View source for International Space Station

{{Short description|Inhabited space station in low Earth orbit}}
{{Redirect|ISS}}
{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{Use American English|date=January 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Infobox space station
 | station               = International Space Station (ISS)
 | station_image         = The station pictured from the SpaceX Crew Dragon 1.jpg
 | station_image_alt     = 
 | station_image_caption = Oblique underside view in November 2021
 | insignia              = ISS emblem.png
 | insignia_caption      = [[International Space Station program]] emblem with flags of the original signatory states<ref>{{Cite web |title=ISS logos executive summary |url=https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images/2012/02/ISS_logos_executive_summary |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240323041817/https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images/2012/02/ISS_logos_executive_summary |archive-date=23 March 2024 |access-date=4 December 2024 |website=www.esa.int |publisher=[[European Space Agency]] |language=en}}</ref>
 | sign                  = ''Alpha'', ''Station''
 | crew                  = {{Unbulleted indent list
    | Size: 7{{efn|standard;<ref name="j675">{{cite web | title=International Space Station Facts and Figures | website=NASA | date=July 16, 2024 | url=https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/space-station-facts-and-figures/ | access-date=October 21, 2025}}</ref> past min. 2; past max. 13<ref name="s636">{{cite web | title=International Space Station Astronaut Record Holders | website=NASA | date=August 5, 2025 | url=https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/space-station-astronaut-record-holders/ | access-date=October 22, 2025}}</ref>}}
    | Current [[List of International Space Station expeditions|expedition]]: [[Expedition 74|74]] ([[Soyuz MS-28]] & [[SpaceX Crew-12]])
    | Current [[List of commanders of the International Space Station|commander]]: [[Sergey Kud-Sverchkov]] ([[Roscosmos]])
    | Current non-expedition:&nbsp;0<!--Do not remove, just set to zero-->
    }}
 | launch                = {{start date and age|1998|11|20|p=yes|df=yes}}{{efn|with the launch of the first module: [[Zarya (ISS module)|''Zarya'']]}}
 | launch_pad            = {{Unbulleted indent list
    | [[Baikonur Cosmodrome|Baikonur]], Sites [[Gagarin's Start|1/5]], [[Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 31|31/6]], [[Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 81|81/23]] and [[Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 200|200/39]]
    | [[Cape Canaveral Space Force Station|Cape Canaveral]], [[Cape Canaveral Space Launch Complex 40|SLC{{nbhyph}}40]]
    | [[Kennedy Space Center|Kennedy]], [[Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A|LC{{nbhyph}}39A]] and [[Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39B|LC{{nbhyph}}39B]]
    }}
 | reentry               = <!--{{end-date|df=yes|}}-->
 | mass                  = {{cvt|450000|kg|lb}}<ref name="esa-iss">{{Cite web|url=https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/International_Space_Station/ISS_International_Space_Station|title=ISS: International Space Station|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810145735/https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/International_Space_Station/ISS_International_Space_Station|archive-date=10 August 2023}}</ref>
 | length                = {{cvt|358|ft|order=flip}} (overall), {{cvt|310|ft|order=flip}} (truss)<ref name="ISS_stats">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/feature/facts-and-figures|title=About the Space Station: Facts and Figures|last=Garcia|first=Mark|date=5 January 2023|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=13 January 2023|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230206183926/https://www.nasa.gov/feature/facts-and-figures/|archive-date=6 February 2023}}</ref>
 | width                 = {{cvt|239|ft|order=flip}} (solar array)<ref name="ISS_stats" />
 | volume                = {{cvt|35491|cuft|order=flip}}<ref name="ISS_stats" />
 | pressure              = {{convert|1|atm|kPa psi|1|abbr=on|lk=on}} 79% nitrogen, 21% oxygen
 | perigee               = {{cvt|413|km|mi|1}} [[above mean sea level|AMSL]]<ref name="heavens-above">{{cite web|last=Peat|first=Chris|date=21 May 2021|title=ISS – Orbit|url=http://www.heavens-above.com/orbit.aspx?satid=25544|access-date=21 May 2021|website=[[Heavens-Above]]|archive-date=25 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225055512/https://www.heavens-above.com/orbit.aspx?satid=25544|url-status=live}}</ref>
 | apogee                = {{cvt|422|km|mi|1}} AMSL<ref name="heavens-above" />
 | inclination           = 51.64°<ref name="heavens-above" />
 | speed                 = {{convert|27600|km/h|km/s km/h mph|abbr=on|disp=out|sigfig=3}}<ref name="spotthestation">{{Cite web|url=https://spotthestation.nasa.gov/tracking_map.cfm|title=Live Space Station Tracking Map|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=2 May 2024|archive-date=10 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240510180547/https://spotthestation.nasa.gov/tracking_map.cfm|url-status=live}}</ref>
 | period                = 92.9 minutes<ref name="satellite-tracking">{{cite web|last=Holman|first=Joseph|date=12 October 2022|title=ISS (ZARYA)|url=https://karhukoti.com/webtracker?s=25544|access-date=12 October 2022|publisher=Satellite Tracking|archive-date=12 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221012161445/https://karhukoti.com/webtracker?s=25544|url-status=live}}</ref>
 | orbits_day            = 15.5<ref name="heavens-above" />
 | in_orbit              = {{time interval|20 November 1998 06:40|show=ymd|sep=,}} as of {{TODAY}}
 | occupied              = {{time interval|2 November 2000 09:21|show=ymd|sep=,}} as of {{TODAY}}
 | orbits                = 154,278
 {{as of|2025|12|14|lc=y}}<ref name="ARISS TLE"/>
 | decay                 = {{cvt|2|km/month|mi/month}}
 | orbit_epoch           = 16 August 16:19:30<ref name="ARISS TLE">{{cite web|date=16 August 2023|title=ARISS TLE|url=https://live.ariss.org/tle/|access-date=16 August 2023|website=ARISS TLE|archive-date=2 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230402085409/https://live.ariss.org/tle/|url-status=live}}</ref>
 | apsis                 = gee
 | as_of                 = 22 December 2022<br />(unless noted otherwise)
 | stats_ref             =<ref name="ISS_stats" /><ref name="heavens-above" /><ref name="OnOrbit" /><ref name="sts-132-press-kit">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/451029main-sts132-press-kit2.pdf|title=STS-132 Press Kit|date=7 May 2010|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=19 June 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231012175219/https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/451029main-sts132-press-kit2.pdf|archive-date=12 October 2023}}</ref><ref name="sts-133-fd04">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/521138main_fd04_ep.pdf|title=STS-133 FD 04 Execute Package|date=27 February 2011|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=27 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127012806/https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/521138main_fd04_ep.pdf|archive-date=27 November 2020}}</ref>
 | configuration_image   = File:ISS configuration 2022-12 en.svg
 | configuration_alt     = The components of the ISS in an exploded diagram, with modules on-orbit highlighted in orange.
 | configuration_caption = Station elements {{As of|2022|12|lc=on}}<br />([[Exploded-view drawing|exploded view]])
 | configuration_class = skin-invert-image
}}

The '''International Space Station''' ('''ISS''') is a [[space station]] in [[low Earth orbit]] (LEO). It is the product of the [[International Space Station program]] and is operated by five partner [[space agency|space agencies]]: [[NASA]] (United States), [[Roscosmos]] (Russia), [[European Space Agency|ESA]] (Europe), [[JAXA]] (Japan), and [[Canadian Space Agency|CSA]] (Canada).<ref name="x270">{{cite web | title=International Space Station | website=NASA | date=2025-11-27 | url=https://www.nasa.gov/reference/international-space-station/#:~:text=Five%20partner%20agencies%2C%20the%20Canadian,across%20the%20partnership%20to%20function. | access-date=2026-03-16}}</ref> It is the first space station built, maintained and crewed through [[international cooperation]] and the largest human spacecraft ever constructed.<ref name="z085">{{cite web | title=International Space Station Cooperation | website=NASA | date=2023-09-27 | url=https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/space-station-international-cooperation/ | access-date=2026-03-16}}</ref><ref name=":5" /> It is an orbital [[research station]], where scientific experiments in [[microgravity]] are conducted and the [[space environment]] is studied.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |date=23 May 2023 |title=ISS |url=https://www.nasa.gov/reference/international-space-station/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240516133907/https://www.nasa.gov/reference/international-space-station/ |archive-date=16 May 2024 |access-date=9 May 2024 |website=nasa.gov}}</ref> Since 2 November 2000, it has hosted the longest continuous [[Human presence in space|presence of humans in space]].<ref name="d504">{{cite web | title=The International Space Station is a Unique Place | website=NASA | date=2023-09-27 | url=https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/the-international-space-station-is-a-unique-place/ | access-date=2026-03-16}}</ref> Alongside [[Tiangong space station|''Tiangong'']], it is one of two currently operating space stations.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Space Stations |url=https://www.spacecentre.co.uk/news/space-now-blog/space-stations |website=National Space Centre}}</ref>

The station orbits between [[Circles of latitude between the 50th parallel north and the 55th parallel north#51st parallel north|51.64° north]] and [[Circles of latitude between the 50th parallel south and the 55th parallel south#51st parallel south|south]], at about {{convert|400|km|abbr=off}}<ref>{{cite web|date=14 February 2019|title=NASA – Higher Altitude Improves Station's Fuel Economy|url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/expeditions/expedition26/iss_altitude.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211225215323/https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/expeditions/expedition26/iss_altitude.html|archive-date=25 December 2021|access-date=29 May 2019|website=nasa.gov}}</ref> above Earth, below the [[Van Allen radiation belt|Van Allen radiation belts]] and most [[space debris]].<ref name="nasa9">{{citation |title=The Threat of Orbital Debris and Protecting NASA Space Assets from Satellite Collisions |date=2009 |url=http://images.spaceref.com/news/2009/ODMediaBriefing28Apr09-1.pdf |access-date=18 December 2012 |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20151223174746/http://images.spaceref.com/news/2009/ODMediaBriefing28Apr09-1.pdf |archive-date=23 December 2015 |url-status=live |publisher=Space Reference}}.</ref> Its orbit takes it at {{cvt|7.67|km/s|km/h mph}} roughly every 93 minutes around Earth, {{Orbit|daily orbits|15.5}} times a day.<ref name="tracking2">{{Cite web|date=15 December 2008|title=Current ISS Tracking data|url=http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/realdata/tracking/index.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151225022741/http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/realdata/tracking/index.html|archive-date=25 December 2015|access-date=28 January 2009|publisher=[[NASA]]}} {{PD-notice}}</ref> Measuring {{cvt|358|ft|order=flip}} (with solar arrays) by {{cvt|239|ft|order=flip}},<ref name="y955" /> it is as large as a full-sized football or soccer field,<ref name="q020">{{cite web | title=How big and heavy is the International Space Station (ISS) ? | website=JAXA 有人宇宙技術部門 | url=https://iss.jaxa.jp/kids/en/station/03.html | access-date=2026-03-19}}</ref> and has an internal volume of 1,005 m<sup>3</sup> (35,491 ft<sup>3</sup>), comparable to a [[Boeing 747]] airliner.<ref name="y955">{{cite web | title=International Space Station Facts and Figures | website=NASA | date=2024-07-16 | url=https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/space-station-facts-and-figures/ | access-date=2026-03-19}}</ref>

The station is a [[modular space station]] divided into two main sections: the [[Russian Orbital Segment]] (ROS), developed by Roscosmos, and the [[US Orbital Segment]] (USOS), built by NASA, ESA, JAXA, and CSA. A striking feature of the ISS is the [[Integrated Truss Structure]], which connect the station's vast system of [[solar panel]]s and [[Spacecraft thermal control|radiators]] to its pressurized modules. These modules support diverse functions, including scientific research, crew habitation, storage, spacecraft control, and airlock operations. The ISS has eight [[Docking and berthing of spacecraft|docking and berthing ports]] for visiting spacecraft. In total, the station consists of 43 different modules and elements.<ref>{{Cite web |title=International Space Station Assembly Elements |url=https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/international-space-station-assembly-elements/ |website=NASA}}</ref>

The ISS is [[Politics of the International Space Station|the political product]] of the development of [[international cooperation in space]] throughout the [[space age]]. The station combines two previously planned crewed Earth-orbiting stations: the United States' [[Space Station Freedom|Space Station ''Freedom'']] and the Soviet Union's'' [[Mir-2]]''. The [[Zarya (ISS module)|first ISS module]] was launched in 1998, with major components delivered by [[Proton (rocket family)|Proton]] and [[Soyuz (rocket family)|Soyuz]] rockets and the [[Space Shuttle]]. Long-term occupancy began with the arrival of the [[Expedition 1]] crew on 2 November 2000. Since then, the ISS has remained continuously inhabited for {{age in years and days|2 November 2000|sep=and}}, the longest continuous human presence in space. {{As of|2025|08}}, 290 individuals from 26 countries had visited the station.<ref>{{Cite web |title=International Space Station Visitors by Country |url=https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/space-station-visitors-by-country/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250728162030/https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/space-station-visitors-by-country/ |archive-date=28 July 2025 |access-date=6 August 2025 |website=NASA}}</ref>

Future plans for the ISS include the addition of at least one module, [[Axiom Station#PPTM|Payload Power Thermal Module]] by [[Axiom Space]], forming the commercial segment of the station. The station is expected to remain operational until the end of 2030, by which parts of it are to be used for [[Axiom Station]] and the [[Russian Orbital Service Station]]. After this the ISS is planned to be de-orbited using the [[US Deorbit Vehicle]],<ref name=":2b">{{Cite web |date=26 June 2024 |title=NASA Selects International Space Station US Deorbit Vehicle |url=https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-selects-international-space-station-us-deorbit-vehicle/ |access-date=26 June 2024 |website=NASA}}</ref> but critique of this plan and the proposal of parking the station at a more stable higher orbit has gathered congressional support by 2026.

==Conception==
{{Excerpt|International Space Station program#Conception}}

==Purpose==
The ISS was originally intended to be a laboratory, observatory, and factory while providing transportation, maintenance, and a [[low Earth orbit]] staging base for possible future missions to the Moon, Mars, and asteroids. However, not all of the uses envisioned in the initial [[memorandum of understanding]] between [[NASA]] and [[Roscosmos]] have been realised.<ref name="RSA-MOU">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/nasa_rsa.html|title=Memorandum of Understanding Between the National Aeronautics and Space Administration of the United States of America and the Russian Space Agency Concerning Cooperation on the Civil International Space Station|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=19 April 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151215114755/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/nasa_rsa.html|archive-date=15 December 2015}} {{PD-notice}}</ref> In the [[Space policy of the Barack Obama administration|2010 United States National Space Policy]], the ISS was given additional roles of serving commercial, diplomatic,<ref name="payette-2012">{{Cite journal|url=https://www.sciencediplomacy.org/article/2012/research-and-diplomacy-350-kilometers-above-earth|title=Research and Diplomacy 350 Kilometers above the Earth: Lessons from the International Space Station|last=Payette|first=Julie|date=10 December 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130306143438/https://www.sciencediplomacy.org/article/2012/research-and-diplomacy-350-kilometers-above-earth|archive-date=6 March 2013|issue=4|journal=Science & Diplomacy|volume=1}}</ref> and educational purposes.<ref name="USNSP">{{Cite web|url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/national_space_policy_6-28-10.pdf|title=National Space Policy of the United States of America|date=28 June 2010|publisher=[[President of the United States|White House]]|access-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027102640/https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/national_space_policy_6-28-10.pdf|archive-date=27 October 2023}} {{PD-notice}}</ref>

===Scientific research===
{{Main|Scientific research on the International Space Station}}

{{multiple image
| align             = right
| total_width       = 300
| image1            = Iss030e015472 Edit.jpg
| caption1          = [[C/2011 W3 (Lovejoy)|Comet Lovejoy]] photographed during [[Expedition 30]]
| image2            = ISS-08 Michael Foale conducts an inspection of the Microgravity Science Glovebox.jpg
| caption2          = [[Michael Foale]] conducts an inspection of the [[Microgravity Science Glovebox]] during [[Expedition 8]].
}}
{{multiple image
| align             = right
| total_width       = 300
| image1            = STS-134 EVA4 view to the Space Shuttle Endeavour.jpg
| caption1          = Fisheye view of several labs and the Space Shuttle
| image2            = NanoRacksCubeSatLaunch ISS038-E-056389.jpg
| caption2          = [[CubeSat]]s are deployed by the [[NanoRacks CubeSat Deployer]].
}}

The ISS provides a platform to conduct scientific research, with power, data, cooling, and crew available to support experiments. Small uncrewed spacecraft can also provide platforms for experiments, especially those involving zero gravity and exposure to space, but space stations offer a long-term environment where studies can be performed potentially for decades<!--<ref name="jaxa">{{Cite web|url=https://iss.jaxa.jp/iss/doc01_e.html|title=What is International Space Station?|date=19 January 2004|publisher=iss.jaxa.jp|access-date=27 May 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730041558/https://iss.jaxa.jp/iss/doc01_e.html|archive-date=30 July 2023}}</ref>-->, combined with ready access by human researchers.<ref name="10th">{{Cite press release|url=https://www3.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2008/nov/HQ_08-296_ISS_10th_Anniversary.html|title=Nations Around the World Mark 10th Anniversary of International Space Station|last1=Trinidad|first1=Katherine|last2=Humphries|first2=Kelly|date=17 November 2008|publisher=[[NASA]]|id=08-296|access-date=6 March 2009|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521030300/https://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2008/nov/HQ_08-296_ISS_10th_Anniversary.html|archive-date=21 May 2022}} {{PD-notice}}</ref><ref name="Worldbook at NASA" />

