJ|script-title=ta:யாழ்ப்பாணச் சரித்திரம்|last=Rasanayagam|first=C.|title=History of Jaffna|date=1933|publisher=ஏசியன் எடுகேஷனல் சர்வீசஸ்|pages=17|language=ta|quote={{lang|ta|தமிழரசர்காலத்திற் போலவே "அதிகாரம்' என்னுந் தலைமைக்காரர் பறங்கியர் காலத்திலும் நியமிக் கப்பட்டிருந்தாலும், வரியறவிடும் முக்கிய தலைமைக் காரர், இறைசுவர் (Recebedor) என்றும், அவர்களுக்குக் கீழுள்ளவர்கள் ‘தலையாரிகள்' அல்லது மேயோருல், (Mayora) என்றும் அழைக்கப்பட்டார்கள். உத்தியோகங்களெல்லாம் உயர்ந்த சாதித் தலைவர்களுக்கே கொடுக்கப்பட்டன. தமிழரசர் காலத்தில் கப்பற்படைக்கு அதிபதிகளாயிருந்த கரையார்த் தலைவருக்கும், வேளாளருக்கு உதவியதுபோல் முதலியார்ப் பட்டமுங் கண்ணியமான உத்தியோகங்களுக்கு கொடுக்கப்பட்டன.}}}}</ref> Administrators of revenues called ''kankanis'' or superintendents and ''kanakkappillais'' or [[accountants]] came next in line. These were also known as ''pandarapillai''. They had to keep records and maintain accounts.<ref name=admin /><ref name=GM58 /> The royal [[herald]]s whose duty was to convey messages or proclamations came from the [[Sri Lankan Paraiyar|Paraiyar]] community.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|title=Early Settlements in Jaffna: An Archaeological Survey|last=Ragupathy|first=Ponnampalam|date=1987|publisher=University of Jaffna: Thillimalar Ragupathy|pages=167, 210|language=en}}</ref>

''Maniyam'' was the chief of the ''parrus''.<ref name=admin /> He was assisted by ''mudaliyars'' who were in turn assisted by ''udaiyars'', persons of authority over a village or a group of villages.<ref name=admin /> They were the custodians of law and order and gave assistance to survey land and collect revenues in the area under their control.<ref name=admin /> The village headman was called ''talaiyari'', ''pattankaddi'' or ''adappanar'' and he assisted in the collection of taxes and was responsible for the maintenance of order in his territorial unit.<ref name=admin /><ref name=":0" /> The Adappanar were the headmen of the ports.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JpNuAAAAMAAJ|title=Northern Ceylon (Sri Lanka) in the 19th century|last=Bastiampillai|first=Bertram|date=2006-01-01|publisher=Godage International Publishers|isbn=9789552088643|pages=94|language=en}}</ref> The Pattankaddi and Adappanar were from the maritime [[Karaiyar]] and [[Paravar]] communities.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=K.|first=Arunthavarajah|date=2014|title=The Administration of the Jaffna Kingdom – A Historical View|journal=International Journal of Business and Administration Research|publisher=Department of History|location=University of Jaffna|volume=2|pages=28–34|via=IJBARR}}</ref> In addition, each [[caste]] had a chief who supervised the performance of caste obligations and duties.<ref name=admin>{{cite web|title=Yarl-Paanam|url=http://www.eelavar.com/jaffna/pageview.php?ID=565&SID=111|publisher=Eelavar Network|access-date=2007-11-24|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071222224953/http://www.eelavar.com/jaffna/pageview.php?ID=565&SID=111|archive-date=22 December 2007|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name=GM58>Gunasingam, M. ''Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism'', p. 58</ref>

;Relationship with feudatories
[[Vannimai]]s were regions south of the Jaffna peninsula in the present-day North Central and Eastern provinces and were sparsely settled by people. They were ruled by petty chiefs calling themselves [[Vanniar (Sri Lanka)|Vanniar]].<ref name=GM58 /> Vannimais just south of the Jaffna peninsula and in the eastern [[Trincomalee]] district usually paid an annual tribute to the Jaffna kingdom instead of taxes.<ref name=PP34 /><ref name=GM58 /> The tribute was in cash, grains, [[honey]], [[elephants]], and [[ivory]]. The annual tribute system was enforced due to the greater distance from Jaffna.<ref name=GM58 /> During the early and middle part of the 14th century, the Sinhalese kingdoms in western, southern and central part of the island also became feudatories until the kingdom itself was briefly occupied by the forces of Parakramabahu VI around 1450 for about 17 years.<ref>de Silva, ''A History of Sri Lanka'', p. 117</ref> Around the early 17th century, the kingdom also administered an [[exclave]] in Southern India called Madalacotta.<ref>Abeysinghe, T. ''Jaffna Under the Portuguese'', p. 28</ref>

== Economy ==
[[File:Setu I Rev.jpg|thumb|left|Reverse of the Setu coin with ''Setu'' legend in [[Tamil language|Tamil]]]]
The economy of the kingdom was almost exclusively based on [[subsistence agriculture]] until the 15th century. After the 15th century, however, the economy became diversified and commercialized as it became incorporated into the expanding [[Indian Ocean]].

