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{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
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{{Islam|state=collapsed}}
{{Jainism}}
{{Islam and other religions}}
'''Islam and Jainism''' interacted with each other in the [[Indian subcontinent]] following the frequent Islamic incursions, and later the [[Islamic rulers in South Asia|Islamic conquest]] and rule of the subcontinent from twelfth century AD onwards, when much of northwest, north and central India came under the rule of the [[Delhi Sultanate]], and later the Moghuls ([[Mughal people]]) of [[Turko-Mongol]] origin.

[[Jainism]] and [[Islam]] have different theological premises,{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=241-242}} and their interaction has been mixed ranging from religious persecution to mutual acceptance. Jains faced persecution during and after the [[Muslim conquests of the Indian subcontinent|Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent]].{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=145-146, 124, 220-221}}{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=74–75}} There were significant exceptions, such as Emperor [[Akbar]] (1542{{nsndns}}1605) whose supposed [[religious tolerance]], out of respect for Jains, ordered release of caged birds and banned killing of animals on the Jain festival of Paryusan.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=146}}

==Jainism under Muslim rulers==
===Muslim conquerors and Jain institutions===
{{Further|Conversion of non-Muslim places of worship into mosques}}
The first mosque built in Delhi, the "Quwwat al-Islam" (near [[Qutb Minar]]) was built after the [[Jain temple]]s built previously under the [[Tomara dynasty]] were forcefully converted into Mosques by the Muslim Sultanate.<ref name="Hai">Maulana Hakim Saiyid Abdul Hai "Hindustan Islami Ahad Mein" (Hindustan under Islamic rule), Eng Trans by Maulana Abdul Hasan Nadwi</ref> 27 Jain temples were demolished to build this mosque whose name translates to "might of Islam". The remains of the temple were used for to provide the building material for the mosque.<ref>PETERSEN, ANDREW. (2002). ''Dictionary of Islamic architecture''. London:Routledge. {{ISBN|0-203-20387-9}} p.241</ref> Similarly the Jami Masjid at [[Khambhat]] was built on ruins of Jain temples.<ref>PETERSEN, ANDREW. (2002). ''Dictionary of Islamic architecture''. London:Routledge. {{ISBN|0-203-20387-9}} p.102</ref>

In the year 782, the city of [[Vallabhi]], which was an important Jain center, was destroyed by Turkic rulers of Sindh.<ref>{{harvnb|Dundas|2002|p=145}}</ref> [[Mahmud of Ghazni|Mahmud Ghazni]] (1001), [[Muhammad of Ghor|Mohammad Ghori]] (1175) and [[Alauddin Khalji|Ala-ud-din Muhammed Shah Khalji]] (1298) had an interesting relation the Jain community.<ref name="Glasenapp1999a">{{harvnb|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=74–75}}</ref>

[[File:Creative artwork in a mosque.jpg|thumb|A mosque in [[Khambhat]]]]

The Shrine of Ibrahim at [[Bhadresar|Bhadreshwar]] in Gujarat, built in 1160 AD was built before Islamic conquest. Mehrdad Shokoohy regards the Muslim monuments at Bhadreshwar to be the earliest Muslim monument in India based on archaeological evidence<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=NmZzDUYNb0AC&dq=gujarat+jain++mosque&pg=PA42  Bhadreśvar: the oldest Islamic monuments in India. By Mehrdad Shokoohy, with contributions by Manijah Bayani-Wolpert and Natalie H. Shokoohy. (Studies in Islamic Art and Architecture. Supplements to Muqarnas, Vol. II.) Leiden, E. J. Brill, 1988, p. 7]</ref> with architecture similar to the Jain temples of Mt Abu. {{citation needed|date=December 2022}}

===Jainism in the Delhi Sultanate===
Founders and rulers of [[Delhi Sultanate]] such as [[Muhammad of Ghor|Mohammad Ghori]] (1175) and [[Alauddin Khalji]] (1298) had a known relation with the Jain community.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=74–75}}