The ISS simplifies individual experiments by allowing groups of experiments to share the same launches and crew time. Research is conducted in a wide variety of fields, including [[astrobiology]], [[astronomy]], [[physical science]]s, [[materials science]], [[space weather]], [[meteorology]], and [[Zero g#Health effects of weightlessness|human research]] including [[space medicine]] and the [[life science]]s.<ref name="NASA Fields of Research">{{cite web|date=26 June 2007|title=Fields of Research|url=http://pdlprod3.hosc.msfc.nasa.gov/A-fieldsresearch/index.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080123150641/http://pdlprod3.hosc.msfc.nasa.gov/A-fieldsresearch/index.html|archive-date=23 January 2008|publisher=NASA}}</ref><ref name="NASA ISS Goals">{{Cite web|date=26 June 2007|title=Getting on Board|url=http://pdlprod3.hosc.msfc.nasa.gov/B-gettingonboard/index.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071208091537/http://pdlprod3.hosc.msfc.nasa.gov/B-gettingonboard/index.html|archive-date=8 December 2007|publisher=[[NASA]]}} {{PD-notice}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|year=2008|title=Monitor of All-sky X-ray Image (MAXI)|url=http://www.isas.jaxa.jp/e/forefront/2009/ueno/index.shtml|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722111152/http://www.isas.jaxa.jp/e/forefront/2009/ueno/index.shtml|archive-date=22 July 2011|access-date=12 March 2011|publisher=JAXA}}</ref><ref name="esa-20110311">{{Cite web|url=https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Research/SOLAR_three_years_observing_and_ready_for_solar_maximum|title=SOLAR: three years observing and ready for solar maximum|date=11 March 2011|publisher=[[ESA]]|access-date=4 June 2023|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810131833/https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Research/SOLAR_three_years_observing_and_ready_for_solar_maximum|archive-date=10 August 2023}}</ref> Scientists on Earth have timely access to the data and can suggest experimental modifications to the crew. If follow-on experiments are necessary, the routinely scheduled launches of resupply craft allows new hardware to be launched with relative ease.<ref name="Worldbook at NASA" /> Crews fly [[List of International Space Station expeditions|expeditions]] of several months' duration, providing approximately 160 man-hours per week of labour with a crew of six. However, a considerable amount of crew time is taken up by station maintenance.<ref name="Science in School">{{Citation|url=https://www.scienceinschool.org/article/2009/the-international-space-station-life-in-space/|title=The International Space Station: life in space|last1=Hartevelt-Velani|first1=Shamim|last2=Walker|first2=Carl|last3=Elmann-Larsen|first3=Benny|date=23 November 2009|publisher=Science in School|access-date=17 February 2009|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203232623/https://www.scienceinschool.org/article/2009/the-international-space-station-life-in-space/|archive-date=3 February 2023|issue=10}}</ref>

Perhaps the most notable ISS experiment is the [[Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer]] (AMS), which is intended to detect dark matter and answer other fundamental questions about our universe. According to NASA, the AMS is as important as the [[Hubble Space Telescope]]. Currently docked on station, it could not have been easily accommodated on a free flying satellite platform because of its power and bandwidth needs.<ref name="nasa-20110318">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/main/amsprocessing.html|title=AMS to Focus on Invisible Universe|date=18 March 2011|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=8 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305123234/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/main/amsprocessing.html|archive-date=5 March 2023}} {{PD-notice}}</ref><ref name="nasa-20090814">{{Cite web|url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2009/14aug_ams/|title=In Search of Antimatter Galaxies|date=14 August 2009|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=8 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114162151/https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2009/14aug_ams/|archive-date=14 January 2023}} {{PD-notice}}</ref> On 3 April 2013, scientists reported that hints of [[dark matter]] may have been detected by the AMS.<ref name="APS-20130403">{{Cite journal|url=https://boa.unimib.it/bitstream/10281/44680/1/2013_PhysRevLett.110.141102_positron_fraction.pdf|title=First Result from the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer on the International Space Station: Precision Measurement of the Positron Fraction in Primary Cosmic Rays of 0.5–350 GeV|last=Aguilar, M. et al. (AMS Collaboration)|date=3 April 2013|article-number=141102|bibcode=2013PhRvL.110n1102A|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.110.141102|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810132812/https://boa.unimib.it/bitstream/10281/44680/1/2013_PhysRevLett.110.141102_positron_fraction.pdf|archive-date=10 August 2023|journal=[[Physical Review Letters]]|volume=110|issue=14|pmid=25166975|doi-access=free|issn=0031-9007}}</ref><ref name="AMS-20130403">{{cite web|last=Staff|date=3 April 2013|title=First Result from the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer Experiment|url=http://www.ams02.org/2013/04/first-results-from-the-alpha-magnetic-spectrometer-ams-experiment/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408185229/http://www.ams02.org/2013/04/first-results-from-the-alpha-magnetic-spectrometer-ams-experiment/|archive-date=8 April 2013|access-date=3 April 2013|website=AMS Collaboration}}</ref><ref name="AP-20130403">{{Cite news|last1=Heilprin|first1=John|last2=Borenstein|first2=Seth|date=3 April 2013|title=Scientists find hint of dark matter from cosmos|agency=Associated Press|url=http://apnews.excite.com/article/20130403/DA5E6JAG3.html|access-date=3 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510152050/http://apnews.excite.com/article/20130403/DA5E6JAG3.html|archive-date=10 May 2013}}</ref><ref name="BBC-20130403">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-22016504|title=Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer zeroes in on dark matter|last=Amos|first=Jonathan|date=3 April 2013|access-date=3 April 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812222642/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-22016504|archive-date=12 August 2023|publisher=BBC News}}</ref><ref name="NASA-20130403">{{Cite press release|url=https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-tv-briefing-discusses-alpha-magnetic-spectrometer-results/|title=NASA TV Briefing Discusses Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer Results|last1=Perrotto|first1=Trent J.|last2=Byerly|first2=Josh|publisher=[[NASA]]|id=M13-054|access-date=3 April 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109114859/https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-tv-briefing-discusses-alpha-magnetic-spectrometer-results/|archive-date=9 November 2023}} {{PD-notice}}</ref><ref name="NYT-20130403">{{Cite news|last=Overbye|first=Dennis|date=3 April 2013|title=Tantalizing New Clues into the Mysteries of Dark Matter|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/04/science/space/new-clues-to-the-mystery-of-dark-matter.html|url-status=live|access-date=3 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170820032900/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/04/science/space/new-clues-to-the-mystery-of-dark-matter.html|archive-date=20 August 2017}}</ref> According to the scientists, "The first results from the space-borne Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer confirm an unexplained excess of high-energy positrons in Earth-bound cosmic rays".<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=AMS Collaboration |last2=Aguilar |first2=M. |last3=Alberti |first3=G. |last4=Alpat |first4=B. |last5=Alvino |first5=A. |last6=Ambrosi |first6=G. |last7=Andeen |first7=K. |last8=Anderhub |first8=H. |last9=Arruda |first9=L. |last10=Azzarello |first10=P. |last11=Bachlechner |first11=A. |last12=Barao |first12=F. |last13=Baret |first13=B. |last14=Barrau |first14=A. |last15=Barrin |first15=L. |date=2013-04-03 |title=First Result from the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer on the International Space Station: Precision Measurement of the Positron Fraction in Primary Cosmic Rays of 0.5--350 GeV |url=https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.110.141102 |journal=Physical Review Letters |volume=110 |issue=14 |article-number=141102 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.110.141102|pmid=25166975 |bibcode=2013PhRvL.110n1102A |hdl=10281/44680 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

The space environment is hostile to life. Unprotected presence in space is characterised by an intense radiation field (consisting primarily of protons and other subatomic charged particles from the [[solar wind]], in addition to [[cosmic ray]]s), high vacuum, extreme temperatures, and microgravity.<ref name="Space Microbiology">{{Cite journal|last1=Horneck|first1=Gerda|last2=Klaus|first2=David M.|last3=Mancinelli|first3=Rocco L.|date=March 2010|title=Space Microbiology|url=http://syntheticbiology.arc.nasa.gov/files/SpaceMicrobiology%20MMBR%201.pdf|journal=Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews|publisher=[[American Society for Microbiology]]|volume=74|issue=1|pages=121–156|bibcode=2010MMBR...74..121H|doi=10.1128/MMBR.00016-09|pmc=2832349|pmid=20197502|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830095643/http://syntheticbiology.arc.nasa.gov/files/SpaceMicrobiology%20MMBR%201.pdf|archive-date=30 August 2011|access-date=4 June 2011}} See Space Environment on p. 122.</ref> Some simple forms of life called [[extremophile]]s,<ref name="Beer microbes">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-11039206|title=Beer microbes live 553 days outside ISS|last=Amos|first=Jonathan|date=23 August 2010|access-date=4 June 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811163449/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-11039206|archive-date=11 August 2023|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> as well as small invertebrates called [[tardigrade]]s,<ref name="Waterbears">{{Cite journal|last=Ledford|first=Heidi|date=8 September 2008|title=Spacesuits optional for 'water bears'|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|doi=10.1038/news.2008.1087}}</ref> can survive in this environment in an extremely dry state through [[Desiccation#Biology and ecology|desiccation]].

Medical research improves knowledge about the effects of long-term space exposure on the human body, including [[muscle atrophy]], [[Osteoporosis|bone loss]], and fluid shift. These data will be used to determine whether high duration [[human spaceflight]] and [[space colonisation]] are feasible. In 2006, data on bone loss and muscular atrophy suggested that there would be a significant risk of fractures and movement problems if astronauts landed on a planet after a lengthy interplanetary cruise, such as the six-month interval required to [[Human mission to Mars|travel to Mars]].<ref name="JCB">{{Cite book|first=Jay|last=Buckey|title=Space Physiology|date=23 February 2006|publisher=Oxford University Press USA|isbn=978-0-19-513725-5}}</ref><ref name="newscientist-20090722">{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn17476-ion-engine-could-one-day-power-39-day-trips-to-mars/|title=Ion engine could one day power 39-day trips to Mars|last=Grossman|first=List|date=22 July 2009|access-date=8 January 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231015103957/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn17476-ion-engine-could-one-day-power-39-day-trips-to-mars/|archive-date=15 October 2023|magazine=[[New Scientist]]}}</ref>

Medical studies are conducted aboard the ISS on behalf of the [[National Space Biomedical Research Institute]] (NSBRI). Prominent among these is the [[Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity]] study in which astronauts perform ultrasound scans under the guidance of remote experts. The study considers the diagnosis and treatment of medical conditions in space. Usually, there is no physician on board the ISS and diagnosis of medical conditions is a challenge. It is anticipated that remotely guided ultrasound scans will have application on Earth in emergency and rural care situations where access to a trained physician is difficult.<ref name="nasa-adum">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/science/experiments/ADUM.html|title=Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity (ADUM)|last=Boen|first=Brooke|date=1 May 2009|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=1 October 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091029061057/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/science/experiments/ADUM.html|archive-date=29 October 2009}} {{PD-notice}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rao|first1=Sishir|last2=van Holsbeeck|first2=Lodewijk|last3=Musial|first3=Joseph L.|last4=Parker|first4=Alton|last5=Bouffard|first5=J. Antonio|last6=Bridge|first6=Patrick|last7=Jackson|first7=Matt|last8=Dulchavsky|first8=Scott A.|display-authors=1|date=May 2008|title=A Pilot Study of Comprehensive Ultrasound Education at the Wayne State University School of Medicine|journal=Journal of Ultrasound in Medicine|volume=27|issue=5|pages=745–749|doi=10.7863/jum.2008.27.5.745|pmid=18424650|s2cid=30566494|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fincke|first1=E. Michael|last2=Padalka|first2=Gennady|last3=Lee|first3=Doohi|last4=van Holsbeeck|first4=Marnix|last5=Sargsyan|first5=Ashot E.|last6=Hamilton|first6=Douglas R.|last7=Martin|first7=David|last8=Melton|first8=Shannon L.|last9=McFarlin|first9=Kellie |last10=Dulchavsky |first10=Scott A.|display-authors=1|date=February 2005|title=Evaluation of Shoulder Integrity in Space: First Report of Musculoskeletal US on the International Space Station|journal=Radiology|volume=234|issue=2|pages=319–322|doi=10.1148/radiol.2342041680|pmid=15533948}}</ref>

In August 2020, scientists reported that [[bacteria]] from Earth, particularly ''[[Deinococcus radiodurans]]'' bacteria, which is highly resistant to [[environmental hazard]]s, were found to survive for three years in [[outer space]], based on studies conducted on the International Space Station. These findings supported the notion of [[panspermia]], the hypothesis that [[life]] exists throughout the [[Universe]], distributed in various ways, including [[space dust]], [[meteoroid]]s, [[asteroid]]s, [[comet]]s, [[Minor planet|planetoid]]s or [[Contamination|contaminated]] [[spacecraft]].<ref name="CNN-20200826">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/08/26/world/earth-mars-bacteria-space-scn/index.html|title=Bacteria from Earth can survive in space and could endure the trip to Mars, according to new study|last=Strickland|first=Ashley|date=26 August 2020|access-date=26 August 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811171442/https://edition.cnn.com/2020/08/26/world/earth-mars-bacteria-space-scn/index.html|archive-date=11 August 2023|publisher=CNN}}</ref><ref name="FM-20200826">{{Cite journal|last=Kawaguchi|first=Yuko|display-authors=et al.|date=26 August 2020|title=DNA Damage and Survival Time Course of Deinococcal Cell Pellets During 3 Years of Exposure to Outer Space|journal=[[Frontiers in Microbiology]]|volume=11|article-number=2050|doi=10.3389/fmicb.2020.02050|pmid=32983036|pmc=7479814|s2cid=221300151|doi-access=free |bibcode=2020FrMic..1102050K }}</ref>

[[Remote sensing]] of the Earth, astronomy, and deep space research on the ISS have significantly increased during the 2010s after the completion of the [[US Orbital Segment]] in 2011. Throughout the more than 20 years of the ISS program, researchers aboard the ISS and on the ground have examined [[aerosol]]s, [[ozone]], [[lightning]], and [[oxide]]s in Earth's atmosphere, as well as the [[Sun]], cosmic rays, [[cosmic dust]], [[antimatter]], and dark matter in the universe. Examples of Earth-viewing remote sensing experiments that have flown on the ISS are the [[Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3]], [[ISS-RapidScat]], [[ECOSTRESS]], the [[Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation]], and the [[Cloud Aerosol Transport System]]. ISS-based astronomy telescopes and experiments include [[SOLAR (ISS)|SOLAR]], the [[Neutron Star Interior Composition Explorer]], the [[Calorimetric Electron Telescope]], the [[MAXI (ISS experiment)|Monitor of All-sky X-ray Image (MAXI)]], and the [[Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer]].<ref name="NASA Fields of Research" /><ref name="eol-rss">{{Cite web|url=https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/ESRS/ISS_Remote_Sensing_Systems/|title=Earth Science & Remote Sensing Missions on ISS|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=9 December 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810131526/https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/ESRS/ISS_Remote_Sensing_Systems/|archive-date=10 August 2023}}</ref>

====Microgravity environment====
[[File:Iss067e149651.webp|thumb|[[Jessica Watkins]] and [[Bob Hines]] working on XROOTS, an experiment using the Veggie facility of the station testing soilless hydroponic and aeroponic plant growth]]
[[File:Space Fire.jpg|thumb|A comparison between the combustion of a candle on [[Earth]] (left) and in a free fall environment, such as that found on the ISS (right)]]

Researchers are investigating the effect of the station's near-weightless environment on the evolution, development, growth and internal processes of plants and animals. In response to some of the data, NASA wants to investigate [[microgravity]]'s effects on the growth of three-dimensional, human-like tissues and the unusual [[protein crystal]]s that can be formed in space.<ref name="NASA Fields of Research" />

Investigating the physics of fluids in microgravity will provide better models of the behaviour of fluids. Because fluids can be almost completely combined in microgravity, physicists investigate fluids that do not mix well on Earth. Examining reactions that are slowed by low gravity and low temperatures will improve our understanding of [[superconductivity]].<ref name="NASA Fields of Research" />

The study of [[materials science]] is an important ISS research activity, with the objective of reaping economic benefits through the improvement of techniques used on Earth.<ref name="nasa-materials-science-101">{{Cite web|url=https://science.nasa.gov/newhome/headlines/msad15sep99_1.htm|title=Materials Science 101|date=15 September 1999|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=18 June 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090614033947/http://science.nasa.gov/newhome/headlines/msad15sep99_1.htm|archive-date=14 June 2009}} {{PD-notice}}</ref> Other areas of interest include the effect of low gravity on combustion, through the study of the efficiency of burning and control of emissions and pollutants. These findings may improve knowledge about energy production and lead to economic and environmental benefits.<ref name="NASA Fields of Research" />

===Exploration===
The ISS provides a location in the relative safety of low Earth orbit to test spacecraft systems that will be required for long-duration missions to the Moon and Mars. This provides experience in operations, maintenance, and repair and replacement activities on-orbit. This will help develop essential skills in operating spacecraft farther from Earth, reduce mission risks, and advance the capabilities of interplanetary spacecraft.<ref name="ResProg">{{cite web|title=ISS Research Program|url=http://spaceflightsystems.grc.nasa.gov/Advanced/ISSResearch/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090213140014/http://spaceflightsystems.grc.nasa.gov/Advanced/ISSResearch/|archive-date=13 February 2009|access-date=27 February 2009|publisher=NASA}}</ref> Referring to the [[MARS-500]] experiment, a crew isolation experiment conducted on Earth, ESA states, "Whereas the ISS is essential for answering questions concerning the possible impact of weightlessness, radiation and other space-specific factors, aspects such as the effect of long-term isolation and confinement can be more appropriately addressed via ground-based simulations".<ref name="esa mars500">{{Cite web|url=https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Mars500/Mars500_study_overview|title=Mars500: study overview|date=4 June 2011|publisher=[[European Space Agency]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230819135747/https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Mars500/Mars500_study_overview|archive-date=19 August 2023}}</ref> Sergey Krasnov, the head of human space flight programs for Russia's space agency, Roscosmos, in 2011 suggested a "shorter version" of MARS-500 may be carried out on the ISS.<!--there are better refs for this including the mention of 2014–2015 I think --><ref name="Mars thing on ISS">{{cite web|date=4 November 2011|title=Space station may be site for next mock Mars mission|url=https://www.newscientist.com/blogs/shortsharpscience/2011/11/space-station-may-be-site-for.html|website=New Scientist|access-date=1 September 2017|archive-date=11 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170711030614/https://www.newscientist.com/blogs/shortsharpscience/2011/11/space-station-may-be-site-for.html}}</ref>