[[Ibn Batuta]], during his visit in 1344, observed that the kingdom of Jaffna was a major trading kingdom with extensive overseas contacts, who described that the kingdom had a "considerable forces by the sea", testifying to their strong reputed navy.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fb4LAAAAIAAJ|title=Tamil culture in Ceylon: a general introduction|last=Raghavan|first=M. D.|date=1971|publisher=Kalai Nilayam|pages=140|language=en}}</ref>  He witnessed a hundred ships of varying sizes belonging to the Jaffna kingdom on the [[Malabar Coast]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Siriweera |first=W.I. |author-link= |date=2002 |title=History of Sri Lanka: From earliest times up to the sixteenth century |url= |location=Colombo |publisher=Dayawansa Jayakody & Company |page=105 |isbn=955-551-257-4}}</ref> The kingdom's trades were oriented towards maritime [[South India]], with which it developed a commercial interdependence. The non-agriculture tradition of the kingdom became strong as a result of large coastal fishing and boating population and growing opportunities for seaborne commerce. Influential commercial groups, drawn mainly from south Indian mercantile groups as well as other, resided in the royal capital, port, and market centers. Artisan settlements were also established and groups of skilled tradesmen—carpenters, stonemasons, wavers, dryers, gold and silver smiths—resided in urban centers. Thus, a pluralistic socio-economic tradition of agriculture marine activities, commerce and handicraft production was well established.<ref name=PB>Pfaffenberger, B .''The Sri Lankan Tamils'', pp. 30–31</ref>

Jaffna kingdom was less feudalized than other kingdoms in Sri Lanka, such as Kotte and Kandy.<ref name=TA29 /> Its economy was based on more money transactions than transactions on land or its produce. The Jaffna defense forces were not feudal levies; soldiers in the kings service were paid in cash.<ref name=TA29 /> The king's officials, namely ''Mudaliayars'', were also paid in cash and the numerous Hindu temples seem not to have owned extensive properties, unlike the Buddhist establishments in the South. Temples and the administrators depended on the king and the worshippers for their upkeep.<ref name=TA29 /> Royal and Army officials were thus a salaried class and these three institutions consumed over 60% of the revenues of the kingdom and 85% of the government expenditures.<ref name=TA29 /> Much of the kingdom's revenues also came from cash except the Elephants from the [[Vanni (Sri Lanka)|Vanni]] feudatories.<ref name=TA29 /> At the time of the conquest by the Portuguese in 1620, the kingdom which was truncated in size and restricted to the Jaffna peninsula had revenues of 11,700 ''pardaos'' of which 97% came from land or sources connected to the land. One was called land rent and another called paddy tax called ''arretane''.<ref name=TA29 />

Apart from the land related taxes, there were other taxes, such as ''Garden tax'' from compounds where, among others, [[Plantain (cooking)|plantain]], [[coconut]] and [[arecanut]] [[Areca catechu|palms]] were grown and irrigated by water from the well. ''Tree tax'' on trees such as [[palmyrah]], [[margosa]] and ''iluppai'' and ''Poll tax'' equivalent to a personal tax from each. ''Professional tax'' was collected from members of each [[caste]] or [[guild]] and ''commercial taxes'' consisting of, among others, ''stamp duty'' on clothes (clothes could not be sold privately and had to have official stamp), ''Taraku'' or levy on items of food, and ''Port and customs duties''. [[Columbuthurai]], which connected the Peninsula with the mainland at [[Poonakari]] with its boat services, was one of the chief port, and there were customs check posts at the sand passes of [[Pachilaippalai]].<ref name=admin /> Elephants from the southern Sinhalese kingdoms and the Vanni region were brought to Jaffna to be sold to foreign buyers. They were shipped abroad from a bay called Urukathurai, which is now called [[Kayts]]—a shortened form of Portuguese ''Caes dos elephantess'' (Bay of Elephants).<ref name="TA2" /> Perhaps a peculiarity of Jaffna was the levy of license fee for the [[cremation]] of the dead.<ref name=admin />