Jinaprabha Suri (d.1333) writes in his "[[Vividha Tirtha Kalpa|Vividhatirthakalpa]]" ("Guide to Various Pilgrimage Places") of his relationship with [[Muhammad bin Tughluq]] (r.1325-1351), [[Delhi Sultanate|Sultan of Delhi]].  In two chapters that discuss his relationship with the Sultan (one of which was actually written by his disciple), Jinaprabha travels to Delhi to recover an image that had been taken from a temple.  After impressing the Sultan with his poetic flair and his thorough knowledge of the various religious and philosophical schools in India. In the second chapter, Jinaprabha is called back to Delhi to settle some religious matters for the Sultan. After getting the image back from the Sultan's treasury, Jinaprabha is paraded around the town on an elephant as a display of his pre-eminence in debate. He accompanies the Sultan on his military campaigns and upon his return is awarded a quarter of town in Tughluqabad for the Jain community, including a hall for Jinaprabha to teach in.  Amid great fanfare and celebration the Jain community is declared by our author as prosperous and "just as when the Hindus ruled and times were not so bad, the glorious Jinaprabhasuri taught all those who come to him, even those of other faiths, and all rush to serve him."<ref>(Phyllis Granoff, ''Speaking of Monks'' (Oakville, Ont.:  Mosaic Press, 1992)</ref> Jinaprabha also secured edicts (firmans) to allow Jains to go on pilgrimage unharmed and untaxed (ibid.). While temples were desecrated, Jinaprabha speaks of these incidents as due to the power of the Dark Age ([[Kali Yuga]]) in which such things are going to happen. He also speaks of these desecrations as opportunities to earn "endless merit" by restoring temples, which laymen did with gusto.<ref>See John Cort and Phyllis Granoff's contributions in ''The Clever Adulteress : A Treasury of Jain Stories'', (Oakville, Ont.: Mosaic Press, 1990.)</ref>

In the [[Digambara]] tradition, the founding of the Bhattaraka tradition in its modern form (as an orange-robed monk), is often attributed to [[Prabhācandra|Prabhachandra]] of [[Mula Sangha|Mula Sangh]], [[Balatkara Gana|Balatkara Gana Saraswati gachchha]], who travelled from [[Patan, Gujarat|Pattana]] (Gujarat) to [[Delhi]], where he was anointed in a ceremony as  the first Bhattaraka of Delhi. He was invited by the ruler of Delhi, who is identified as Muhammad Bin [[Tughlaq dynasty|Tughlaq]].<ref>दिल्ली पट्ट के मूलसंघीय भट्टारक प्रभाचन्द्र और पद्मनन्दि, Parmanand Jain, Agarchand Nahta Abhinandan Granth Part 2, 1977, p.191-197</ref>

===Jainism in the Mughal period===
As bankers and financiers, the Jains had significant impact on Muslim rulers, but they rarely were able to enter into a political discourse which was framed in Islamic categories.{{sfn|John E. Cort|1998|p=86}}

Some Jain customs and characters that influenced the Mughal court of [[Akbar]] have been documented. Akbar honored [[Hiravijaya]], the leader of the [[Śvētāmbara|Svetambara]] [[Tapa Gaccha]].<ref name=toi>{{cite news | url =http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/Ahmedabad-turned-Akbar-veggie/articleshow/5259184.cms | title =Ahmedabad turned Akbar veggie | work =The Times of India | date =2009-11-23 | access-date =2009-11-23 | first1=Ashish | last1=Vashi
}}</ref> They persuaded the emperor to forbid the slaughter of animals for six months in Gujarat and abolish the confiscation of property of deceased persons, the Sujija Tax ([[jizya]]) and a Sulka (possibly a tax on pilgrims) and free caged birds and prisoners. Akbar is said to have given up hunting and quit meat-eating forever as it had become repulsive.<ref name=toi /> Akbar also declared "Amari Ghosana" banning the killing of animals during Jain festival of [[Paryushana]] and [[Mahavir Janma Kalyanak]]. He rolled back the jizya from [[Tirtha (Jainism)|Jain pilgrimage places]] like [[Palitana]]. These ''farman''s were also issued in 1592, 1594 and 1598.<ref name=toi /> Jain monks gained the respect of the Mughal emperors [[Jahangir]]<ref><Jahangir's Vow of Non-Violence, Ellison B. Findley, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 107, No. 2 (Apr. - Jun., 1987), pp. 245-256</ref> and [[Shah Jahan]].  Akbar banned animal slaughter near important Jain sites during the [[Paryushana]].<ref>Akbar as Reflected in the Contemporary Jain Literature in Gujarat, Shirin Mehta, Social Scientist, Vol. 20, No. 9/10 (Sep. - Oct., 1992), pp. 54-60</ref>