In 2009, noting the value of the partnership framework itself, Sergey Krasnov wrote, "When compared with partners acting separately, partners developing complementary abilities and resources could give us much more assurance of the success and safety of space exploration. The ISS is helping further advance near-Earth space exploration and realisation of prospective programs of research and exploration of the Solar system, including the Moon and Mars."<ref name="IAF2009">{{cite web|title=The Sustainable Utilisation of the ISS Beyond 2015|url=http://www.iafastro.org/docs/2009/ISS2015.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426051318/http://www.iafastro.org/docs/2009/ISS2015.pdf|archive-date=26 April 2012|access-date=15 December 2011|publisher=International Astronautical Congress}}</ref> [[Human mission to Mars|A crewed mission to Mars]] may be a multinational effort involving space agencies and countries outside the current ISS partnership. In 2010, ESA Director-General Jean-Jacques Dordain stated his agency was ready to propose to the other four partners that China, India, and South Korea be invited to join the ISS partnership.<ref name="ESAproposesInvite">{{Cite news|last=de Selding|first=Peter B.|date=3 February 2010|title=ESA Chief Lauds Renewed U.S. Commitment to Space Station, Earth Science|work=Space News|url=http://spacenews.com/esa-chief-lauds-renewed-us-commitment-space-station-earth-science/}}</ref> NASA chief [[Charles Bolden]] stated in February 2011, "Any mission to Mars is likely to be a global effort."<ref name="Mars a global effort">{{Cite news|url=https://www.space.com/11335-nasa-mars-exploration-space-station.html|title=Space Station Crucial for Going to Mars, NASA Chief Says|last=Chow|first=Denise|date=8 April 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811162758/https://www.space.com/11335-nasa-mars-exploration-space-station.html|archive-date=11 August 2023|work=[[Space.com]]}}</ref> Currently, [[Wolf Amendment|US federal legislation]] prevents NASA co-operation with China on space projects without approval by the [[FBI]] and Congress.<ref name="justice1">{{cite web|last=Seitz|first=Virginia A.|title=Memorandum Opinion for the General Counsel, Office of Science and Technology Policy|date=19 September 2011|url=https://www.justice.gov/olc/2011/conduct-diplomacy.pdf|website=justice.gov|publisher=[[United States Department of Justice|US Justice Department]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120713080223/http://www.justice.gov/olc/2011/conduct-diplomacy.pdf|access-date=23 May 2012|archive-date=13 July 2012|page=3}}</ref>

===Education and cultural outreach===
[[File:Crew in ATV with Jules Verne manuscript.jpg|thumb|Original [[Jules Verne]] manuscripts displayed by crew inside the [[Jules Verne ATV|''Jules Verne'' ATV]] (Automated Transfer Vehicle)]]

The ISS crew provides opportunities for students on Earth by running student-developed experiments, making educational demonstrations, allowing for student participation in classroom versions of ISS experiments, and directly engaging students using radio, and email.<ref name="ISSRG">{{Cite book|last=Kitmacher|first=Gary|title=Reference Guide to the International Space Station|publisher=[[Apogee Books]]|year=2006|isbn=978-1-894959-34-6|series=Apogee Books Space Series|location=Canada|pages=71–80|issn=1496-6921}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sandal|first1=Gro M.|last2=Manzey|first2=Dietrich|date=December 2009|title=Cross-cultural issues in space operations: A survey study among ground personnel of the European Space Agency|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222963564|journal=Acta Astronautica|volume=65|issue=11–12|pages=1520–1529|bibcode=2009AcAau..65.1520S|doi=10.1016/j.actaastro.2009.03.074|issn=0094-5765}}</ref> ESA offers a wide range of free teaching materials that can be downloaded for use in classrooms.<ref name="esa-education-material">{{Cite web|url=https://www.esa.int/Education/Online_material|title=Online Materials|publisher=European Space Agency|access-date=3 April 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811162359/https://www.esa.int/Education/Online_material|archive-date=11 August 2023}}</ref> In one lesson, students can navigate a [[3D modeling|3D model]] of the interior and exterior of the ISS, and face spontaneous challenges to solve in real time.<ref name="esa-iss-3d">{{Cite web|url=https://www.esa.int/Education/ISS_3-D_Teaching_Tool_Spaceflight_Challenge_I|title=ISS 3-D Teaching Tool: Spaceflight Challenge I|date=24 May 2011|publisher=[[European Space Agency]]|access-date=8 October 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811164504/https://www.esa.int/Education/ISS_3-D_Teaching_Tool_Spaceflight_Challenge_I|archive-date=11 August 2023}}</ref>

The [[Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency]] (JAXA) aims to inspire children to "pursue craftsmanship" and to heighten their "awareness of the importance of life and their responsibilities in society".<ref name="jaxa-peaceinyounggminds">{{Cite conference|url=https://www.unoosa.org/pdf/pres/copuos2010/tech-17E.pdf|title=Building Peace in Young Minds through Space Education|date=June 2010|publisher=[[JAXA]]|location=Vienna, Austria|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811162718/https://www.unoosa.org/pdf/pres/copuos2010/tech-17E.pdf|archive-date=11 August 2023|conference=Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space|volume=53}}</ref> Through a series of education guides, students develop a deeper understanding of the past and near-term future of crewed space flight, as well as that of Earth and life.<ref name="jaxa-sunflower-seeds">{{Cite web|url=http://www.edu.jaxa.jp/education/international/ISS/SSK/en/|title=JAXA Spaceflight Seeds Kids I: Spaceflight Sunflower seeds – Let's make them flower! and learn freshly the Earth environment just by contrast with the Space one|year=2006|publisher=[[JAXA]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318025859/http://www.edu.jaxa.jp/education/international/ISS/SSK/en/|archive-date=18 March 2012}}</ref><ref name="jaxa-asagao">{{Cite web|url=http://www.edu.jaxa.jp/education/international/ISS/SIS/en/|title=JAXA Seeds in Space I: Let's Cultivate Spaceflight Asagao (Japanese morning glory), Miyako-gusa (Japanese bird's foot trefoil) Seeds and Identify the Mutants!|year=2006|publisher=[[JAXA]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318025023/http://www.edu.jaxa.jp/education/international/ISS/SIS/en/|archive-date=18 March 2012}}</ref> In the JAXA "Seeds in Space" experiments, the mutation effects of spaceflight on plant seeds aboard the ISS are explored by growing sunflower seeds that have flown on the ISS for about nine months. In the first phase of ''Kibō'' utilisation from 2008 to mid-2010, researchers from more than a dozen Japanese universities conducted experiments in diverse fields.<ref>{{cite web|first=Keiji|last=Murakami|date=14 October 2009|title=JEM Utilization Overview|url=http://www.spacepolicyonline.com/pages/images/stories/Micro%20Oct%2009%20JEM.pdf|publisher=JAXA. Steering Committee for the Decadal Survey on Biological and Physical Sciences in Space|access-date=27 September 2011|archive-date=29 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111129141828/http://www.spacepolicyonline.com/pages/images/stories/Micro%20Oct%2009%20JEM.pdf}}</ref>

Cultural activities are another major objective of the ISS program. Tetsuo Tanaka, the director of JAXA's Space Environment and Utilization Center, has said: "There is something about space that touches even people who are not interested in science."<ref name="jaxa2">{{cite web|first=Tetsuo|last=Tanaka|title=Kibo: Japan's First Human Space Facility|url=http://www.jaxa.jp/article/special/kibo/tanaka01_e.html|access-date=8 October 2011|publisher=JAXA|archive-date=29 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111129145716/http://www.jaxa.jp/article/special/kibo/tanaka01_e.html}}</ref>

[[Amateur Radio on the International Space Station|Amateur Radio on the ISS]] (ARISS) is a volunteer program that encourages students worldwide to pursue careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, through [[amateur radio]] communications opportunities with the ISS crew. ARISS is an international working group, consisting of delegations from nine countries including several in Europe, as well as Japan, Russia, Canada, and the United States. In areas where radio equipment cannot be used, [[speakerphone]]s connect students to ground stations which then connect the calls to the space station.<!--second mention of this ref, needs proper combining --><ref>{{cite web|date=6 June 2011|title=Amateur Radio on the International Space Station|url=http://www.rac.ca/ariss/oindex.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527071557/http://www.rac.ca/ariss/oindex.htm|archive-date=27 May 2011|access-date=10 June 2011}}</ref>
[[File:ESA-Astronaut-Paolo-Nespoli Voice-intro-ENG.flac|thumb|The first content made in space for Wikipedia, from November 2017. It is a voice recording of ESA astronaut [[Paolo Nespoli]] in which he introduces himself by stating his spaceflight history]]
''[[First Orbit]]'' is a 2011 feature-length documentary film about [[Vostok 1]], the first crewed space flight around the Earth. By matching the orbit of the ISS to that of Vostok 1 as closely as possible, in terms of ground path and time of day, documentary filmmaker [[Christopher Riley]] and ESA astronaut [[Paolo Nespoli]] were able to film the view that [[Yuri Gagarin]] saw on his pioneering orbital space flight. This new footage was cut together with the original Vostok 1 mission audio recordings sourced from the Russian State Archive. Nespoli is credited as the [[Cinematographer|director of photography]] for this documentary film, as he recorded the majority of the footage himself during [[Expedition 26]]/[[Expedition 27|27]].<ref name="guardian-20110411">{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/blog/2011/apr/11/yuri-gagarin-first-orbit-vostok|title=What Yuri Gagarin saw: First Orbit film to reveal the view from Vostok 1|last=Riley|first=Christopher|date=11 April 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810132648/https://www.theguardian.com/science/blog/2011/apr/11/yuri-gagarin-first-orbit-vostok|archive-date=10 August 2023|work=The Guardian}}</ref> The film was streamed in a global YouTube premiere in 2011 under a free licence through the website ''firstorbit.org''.<ref name="firstorbit-faq">{{Cite web|url=https://www.firstorbit.org/first-orbit-faqs|title=Yuri Gagarin's First Orbit – FAQs|publisher=The Attic Room Ltd|access-date=1 May 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810131924/http://www.firstorbit.org/first-orbit-faqs|archive-date=10 August 2023|website=firstorbit.org}}</ref>

In May 2013, commander [[Chris Hadfield]] shot a music video of [[David Bowie]]'s "[[Space Oddity]]" on board the station, which was released on YouTube.<ref>{{Cite magazine|last=Warr|first=Philippa|date=13 May 2013|title=Commander Hadfield bids farewell to ISS with Reddit-inspired Bowie cover|url=https://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2013-05/13/commander-hadfield-space-oddity|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012212949/http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2013-05/13/commander-hadfield-space-oddity|archive-date=12 October 2013|access-date=22 October 2013|magazine=[[Wired UK|Wired]]}}</ref><ref name="bbc-20130513">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/science-environment-22506395|title=Astronaut bids farewell with Bowie cover version (inc. video)|date=13 May 2013|access-date=24 September 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811163327/https://www.bbc.com/news/av/science-environment-22506395|archive-date=11 August 2023|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> It was the first music video filmed in space.<ref name="gizmodo-20130512">{{Cite web|url=https://io9.gizmodo.com/chris-hadfield-sings-space-oddity-in-the-first-music-503764317|title=Chris Hadfield sings 'Space Oddity' in the first music video in space|last=Davis|first=Lauren|date=12 May 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811163440/https://gizmodo.com/chris-hadfield-sings-space-oddity-in-the-first-music-503764317|archive-date=11 August 2023|website=[[Gizmodo]]}}</ref>

In November 2017, while participating in [[Expedition 52]]/[[Expedition 53|53]] on the ISS, [[Paolo Nespoli]] made two recordings of his spoken voice (one in English and the other in his native Italian), for use on [[Wikipedia]] articles. These were the first content made in space specifically for Wikipedia.<ref name="Mabbett">{{Cite web|url=https://blog.wikimedia.org/2017/11/29/astronaut-spoken-voice/|title=Close encounters of the Wikipedia kind: Astronaut is first to specifically contribute to Wikipedia from space|last=Mabbett|first=Andy|date=29 November 2017|publisher=Wikimedia foundation|access-date=4 December 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230604132523/https://diff.wikimedia.org/2017/11/29/astronaut-spoken-voice/|archive-date=4 June 2023|website=Diff}}</ref><ref name="Petris">{{Cite news|url=https://www.meteoweb.eu/2017/12/primo-contributo-extraterrestre-wikipedia-nespoli/1009617/|title=Primo contributo 'extraterrestre' su Wikipedia: è di Nespoli|trans-title=First 'Extraterrestrial' Contribution on Wikipedia: It's by Nespoli.|last=Petris|first=Antonella|date=1 December 2017|language=it-IT|access-date=4 December 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811173118/https://www.meteoweb.eu/2017/12/primo-contributo-extraterrestre-wikipedia-nespoli/1009617/|archive-date=11 August 2023|work=Meteo Web}}</ref>

In November 2021, a [[virtual reality]] exhibit called The Infinite featuring life aboard the ISS was announced.<ref name="spacecom-20211123">{{Cite news|url=https://www.space.com/the-infinite-space-station-vr-houston|title='The Infinite' VR space station tour to premiere spacewalk in Houston|last=Pearlman|first=Robert Z.|date=23 November 2021|access-date=27 November 2021|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810144311/https://www.space.com/the-infinite-space-station-vr-houston|archive-date=10 August 2023|website=[[Space.com]]}}</ref>

==International co-operation==
{{Main|Politics of the International Space Station|International Space Station program}}

[[File:ISS Agreements.jpg|thumb|A Commemorative Plaque honouring Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement signed on 28 January 1998]]
Involving five space programs and fifteen countries,<ref name="International Cooperation">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/space-station-international-cooperation/|title=International Cooperation|date=25 March 2015|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=12 April 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231120175307/https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/space-station-international-cooperation/|archive-date=20 November 2023}}</ref> the International Space Station is the most politically and legally complex space exploration program in history.<ref name="International Cooperation" /> The 1998 Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement sets forth the primary framework for international cooperation among the parties. A series of subsequent agreements govern other aspects of the station, ranging from jurisdictional issues to a code of conduct among visiting astronauts.<ref name="farand-iss-framework">{{Cite web|url=http://portal.unesco.org/shs/en/file_download.php/785db0eec4e0cdfc43e1923624154cccFarand.pdf|title=Astronauts' behaviour onboard the International Space Station: regulatory framework|last=Farand|first=André|publisher=[[UNESCO]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060913194014/http://portal.unesco.org/shs/en/file_download.php/785db0eec4e0cdfc43e1923624154cccFarand.pdf|archive-date=13 September 2006}}</ref>

Brazil was also invited to participate in the program, the only developing country to receive such an invitation. Under the agreement framework, Brazil was to provide six pieces of hardware, and in exchange, would receive ISS utilization rights. However, Brazil was unable to deliver any of the elements due to a lack of funding and political priority within the country. Brazil officially dropped out of the ISS program in 2007.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Henriques da Silva|first=Darly|date=1 February 2005|title=Brazilian participation in the International Space Station (ISS) program: commitment or bargain struck?|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0265964604000797|journal=Space Policy|volume=21|issue=1|pages=55–63|doi=10.1016/j.spacepol.2004.11.006|bibcode=2005SpPol..21...55H|issn=0265-9646|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ansdell|first1=M.|last2=Ehrenfreund|first2=P.|last3=McKay|first3=C.|date=1 June 2011|title=Stepping stones toward global space exploration|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0094576510004169|journal=Acta Astronautica|volume=68|issue=11|pages=2098–2113|doi=10.1016/j.actaastro.2010.10.025|bibcode=2011AcAau..68.2098A|issn=0094-5765|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

Following the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]], continued cooperation between Russia and other countries on the International Space Station has been put into question. Roscosmos Director General [[Dmitry Rogozin]] insinuated that Russian withdrawal could cause the International Space Station to de-orbit due to lack of reboost capabilities, writing in a series of tweets, "If you block cooperation with us, who will save the ISS from an unguided de-orbit to impact on the territory of the US or Europe? There's also the chance of impact of the 500-ton construction in India or China. Do you want to threaten them with such a prospect? The ISS doesn't fly over Russia, so all the risk is yours. Are you ready for it?"<ref name="arstechnica-20220225">{{Cite news|url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/02/the-russian-invasion-of-ukraine-will-have-myriad-impacts-on-spaceflight/|title=The Russian invasion of Ukraine will have myriad impacts on spaceflight|last=Berger|first=Eric|date=25 February 2022|access-date=4 March 2022|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230905025847/https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/02/the-russian-invasion-of-ukraine-will-have-myriad-impacts-on-spaceflight/|archive-date=5 September 2023|work=[[Ars Technica]]}}</ref> (This latter claim is untrue: the ISS flies over all parts of the Earth between 51.6 degrees latitude north and south, approximately the latitude of [[Saratov]].) Rogozin later tweeted that normal relations between ISS partners could only be restored once sanctions have been lifted, and indicated that Roscosmos would submit proposals to the Russian government on ending cooperation.<ref name="arstechnica-20220402">{{Cite news|url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/04/no-no-no-russia-is-not-halting-cooperation-on-the-space-station/|title=Russia asked NASA to end sanctions to save the ISS, but the West didn't blink|last1=Berger|first1=Eric|date=2 April 2022|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810130453/https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/04/no-no-no-russia-is-not-halting-cooperation-on-the-space-station/|archive-date=10 August 2023|work=[[Ars Technica]]}}</ref> NASA stated that, if necessary, US corporation [[Northrop Grumman]] has offered a reboost capability that would keep the ISS in orbit.<ref name="guardian-20220301">{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2022/mar/01/nasa-explores-how-to-keep-international-space-station-in-orbit-without-russian-help|title=Nasa explores how to keep international space station in orbit without Russian help|date=1 March 2022|access-date=30 April 2022|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005203717/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2022/mar/01/nasa-explores-how-to-keep-international-space-station-in-orbit-without-russian-help|archive-date=5 October 2023|work=The Guardian|agency=[[Agence France-Presse]]}}</ref>