Not all payments in kind were converted to cash, offerings of rice, [[bananas]], milk, [[dried fish]], game meat and [[curd]] persisted.<ref name=TA29 /> Some inhabitants also had to render unpaid personal services called ''[[uliyam]]''.<ref name=TA29>Abeysinghe, T. ''Jaffna Under the Portuguese'', pp. 29–30</ref>

The kings also issued many types of coins for circulation. Several types of coins categorized as ''[[Setu coins|Sethu Bull]]'' coins issued from 1284 to 1410 are found in large quantities in the northern part of Sri Lanka. The obverse of these coins have a human figure flanked by lamps and the reverse has the [[Nandi (bull)]] symbol, the legend ''Setu'' in [[Tamil language|Tamil]] with a crescent moon above.<ref name=Cod74 /><ref name=Sethu>{{cite web|author=V. Sundaram |title=Rama Sethu: Historic facts vs political fiction |url=http://www.newstodaynet.com/2007sud/may07/110507.htm |publisher=News Today |access-date=2007-11-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081123061821/http://www.newstodaynet.com/2007sud/may07/110507.htm |archive-date=23 November 2008 }}</ref>

== Culture ==

=== Religion ===
{{See also|Hinduism in Sri Lanka}}
[[File:Nallur Kandasamy front entrance.jpg|thumb|left|[[Nallur Kandaswamy temple]] – One of the royal temples of Nallur, the capital.]]
[[Saivism|Shaivism]] (a denomination of [[Hinduism]]) in Sri Lanka has had continuous history from the early period of settlers from India. Hindu worship was widely accepted even as part of the [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] religious practices.<ref>Parker, H. ''Ancient Ceylon: An Account of the Aborigines and of Part of the Early Civilisation'', pp. 65, 115, 148</ref> During the [[Chola]] period in Sri Lanka, around the 9th and 10th century, Hinduism gained status as an official religion in the island kingdom.<ref name="g62" /> [[Kalinga Magha]], whose rule followed that of the Cholas is remembered as a Hindu revivalist by the native literature of that period.<ref>{{cite web|author=Codrington, Humphry William |title=The Polonaruwa Kings, (1070–1215)|url=http://lakdiva.org/codrington/chap04.html|publisher=Lakdiva.org|access-date=2007-12-06}}</ref>

As the state religion, Hinduism enjoyed all the prerogatives of the establishment during the period of the Jaffna kingdom. The Aryacakravarti dynasty was very conscious of its duties as a patron towards Hinduism because of the patronage given by its ancestors to the [[Rameswaram]] temple, a well-known pilgrimage center of Indian Hinduism. As noted, one of the titles assumed by the kings was ''Setukavalan'' or protector of ''Setu'' another name for Rameswaram. ''Setu'' was used in their coins as well as in inscriptions as marker of the dynasty.<ref name=g63>Gunasingam, M. ''Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism'', p. 63</ref>

[[File:Yamuna Eri (Nallur).jpg|thumb|Yamun Eri filled with water from the [[Yamuna]] river.]]
[[Sapumal Kumaraya]] (also known as ''Chempaha Perumal'' in [[Tamil language|Tamil]]), who ruled the Jaffna kingdom on behalf of the Kotte kingdom is credited with either building or renovating the [[Nallur Kandaswamy temple]].<ref name=PP34 /><ref>Gnanaprakasar, S. ''A critical history of Jaffna'', p. 103</ref> [[Singai Pararasasegaram]] is credited with building the Sattanathar temple, the Vaikuntha Pillaiyar temple and the Veerakaliamman temple. He built a pond called Yamuneri and filled it with water from the [[Yamuna]] river of [[North India]], which is considered holy by Hindus.<ref name=Kunarasap73>Kunarasa, K. ''The Jaffna Dynasty'', pp. 73–74</ref> He was a frequent the visitor of the [[Koneswaram temple]], as was his son and successor King [[Cankili I]].<ref name="ceylonportu">{{cite book |last1=Pieris |first1=Paulus Edward|year=1983 |title=Ceylon, the Portuguese era: being a history of the island for the period, 1505–1658|publisher= Tisara Prakasakayo|location=Sri Lanka|volume=1|page= 262 |oclc=12552979}}</ref> King [[Jeyaveera Cinkaiariyan]] had the traditional history of the temple compiled as a chronicle in verse, entitled ''Dakshina Kailasa Puranam'', known today as the ''Sthala Puranam of Koneshwaram Temple''.<ref name="shoh">{{cite book | last = Navaratnam | first = C.S. | title = A Short History of Hinduism in Ceylon| year = 1964 | location = Jaffna | oclc =6832704|pages=43–47}}</ref> Major temples were normally maintained by the kings and a salary was paid from the royal treasury to those who worked in the temple, unlike in India and rest of Sri Lanka, where religious establishments were autonomous entities with large endowments of land and related revenue.<ref name=TA29 />