In 1645, the Mughal prince [[Aurangzeb]], after being appointed the Governor of Gujarat, ordered the slaughter a cow inside the [[Parshvanatha|Chintamani Parshvanath]] Jain temple constructed by the Jain jeweller and banker [[Shantidas Jhaveri]], according to the French traveller [[Jean de Thévenot]] (1666).<ref name="Mandelslo_Travels"/> Aurangzeb then caused the desecration of the noses of all carved figures in the temple, and then converted the place into a mosque called ''Quvval-ul-Islam'' ("the Might of Islam").<ref name="Mandelslo_Travels">{{cite book | title = Mandelslo's Travels in Western India | editor = M. S. Commissariat | edition = reprint, illustrated | publisher = Asian Educational Services | year = 1996 | orig-year = 1931 | isbn = 978-81-206-0714-9 | pages = 101–102 }}</ref> Shantidas likely complained to Aurangzeb's father emperor [[Shah Jahan]]. Few years later, in 1648, Shah Jahan issued a ''[[firman]]'' declaring that a wall be constructed between the [[mihrab]]s to separate the Muslim area and Jain area, and Jain part be handed back to Shantidas so that Jains can worship in that part. The ''firman'' also declared that the Muslim [[fakir]]s housed in the building be removed, and the materials carried away from the temple should be restored.<ref name="Mandelslo_Travels"/><ref name=ggg>{{cite book|title=Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency: Ahmedabad|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.csl.3354|year=1879|publisher=Government Central Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/dli.csl.3354/page/n291 285]}}</ref> However, Shantidas and the Jain community removed the principal images from the desecrated building and installed them in other Jain temples, did not attempt to restore it and the temple disappeared for all practical purposes.<ref name="Mandelslo_Travels"/><ref>{{cite book|author=Carl Olson|title=Indian Asceticism: Power, Violence, and Play|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=25v4BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA177 |year=2015|publisher= Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-022533-9|page=177}}</ref>

== Similarities ==
{{Original research | reason=[[Wp:synth]]|date=January 2025}}
Both Jainism and Islam place value on ritual fasting. The ascetic practices and festive occasions in Jainism involve fasting. In Islam, [[Fasting in Islam|Sawm]] (Muslim Fasting for Ramadan) is a month long mandatory ritual fasting by Muslims.<ref name=natana3>{{cite book|author=Natana Delong-Bas|title=The Five Pillars of Islam: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lxnvehj44CQC |year=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-980414-6|pages=3, 15}}</ref> One major difference is that during ''Sawm'' fasts in Islam, fasting is limited to daylight hours, and Muslims break their fast after sunset. In [[Fasting in Jainism|Jain fasting]] fasting continues during day and night, and Jains break their fast 48 minutes after the sunrise of the day when fast ends. Another difference is that Jain practice is optional and set by the preferences of the Jain any time of the year. In contrast, the month long fasting in Islam is a part of the mandatory five pillars of Islam practice that is set by the Islamic calendar.<ref name=natana3/>

==Differences==
===Creator god===
Jains, unlike Muslims, do not believe in a creator God. Jainism believed that an individual soul will attain moksha with intense meditation, self discipline and sacrifice of even food and water to attain Moksa which is state of free from cycle of birth and karma, that soul will merge with nature and ultimate peace and eternity against time and space. {{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=90–99, 104–105, 229–233}}{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=162-165, 295-296}}{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=241-242}}