On 26 July 2022, [[Yury Borisov]], Rogozin's successor as head of Roscosmos, submitted to Russian President Putin plans for withdrawal from the program after 2024.<ref name="26JulyBorisovQuote">{{Cite news|last=Harwood|first=William|date=26 July 2022|title=Russia says it will withdraw from the International Space Station after 2024|publisher=[[CBS News]]|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/russia-international-space-station-exit-2024/|url-status=live|access-date=26 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810131755/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/russia-international-space-station-exit-2024/|archive-date=10 August 2023}}</ref> However, Robyn Gatens, the NASA official in charge of the space station, responded that NASA had not received any formal notices from Roscosmos concerning withdrawal plans.<ref name="Roulette 2022">{{Cite news|last1=Roulette|first1=Joey|last2=Brunnstrom|first2=David|last3=Hunnicutt|first3=Trevor|last4=Gorman|first4=Steve|date=27 July 2022|title=Russia signals space station pullout, but NASA says it's not official yet|work=Reuters|editor1-last=Dunham|editor1-first=Will|url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/russia-has-not-signaled-space-station-withdrawal-nasa-us-official-says-2022-07-26/|url-status=live|access-date=26 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231010212934/https://www.reuters.com/technology/russia-has-not-signaled-space-station-withdrawal-nasa-us-official-says-2022-07-26/|archive-date=10 October 2023|editor4-first=Marguerita|editor2-last=Porter|editor3-last=Oatis|editor4-last=Choy|editor3-first=Jonathan|editor2-first=Mark}}</ref>

===Participating countries===
* {{flagcountry|Canada}}
* {{flagdeco|EU}} [[European Space Agency]]
** {{flagcountry|Belgium}}
** {{flagcountry|Denmark}}
** {{flagcountry|France}}
** {{flagcountry|Germany}}
** {{flagcountry|Italy}}
** {{flagcountry|Netherlands}}
** {{flagcountry|Norway}}
** {{flagcountry|Spain}}
** {{flagcountry|Sweden}}
** {{flagcountry|Switzerland}}
** {{flagcountry|United Kingdom}}
* {{flagcountry|Japan}}
* {{flagcountry|Russia}}
* {{flagcountry|United States}}

==Construction==
===Manufacturing===
{{main|Manufacture of the International Space Station}}

[[File:SSPF interior.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|[[Harmony (ISS module)|''Harmony'']] in the [[Space Systems Processing Facility|Space Station Processing Facility]]]]

The International Space Station is a product of global collaboration, with its components manufactured across the world.

The modules of the [[Russian Orbital Segment]], including ''[[Zarya (ISS module)|Zarya]]'' and ''[[Zvezda (ISS module)|Zvezda]]'', were produced at the [[Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center]] in Moscow. ''Zvezda'' was initially manufactured in 1985 as a component for the ''[[Mir-2]]'' space station, which was never launched.<ref name=":4">{{cite web|title=Building ISS|url=https://nara.getarchive.net/collections/building-iss-timeline|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028222416/https://nara.getarchive.net/collections/building-iss-timeline|archive-date=28 October 2021|access-date=28 October 2021|website=U.S. National Archives & DVIDS}} {{PD-notice}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=<!--Not stated-->|title=ISS Zvezda|url=http://www.astronautix.com/i/isszvezda.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820144918/http://www.astronautix.com/i/isszvezda.html|archive-date=20 August 2016|access-date=5 July 2019}}</ref>

Much of the [[US Orbital Segment]], including the ''[[Destiny (ISS module)|Destiny]]'' and ''[[Unity (ISS module)|Unity]]'' modules, the [[Integrated Truss Structure]], and [[Electrical system of the International Space Station|solar arrays]], were built at NASA's [[Marshall Space Flight Center]] in [[Huntsville, Alabama]] and [[Michoud Assembly Facility]] in [[New Orleans]].<ref name=":4" /> These components underwent final assembly and processing for launch at the [[Operations and Checkout Building]] and the [[Space Station Processing Facility]] (SSPF) at the [[Kennedy Space Center]] in Florida.<ref name="nasa-20160219">{{Cite web|date=19 February 2016|editor-last=Harbaugh|editor-first=Jennifer|title=Manufacturing Key Parts of the International Space Station: Unity and Destiny|url=https://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/history/stations/images/manufacturing-key-parts-of-ISS-unity-and-destiny|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124184657/https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/manufacturing-key-parts-of-international-space-station-unity-destiny/|archive-date=24 November 2023|access-date=15 February 2019|publisher=[[NASA]]}}</ref>

The US Orbital Segment also hosts the [[Columbus (ISS module)|''Columbus'']] module contributed by the [[European Space Agency]] and built in Germany, the [[Kibō (ISS module)|''Kibō'']] module contributed by [[JAXA|Japan]] and built at the [[Tsukuba Space Center]] and the [[Institute of Space and Astronautical Science]], along with the [[Canadarm2]] and [[Dextre]], a joint Canadian-U.S. endeavor. All of these components were shipped to the SSPF for launch processing.<ref name=":4" /><ref name="nasa-img-ksc-08pd0991">{{Cite web|last=Shiflett|first=Kim|date=22 April 2008|title=KSC-08pd0991|url=https://images.nasa.gov/details/KSC-08pd0991|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124185310/https://images.nasa.gov/details/KSC-08pd0991|archive-date=24 November 2023|access-date=5 July 2019|website=NASA Image and Video Library|quote=In the Space Station Processing Facility at NASA's Kennedy Space Center, an overhead crane moves the Kibo Japanese Experiment Module – Pressurized Module toward the payload canister (lower right). The canister will deliver the module, part of the payload for space shuttle Discovery's STS-124 mission, to Launch Pad 39A. On the mission, the STS-124 crew will transport the Kibo module as well as the Japanese Remote Manipulator System to the International Space Station to complete the Kibo laboratory. The launch of Discovery is targeted for May 31.|location=Cape Canaveral, Florida}}</ref>

===Assembly===
{{main|Assembly of the International Space Station|List of ISS spacewalks}}

[[File:ISS-assembly-animation.gif|right|thumb|upright=1.8|Animation of the [[assembly of the International Space Station]]]]
The assembly of the International Space Station, a major endeavour in [[space architecture]], began in November 1998.<ref name="OnOrbit">{{cite web|date=18 February 2010|title=On-Orbit Elements|url=http://www.nasa.gov/externalflash/ISSRG/pdfs/on_orbit.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091029013438/http://www.nasa.gov/externalflash/ISSRG/pdfs/on_orbit.pdf|archive-date=29 October 2009|access-date=19 June 2010|publisher=NASA}}</ref>

Modules in the Russian segment launched and docked autonomously, with the exception of ''[[Rassvet (ISS module)|Rassvet]]''. Other modules and components were delivered by the [[Space Shuttle]], which then had to be installed by astronauts either remotely using robotic arms or during spacewalks, more formally known as [[Extravehicular activity|extra-vehicular activities]] (EVAs). By 5&nbsp;June 2011 astronauts had made over 159 EVAs to add components to the station, totaling more than 1,000 hours in space.<ref name="ISStD">{{cite web|date=9 March 2011|title=The ISS to Date|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/isstodate.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150611163133/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/isstodate.html|archive-date=11 June 2015|access-date=21 March 2011|publisher=NASA}}</ref><ref name="mcc">{{cite web|last=Dismukes|first=Kim <!--curator-->|date=1 December 2002|title=Mission Control Answers Your Questions: STS-113 Q17|url=http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/feedback/expert/answer/mcc/sts-113/11_23_20_01_179.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724020141/https://spaceflight.nasa.gov/feedback/expert/answer/mcc/sts-113/11_23_20_01_179.html|archive-date=24 July 2020|access-date=14 June 2009|website=spaceflight.nasa.gov|publisher=NASA}}</ref>
[[File:ISS from Atlantis - Sts101-714-016.jpg|thumb|''Zarya'' and ''Unity'', the first two modules of the ISS, pictured in May 2000]]
The beginning of the core of the ISS's tenure in orbit was the launch of the Russian-built ''[[Zarya (ISS module)|Zarya]]'' module atop a [[Proton (rocket family)|Proton rocket]] on 20&nbsp;November 1998. ''Zarya'' provided propulsion, [[Spacecraft attitude control|attitude control]], communications, and electrical power. Two weeks later on 4 December 1998, the American-made ''[[Unity (ISS module)|Unity]]'' was ferried aboard [[Space Shuttle]] [[Space Shuttle Endeavour|''Endeavour'']] on [[STS-88]] and joined with ''Zarya''. ''Unity'' provided the connection between the Russian and US segments of the station and would provide ports to connect future modules and visiting spacecraft.

While the connection of two modules built on different continents by nations that were once bitter rivals was a significant milestone, these two initial modules lacked life-support systems and the ISS remained unmanned for the next two years. At the time, the Russian station ''[[Mir]]'' was still inhabited.

The turning point arrived in July 2000 with the launch of the ''[[Zvezda (ISS module)|Zvezda]]'' module. Equipped with living quarters and life-support systems, ''Zvezda'' enabled continuous human presence aboard the station. The first crew, [[Expedition 1]], arrived that November aboard [[Soyuz TM-31]].<ref>{{cite web|date=January 1999|title=NASA Facts. The Service Module: A Cornerstone of Russian International Space Station Modules|url=http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/spacenews/factsheets/pdfs/servmod.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200823230702/https://spaceflight.nasa.gov/spacenews/factsheets/pdfs/servmod.pdf|archive-date=23 August 2020|website=spaceflight.nasa.gov|publisher=NASA|id=IS-1999-09-ISS019JSC}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=STS-88|url=http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/sts-88/mission-sts-88.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606073849/http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/sts-88/mission-sts-88.html|archive-date=6 June 2011|access-date=19 April 2011|publisher=Science.ksc.nasa.gov}}</ref>

The ISS grew steadily over the following years, with modules delivered by both Russian rockets and the Space Shuttle.

Expedition 1 arrived midway between the Space Shuttle flights of missions [[STS-92]] and [[STS-97]]. These two flights each added segments of the station's [[Integrated Truss Structure]], which provided the station with [[Ku band]] communications, additional attitude control needed for the additional mass of the USOS, and additional solar arrays.<ref>{{cite web|title=STS-92|url=http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/sts-92/mission-sts-92.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110305072211/http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/sts-92/mission-sts-92.html|archive-date=5 March 2011|access-date=19 April 2011|publisher=Science.ksc.nasa.gov}}</ref> Over the next two years, the station continued to expand. A [[Soyuz-U]] rocket delivered the [[Pirs (ISS module)|''Pirs'' docking compartment]]. The Space Shuttles ''[[Space Shuttle Discovery|Discovery]]'', ''[[Space Shuttle Atlantis|Atlantis]]'', and ''[[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Endeavour]]'' delivered the American ''[[Destiny (ISS module)|Destiny]]'' laboratory and [[Quest Joint Airlock|''Quest'' airlock]], in addition to the station's main robot arm, the [[Canadarm2]], and several more segments of the Integrated Truss Structure.

Tragedy struck in 2003 with the [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|loss of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia'']], which grounded the rest of the Shuttle fleet, halting construction of the ISS.[[File:International Space Station after undocking of STS-132.jpg|thumb|The ISS as seen from Space Shuttle Atlantis during [[STS-132]], pictured in May 2010]]Assembly resumed in 2006 with the arrival of [[STS-115]] with ''Atlantis'', which delivered the station's second set of solar arrays. Several more truss segments and a third set of arrays were delivered on [[STS-116]], [[STS-117]], and [[STS-118]]. As a result of the major expansion of the station's power-generating capabilities, more modules could be accommodated, and the US ''[[Harmony (ISS module)|Harmony]]'' module and ''[[Columbus (ISS module)|Columbus]]'' European laboratory were added. These were soon followed by the first two components of the Japanese ''[[Kibo (ISS module)|Kibō]]'' laboratory. In March 2009, [[STS-119]] completed the Integrated Truss Structure with the installation of the fourth and final set of solar arrays. The final section of ''Kibō'' was delivered in July 2009 on [[STS-127]], followed by the Russian ''[[Poisk (ISS module)|Poisk]]'' module. The US ''[[Tranquility (ISS module)|Tranquility]]'' module was delivered in February 2010 during [[STS-130]], alongside the ''[[Cupola (ISS module)|Cupola]]'', followed by the penultimate Russian module, ''[[Rassvet (ISS module)|Rassvet]]'', in May 2010. ''Rassvet'' was delivered by Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' on [[STS-132]] in exchange for the Russian Proton delivery of the US-funded ''Zarya'' module in 1998.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mini-Research Module 1 (MIM1) Rassvet (MRM-1)|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/iss_mim1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110825094354/http://www.russianspaceweb.com/iss_mim1.html|archive-date=25 August 2011|access-date=12 July 2011|website=RussianSpaceWeb}}</ref> The last pressurised module of the USOS, ''[[Leonardo (ISS module)|Leonardo]]'', was brought to the station in February 2011 on the final flight of ''Discovery'', [[STS-133]].<ref name="nasa-sts-133">{{Cite web|title=STS-133|url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission/sts-133/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231120173518/https://www.nasa.gov/mission/sts-133/|archive-date=20 November 2023|access-date=1 September 2014|publisher=[[NASA]]}}</ref>

Russia's new primary research module ''Nauka'' docked in July 2021,<ref name="tass-20210928">{{Cite news|date=28 September 2011|title=Crewed spacecraft docked to ISS's module Nauka first time|url=https://tass.com/science/1343409|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810145340/https://tass.com/science/1343409|archive-date=10 August 2023|access-date=11 October 2021|agency=[[TASS]]}}</ref> along with the European Robotic Arm which can relocate itself to different parts of the Russian modules of the station.<ref name="tass-20190325">{{Cite news|date=25 March 2019|title=Рогозин подтвердил, что на модуль "Наука" поставят баки от разгонного блока "Фрегат"|trans-title=Rogozin confirmed that the module 'Science' placed the tanks from the upper stage 'Frigate'|url=https://tass.ru/kosmos/6253886|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810144639/https://tass.ru/kosmos/6253886|archive-date=10 August 2023|access-date=31 March 2019|agency=[[TASS]]|language=ru}}</ref> Russia's latest addition, the [[Prichal (ISS module)|''Prichal'']] module, docked in November 2021.<ref name="roscomos-20211126">{{Cite press release|title=Новый модуль вошел в состав российского сегмента МКС|date=26 November 2021|publisher=[[Roscosmos]]|url=https://www.roscosmos.ru/33473/|language=ru|access-date=6 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211127013431/https://www.roscosmos.ru/33473/|archive-date=27 November 2021|trans-title=A new module has entered the composition of the Russian segment of the ISS}}</ref>

As of June 2025, nasa.gov states that there are 43 different modules and elements installed on the ISS.<ref name="ISS component number">{{cite web |last=Bowman|first=Abigail|editor=Mark Garcia| title=International Space Station Assembly Elements | website=NASA | date=June 6, 2025 | url=https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/international-space-station-assembly-elements/ | access-date=June 25, 2025}}</ref>

==Structure==
The ISS functions as a modular space station, enabling the addition or removal of modules from its structure for increased adaptability.

<gallery mode="packed" heights="200">
File:ISS blueprint.png|Blueprint of ISS (as of 2018)
File:Iss after installation of all roll out solar arrays.jpg|Rendering of ISS (as of 2023)
</gallery>

Below is a diagram of major station components. The ''Unity'' node joins directly to the ''Destiny'' laboratory; for clarity, they are shown apart. Similar cases are also seen in other parts of the structure.