Most accepted [[Shiva]] as the primary deity and the [[lingam]], the universal symbol of Shiva, was consecrated in shrines dedicated to him. The other Hindu gods of the pantheon such as [[Murugan]], [[Ganesha|Pillaiyar]], [[Kali]] were also worshipped. At the village level, [[Village deities of Tamils of Sri Lanka|village deities]] were popular along with the worship of [[Kannaki]] whose veneration was common amongst the [[Sinhalese people|Sinhalese]] in the south as well. Belief in [[Magic (paranormal)|charm]] and [[evil spirits]] existed, just as in the rest of [[South Asia]].<ref name=g63 />

There were many Hindu temples within the kingdom. Some were of great historic importance, such as the [[Koneswaram]] temple in [[Trincomalee]], [[Ketheeswaram]] temple in [[Mannar, Sri Lanka|Mannar]], [[Naguleswaram]] temple in Keerimalai along with hundreds of other temples that were scattered over the region.<ref>Gunasingam, ''Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism,'' p. 65</ref> The ceremonies and festivals were similar to those in modern [[South India]], with some slight changes in emphasis. The [[Tevaram|Tamil devotional literature]] of [[Nayanmar|Shaiva saints]] was used in worship. The Hindu New Year falling on the middle of April was more elaborately celebrated and festivals, such as ''[[Navaratri|Navarattiri]]'', ''[[Deepavali]]'', ''[[Maha Shivaratri|Sivarattiri]]'', and ''[[Thai Pongal|Thaiponkal]]'', along with marriages, deaths and coming of age ceremonies were part of the daily life.<ref>Gunasingam, ''Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism,'' p. 66</ref>

Until ca. 1550, when [[Cankili I]] expelled the Buddhists of Jaffna, who were all Sinhalese, and destroyed their many places of worship, Buddhism prevailed in the Jaffna kingdom, among the Sinhalese who had remained in the territory.<ref>[[Wilhelm Geiger]] ''Culture of Ceylon in mediaeval times'', Edited by [[Heinz Bechert]], p. 8</ref><ref>C. Rasanayagam, ''Ancient Jaffna: being a research into the history of Jaffna'', pp. 382–383</ref><ref>De Silva, Chandra Richard ''Sri Lanka and the Maldive Islands'', p. 128</ref>  Some important places of Buddhist worship in the Jaffna kingdom, which are mentioned in the Nampota are: Naga-divayina (Nagadipa, modern Nainativu), Telipola, Mallagama, Minuvangomu-viharaya and [[Kadurugoda Vihara|Kadurugoda]] (modern Kantharodai),<ref>Seneviratna, Anuradha  ''Anusmrti: thoughts on Sinhala culture and civilization'', Volume 2</ref><ref name="Indrapala, Karthigesu 2005 page 210">Indrapala, Karthigesu ''Evolution of an Ethnic Identity'', (2005), p. 210</ref> of these only the Buddhist temple at Nagadipa survive today.<ref name="Indrapala, Karthigesu 2005 page 210" />