===Theology===
There is neither eternal heaven nor eternal hell nor judgement day in Jainism, unlike Islam. They believe only karma can help a person
<ref>{{cite book|author1=Jeffrey M. Shaw|author2=Timothy J. Demy |title=War and Religion: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDlFDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA635 |year=2017|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-61069-517-6|page=635}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Robert C. Solomon|author2=Kathleen M. Higgins|title=A Passion for Wisdom: A Very Brief History of Philosophy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=btIm8_a8Ol8C |year=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-511209-2|pages=11–22}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Thomas R. McFaul|title=The Future of Peace and Justice in the Global Village: The Role of the World Religions in the Twenty-first Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V_XCDYzE8qsC |year=2006|publisher=Greenwood Publishing |isbn=978-0-275-99313-9|pages=27–40}}</ref> Jainism accepts numerous deities (gods and goddesses) that are a part of the cycles of rebirth,{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=162-165, 295-296}} while Islam is strictly monotheistic.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e2356?_hi=0&_pos=2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101120024934/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e2356?_hi=0&_pos=2 |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 November 2010 |title=From the article on Tawhid in Oxford Islamic Studies Online |publisher=Oxfordislamicstudies.com |date=2008-05-06 |access-date=2014-08-24}}</ref>

===Animal rights and food===
The non-violence doctrine of Jainism has encouraged a strict vegetarian Jain culture.<ref>{{cite book|author=Margaret Puskar-Pasewicz|title=Cultural Encyclopedia of Vegetarianism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=scpwmjE3TWYC |year=2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-37557-6|page=93}}</ref> Islam teaches that meat is a gift of God, such as in verses 6:141-142 of the Quran.<ref name=raudvere198>{{cite book|author=Catharina Raudvere|title=Islam: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CLybBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA198|year=2014|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1-84885-084-2|page=198}}</ref>{{cite quran|6|142}} 

Muslims are allowed to be vegetarian.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.animalsinislam.com/halal-living/fatwas/ | title=Fatwas on Vegetarianism }}</ref> Most Muslims only consume [[halal]] meat.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Riaz | first1=Mian | first2= Muhammad M.|last2= Chaudry| title=Halal food production | publisher=CRC Press | year=2004 | isbn=978-1-58716-029-5|pages=1–2, 17, 195–196}}</ref> They strictly avoid consuming pork and alcohol.<ref>{{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | title=What everyone needs to know about Islam | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2011 | isbn=978-0-19-979413-3 | pages=119}}</ref> Jains oppose any slaughter of animals. Muslims ritually perform large scale slaughter of animals for meat, such as on the festival of [[Eid al-Adha]] but also forbid harming of any animal whatsoever.<ref name=raudvere198/>

===Judgement day versus cyclic rebirth===
Islamic scriptures reject any idea of [[reincarnation]] of human beings or God.<ref name="SmithHaddad2002p24"/>{{Sfn|Norman C. McClelland |2010|pages=122-123 }}<ref>{{cite book|author=John L. Esposito |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E324pQEEQQcC |year=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-975726-8 |pages=137, 249 }}</ref> It teaches a linear concept of life, wherein a human being has only one life and upon death is judged by God, then rewarded in heaven or punished in hell.<ref name="SmithHaddad2002p24"/><ref>{{cite book|author1=Norman L. Geisler |author2=Abdul Saleeb |title=Answering Islam: The Crescent in Light of the Cross |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jB1SNwAM_FQC |year=2002|publisher=Baker Academic |isbn=978-0-8010-6430-2 |page=109}}</ref> Islam teaches final resurrection and Judgement Day,{{Sfn|Norman C. McClelland |2010|pages=122-123 }} but there is no prospect of reincarnation of a human being into a different body or being.<ref name="SmithHaddad2002p24">{{cite book|author1=Jane Idelman Smith|author2=Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad |title=The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UolJCAAAQBAJ |year=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-028880-8 |pages=23–24 }}</ref> In contrast, the reincarnation (rebirth) doctrine, along with its theories of ''Saṃsāra'' and Karma, are central to Jain theological foundations, as evidenced by the extensive literature on it in the major sects of Jainism, and their ideas on these topics from the earliest times of the Jaina tradition.{{Sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=217-236}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp= 14–16, 102–105 }} Reincarnation in contemporary Jainism traditions is the belief that the worldly life is characterized by continuous rebirths and suffering in various realms of existence, and that a spiritual and ethical life is a means to end suffering and rebirths.{{Sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=226-228}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp= 14–16, 102–105 }}<ref name="Sethia2004p31">{{cite book|author=Tara Sethia |title=Ahimsā, Anekānta, and Jainism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QYdlKv8wBiYC |year=2004|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-2036-4|pages=30–31}}</ref>