Key to box background colors:
* {{color box|#CCDDFF}} Pressurised component, accessible by the crew without using spacesuits
* {{color box|#B9E192}} [[Docking and berthing of spacecraft|Docking/berthing port]], pressurized when a visiting spacecraft is present
* {{color box|#DCC5ED}} [[Airlock]], to move people or material between pressurized and unpressurized environment
* {{color box|#FFCCCC}} Unpressurised station superstructure 
* {{color box|#FFF4CC}} Unpressurised component
* {{color box|#D2691E}} Temporarily defunct or non-commissioned component
* {{color box|#808080}} Former, no longer installed component
* {{color box|#FFFFFF}} Future, not yet installed component
<div style="max-width: 100%; overflow-y: auto">
{{tree chart/start|align=center|style=width:auto !important; font-size:78%; line-height:100%; line-width:100%; padding:10px; border:2px dotted #AAA;
}} <!--background:#eee; padding:0.5em;--><!--not made Axiom orbital segment or space station modules separate because the modules have not been constructed yet-->
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | |PORT1
|PORT1              = [[SSVP docking system|Russian<br />{{nobr|docking port}}]]
|boxstyle_PORT1     = border: 1px solid #a3ff66; background:#b9e192;
}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | |!}}
{{tree chart| | |MOAOLP| |RAD| | | |!|POISK|PORT1
|POISK              = [[Poisk (ISS module)|''Poisk'']]
|PORT1              = [[SSVP docking system|Russian<br />{{nobr|docking port}}]]
|MOAOLP             = [[Nauka (ISS module)#Installation of outfitting equipment|Means of<br />attachment of<br />{{nobr|large payloads}}]]
|RAD                = {{white|Heat radiator}}
|boxstyle_PORT1     = border: 1px solid #a3ff66; background:#b9e192;
|boxstyle_POISK     = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#ccddff;
|boxstyle_MOAOLP    = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
|boxstyle_RAD       = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#D2691E;
}}
{{tree chart|ERAWORK|C| | |:| | | | | |!|!
|ERAWORK            = [[Nauka (ISS module)#Installation of outfitting equipment|Portable workpost]]
|boxstyle_ERAWORK   = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
}}
{{tree chart|ERA|C| | |:|SA|~|ZVEZDA|~|SA
|SA                 = {{nobr|Solar array}}
|ZVEZDA             = [[Zvezda (ISS module)|''Zvezda'']]
|ERA                = [[European Robotic Arm]]
|boxstyle_ERA       = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
|boxstyle_ZVEZDA    = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#ccddff;
|boxstyle_SA        = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
}}
{{tree chart| | | |L|~|7|:|,|-|-|-|'|!|!}}
{{tree chart| |SA|~|NAKUA|~|SA|!|PIRS|PORT3
|NAKUA              = [[Nauka (ISS module)|''Nauka'']]
|SA                 = {{nobr|Solar array}}
|PIRS               = {{colored link|white|Pirs (ISS module)|''Pirs'' {{efn|''Pirs'' was connected to the nadir port of Zvezda now occupied by ''Nauka''.}}}}
|PORT3              = {{colored link|white|SSVP docking system|Russian<br />{{nobr|docking port}}}}
|boxstyle_PORT3     = border: 1px solid #696969; background:#808080;
|boxstyle_PIRS      = border: 2px solid #000000; background:#808080;
|boxstyle_NAKUA     = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#ccddff;
|boxstyle_SA        = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | |!| | | | | |!}}
{{tree chart| |PORT2| |NAKUAlock| | | | |!
|NAKUAlock          = [[Nauka (ISS module)#Installation of outfitting equipment|Experiment airlock]]
|boxstyle_NAKUAlock = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#DCC5ED;
|PORT2              = {{colored link|white|SSVP docking system|Russian<br />{{nobr|docking port}}}}
|boxstyle_PORT2     = border: 1px solid #a3ff66; background:#D2691E;
}}
{{tree chart| | | |`|.| |!| | | | | |!}}
{{tree chart|PORT2|-|PRICHAL|-|PORT2| |!
|PRICHAL            = [[Prichal (ISS module)|''Prichal'']]
|boxstyle_PRICHAL   = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#ccddff;
|PORT2              = {{colored link|white|SSVP docking system|Russian<br />{{nobr|docking port}}}}
|boxstyle_PORT2     = border: 1px solid #a3ff66; background:#D2691E;
}}
{{tree chart| | | | |!| |!| | | | | |!}}
{{tree chart| | |PORT1| |PORT2| | | |!
|PORT1              = [[SSVP docking system|Russian<br />{{nobr|docking port}}]]
|PORT2              = {{colored link|white|SSVP docking system|Russian<br />{{nobr|docking port}}}}
|boxstyle_PORT1     = border: 1px solid #a3ff66; background:#b9e192;
|boxstyle_PORT2     = border: 1px solid #a3ff66; background:#D2691E;
}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | |!}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | |SA|~|ZARYA|~|SA
|ZARYA              = [[Zarya (ISS module)|''Zarya'']]
|SA                 = {{nobr|Solar array}}{{efn|partially retracted}}
|boxstyle_ZARYA     = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#ccddff;
|boxstyle_SA        = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | |!|!}}
{{tree chart| | | | |PORT1|SGM1|-|'|!|
|SGM1               = [[Rassvet (ISS module)|''Rassvet'']]
|PORT1              = [[SSVP docking system|Russian<br />{{nobr|docking port}}]]
|boxstyle_PORT1     = border: 1px solid #a3ff66; background:#b9e192;
|boxstyle_SGM1      = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#ccddff;
}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | }}
{{tree chart|F|iROSA|F|iROSA| | | | |!| | | | |iROSAD|7|iROSA|7|
|iROSA            = [[Roll Out Solar Array|iROSA]]
|iROSAD           = [[Roll Out Solar Array|iROSA]]
|boxstyle_iROSAD  = border: 2px solid #000000; background:#ffffff;
|boxstyle_iROSA   = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
}}
{{tree chart|:| | | |:| | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | |:| | | |:}}
{{tree chart|D|FE|D|FE| |RAD|!|RAD| |FE|C|FE|C| | 
|RAD            = [[External Active Thermal Control System|Heat radiator]]
|FE             = [[ISS Solar Arrays|{{nobr|Solar array}}]]
|boxstyle_RAD   = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
|boxstyle_FE    = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
}}
{{tree chart|:| | | |:| | | | | |:| |!| |:| | | | | |:| | | |:| }}
{{tree chart|:| | | |:|ELC| | |:|FZ1|:| | |ELC3|:| | | |:|
|ELC           = [[ExPRESS Logistics Carrier#ELC-2|ELC 2]], [[Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer|AMS]]
|FZ1           = [[Z1 truss]]
|ELC3          = [[ExPRESS Logistics Carrier#ELC-3|ELC 3]]
|boxstyle_ELC3 = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
|boxstyle_FZ1  = border: 2px solid #ff6666; background:#ffcccc;
|boxstyle_ELC  = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
}}
{{tree chart|D|~|FS56|FS34|FS1|FS0|FP1|FP34|FP56|~|C|
|FS56          = [[P5 Truss Segment|S5/6 Truss]]
|FS34          = [[Segment to segment attachment system|S3/S4 Truss]]
|FS1           = [[S1 Truss]]
|FS0           = [[S0 Truss]]
|FP1           = [[S1 Truss|P1 Truss]]
|FP34          = [[Segment to segment attachment system|P3/P4 Truss]]
|FP56          = [[P5 Truss Segment|P5/6 Truss]]
|boxstyle_FS56 = border: 2px solid #ff6666; background:#ffcccc;
|boxstyle_FS34 = border: 2px solid #ff6666; background:#ffcccc;
|boxstyle_FS1  = border: 2px solid #ff6666; background:#ffcccc;
|boxstyle_FS0  = border: 2px solid #ff6666; background:#ffcccc;
|boxstyle_FP1  = border: 2px solid #ff6666; background:#ffcccc;
|boxstyle_FP34 = border: 2px solid #ff6666; background:#ffcccc;
|boxstyle_FP56 = border: 2px solid #ff6666; background:#ffcccc;
}}
{{tree chart|:| | | |:|ELC4| | | |:|!|:| | | |ELC1|:| | | |:|
|ELC4          = [[ExPRESS Logistics Carrier#ELC-4|ELC 4]], [[ESP-3|ESP 3]]
|ELC1          = [[ExPRESS Logistics Carrier#ELC-1|ELC 1]]
|boxstyle_ELC1 = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
|boxstyle_ELC4 = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
}}
{{tree chart|:| | | |:| | | | |DEXTR|!|CANADARM| | | | |:| | | |:|
|CANADARM          = [[Canadarm2]]<br />{{nobr|robotic arm}}
|DEXTR             = [[Dextre]]<br />{{nobr|robotic arm}}
|boxstyle_CANADARM = border: 2px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
|boxstyle_DEXTR    = border: 2px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
}}
{{tree chart|D|FE|D|FE| | | | |!| | | | |FE|C|FE|C| | |
|FE            = [[ISS Solar Arrays|{{nobr|Solar array}}]]
|boxstyle_FE   = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
}}
{{tree chart|:| | | |:| | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | |:| | | |:}}
{{tree chart|L|iROSAD|L|iROSA| | | | |!| | | | |iROSA|J|iROSA|J|
|iROSA           = [[Roll Out Solar Array|iROSA]]
|iROSAD          = [[Roll Out Solar Array|iROSA]]
|boxstyle_iROSA  = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
|boxstyle_iROSAD = border: 2px solid #000000; background:#ffffff;
}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | |!}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | |PMA| |BEAM
|BEAM           = [[Bigelow Expandable Activity Module|BEAM]]
|PMA            = [[PMA-1|PMA 1]]
|boxstyle_PMA   = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#ccddff;
|boxstyle_BEAM  = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#ccddff;
}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | |!}}
{{tree chart| | | | |ESP2|QUEST|-|UNITY|-|NOD3|-|BISHOP
|UNITY           = [[Unity (ISS module)|''Unity'']]
|QUEST           = [[Quest Joint Airlock|''Quest'' airlock]]
|NOD3            = [[Tranquility (ISS module)|''Tranquility'']]
|BISHOP          = [[Bishop Airlock Module|''Bishop'' airlock]]
|ESP2            = [[External stowage platform#ESP-2|ESP-2]]
|boxstyle_UNITY  = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#ccddff;
|boxstyle_QUEST  = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#DCC5ED;
|boxstyle_NOD3   = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#ccddff;
|boxstyle_BISHOP = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#DCC5ED;
|boxstyle_ESP2   = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | |!|!| | |CUPOLA
|CUPOLA          = ''[[Cupola (ISS module)|Cupola]]''
|boxstyle_CUPOLA = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#ccddff;
}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | |BERTH|!| | | |!
|BERTH          = [[Common Berthing Mechanism|Cargo spacecraft<br />{{nobr|berthing port}}]]
|boxstyle_BERTH = border: 1px solid #a3ff66; background:#b9e192;
}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | |LEO
|LEO            = [[Leonardo (ISS module)|''Leonardo'']]
|boxstyle_LEO   = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#ccddff;
}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | |ESP1|DESTINY| | |
|DESTINY          = [[Destiny (ISS module)|''Destiny'']]
|ESP1             = [[External stowage platform#ESP-1|ESP-1]]
|boxstyle_DESTINY = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#ccddff;
|boxstyle_ESP1    = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | |! }}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | |!|PORT2 
|PORT2          = {{nobr|[[Pressurized Mating Adapter|PMA]] / [[International Docking Adapter|IDA]]}}<br />{{nobr|docking port}}
|boxstyle_PORT2 = border: 1px solid #a3ff66; background:#b9e192;
}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | |!|!| | |KIBOPS|KiboRobo
|KIBOPS          = [[Kibo (ISS module)#Experiment logistics module|''Kibō''<br />cargo bay]]
|KiboRobo        = [[Japanese Remote Manipulator System|''Kibō''<br />{{nobr|robotic arm}}]]
|boxstyle_KIBOPS = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#ccddff;
|boxstyle_KiboRobo = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
}}
{{tree chart| | | | |COLEXT|COLUMBUS|-|HARMONY|-|-|KIBO|KiboPlat
|HARMONY           = [[Harmony (ISS module)|''Harmony'']]
|KiboPlat          = [[Kibo (ISS module)#Exposed facility|''Kibō''<br />{{nobr|external platform}}]]
|COLUMBUS          = [[Columbus (ISS module)|''Columbus'']]
|KIBO              = [[JEM-PM|''Kibō'']]
|COLEXT            = External payloads
|boxstyle_HARMONY  = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#ccddff;
|boxstyle_COLUMBUS = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#ccddff;
|boxstyle_COLEXT   = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
|boxstyle_KIBO     = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#ccddff;
|boxstyle_KiboPlat = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | |!|!}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | |BERTH|! 
|BERTH          = [[Common Berthing Mechanism|Cargo spacecraft<br />{{nobr|berthing port}}]]
|boxstyle_BERTH = border: 1px solid #a3ff66; background:#b9e192;
}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | |!}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | |PORT2|
|PORT2          = {{nobr|[[Pressurized Mating Adapter|PMA]] / [[International Docking Adapter|IDA]]}}<br />{{nobr|docking port}}
<!-- |AXIOM          = [[Axiom Station|Axiom module]] -->
|boxstyle_PORT2 = border: 1px solid #a3ff66; background:#b9e192;
<!-- |boxstyle_AXIOM = border: 2px solid #000000; background:#ffffff; -->
}}

{{tree chart/end|nocat=1}}
</div><!-- End of wrapping div which handles overflow -->

=== Pressurised modules ===
==== ''Zarya'' ====
{{Main|Zarya (ISS module)}}

[[File:Zarya from STS-88.jpg|thumb|''Zarya'' as seen by {{OV|105}} during [[STS-88]]]]

''Zarya'' ({{Langx|ru|Заря|lit=Sunrise}}{{efn|"Zarya" has several meanings: "daybreak" or "dawn" (in the morning) or "afterglow", "evening glow" or "sunset" (in the evening), but NASA and Roscosmos translate it as "sunrise."<ref>{{Cite web |last=bryan |date=25 January 2016 |title=Image showing Zarya mockup at the NASA Johnson Space Center with the translation Sunrise |url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lyndon_B._Johnson_Space_Center_Johnson_Space_Center_JSC_NASA_Houston_Space_City_United_States_America_The_States_USA_US_(24560757054).jpg |access-date=20 November 2024 |website=Wikimedia Commons}}</ref>}}), also known as the ''Functional Cargo Block'' ({{Langx|ru|Функционально-грузовой блок|links=no}}), was the inaugural component of the ISS. Launched in 1998, it initially served as the ISS's power source, storage, propulsion, and guidance system. As the station has grown, ''Zarya'''s role has transitioned primarily to storage, both internally and in its external fuel tanks.<ref name="NASA2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/zarya-module/|title=Zarya Module|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=19 April 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231118134120/https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/zarya-module/|archive-date=18 November 2023}}</ref>

A descendant of the [[TKS (spacecraft)|TKS spacecraft]] used in the [[Salyut program|''Salyut'' program]], ''Zarya'' was built in Russia but is owned by the United States. Its name symbolizes the beginning of a new era of international space cooperation.<ref name="russianspaceweb-enterprise">{{Cite web|url=https://www.russianspaceweb.com/iss_enterprise.html|title=Russian Segment: Enterprise|last=Zak|first=Anatoly|date=15 October 2008|access-date=4 August 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811163146/https://www.russianspaceweb.com/iss_enterprise.html|archive-date=11 August 2023|website=RussianSpaceWeb}}</ref>

==== ''Unity'' ====
{{Main|Unity (ISS module)}}

[[File:ISS Unity module.jpg|thumb|''Unity'' as seen by {{OV|105}} during [[STS-88]]]]

''Unity'', also known as ''Node 1'', is the inaugural U.S.-built component of the ISS.<ref name="nssdca-1998-069f">{{Cite web|title=NASA – NSSDCA – Spacecraft – Details|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1998-069F|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423215409/https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1998-069F|archive-date=23 April 2023|access-date=6 May 2022|website=nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov|publisher=[[NASA]]|id=1998-069F}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Loff|first=Sarah|date=15 November 2018|title=Unity|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/unity|access-date=6 May 2022|website=NASA|archive-date=5 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220605221424/https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/unity/}}</ref> Serving as the connection between the Russian and U.S. segments, this cylindrical module features six [[Common Berthing Mechanism]] locations ([[Forward (aircraft)|forward]], [[aft]], [[Port (nautical)|port]], [[starboard]], [[zenith]], and [[nadir]]) for attaching additional modules. Measuring {{convert|4.57|m}} in diameter and {{convert|5.47|m}} in length, ''Unity'' was constructed of steel by [[Boeing]] for NASA at the [[Marshall Space Flight Center]] in [[Huntsville, Alabama]]. It was the first of three connecting nodes – ''Unity'', ''Harmony'', and ''Tranquility'' – that forms the structural backbone of the U.S. segment of the ISS.<ref name="nasa-roy-20091020">{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/sailing_with_nasa/2009/10/20/post_1256076937193/|title=ET-134's Mission, STS-130: Launching Tranquility|last=Roy|first=Steve|date=20 October 2009|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=23 November 2023|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322123432/https://blogs.nasa.gov/sailing_with_nasa/2009/10/20/post_1256076937193/|archive-date=22 March 2023}}</ref>

==== ''Zvezda'' ====
{{Main|Zvezda (ISS module)}}

[[File:Zvezda (tight crop).jpg|thumb|''Zvezda'' as seen by {{OV|104}} during [[STS-106]]]]

''Zvezda'' ({{Langx|ru|Звезда|lit=star|links=no}}) launched in July 2000, is the core of the [[Russian Orbital Segment]] of the ISS. Initially providing essential living quarters and [[life-support system]]s, it enabled the first continuous human presence aboard the station. While additional modules have expanded the ISS's capabilities, Zvezda remains the command and control center for the Russian segment and it is where crews gather during emergencies.<ref>{{Cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=doN4t5NKW-k|title=Departing Space Station Commander Provides Tour of Orbital Laboratory|date=3 July 2015|last=Williams|first=Suni (presenter)|publisher=NASA|time=17.46–18.26|access-date=1 September 2019|medium=video|archive-date=14 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814155134/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=doN4t5NKW-k|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Roylance|first=Frank D.|date=11 November 2000|title=Space station astronauts take shelter from solar radiation|url=https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-2000-11-11-0011110386-story.html|access-date=1 September 2019|website=The Baltimore Sun|publisher=Tribune Publishing|archive-date=1 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190901060300/https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-2000-11-11-0011110386-story.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Stofer|first=Kathryn|date=29 October 2013|title=Tuesday/Wednesday Solar Punch|url=https://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/solarsystem/10.28Flare.html|access-date=1 September 2019|website=NASA|archive-date=2 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201202225119/https://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/solarsystem/10.28Flare.html}}</ref>

A descendant of the Salyut program's DOS spacecraft, Zvezda was built by [[RKK Energia]] and launched atop a [[Proton (rocket family)|Proton rocket]].<ref name="ruspace">{{cite web|title=Service Module {{!}} RuSpace|url=http://suzymchale.com/ruspace/sm.html|access-date=10 November 2020|website=suzymchale.com|archive-date=21 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200921234759/http://suzymchale.com/ruspace/sm.html}}</ref>

==== ''Destiny'' ====
{{Main|Destiny (ISS module)}}

[[File:ISS Destiny Lab.jpg|thumb|The ''Destiny'' module being installed on the ISS]]