=== Society ===
;Caste structure
{{See also|Caste system in Sri Lanka}}
The social organization of the people of the Jaffna kingdom was based on a [[caste system]] and a [[Matrilineality|matrilineal]] ''kudi'' ([[clan]]) system similar to the caste structure of [[South India]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nFJuAAAAMAAJ&q=jaffna+caste+system+south+india|title=Rōhaṇa|publisher=University of Ruhuna|year=1991|page=35|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5hMoBgAAQBAJ&q=jaffna+clan+system&pg=PT251|title=Sri Lanka in the Modern Age: A History|last=Wickramasinghe|first=Nira|year=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-025755-2|language=en}}</ref> The Aryacakravarti kings and their immediate family claimed ''Brahma-Kshatriya'' status, meaning ''[[Brahmins]]'' who took to [[Kshatriya|martial]] life.<ref>Gnanaprakasar, S. ''A critical history of Jaffna'', p. 96</ref> The ''[[Madapalli]]'' were the palace [[Steward (office)|stewards]] and [[Cook (domestic worker)|cooks]], the ''Akampadayar''<nowiki/>'s formed the palace servants, the [[Sri Lankan Paraiyar|Paraiyar]] were the royal [[herald]]s and the ''[[Siviyar]]'' were the royal [[Litter (vehicle)|palanquin bearers]].<ref name=":22" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3VUKAAAAIAAJ&q=%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D|title=Mātakal Mayilvākan̲ap Pulavar el̲utiya Yāl̲ppāṇa vaipavamālai|last=Pulavar|first=Mātakal Mayilvākan̲ap|year=1995|publisher=Intu Camaya Kalācāra Aluvalkaḷ Tiṇaikkaḷam|language=ta}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=m2puAAAAMAAJ&q=madapalli |title= Ceylon and the Dutch, 1600–1800: External Influences and Internal Change in Early Modern Sri Lanka |last= Arasaratnam |first=Sinnappah |year=1996 |publisher= Variorum |isbn=978-0-86078-579-8 |page=381 |language=en}}</ref> The army and [[navy]] generals were from the ''[[Karaiyar]]'' caste, who also controlled the [[Pearl hunting|pearl trade]] and whose chiefs were known as ''Mudaliyar'', ''Paddankatti'' and ''Adapannar''.<ref>{{Cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=BCUdAAAAMAAJ&q=karayoor |title=India in Ceylonese History: Society, and Culture |last= Raghavan |first=M.D. |publisher=Asia Publishing House |year=1964 |page=143 |language=en}}</ref> The ''[[Mukkuvar]]'' and ''[[Thimilar]]'' were also engaged in the pearl fishery.<ref>{{Cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=1kVuAAAAMAAJ&q=mukkuvar|title= Sarandib: an ethnological study of the Muslims of Sri Lanka |last=Hussein |first=Asiff |publisher=Asiff Hussein |year=2007 |isbn=978-9559726227 |page=479 |language=en}}</ref> The ''Udayars'' or village headmen and landlords of agriculture societies were mostly drawn from the [[Sri Lankan Vellalar|''Vellalar'']] caste.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=K |first=Arunthavarajah |date=March 2014 |title=The Administration of Jaffna Kingdom – A Historical View |url=http://ijbarr.com/downloads/2014/vol2-issue3/5.pdf |journal=International Journal of Business and Administration Research Review |publisher=University of Jaffna |volume=2 |issue=3 |page=32 |access-date=18 March 2018 |archive-date=6 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206005840/http://ijbarr.com/downloads/2014/vol2-issue3/5.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="g62" /> The service providing communities were known as ''Kudimakkal'' and consisted of various groups such as the [[Ambattan|''Ambattar'']], ''[[Vannar]]'', ''[[Kadaiyar]]'', ''[[Pallar]]'', ''[[Nalavar]]'', [[Sri Lankan Paraiyar|''Paraiyar'']], ''[[Koviyar]]'' and [[Tamil Brahmin|''Brahmin'']].<ref>{{Cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Vp_la9QMGIQC&q=The+New+Wind:+Changing+Identities+in+South+Asia |title=The New Wind: Changing Identities in South Asia |last=David |first=Kenneth |date=1977 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-080775-2 |page=195 |language= en}}</ref> The Kudimakkal had ritual importance in the temples and at funerals and weddings.<ref>{{Cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=yWwgAAAAMAAJ&q=kudimakkal |title=Tamil Culture |last=Nayagam |first=Xavier S. Thani |date=1959 |publisher=Academy of Tamil Culture |page=109 |language=en}}</ref> The ''[[Chetty]]s'' were well known as traders and owners of Hindu temples and the [[Pallar]] and [[Nalavar]] castes composed of the agriculturist labours who tilled the land.<ref name="g62" /> The weavers were the Paraiyars and [[Sengunthar]] who gave importance to the textile trade.<ref name=":22" /> The [[artisan]]s also known as [[Kammalar (caste)|''Kammalar'']] were formed by the ''Kollar'', ''Thattar'', ''Tatchar'', ''Kaltatchar'' and the ''Kannar''.<ref>{{Cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ALUvDwAAQBAJ&q=kammalar&pg=PA184|title=Historical Dictionary of the Tamils |last=Ramaswamy |first=Vijaya |date=2017 |publisher= Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-5381-0686-0 |page=184 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=tzPXAAAAMAAJ&q=kammalar |title=The karmic theater: self, society, and astrology in Jaffna|last=Perinbanayagam|first=R.S.|date=1982|publisher=University of Massachusetts Press|isbn=9780870233746|page=25|language=en}}</ref>