===Asceticism and monasticism===
[[Asceticism]] is celebrated and a major part of Jain theology and salvation process.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=177-180}}<ref>{{cite book|author=W. J. Johnson|title=Harmless Souls: Karmic Bondage and Religious Change in Early Jainism with Special Reference to Umāsvāti and Kundakunda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vw8OUSfQbV4C |year=1995|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1309-0 |pages=196–197 }}</ref>  The Prophet [[Muhammad]] and [[Companions of the Prophet|his followers]] practiced asceticism.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181128012740/http://oxfordre.com/religion/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-51 | title=Mysticism in Sufi Islam | last1=Cook | first1=David }}</ref> Both [[Sunni]] and [[Shia]] [[Sufis]] practice asceticism.<ref>{{cite book|author=Eric O. Hanson|title=Religion and Politics in the International System Today|url=https://archive.org/details/religionpolitics0000hans |url-access=registration|year=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-61781-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/religionpolitics0000hans/page/102 102]–103}}</ref>

[[Monasticism]] is cherished in Jainism.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=55–59, 177–182}} Monasticism is forbidden in [[Islam]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Malise Ruthven|title=Islam in the World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=92lQfWj6_VIC&pg=PA153 |year=2006|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-530503-6 |page=153}} Quote: "the famous [[Hadith]], "there is no monasticism in Islam  the monasticism (''Rahbaniya'') of my community is the Jihad."</ref>

===Apostasy===
According to some Islamic scholars and schools, like the [[Hanbali]] madhab, Apostasy is a religious crime in Islamic jurisprudence punishable by death. The Quran promises dire consequences in the afterlife to those who "turn from", "renounce" or "disbelieve after having believed".<ref name=jea>{{cite book | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=E324pQEEQQcC&pg=PA22 | last=Esposito | first=John | title=The Oxford dictionary of Islam | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2003 | isbn=978-0-19-512559-7 | page=22}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6ih9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT37
|last=Ali | first=Kecia | title=Islam : the key concepts | publisher=Routledge | year=2008 | isbn=978-0-415-39638-7 | pages=10–11}}</ref> However, the Quran itself does not mention the death penalty for apostasy,<ref>Surah Al-Baqarah 2:256</ref><ref>Surah An-Nisa 4:137</ref><ref>Surah Al-Kahf 18:29</ref><ref>Surah An-Nahl 16:106</ref> causing modern thinkers to reject it. Many classical scholars hold the opinion that apostasy has no punishment.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://tracesofknowledge.com/detailed-articles/apostasy/ | title=Apostasy | date=13 October 2021 }}</ref> According to the [[Hanafi]] school, The death penalty for apostasy from Islam is limited for men of fighting age only, and those who cause aggravated robbery or grand larceny (ḥirābah) after leaving Islam, not for converting to another religion.<ref>Marie-Luisa Frick, Andreas Th. Müller Islam and International Law: Engaging Self-Centrism from a Plurality of Perspectives Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. 2013 ISBN 978-9004233362 p. 95</ref> [[Sunni]] scholar [[Al-Awza'i]] differed with other schools of jurisprudence in holding that apostates from Islam ought not be executed unless their apostasy is part of a plot to take over the state.<ref>{{cite book | chapter-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.20851/j.ctt1t3051j.13 | jstor=10.20851/j.ctt1t3051j.13 | chapter=Apostasy in Islam and the Freedom of Religion in International Law | last1=Wood | first1=Asmi | title=Freedom of Religion under Bills of Rights | date=2012 | pages=152–171 | publisher=University of Adelaide Press | isbn=978-0-9871718-0-1 }}</ref>