The ''Destiny'' laboratory is the primary research facility for U.S. experiments on the ISS. NASA's first permanent orbital research station since Skylab, the module was built by Boeing and launched aboard {{OV|104}} during [[STS-98]]. Attached to ''Unity'' over a period of five days in February 2001, ''Destiny'' has been a hub for scientific research ever since.<ref name="boeing">{{Cite web|url=http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/spacestation/components/us_laboratory.html|title=Destiny Laboratory Module|last=Boeing|year=2008|publisher=[[Boeing]]|access-date=7 October 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011150013/http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/spacestation/components/us_laboratory.html|archive-date=11 October 2008}}</ref><ref name="lab">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/destiny.html|title=U.S. Destiny Laboratory|year=2003|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=7 October 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070709153924/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/destiny.html|archive-date=9 July 2007}}</ref><ref name="sts-98">{{cite web|year=2001|title=STS-98|url=http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/sts-98/mission-sts-98.html|access-date=7 October 2008|publisher=NASA|archive-date=30 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130830041616/http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/sts-98/mission-sts-98.html}}</ref>

Within ''Destiny'', astronauts conduct experiments in fields such as medicine, engineering, biotechnology, physics, materials science, and Earth science. Researchers worldwide benefit from these studies. The module also houses life-support systems, including the [[Oxygen Generating System]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2007/07/oxygen-generating-system-activated-onboard-iss/|title=Oxygen Generating System activated onboard ISS|access-date=25 January 2010|author=Chris Bergin|publisher=NASASpaceflight.com|date=12 July 2007}}</ref>

==== ''Quest Joint Airlock'' ====
{{Main|Quest Joint Airlock}}

[[File:Quest airlock exterior - STS-127.jpg|thumb|''Quest'' Joint Airlock Module]]

The ''Quest Joint Airlock'' enables [[Extravehicular activity|extravehicular activities]] (EVAs) using either the U.S. [[Extravehicular Mobility Unit]] (EMU) or the Russian [[Orlan space suit]].<ref name="nasa-questairlock">{{cite web|title=Quest Airlock|url=https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/quest-airlock/|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=24 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231024152123/https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/quest-airlock/|archive-date=24 October 2023|url-status=live}}</ref>

Before its installation, conducting EVAs from the ISS was challenging due to a variety of system and design differences. Only the Orlan suit could be used from the Transfer Chamber on the ''Zvezda'' module (which was not a purpose-built airlock) and the EMU could only be used from the airlock on a visiting Space Shuttle, which could not accommodate the Orlan.<ref name="usaf-2010">{{cite tech report|last1=Stockman|first1=Bill|last2=Boyle|first2=Joe|last3=Bacon|first3=John|title=International Space Station Systems Engineering Case Study|url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/tr/pdf/ADA538763.pdf|publisher=[[United States Air Force]]|access-date=24 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124095002/https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/tr/pdf/ADA538763.pdf|archive-date=24 November 2023|pages=36–38|year=2010|url-status=live}}</ref>

Launched aboard {{OV|104}} during [[STS-104]] in July 2001 and attached to the Unity module, Quest is a {{convert|20|ft|m|adj=mid|order=flip|-long}}, {{convert|13|ft|m|adj=mid|order=flip|-wide}} structure built by Boeing.<ref name="nasa-20210714">{{cite web|last1=Uri|first1=John|title=Space Station 20th: STS-104 Brings Quest Joint Airlock to the Space Station|url=https://www.nasa.gov/history/space-station-20th-sts-104-brings-quest-joint-airlock-to-the-space-station/|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=24 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124093812/https://www.nasa.gov/history/space-station-20th-sts-104-brings-quest-joint-airlock-to-the-space-station/|archive-date=24 November 2023|date=14 July 2021|url-status=live}}</ref> It houses the crew airlock for astronaut egress, an equipment airlock for suit storage, and has facilities to accommodate astronauts during their overnight pre-breathe procedures to prevent decompression sickness.<ref name="usaf-2010" />

The crew airlock, derived from the Space Shuttle, features essential equipment like lighting, handrails, and an Umbilical Interface Assembly (UIA) that provides life-support and communication systems for up to two spacesuits simultaneously. These can be either two EMUs, two Orlan suits, or one of each design.

==== ''Poisk'' ====
{{Main|Poisk (ISS module)}}

[[File:STS-129_ISS-21_Poisk.jpg|thumb|''Poisk'' with its own propulsion module (soon to be jettisoned)]]
''Poisk'' ({{Langx|ru|По́иск|lit=Search|links=no}}), also known as the ''Mini-Research Module 2'' ({{Langx|ru|Малый исследовательский модуль 2|links=no}}), serves as both a secondary airlock on the Russian segment of the ISS and supports docking for Soyuz and Progress spacecraft, facilitates propellant transfers from the latter.<ref>{{cite web|date=10 May 2006|title=Pirs Docking Compartment|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/pirs.html|access-date=28 March 2009|publisher=NASA|archive-date=25 October 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051025154605/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/pirs.html}}</ref> Launched on 10&nbsp;November 2009 attached to a modified [[Progress spacecraft]], called [[Progress M-MIM2]].<ref name="energia0828">{{Cite news|date=28 August 2009|title=August 28, 2009. S. P. Korolev RSC Energia, Korolev, Moscow region|url=http://www.energia.ru/eng/iss/mim1/photo_08-28.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200921031747/https://www.energia.ru/eng/iss/mim1/photo_08-28.html|archive-date=21 September 2020|access-date=3 September 2009|publisher=RSC Energia}}</ref><ref name="sfn-20091110">{{Cite news|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/station/exp21/091110mrmlaunch/|title=Poisk launches to add new room for space station|last=Clark|first=Stephen|date=10 November 2009|access-date=11 November 2009|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810132113/https://spaceflightnow.com/station/exp21/091110mrmlaunch/|archive-date=10 August 2023|work=Spaceflight Now}}</ref>

''Poisk'' provides facilities to maintain Orlan spacesuits and is equipped with two inward-opening hatches, a design change from ''Mir'', which encountered a dangerous situation caused by an outward-opening hatch that opened too quickly because of a small amount of air pressure remaining in the airlock.<ref name="russianspaceweb-mir-close-calls">{{Cite web|url=https://www.russianspaceweb.com/mir_close_calls.html|title=Mir close calls|last=Zak|first=Anatoly|access-date=1 May 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811162132/https://www.russianspaceweb.com/mir_close_calls.html|archive-date=11 August 2023|website=RussianSpaceWeb}}</ref> Since the departure of [[Pirs (ISS module)|''Pirs'']] in 2021, it's become the sole airlock on the Russian segment.

==== ''Harmony'' ====
{{Main|Harmony (ISS module)}}

[[File:Node 2 - STS-134.jpg|thumb|''Harmony'' (center) shown connected to ''Columbus'', ''Kibo'', and ''Destiny''. The dark [[Pressurized Mating Adapter|PMA-2]] faces the camera. The nadir and zenith locations are open.]]

''Harmony'', or ''Node 2'', is the central connecting hub of the US segment of the ISS, linking the U.S., European, and Japanese laboratory modules. It's also been called the "utility hub" of the ISS as it provides essential power, data, and life-support systems. The module also houses sleeping quarters for four crew members.<ref>{{Cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ukws3oLMDc8|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/ukws3oLMDc8|archive-date=11 December 2021|url-status=live|title=Station Tour: Harmony, Tranquility, Unity|date=19 May 2013|last=Williams|first=Suni (presenter)|publisher=NASA|time=0.06–0.35|access-date=31 August 2019|quote=So this is Node 2 ... this is where four out of six of us sleep.|medium=video}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

Launched on 23&nbsp;October 2007 aboard {{OV|103}} on [[STS-120]],<ref name="launch">{{cite web|last=NASA|date=23 October 2007|title=STS-120 MCC Status Report #01|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/sts120/news/STS-120-01.html|publisher=NASA|access-date=22 September 2019|archive-date=28 October 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071028131000/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/sts120/news/STS-120-01.html}}</ref><ref name="lat">{{Cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2007-oct-24-sci-shuttle24-story.html|title=Shuttle embarks on busy mission|last=Johnson, Jr.|first=John|date=24 October 2007|access-date=23 October 2007|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812222654/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2007-oct-24-sci-shuttle24-story.html|archive-date=12 August 2023|work=Los Angeles Times}}</ref> Harmony was initially attached to the Unity<ref name="harmmate">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/network/news/space/120/STS-120_Archive.html|title=Harmony module pulled from cargo bay|last=Harwood|first=William|date=26 October 2007|access-date=26 October 2007|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210917130622/http://www.cbsnews.com/network/news/space/120/STS-120_Archive.html|archive-date=17 September 2021|publisher=[[CBS News]]}}</ref><ref name="room">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/26/science/26cnd-shuttle.html|url-access=subscription|title=New Room Added to Space Station|last=Schwartz|first=John|date=26 October 2007|access-date=26 October 2007|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811162928/https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/26/science/26cnd-shuttle.html|archive-date=11 August 2023|work=The New York Times}}</ref> before being relocated to its permanent position at the front of the Destiny laboratory on 14&nbsp;November 2007.<ref name="pma3">{{cite web|last=NASA|year=2007|title=PMA-3 Relocation|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/expeditions/expedition15/pma3move.html|access-date=28 September 2007|publisher=[[NASA]]|archive-date=12 October 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012235655/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/expeditions/expedition15/pma3move.html}}</ref> This expansion added significant living space to the ISS, marking a key milestone in the construction of the U.S. segment.

==== ''Tranquility'' ====
{{Main|Tranquility (ISS module)}}

[[File:Node 3 - Isolated view.jpg|thumb|''Tranquility'' in 2011]]

''Tranquility'', also known as ''Node 3'', is a module of the ISS. It contains environmental control systems, [[life-support system]]s, a toilet, exercise equipment, and an observation [[Cupola (ISS module)|cupola]].

The European Space Agency and the [[Italian Space Agency]] had ''Tranquility'' manufactured by [[Thales Alenia Space]]. A ceremony on 20&nbsp;November 2009 transferred ownership of the module to NASA.<ref>{{cite web|date=23 October 2010|title=NASA – NASA Receives Tranquility|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/behindscenes/tranquility_transfer.html|access-date=12 August 2013|publisher=Nasa.gov|archive-date=11 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811174634/https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/behindscenes/tranquility_transfer.html}}</ref> On 8&nbsp;February 2010, NASA launched the module on the Space Shuttle's [[STS-130]] mission.

==== ''Columbus'' ====
{{Main|Columbus (ISS module)}}

[[File:Columbus module - cropped.jpg|thumb|The ''Columbus'' module on the ISS]]

''Columbus'' is a science laboratory that is part of the ISS and is the largest single contribution to the station made by the European Space Agency.

Like the ''Harmony'' and ''Tranquility'' modules, the ''Columbus'' laboratory was constructed in [[Turin]], Italy by [[Thales Alenia Space]]. The functional equipment and software of the lab was designed by [[EADS]] in [[Bremen]], Germany. It was also integrated in Bremen before being flown to the Kennedy Space Center in Florida in an [[Airbus Beluga]] jet. It was launched aboard Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' on 7&nbsp;February 2008, on flight [[STS-122]]. It is designed for ten years of operation. The module is controlled by the [[Columbus Control center]], located at the [[German Space Operations Center]], part of the [[German Aerospace Center]] in [[Oberpfaffenhofen]] near [[Munich]], Germany.

The European Space Agency has spent [[Euro|€]]1.4 billion (about [[United States dollar|US$]]1.6 billion) on building ''Columbus'', including the experiments it carries and the ground control infrastructure necessary to operate them.<ref name="sfn-20080211">{{Cite news|url=http://spaceflightnow.com/shuttle/sts122/080211fd5/index3.html|title=Station arm pulls Columbus module from cargo bay|last=Harwood|first=William|date=11 February 2008|access-date=7 August 2009|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160507224754/http://spaceflightnow.com/shuttle/sts122/080211fd5/index3.html|archive-date=7 May 2016|work=Spaceflight Now}}</ref>

==== ''Kibō'' ====
{{Main|Kibō (ISS module)}}

[[File:Japanese Experiment Module exterior - cropped.jpg|thumb|''Kibō'' with its exposed facility on the right]]

{{Nihongo|''Kibō''|きぼう||{{lit|hope}}|lead=yes}}, also known as the ''Japanese Experiment Module'', is Japan's research facility on the ISS. It is the largest single module on the ISS, consisting of a pressurized lab, an exposed facility for conducting experiments in the space environment, two storage compartments, and a robotic arm. Attached to the ''Harmony'' module, ''Kibō'' was assembled in space over three Space Shuttle missions: [[STS-123]], [[STS-124]] and [[STS-127]].<ref name="japantimes-20090630">{{Cite news|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2009/06/30/reference/japan-a-low-key-player-in-space-race/|url-access=subscription|title=Japan a low-key player in space race|last=Kamiya|first=Setsuko|date=30 June 2009|work=[[The Japan Times]]|page=3|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130813092804/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2009/06/30/reference/japan-a-low-key-player-in-space-race/#.Ugn8K-t_pqY|archive-date=13 August 2013}}</ref>

==== ''Cupola'' ====
{{Main|Cupola (ISS module)}}

[[File:STS130 cupola view1.jpg|thumb|The ''Cupola''{{'s}} windows with shutters open]]

The ''Cupola'' is an [[ESA]]-built observatory module of the ISS. Its name derives from the Italian word ''{{lang|it|cupola}}'', which means "[[dome]]". Its seven windows are used to conduct experiments, dockings and observations of Earth. It was launched aboard Space Shuttle mission STS-130 on 8 February 2010 and attached to the ''Tranquility'' (Node 3) module. With the ''Cupola'' attached, ISS assembly reached 85 per cent completion. The ''Cupola''{{'s}} central window has a diameter of {{convert|80|cm|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Cupola: a window over the Earth">{{Cite web|url=http://www.thalesaleniaspace-issmodules.com/cupola|title=Thales Alenia Space and ISS modules – Cupola: a window over the Earth|date=26 July 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100726075315/http://www.thalesaleniaspace-issmodules.com/cupola|archive-date=26 July 2010}}</ref>

==== ''Rassvet'' ====
{{Main|Rassvet (ISS module)}}

[[File:STS132 Mini-Research Module-1.jpg|thumb|''Rassvet'' module with MLM-outfitting equipment (consisting of experiment airlock, RTOd radiators, and ERA workpost) at KSC]]

''Rassvet'' ({{Langx|ru|Рассвет|lit=first light|links=no}}), also known as the ''Mini-Research Module 1'' ({{Langx|ru|Малый исследовательский модуль 1|links=no}}) and formerly known as the ''Docking Cargo Module'' is primarily used for cargo storage and as a docking port for visiting spacecraft on the Russian segment of the ISS. ''Rassvet'' replaced the cancelled Docking and Storage Module and used a design largely based on the ''[[Mir Docking Module]]'' built in 1995.

Rassvet was delivered in on 14&nbsp;May 2010 {{OV|104}} on [[STS-132]] in exchange for the Russian Proton delivery of the US-funded ''Zarya'' module in 1998.<ref name="nsf-20090409">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2009/04/sts-132-prcb-baselines-mission-to-deliver-russias-mrm-1/|title=STS-132: PRCB baselines Atlantis' mission to deliver Russia's MRM-1|last=Gebhardt|first=Chris|date=9 April 2009|access-date=12 November 2009|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230412103414/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2009/04/sts-132-prcb-baselines-mission-to-deliver-russias-mrm-1/|archive-date=12 April 2023|work=[[NASASpaceFlight.com]]}}</ref> ''Rassvet'' was attached to ''Zarya'' shortly thereafter.<ref name="connect">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/sts132/news/STS-132-09.html|title=STS-132 MCC Status Report #09|date=18 May 2010|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=7 July 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408013431/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/sts132/news/STS-132-09.html|archive-date=8 April 2013}} {{PD-notice}}</ref>

==== ''Leonardo'' ====
{{Main|Leonardo (ISS module)}}

[[File:STS-133 ISS-26 Permanent Multipurpose Module.jpg|thumb|The ''Leonardo'' module hours after berthing]]
The ''Leonardo'' Permanent Multipurpose Module (PMM) was flown into space aboard the Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' on [[STS-133]] on 24 February 2011 and installed on 1 March. ''Leonardo'' is primarily used for storage of spares, supplies and waste on the ISS, which was until then stored in many different places within the space station. It is also the personal hygiene area for the astronauts who live in the [[US Orbital Segment]]. The ''Leonardo'' PMM was a [[Multi-Purpose Logistics Module]] (MPLM) before 2011, but was modified into its current configuration. It was formerly one of two MPLM used for bringing cargo to and from the ISS with the Space Shuttle. The module was named for Italian polymath [[Leonardo da Vinci]].

==== Bigelow Expandable Activity Module ====
[[File:BEAM module expansion series.jpg|thumb|Progression of the expansion of BEAM]]

The [[Bigelow Expandable Activity Module]] (BEAM) is an experimental [[Inflatable space habitat|expandable]] [[#Pressurised modules|space station module]] developed by [[Bigelow Aerospace]], under contract to NASA, for testing as a temporary module on the International Space Station (ISS) from 2016 to at least 2020. It arrived at the ISS on 10&nbsp;April 2016,<ref name="space20160410">{{Cite news|url=https://www.space.com/32528-spacex-dragon-delivers-inflatable-room-space-station.html|title=SpaceX Dragon Arrives at Space Station, Delivers Inflatable Room Prototype|last=Pearlman|first=Robert|date=10 April 2016|access-date=11 April 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230611082951/https://www.space.com/32528-spacex-dragon-delivers-inflatable-room-space-station.html|archive-date=11 June 2023|work=[[Space.com]]}}</ref> was berthed to the station on 16&nbsp;April at Tranquility Node 3, and was expanded and pressurized on 28&nbsp;May 2016. In December 2021, Bigelow Aerospace conveyed ownership of the module to NASA, as a result of Bigelow's cessation of activity.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Foust|first=Jeff|date=21 January 2022|title=Bigelow Aerospace transfers BEAM space station module to NASA|url=https://spacenews.com/bigelow-aerospace-transfers-beam-space-station-module-to-nasa/|access-date=13 February 2024|website=SpaceNews}}</ref>

==== International Docking Adapters ====
The [[International Docking Adapter]] (IDA) is a [[Docking and berthing of spacecraft#Adapters|spacecraft docking system adapter]] developed to convert [[APAS-95]] to the [[NASA Docking System]] (NDS).<!-- Do not replace this with International Docking System Standard, which is a standard of docking systems, while NASA Docking System is a docking system compatible with the IDSS. --> An IDA is placed on each of the ISS's two open [[Pressurized Mating Adapters]] (PMAs), both of which are connected to the ''Harmony'' module.