;Foreign mercenaries & traders
[[File:Baobab (Adansonia digitata), Neduntheevu.JPG|thumb|[[Adansonia digitata|Baobab]], native to East Africa, introduced in [[Neduntheevu]] during the 7th century by Arabian sailors]]
Mercenaries of various ethnic and caste backgrounds from India, such as the [[Telugu people|Telugus]] (known locally as ''Vadugas'') and [[Malayalees]] from the Kerala region were also employed by the king as soldiers.<ref name=g62>Gunasingam, M. ''Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism'', p. 62</ref> [[Muslim]] traders and sea pirates of [[Mapilla]] and [[Islam in Sri Lanka|Moor]] ethnicities as well as Sinhalese were in the Kingdom.<ref name=PP /><ref>Abeysinghe, T. ''Jaffna Under the Portuguese'', p. 4</ref> The kingdom also functioned as a refuge for rebels from the south seeking shelter after failed political coups. According to the earliest historiographical literature of the Kingdom of Jaffna, ''Vaiyaapaadal'', datable to 14th–15th century, in verse 77 lists the community of ''Papparavar'' ([[Berber people|Berbers]] specifically and [[African people|Africans]] in general)  along with ''Kuchchiliyar'' ([[Gujaratis]]) and ''Choanar'' ([[Arabs]]) and places them under the caste category of ''Pa’l’luvili'' who are believed to be [[cavalrymen]] of [[Muslim]] faith . The caste of ''Pa’l’luvili'' or ''Pa’l’livili'' is peculiar to Jaffna. A Dutch census taken in 1790 in Jaffna records 196 male adults belonging to Pa’l’livili caste as taxpayers. That means the identity and profession existed until Dutch times. But, Choanakar, with 492 male adults and probably by this time generally meaning the Muslims, is found mentioned as a separate community in this census.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.tamilnet.com/art.html?catid=98&artid=24730
|title= Place Name of the Day: Papparappiddi|access-date=2008-02-26 |work=[[Tamilnet]]}}</ref>
;Laws
During the rule of the Aryacakravarti rulers, the laws governing the society was based on a compromise between a [[matriarchal]] system of society that seemed to have had deeper roots overlaid with a [[patriarchal]] system of governance. These laws seemed to have existed side by side as customary laws to be interpreted by the local ''Mudaliars''. In some aspects such as in inheritance the similarity to ''[[Marumakattayam]]'' law of present-day [[Kerala]] and ''[[Aliyasanatana]]'' of modern [[Tulunadu]] was noted by later scholars. Further [[Islamic economic jurisprudence|Islamic jurisprudence]] and [[Hindu law]]s of neighboring India also seemed to have affected the customary laws. These customary laws were later codified and put to print during the [[Dutch period in Ceylon (Sri Lanka)|Dutch colonial rule]] as ''[[Thesavalamai]]'' in 1707.<ref name=T18-20>Tambiah, ''Laws and customs of Tamils of Jaffna'', pp. 18–20.</ref> The rule under earlier customs seemed to have been females succeeded females. But when the structure of the society came to be based on patriarchal system, a corresponding rule was recognized, that males succeeded males. Thus, we see the devolution of ''muthusam'' (paternal inheritance) was on the sons, and the devolution of the ''chidenam'' ([[dowry]] or maternal inheritance) was on the females. Just as one dowried sister succeeded another, we had the corresponding rule that if one's brother died instate, his properties devolved upon his brothers to the exclusion of his sisters. The reason being that in a patriarchal family each brother formed a family unit, but all the brothers being [[agnates]], when one of them died his property devolved upon his agnates.<ref name=T18-20 />

=== Literature ===
The kings of the dynasty provided patronage to literature and education. Temple schools and traditional ''[[gurukul]]am'' classes in [[verandah]]s (known as ''Thinnai Pallikoodam'' in [[Tamil language]]) spread basic education in languages such as Tamil language and [[Sanskrit]] and religion to the upper classes.<ref name=G64-65 /> During the reign of [[Jeyaveera Cinkaiariyan]] rule, a work on medical science (''Segarajasekaram''), on [[astrology]] (''Segarajasekaramalai'')<ref name=G64-65 /><ref name=c74>Coddrington, H. ''Ceylon Coins and Currency'', p. 74</ref> and on mathematics (''Kanakathikaram'') were authored by Karivaiya.<ref name=G64-65 /> During the rule of [[Gunaveera Cinkaiariyan]], a work on medical sciences, known as ''Pararajasekaram'', was completed.<ref name=G64-65 /> During [[Singai Pararasasegaram]]'s rule, an academy for Tamil language propagation on the model of ancient [[Tamil Sangam]]s was established in Nallur. This academy performed a useful service in collecting and preserving ancient Tamil works in [[manuscripts]] form in a library called ''Saraswathy Mahal''.<ref name=G64-65 /> Singai Pararasasekaran's cousin ''Arasakesari'' was credited with translating the Sanskrit classic [[Raghuvamsa]] into Tamil.<ref name=c74 /> Pararasasekaran's brother ''Segarajasekaran'' and Arasakesari collected manuscripts from [[Madurai]] and other regions for the Saraswathy Mahal library.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3WFDAAAAYAAJ|title=Aintām Ulakat Tamil̲ Mānāṭu-Karuttaraṅku Āyvuk Kaṭṭuraikaḷ|last=Arunachalam|first=M.|date=1981|publisher=International Association of Tamil Research|pages=7–158|language=en}}</ref> Among other literary works of historic importance compiled before the arrival of European colonizers, ''Vaiyapatal'', written by Vaiyapuri Aiyar, is well known.<ref name=G64-65>Gunasingam, M. ''Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism'', pp. 64–65</ref><ref name=N80-84>Nadarajan, V. ''History of Ceylon Tamils'', pp. 80–84</ref>