Modern Islamic scholars and thinkers like Khaled Abou El Fadl Labels blanket executions for apostasy a “corruption (taḥrīf) of God’s book”; historically tied to sedition, not disbelief.<ref>The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists (2007) & essay “The Death Penalty, Mercy and Islam”</ref> [[Muḥammad ʿAbduh]] & [[Rashid Riḍa]] Re-interpret early “wars of apostasy” as political rebellion; deny a fixed ḥadd for mere change of faith.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://melbourneasiareview.edu.au/death-penalty-for-apostasy-selected-sunni-and-shia-scholars-views-in-favour-of-abolition/?utm_source=chatgpt.com | title=Death penalty for apostasy: Selected Sunni and Shi'a scholars' views in favour of abolition | journal=Melbourne Asia Review | date=10 November 2020 | volume=2020 | issue=4 | last1=Akbar | first1=Dr Ali | last2=Saeed | first2=Abdullah }}</ref>

Jainism allows freedom of conscience and apostasy. Conversions of Jains to other religions, and the marriage of a Hindu king and Jain queen wherein each continued to follow their religion, and build temples of both religions, has been documented in Jain history.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=4-5, 120-123}}<ref>{{cite book|author=T.K. Tukol |title=Jainism in South India, in Compendium of Jainism|url=http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~pluralsm/affiliates/jainism/article/south.htm|publisher= Harvard University Archives|year=1980|oclc= 8964694}}</ref> In some Digambara Jain writings, the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] is presented as someone who joined Mahavira's Jain sangha, but became an apostate and started his own religion now called [[Buddhism]].{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=4-5, 120-123}} This historic interaction is confirmed by early Buddhist texts wherein the Mahavira is called as ''Nigantha Nataputta''.{{sfn|Sangave|2001|p=21}}<ref>Paul Dundas (2003). Jainism and Buddhism, in Buswell, Robert E. ed. Encyclopedia of Buddhism, New York: Macmillan Reference Lib. {{ISBN|0028657187}}; p. 383</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Damien Keown|author2=Charles S. Prebish|title=Encyclopedia of Buddhism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NFpcAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA127 |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-98588-1|pages=127–130}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Islam and other religions]]
*[[Divisions of the world in Islam]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==References==
{{Wikiquote}}
* {{citation |last=von Glasenapp |first=Helmuth |title=Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation |year=1925 |location = Delhi |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass (Reprint: 1999) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC |isbn=81-208-1376-6 }}
* {{citation |editor=John E. Cort |editor-link=John E. Cort |title=Open Boundaries: Jain Communities and Cultures in Indian History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yoHfm7BgqTgC |publisher=[[SUNY Press]] |date=1998 |isbn=0-7914-3785-X }}
* {{citation |last=Dundas |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Dundas |title=The Jains |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ |edition=Second |date=2002 |orig-year=1992 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0-415-26605-X }}
* {{citation |last=Jaini |first=Padmanabh S. |author-link=Padmanabh Jaini |title=The Jaina Path of Purification |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wE6v6ahxHi8C |year=1998 |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |location=[[Delhi]] |isbn=81-208-1578-5 }}
*{{citation |author=Norman C. McClelland |title=Encyclopedia of Reincarnation and Karma |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S_Leq4U5ihkC |year=2010|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0-7864-5675-8 }}
* {{citation |last=Sangave |first=Vilas Adinath |author-link=Vilas Adinath Sangave |title=Facets of Jainology: Selected Research Papers on Jain Society, Religion, and Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QzEQJHWUwXQC |date=2001 |publisher=[[Popular Prakashan]] |location=[[Mumbai]] |isbn=978-81-7154-839-2 }}

{{Jainism topics|state=collapsed}}
{{Islam topics|state=collapsed}}

[[Category:Jainism and other religions|Islam]]
[[Category:Islam and other religions|Jainism]]