Two International Docking Adapters are currently installed aboard the Station. Originally, [[International Docking Adapter|IDA-1]] was planned to be installed on PMA-2, located at ''Harmony''{{'}}s forward port, and [[International Docking Adapter#IDA-2|IDA-2]] would be installed on PMA-3 at ''Harmony''{{'}}s zenith. After IDA 1 was destroyed in [[SpaceX CRS-7|a launch incident]], [[International Docking Adapter#IDA-2|IDA-2]] was installed on PMA-2 on 19 August 2016,<ref name="sfn-20160819">{{Cite news|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2016/08/19/spacewalkers-attach-new-port-to-space-station-for-commercial-spacecraft/|title=Spacewalkers attach docking adapter to space station for commercial vehicles|last=Harwood|first=William|date=19 August 2016|access-date=24 January 2021|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810145126/https://spaceflightnow.com/2016/08/19/spacewalkers-attach-new-port-to-space-station-for-commercial-spacecraft/|archive-date=10 August 2023|work=Spaceflight Now}}</ref> while [[International Docking Adapter#IDA-3|IDA-3]] was later installed on PMA-3 on 21 August 2019.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Garcia|first=Mark|date=21 August 2019|title=Spacewalkers Complete Installation of Second Commercial Docking Port|work=NASA Space Station|url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2019/08/21/spacewalkers-complete-installation-of-second-commercial-docking-port/|access-date=24 January 2021|archive-date=2 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200602183325/https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2019/08/21/spacewalkers-complete-installation-of-second-commercial-docking-port/}}</ref>

==== Bishop Airlock Module ====
{{Main|Nanoracks Bishop Airlock}}

[[File:ISS-64 NanoRacks Bishop airlock after installation.jpg|thumb|NanoRacks Bishop airlock module installed on the ISS]]

The NanoRacks Bishop Airlock Module is a [[Commercial use of space|commercially]] funded [[airlock]] module launched to the ISS on [[SpaceX CRS-21]] on 6 December 2020.<ref name="thales-milestone">{{Cite press release|url=https://www.thalesgroup.com/en/worldwide/space/press-release/thales-alenia-space-reaches-key-milestone-nanoracks-airlock-module|title=Thales Alenia Space reaches key milestone for NanoRacks' airlock module|date=20 March 2019|publisher=[[Thales Alenia Space]]|location=Turin, Italy|access-date=22 August 2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810130710/https://www.thalesgroup.com/en/worldwide/space/press-release/thales-alenia-space-reaches-key-milestone-nanoracks-airlock-module|archive-date=10 August 2023}}</ref><ref name="sfn-20190802">{{Cite news|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/08/02/spacex-to-begin-flights-under-new-cargo-resupply-contract-next-year/|title=SpaceX to begin flights under new cargo resupply contract next year|last=Clark|first=Stephen|date=2 August 2019|access-date=22 August 2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230602175020/https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/08/02/spacex-to-begin-flights-under-new-cargo-resupply-contract-next-year/|archive-date=2 June 2023|work=Spaceflight Now}}</ref> The module was built by [[NanoRacks]], [[Thales Alenia Space]], and Boeing.<ref name="NanoRacks">{{Cite press release|url=https://nanoracks.com/nanoracks-boeing-first-commercial-airlock-module-on-iss/|title=NanoRacks, Boeing to Build First Commercial ISS Airlock Module|date=6 February 2017|publisher=[[NanoRacks]]|access-date=22 August 2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811163145/https://nanoracks.com/nanoracks-boeing-first-commercial-airlock-module-on-iss/|archive-date=11 August 2023}}</ref> It will be used to deploy [[CubeSat]]s, [[small satellite]]s, and other external payloads for NASA, [[CASIS]], and other commercial and governmental customers.<ref name="NASA Announcement">{{cite web|last=Garcia|first=Mark|date=6 February 2017|title=Progress Underway for First Commercial Airlock on Space Station|url=https://www.nasa.gov/feature/progress-underway-for-first-commercial-airlock-on-space-station|access-date=22 August 2019|publisher=[[NASA]]|archive-date=12 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112004837/https://www.nasa.gov/feature/progress-underway-for-first-commercial-airlock-on-space-station/}}</ref>

==== ''Nauka'' ====
[[File:Russian Spacewalkers dwarfed by the Nauka and Prichal modules 2 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|''Nauka'' and ''Prichal'' docked to ISS]]

{{Main|Nauka (ISS module)}}

''Nauka'' ({{Langx|ru|Наука|lit=Science|links=no}}), also known as the ''Multipurpose Laboratory Module, Upgrade'' ({{Langx|ru|Многоцелевой лабораторный модуль, усоверше́нствованный|links=no}}), is a Roscosmos-funded component of the ISS that was launched on 21&nbsp;July 2021, 14:58 UTC. In the original ISS plans, ''Nauka'' was to use the location of the [[Rassvet (ISS module)#Initial planning|Docking and Stowage Module]] (DSM), but the DSM was later replaced by the ''Rassvet'' module and moved to ''Zarya''{{'}}s nadir port. ''Nauka'' was successfully docked to ''Zvezda''{{'}}s nadir port on 29&nbsp;July 2021, 13:29 UTC, replacing the ''Pirs'' module.

It had a temporary docking adapter on its nadir port for crewed and uncrewed missions until Prichal arrival, where just before its arrival it was removed by a departing Progress spacecraft.<ref name="russianspaceweb-ms17">{{Cite web|url=http://russianspaceweb.com/progress-ms-17.html#redocking|title=Progress MS-17 lifts off to prepare Prichal module arrival|last=Zak|first=Anatoly|date=9 February 2021|access-date=21 October 2021|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811171304/https://russianspaceweb.com/progress-ms-17.html#redocking|archive-date=11 August 2023|website=RussianSpaceWeb}}</ref>

==== ''Prichal'' ====
{{Main|Prichal (ISS module)}}

''Prichal'' ({{Langx|ru|Причал|lit=pier|links=no}}) is a {{convert|4|t|lb|adj=on}} spherical module that serves as a docking hub for the Russian segment of the ISS. Launched in November 2021, Prichal provides additional docking ports for Soyuz and Progress spacecraft, as well as potential future modules. ''Prichal'' features six docking ports: forward, aft, port, starboard, zenith, and nadir. One of these ports, equipped with an active hybrid docking system, enabled it to dock with the Nauka module. The remaining five ports are passive hybrids, allowing for docking of Soyuz, Progress, and heavier modules, as well as future spacecraft with modified docking systems. As of 2024, the forward, aft, port and starboard docking ports remain covered. ''Prichal'' was initially intended to be an element of the now canceled [[Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex]].<ref name="rsw-um">{{Cite web|url=https://www.russianspaceweb.com/iss_node.html#2020|title=Prichal Node Module, UM|last=Zak|first=Anatoly|date=22 June 2020|access-date=23 June 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231120175425/https://www.russianspaceweb.com/iss_node.html#2020|archive-date=20 November 2023|website=RussianSpaceWeb}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/07/25/new-docking-port-spacesuit-and-supplies-en-route-to-space-station/|title=New docking port, spacesuit and supplies en route to space station|last=Clark|first=Stephen|date=25 July 2019|access-date=17 August 2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810130845/https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/07/25/new-docking-port-spacesuit-and-supplies-en-route-to-space-station/|archive-date=10 August 2023|work=Spaceflight Now}}</ref><ref name="energia-20110113">{{Cite press release|url=http://www.energia.ru/en/news/news-2011/news_01-13.html|title=News January 13, 2011|date=13 January 2011|publisher=[[Energia (corporation)|Energia]]|access-date=8 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170702225123/http://www.energia.ru/en/news/news-2011/news_01-13.html|archive-date=2 July 2017}}</ref><ref name="NSF20200819">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/08/nauka-arrives-baikonur-final-preps/|title=Russia's Nauka ISS module arrives at Baikonur for final launch preparations|last=Atkinson|first=Ian|date=19 August 2020|access-date=20 August 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810132018/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/08/nauka-arrives-baikonur-final-preps/|archive-date=10 August 2023|work=[[NASASpaceFlight.com]]}}</ref>

===Unpressurised elements===
{{multiple image
| align             = right
| total_width       = 400
| image1            = Truss breakdown.png
| caption1          = ISS Truss Components breakdown showing Trusses and all ORUs in situ
| image2            = STS-116 spacewalk 1.jpg
| caption2          = Construction of the [[Integrated Truss Structure]] over New Zealand
}}

The ISS has a large number of external components that do not require pressurisation. The largest of these is the [[Integrated Truss Structure]] (ITS), to which the station's main [[Photovoltaic system|solar arrays]] and [[External Active Thermal Control System|thermal radiators]] are mounted.<ref name="Arrays">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/behindscenes/truss_segment.html|title=Spread Your Wings, It's Time to Fly|date=26 July 2006|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=21 September 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111135544/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/behindscenes/truss_segment.html|archive-date=11 January 2023}} {{PD-notice}}</ref> The ITS consists of ten separate segments forming a structure {{convert|108.5|m}} long.<ref name="OnOrbit" />

The station was intended to have several smaller external components, such as six robotic arms, three [[External Stowage Platform]]s (ESPs) and four [[ExPRESS Logistics Carrier]]s (ELCs).<ref name="Manifest">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/iss_manifest.html|title=Consolidated Launch Manifest|year=2008|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=8 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090307191348/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/iss_manifest.html|archive-date=7 March 2009}} {{PD-notice}}</ref><ref name="nasa-factsheet-expressracks">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/news/background/facts/expressrack.html|title=EXPRESS Racks 1 and 2 fact sheet|date=1 February 2001|id=FS-2001-02-34-MSFC|access-date=4 October 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080829173441/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/news/background/facts/expressrack.html|archive-date=29 August 2008|url-status=dead}} {{PD-notice}}</ref> While these platforms allow experiments (including [[Materials International Space Station Experiment|MISSE]], the STP-H3 and the [[Robotic Refueling Mission]]) to be deployed and conducted in the vacuum of space by providing electricity and processing experimental data locally, their primary function is to store spare [[Orbital replacement unit|Orbital Replacement Unit]]s (ORUs). ORUs are parts that can be replaced when they fail or pass their design life, including pumps, storage tanks, antennas, and battery units. Such units are replaced either by astronauts during EVA or by robotic arms.<ref name="nsf-20111223">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2011/12/soyuz-tma-03m-docks-iss-returns-station-six-crewmembers-future-ops/|title=Soyuz TMA-03M docks to ISS, returns station to six crewmembers for future ops|date=23 December 2011|access-date=1 May 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811170248/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2011/12/soyuz-tma-03m-docks-iss-returns-station-six-crewmembers-future-ops/|archive-date=11 August 2023|work=[[NASASpaceFlight.com]]}}</ref> Several shuttle missions were dedicated to the delivery of ORUs, including [[STS-129]],<ref name="EVA129">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/pdf/404493main_EVA_129_F_E1.pdf|title=EVA Checklist: STS-129 Flight Supplement|last=Welsch|first=L. D.|date=30 October 2009|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=9 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111129141620/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/pdf/404493main_EVA_129_F_E1.pdf|archive-date=29 November 2011}} {{PD-notice}}</ref> STS-133<ref name="sts-133-press-kit">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/491387main-sts-133-press-kit.pdf|title=Space Shuttle Mission: STS-133 Press Kit|date=February 2011|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=9 July 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231012174024/https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/491387main-sts-133-press-kit.pdf|archive-date=12 October 2023}} {{PD-notice}}</ref> and STS-134.<ref name="sts-134-press-kit">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/538352main_sts134_presskit_508.pdf|title=Space Shuttle Mission: STS-134|date=April 2011|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=9 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226120713/https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/538352main_sts134_presskit_508.pdf|archive-date=26 December 2018}} {{PD-notice}}</ref> {{as of|2011|01}}, only one other mode of transportation of ORUs had been used{{snd}}the Japanese cargo vessel [[H-II Transfer Vehicle|HTV-2]]{{snd}}which delivered an FHRC and CTC-2 via its Exposed Pallet (EP).<ref name="HTV2">{{Cite web|url=https://iss.jaxa.jp/en/htv/mission/htv-2/library/presskit/htv2_presskit_en.pdf|title=HTV2: Mission Press Kit|date=20 January 2011|publisher=[[Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811163142/https://iss.jaxa.jp/en/htv/mission/htv-2/library/presskit/htv2_presskit_en.pdf|archive-date=11 August 2023}}</ref>{{update after|2013|1 |28}}

There are also smaller exposure facilities mounted directly to laboratory modules; the ''Kibō'' [[Kibo (ISS module)|Exposed Facility]] serves as an external "[[porch]]" for the ''Kibō'' complex,<ref>{{cite web|date=29 August 2008|title=Exposed Facility:About Kibo|url=http://kibo.jaxa.jp/en/about/kibo/jef/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090803102352/http://kibo.jaxa.jp/en/about/kibo/jef/|archive-date=3 August 2009|access-date=9 October 2009|publisher=JAXA}}</ref> and a facility on the European ''Columbus'' laboratory provides power and data connections for experiments such as the [[European Technology Exposure Facility]]<ref name="NASA">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/science/experiments/EuTEF.html|title=NASA–European Technology Exposure Facility (EuTEF)|date=6 October 2008|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=28 February 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081019013911/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/science/experiments/EuTEF.html|archive-date=19 October 2008}} {{PD-notice}}</ref><ref name="ESA">{{Cite web|url=https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Columbus/European_Technology_Exposure_Facility_EuTEF|title=European Technology Exposure Facility (EuTEF)|date=13 January 2009|publisher=[[European Space Agency]]|access-date=28 February 2009|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812214202/https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Columbus/European_Technology_Exposure_Facility_EuTEF|archive-date=12 August 2023}}</ref> and the [[Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space (ACES)|url=http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/HSF_Research/SEMJSK0YDUF_0.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090609110757/http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/HSF_Research/SEMJSK0YDUF_0.html|archive-date=9 June 2009|access-date=9 October 2009|publisher=ESA}}</ref> A [[remote sensing]] instrument, [[SAGE III on ISS|SAGE III-ISS]], was delivered to the station in February 2017 aboard [[SpaceX CRS-10|CRS-10]],<ref name="nsf20170310">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2017/03/spacex-dragon-experiments-busy-science-period/|title=SpaceX science – Dragon delivers experiments for busy science period|last=Gebhardt|first=Chris|date=10 March 2017|access-date=11 January 2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810132955/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2017/03/spacex-dragon-experiments-busy-science-period/|archive-date=10 August 2023|work=[[NASASpaceFlight.com]]}}</ref> and the [[Neutron Star Interior Composition Explorer|NICER]] experiment was delivered aboard [[SpaceX CRS-11|CRS-11]] in June 2017.<ref name="nsf20170603">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2017/06/spacex-falcon-9-crs-11-dragon-iss-100th-39a/|title=Falcon 9 launches with CRS-11 Dragon on 100th 39A launch|last=Graham|first=William|date=3 June 2017|access-date=11 January 2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810145605/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2017/06/spacex-falcon-9-crs-11-dragon-iss-100th-39a/|archive-date=10 August 2023|work=[[NASASpaceFlight.com]]}}</ref> The largest scientific payload externally mounted to the ISS is the [[Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer]] (AMS), a particle physics experiment launched on STS-134 in May 2011, and mounted externally on the ITS. The AMS measures cosmic rays to look for evidence of dark matter and antimatter.<ref name="ams-cern">{{Cite web|url=http://ams.cern.ch/|title=The Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer Experiment|date=21 January 2009|publisher=[[CERN]]|access-date=6 March 2009|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811162236/https://ams.cern.ch/|archive-date=11 August 2023}}</ref><ref name="nsf20130404">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2013/04/endeavours-legacy-ams-02-proving-value/|title=Endeavour's ongoing legacy: AMS-02 proving its value|last=Bergin|first=Chris|date=4 April 2013|access-date=11 January 2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810130623/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2013/04/endeavours-legacy-ams-02-proving-value/|archive-date=10 August 2023|work=[[NASASpaceFlight.com]]}}</ref>

The commercial ''[[Columbus – External Payload Facility#Bartolomeo|Bartolomeo]]'' External Payload Hosting Platform, manufactured by Airbus, was launched on 6 March 2020 aboard [[SpaceX CRS-20|CRS-20]] and attached to the European ''Columbus'' module. It will provide an additional 12 external payload slots, supplementing the eight on the [[ExPRESS Logistics Carrier]]s, ten on ''Kibō'', and four on ''Columbus''. The system is designed to be robotically serviced and will require no astronaut intervention. It is named after Christopher Columbus's younger brother.<ref name="spacedaily-20180209">{{Cite news|url=https://www.spacedaily.com/reports/ESA_and_Airbus_sign_partnership_agreement_for_new_ISS_commercial_payload_platform_Bartolomeo_999.html|title=ESA and Airbus sign partnership agreement for new ISS commercial payload platform Bartolomeo|date=9 February 2018|access-date=10 February 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811172013/https://www.spacedaily.com/reports/ESA_and_Airbus_sign_partnership_agreement_for_new_ISS_commercial_payload_platform_Bartolomeo_999.html|archive-date=11 August 2023|work=SpaceDaily}}</ref><ref name="aerospacetech-20180208">{{Cite news|url=https://www.aerospace-technology.com/news/airbus-esa-partner-bartolomeo-platform/|title=Airbus and ESA to partner on Bartolomeo platform|date=8 February 2018|access-date=10 February 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810145538/https://www.aerospace-technology.com/news/airbus-esa-partner-bartolomeo-platform/|archive-date=10 August 2023|work=Aerospace Technology}}</ref><ref name="eoportal-iss-bartolomeo">{{Cite web|url=https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions/iss-bartolomeo|title=ISS: Bartolomeo|date=26 October 2016|publisher=[[European Space Agency]]|access-date=10 February 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812204548/https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions/iss-bartolomeo|archive-date=12 August 2023|website=eoPortal}}</ref>