=== Architecture ===
[[File:Cankilian Thoppu.JPG|thumb|right|150px|''Cankilian Thoppu'' – Facade of the palace belonging to the last king Cankili II.<ref>Kunarasa, K. ''The Jaffna Dynasty'', p. 4</ref>]]
There were periodic waves of [[South Indian]] influence over Sri Lankan art and architecture, though the prolific age of monumental art and architecture seemed to have declined by the 13th century.<ref name=g64 /> Temples built by the [[Tamil people|Tamils]] of Indian origin from the 10th century belonged to the [[Meenakshi Amman Temple|Madurai variant]] of [[Vijayanagara Empire|Vijayanagar]] period.<ref name=g64 /> A prominent feature of the Madurai style was the ornate and heavily sculptured tower or ''[[gopuram]]'' over the entrance of temple.<ref name=g64 /> None of the important religious constructions of this style within the territory that formed the Jaffna kingdom survived the destructive hostility of the Portuguese.<ref name=g64>Gunasingam, M. ''Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism'', p. 64</ref>

Nallur, the capital was built with four entrances with gates.<ref name=vng /> There were two main roadways and four temples at the four gateways.<ref name=vng /> The rebuilt temples that exist now do not match their original locations which instead are occupied by churches erected by the Portuguese.<ref name=vng /> The center of the city was ''Muthirai Santhai'' (market place) and was surrounded by a square fortification around it.<ref name=vng /> There were courtly buildings for the Kings, Brahmin priests, soldiers and other service providers.<ref name=vng /> The old Nallur Kandaswamy temple functioned as a defensive fort with high walls.<ref name=vng /> In general, the city was laid out like the traditional temple town according to Hindu traditions.<ref name=vng>{{cite web|url= http://www.geotamil.com/ctamils/forward_nallur.html|title= Nallur Rajadhani: City Layout|access-date= 2007-12-02|author= V.N. Giritharan|url-status= dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071225231159/http://www.geotamil.com/ctamils/forward_nallur.html|archive-date= 25 December 2007|df= dmy-all}}</ref>
{{Clear}}

== See also ==
{{Commons category}}
* [[Jaffna Palace ruins]]
* [[Sangiliyan Statue]]
* [[List of Jaffna monarchs]]
* [[Sri Lankan Tamil people]]
* [[Tamil inscriptions in Sri Lanka]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|2}}

== References ==
{{div col|small=yes|colwidth=35em}}
*{{cite book
  | last = de Silva  | first = K. M.  | author-link = K. M. de Silva | title = A History of Sri Lanka  | publisher = Vijitha Yapa  |year=2005  | location = [[Colombo]]
  | isbn = 955-8095-92-3  | page = 782}}
*{{cite book  | last = Abeysinghe  | first = Tikiri  | title = Jaffna under the Portuguese  | publisher = Stamford Lake  |year=2005  | location = [[Colombo]]  | oclc = 75481767 | page = 66}}
*{{cite book  | last = Kunarasa  | first = K
  | title = The Jaffna Dynasty  | publisher = Dynasty of Jaffna King's Historical Society  |year=2003
  | location = [[Johor Bahru]]  | isbn = 955-8455-00-8  | page = 122}}
*{{cite book  | last = Gnanaprakasar  | first = Swamy  | title = A Critical History of Jaffna | publisher = Asian Educational Services   |year=2003  | location = [[New Delhi]]  | isbn = 81-206-1686-3  | page = 122}}
*{{cite book  | last = Pathmanathan  | first = S  | author-link = S. Pathmanathan | title = The Kingdom of Jaffna:Origins and early affiliations   | publisher = Ceylon Institute of Tamil Studies | year=  1974 | location = [[Colombo]] | page = 27  }}
*{{cite book  | last = Gunasingam  | first = Murugar  | title = Sri Lankan Tamil nationalism  | publisher = MV  |year=1999  | location = [[Sydney]]  | isbn = 0-646-38106-7  | page = 238 }}
*{{cite book  | last = Nadarajan  | first = Vasantha  | title = History of Ceylon Tamils  | publisher = Vasantham  |year=1999  | location = [[Toronto]]  
  | page = 146  }}
*{{cite book  | last = Coddrington  | first = H. W.  | title = Short History of Ceylon
| publisher = AES  |year=1994  | location = [[New Delhi]]  | isbn = 81-206-0946-8  | page = 290}}
*{{cite book  | last = Parker  | first = H. | title = Ancient Ceylon: An Account of the Aborigines and of Part of the Early Civilisation| url = https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.69695  | publisher = Luzac & Co  |year=1909  | location = [[London]] | lccn = 81-909073  | page = 695| isbn = 9788120602083 }}
*{{cite book
  | last = Tambiah  | first = H. W  | author-link = H. W. Tambiah | title = Laws and customs of Tamils of Jaffna | publisher = Women's Education & Research Centre  |year=2001  | location = [[Colombo]]
  | isbn = 955-9261-16-9  | page = 259| edition = revised }}
*{{cite book |last=Pfaffenberg |first=Brian |title=The Sri Lankan Tamils |publisher=Westview Press |year=1994 |location=[[U.S.]] |isbn=0-8133-8845-7 |page=247}}
*{{cite book  | last = Mayilvakanap Pulavar | first = Matakal  | title = The Yalpana Vaipava Malai, or The History of the Kingdom of Jaffna  | publisher = Asian Educational Services  |date=1884|edition=First   | location = [[New Delhi]]  | isbn = 978-81-206-1362-1  | page = 146 }}
*{{cite book  | last = Manogaran  | first = Chelvadurai
  | title = The untold story of the ancient Tamils of Sri Lanka  | publisher = Kumaran  |year=2000
  | location = [[Chennai]]  | page = 81 }}
*{{cite web|title=Yarl-Paanam|url=http://www.eelavar.com/jaffna/pageview.php?ID=565&SID=111|publisher=Eelavar Network|access-date=2007-11-24|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071222224953/http://www.eelavar.com/jaffna/pageview.php?ID=565&SID=111|archive-date=22 December 2007|df=dmy-all}}
*{{cite book |last = Rasanayagam |first =  Mudaliyar | title = Ancient Jaffna, being a research into the History of Jaffna from very early times to the Portuguese Period |url = https://archive.org/details/ancientjaffna00muda | publisher = Everymans Publishers Ltd, Madras (Reprint by New Delhi, AES in 2003)|year=1926 | isbn =  81-206-0210-2 | page = [https://archive.org/details/ancientjaffna00muda/page/390 390]}}
*{{cite web|author=Codrington, Humphry William |title=Short history of Sri Lanka:Dambadeniya and Gampola Kings (1215–1411)|url=http://lakdiva.org/codrington/chap05.html|publisher=Lakdiva.org|access-date=2007-11-25}}
*{{cite book  | last = Coddrington  | first = H. W.  | title = Ceylon Coins and Currency| publisher = Vijitha Yapa  |year=1996  | location = [[New Delhi]]  | isbn = 81-206-1202-7  | page = 290}}
*{{cite book  | last = Peebles  | first = Patrick  | title = The History of Sri Lanka| publisher = Greenwood Press  |year=2006  | location = United States  | isbn = 0-313-33205-3  | page = 248 }}
{{div col end}}

{{Jaffna kingdom}}
{{Sri Lankan Tamil people}}
{{Rulers of Jaffna Kingdom}}
{{Portal bar|Tamils|Sri Lanka|Monarchy|History}}
{{Authority control}}

{{Coord missing|Sri Lanka}}

[[Category:Jaffna kingdom| ]]
[[Category:1215 establishments in Asia]]
[[Category:13th-century establishments in Sri Lanka]]
[[Category:1619 disestablishments in Asia]]
[[Category:17th-century disestablishments in Sri Lanka]]
[[Category:Former countries in South Asia]]
[[Category:Former monarchies of South Asia]]
[[Category:Former Portuguese colonies]]
[[Category:Hindu states]]
[[Category:Indianized kingdoms]]
[[Category:Kingdoms of Sri Lanka]]
[[Category:Medieval Hindu kingdoms]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1215]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1619]]
[[Category:Tamil empires and kingdoms]]
[[Category:Transitional period of Sri Lanka]]