====MLM outfittings====
{{multiple image
| align             = right
| total_width       = 400
| image1            = MRM1 Rassvet.png
| caption1          = MLM outfittings on Rassvet
| image2            = ISS-65 Nauka and Soyuz MS-18 docked to the International Space Station (1).jpg
| caption2          = A wide-angle view of the new module (behind ''Rassvet'') attached to the [[Russian Orbital Segment|ROS]] as seen from the cupola
}}

In May 2010, equipment for ''Nauka'' was launched on STS-132 (as part of an agreement with NASA) and delivered by Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. Weighing 1.4 metric tons, the equipment was attached to the outside of ''Rassvet'' (MRM-1). It included a spare elbow joint for the [[European Robotic Arm]] (ERA) (which was launched with ''Nauka'') and an ERA-portable workpost used during EVAs, as well as RTOd add-on heat radiator and internal hardware alongside the pressurized experiment airlock.<ref name="Roscosmos1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.roscosmos.ru/31395/|title=Многоцелевой лабораторный модуль "Наука"|trans-title=Multipurpose Laboratory Module 'Nauka'|publisher=[[Roscosmos]]|language=ru|access-date=14 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210714161136/https://www.roscosmos.ru/31395/|archive-date=14 July 2021}}</ref>

The RTOd radiator adds additional cooling capability to ''Nauka'', which enables the module to host more scientific experiments.<ref name="Roscosmos1"/>

The ERA was used to remove the RTOd radiator from ''Rassvet'' and transferred over to ''Nauka'' during VKD-56 spacewalk. Later it was activated and fully deployed on VKD-58 spacewalk.<ref name="garcia-20230512">{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2023/05/12/cosmonauts-deploy-radiator-and-complete-spacewalk/|title=Cosmonauts Deploy Radiator and Complete Spacewalk|last=Garcia|first=Mark|date=12 May 2023|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=12 May 2023|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230731062433/https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2023/05/12/cosmonauts-deploy-radiator-and-complete-spacewalk/|archive-date=31 July 2023|website=NASA Blogs}}</ref> This process took several months. A portable work platform was also transferred over in August 2023 during VKD-60 spacewalk, which can attach to the end of the ERA to allow cosmonauts to "ride" on the end of the arm during spacewalks.<ref name="esa-arm-brochure">{{Cite web|url=https://esamultimedia.esa.int/docs/science/ERA_brochure_EN.pdf|title=European Robotic Arm Brochure|publisher=[[European Space Agency]]|page=9|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810130647/https://esamultimedia.esa.int/docs/science/ERA_brochure_EN.pdf|archive-date=10 August 2023}}</ref><ref name="sfn-20230809">{{Cite news|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2023/08/09/live-coverage-russian-cosmonauts-make-spacewalk-at-international-space-station/|title=Russian cosmonauts make spacewalk at International Space Station|last=Harwood|first=William|date=9 August 2023|access-date=10 August 2023|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812094606/https://spaceflightnow.com/2023/08/09/live-coverage-russian-cosmonauts-make-spacewalk-at-international-space-station/|archive-date=12 August 2023|work=Spaceflight Now}}</ref> However, even after several months of outfitting EVAs and RTOd heat radiator installation, six months later, the RTOd radiator malfunctioned before active use of Nauka (the purpose of RTOd installation is to radiate heat from Nauka experiments). The malfunction, a leak, rendered the RTOd radiator unusable for Nauka. This is the third ISS radiator leak after [[Soyuz MS-22]] and [[Progress MS-21]] radiator leaks. If a spare RTOd is not available, Nauka experiments will have to rely on Nauka's main launch radiator and the module could never be used to its full capacity.<ref name="sfn-20231009">{{Cite news|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2023/10/09/leak-detected-onboard-russian-segment-of-international-space-station/|title=Russian space station laboratory module appears to spring coolant leak – Spaceflight Now|date=9 October 2023|access-date=10 October 2023|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231014232548/https://spaceflightnow.com/2023/10/09/leak-detected-onboard-russian-segment-of-international-space-station/|archive-date=14 October 2023|work=Spaceflight Now}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Госкорпорация "Роскосмос"|url=https://t.me/roscosmos_gk/11130|access-date=10 October 2023|website=Telegram|language=ru|archive-date=11 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231111001124/https://t.me/roscosmos_gk/11130|url-status=live}}</ref>

Another MLM outfitting is a 4 segment external payload interface called means of attachment of large payloads (Sredstva Krepleniya Krupnogabaritnykh Obyektov, SKKO).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sredstva Krepleniya Krupnogabaritnykh Obyektov, SKKO|url=https://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/index.php?action=pm;f=inbox;l=-1;done=sent|url-access=subscription|language=ru|access-date=4 April 2022|archive-date=6 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220706041946/https://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/index.php?action=pm;f=inbox;l=-1;done=sent|url-status=live}}</ref> Delivered in two parts to Nauka by [[Progress MS-18]] (LCCS part) and [[Progress MS-21]] (SCCCS part) as part of the module activation outfitting process.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Russian Nauka/Multipurpose Laboratory Module (MLM) General Thread|url=https://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/index.php?topic=23444.msg2419522#msg2419522|access-date=15 October 2022|website=forum.nasaspaceflight.com|archive-date=15 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221015041008/https://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/index.php?topic=23444.msg2419522#msg2419522|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Schedule of ISS flight events (part 2)|url=https://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/index.php?topic=32006.msg2391098#msg2391098|access-date=31 July 2022|website=forum.nasaspaceflight.com|archive-date=31 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220731072946/https://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/index.php?topic=32006.msg2391098#msg2391098|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Russian Nauka/Multipurpose Laboratory Module (MLM) General Thread|url=https://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/index.php?topic=23444.msg2334840#msg2334840|access-date=25 March 2022|website=forum.nasaspaceflight.com|archive-date=4 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220404014507/https://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/index.php?topic=23444.msg2334840#msg2334840|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="russianspaceweb-fgb2-mlm">{{Cite web|url=https://www.russianspaceweb.com/iss-fgb2-mlm-integration.html|title=Russia to bump its ISS crew back to three|last=Zak|first=Anatoly|access-date=25 March 2022|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811164158/https://www.russianspaceweb.com/iss-fgb2-mlm-integration.html|archive-date=11 August 2023|website=RussianSpaceWeb}}</ref> It was taken outside and installed on the ERA aft facing base point on Nauka during the VKD-55 spacewalk.<ref name="garcia-20221116">{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2022/11/16/cosmonauts-prep-for-thursday-spacewalk-dragon-targets-monday-launch/|title=Cosmonauts Prep for Thursday Spacewalk, Dragon Targets Monday Launch|last=Garcia|first=Mark|date=16 November 2022|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=16 November 2022|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810132145/https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2022/11/16/cosmonauts-prep-for-thursday-spacewalk-dragon-targets-monday-launch/|archive-date=10 August 2023|website=NASA Blogs}}</ref><ref name="lavelle-20221117">{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2022/11/17/cosmonauts-begin-first-in-a-series-of-spacewalks-for-station-maintenance/|title=Cosmonauts Begin First in a Series of Spacewalks for Station Maintenance|last=Lavelle|first=Heidi|date=17 November 2022|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=17 November 2022|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810130808/https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2022/11/17/cosmonauts-begin-first-in-a-series-of-spacewalks-for-station-maintenance/|archive-date=10 August 2023|website=NASA Blogs}}</ref><ref name="garcia-20221117">{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2022/11/17/cosmonauts-finish-spacewalk-for-work-on-science-module/|title=Cosmonauts Finish Spacewalk for Work on Science Module|last=Garcia|first=Mark|date=17 November 2022|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=17 November 2022|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230329110535/https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2022/11/17/cosmonauts-finish-spacewalk-for-work-on-science-module/|archive-date=29 March 2023|website=NASA Blogs}}</ref><ref name="spacecom-20221117">{{Cite news|url=https://www.space.com/iss-spacewalk-russian-radiator-move-prep|title=Russian cosmonauts complete station spacewalk to ready radiator for move|last=Pearlman|first=Robert Z.|date=17 November 2022|access-date=23 November 2022|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124215252/https://www.space.com/iss-spacewalk-russian-radiator-move-prep|archive-date=24 November 2023|work=[[Space.com]]}}</ref>

====Robotic arms and cargo cranes====
{{multiple image
| align             = right
| total_width       = 400
| image1            = Iss017e011097.jpg
| caption1          = Commander [[Sergey Volkov (cosmonaut)|Volkov]] stands on ''Pirs'' with his back to the [[Soyuz spacecraft|Soyuz]] whilst operating the manual<br />[[Strela (crane)|Strela crane]] (which is holding photographer [[Oleg Kononenko]]).
| image2            = Dextrereallyhasnohead.jpg
| caption2          = [[Dextre]], like many of the station's experiments and robotic arms, can be operated from Earth, allowing tasks to be performed while the crew sleeps.
}}

The Integrated Truss Structure (ITS) serves as a base for the station's primary remote manipulator system, the [[Mobile Servicing System]] (MSS), which is composed of three main components:
* [[Canadarm2]], the largest robotic arm on the ISS, has a mass of {{convert|1800|kg|lb}} and is used to: dock and manipulate spacecraft and modules on the USOS; hold crew members and equipment in place during EVAs; and move Dextre to perform tasks.<ref>{{cite web|date=8 January 2013|title=Canadarm2 and the Mobile Servicing System|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/mss.html|access-date=22 June 2015|publisher=NASA|archive-date=23 March 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090323030711/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/mss.html}}</ref>
* [[Dextre]] is a {{convert|1560|kg|lb|abbr=on}} robotic manipulator that has two arms and a rotating torso, with power tools, lights, and video for replacing [[orbital replacement unit]]s (ORUs) and performing other tasks requiring fine control.<ref name="csa-dextre">{{Cite web|url=https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/iss/dextre/|title=Dextre, the International Space Station's Robotic Handyman|date=18 April 2011|publisher=[[Canadian Space Agency]]|access-date=22 June 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405001741/https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/iss/dextre/|archive-date=5 April 2023}}</ref>
* The [[Mobile Base System]] (MBS) is a platform that rides on rails along the length of the station's main truss, which serves as a mobile base for Canadarm2 and Dextre, allowing the robotic arms to reach all parts of the USOS.<ref name="csa-mbs">{{Cite web|url=https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/iss/mobile-base/|title=Mobile Base System|publisher=[[Canadian Space Agency]]|access-date=22 June 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327123655/http://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/iss/mobile-base/|archive-date=27 March 2023}}</ref>

A [[Grapple Fixture|grapple fixture]] was added to ''Zarya'' on STS-134 to enable Canadarm2 to inchworm itself onto the ROS.<ref name="sts-134-press-kit" /> Also installed during STS-134 was the {{convert|50|ft|m|abbr=on|order=flip}} [[Orbiter Boom Sensor System]] (OBSS), which had been used to inspect heat shield tiles on Space Shuttle missions and which can be used on the station to increase the reach of the MSS.<ref name="sts-134-press-kit" /> Staff on Earth or the ISS can operate the MSS components using remote control, performing work outside the station without the need for space walks.

Japan's [[Japanese Remote Manipulator System|Remote Manipulator System]], which services the ''Kibō'' Exposed Facility,<ref>{{cite web|date=29 August 2008|title=Remote Manipulator System: About Kibo|url=http://kibo.jaxa.jp/en/about/kibo/rms/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080320035809/http://kibo.jaxa.jp/en/about/kibo/rms/|archive-date=20 March 2008|access-date=4 October 2009|publisher=JAXA}}</ref> was launched on [[STS-124]] and is attached to the ''Kibō'' Pressurised Module.<ref>{{cite web|date=14 January 2002|title=International Space Station Status Report #02-03|url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/news/station/2002/iss02-03.txt|access-date=4 October 2009|publisher=NASA|archive-date=11 March 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100311105930/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/news/station/2002/iss02-03.txt}}</ref> The arm is similar to the Space Shuttle arm as it is permanently attached at one end and has a latching end effector for standard grapple fixtures at the other.

The [[European Robotic Arm]], which will service the ROS, was launched alongside the [[Nauka (ISS module)|''Nauka'']] module.<ref name="tass-20200402">{{Cite news|url=https://tass.com/science/1139385|title=Russia postpones launch of Nauka research module to orbital outpost to 2021|date=2 April 2020|agency=[[TASS]]|access-date=1 March 2021|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810143935/https://tass.com/science/1139385|archive-date=10 August 2023}}</ref> The ROS does not require spacecraft or modules to be manipulated, as all spacecraft and modules dock automatically and may be discarded the same way. Crew use the two ''[[Strela (crane)|Strela]]'' ({{langx|ru|Стрела́||Arrow}}) cargo cranes during EVAs for moving crew and equipment around the ROS. Each Strela crane has a mass of {{cvt|45|kg}}.

=== Former module ===

{{Multiple image
| total_width       = 400
| direction         = horizontal
| image1            = Sts110-363-001.jpg
| caption1          = The ''Pirs'' module attached to the ISS
| image2            = ISS-65 Pirs docking compartment separates from the Space Station.jpg
| caption2          = ISS-65 Pirs docking compartment separates from the International Space Station.
}}

==== ''Pirs'' ====
{{main|2 = Pirs (ISS module)}}

Pirs (Russian: Пирс, lit. 'Pier') was launched on 14&nbsp;September 2001, as ISS Assembly Mission 4R, on a Russian Soyuz-U rocket, using a modified [[Progress spacecraft]], [[Progress M-SO1]], as an upper stage. Pirs was undocked by [[Progress MS-16]] on 26&nbsp;July 2021, 10:56 UTC, and deorbited on the same day at 14:51 UTC to make room for the [[Nauka (ISS module)|''Nauka'']] module to be attached to the space station. Prior to its departure, Pirs served as the primary Russian airlock on the station, being used to store and refurbish the Russian Orlan spacesuits.

===Planned components===
==== Axiom segment ====
{{main|Axiom Station}}

[[File:Axiom modules connected to ISS.jpg|thumb|Early rendering of the [[Axiom Orbital Segment]], made prior to assembly plan changes, with now only one module, the [[Axiom Station#PPTM|Payload Power Thermal Module (PPTM)]], being planned to dock with the ISS]]
In January 2020, NASA awarded [[Axiom Space]] a contract to build a commercial module for the ISS. The contract is under the [[Next Space Technologies for Exploration Partnerships|NextSTEP2]] program. NASA negotiated with Axiom on a firm [[fixed-price contract]] basis to build and deliver the module, which will attach to the forward port of the space station's ''Harmony (Node 2)'' module. Although NASA only commissioned one module, Axiom planned to build an entire segment ([[Axiom Orbital Segment]]) consisting of five modules, including a node module, an orbital research and manufacturing facility, a crew habitat, and a "large-windowed Earth observatory". The Axiom segment was expected to greatly increase the capabilities and value of the space station, allowing for larger crews and private spaceflight by other organisations. Axiom planned to convert the segment into a stand-alone space station ([[Axiom Station]]) once the ISS is decommissioned, with the intention that this would act as a successor to the ISS.<ref name="sfn-20200128">{{Cite news|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/01/28/axiom-wins-nasa-approval-to-attach-commercial-habitat-to-space-station/|title=Axiom wins NASA approval to attach commercial habitat to space station|last=Clark|first=Stephen|date=28 January 2020|access-date=29 January 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231121185755/https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/01/28/axiom-wins-nasa-approval-to-attach-commercial-habitat-to-space-station/|archive-date=21 November 2023|work=Spaceflight Now}}</ref><ref name="techcrunch-20200127">{{Cite news|url=https://techcrunch.com/2020/01/27/nasa-taps-startup-axiom-space-for-the-first-habitable-commercial-module-for-the-space-station/|title=NASA taps startup Axiom Space for the first habitable commercial module for the Space Station|last=Etherington|first=Darrell|date=27 January 2020|access-date=29 January 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128010232/https://techcrunch.com/2020/01/27/nasa-taps-startup-axiom-space-for-the-first-habitable-commercial-module-for-the-space-station/|archive-date=28 January 2020|work=[[TechCrunch]]}}</ref><ref name="geekwire-20200127">{{Cite news|url=https://www.geekwire.com/2020/nasa-clears-axiom-space-put-commercial-habitat-space-station-boeings-help/|title=NASA clears Axiom Space to put commercial habitat on space station, with Boeing on the team|last=Boyle|first=Alan|date=27 January 2020|access-date=29 January 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406054511/https://www.geekwire.com/2020/nasa-clears-axiom-space-put-commercial-habitat-space-station-boeings-help/|archive-date=6 April 2023|work=GeekWire}}</ref> [[Canadarm2]] is planned to continue its operations on Axiom Station after the retirement of ISS in 2030.<ref name="axiom-assembly">{{Cite web|url=https://www.axiomspace.com/axiom-station/assembly-sequence|title=Axiom Station Assembly Sequence – Axiom Space Axiom Space|publisher=[[Axiom Space]]|access-date=9 August 2021|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810145840/https://www.axiomspace.com/axiom-station/assembly-sequence|archive-date=10 August 2023}}</ref> In December 2024, Axiom Space revised their station assembly plans to require only one module to dock with the ISS before assembling Axiom Station in an independent orbit.<ref name="sn-20241218" /> The module docked to the ISS will feature storage for established ISS hardware to be transfered to and retained at the Axiom module and later station.<ref name="v614">{{cite web | last=Hofacker | first=Cat | title=Q&A: Axiom's Peggy Whitson on space station assembly | website=Aerospace America | date=2026-01-12 | url=https://aerospaceamerica.aiaa.org/qa-axioms-peggy-whitson-on-space-station-assembly/ | access-date=2026-03-29}}</ref>

{{As of|December 2024}}, Axiom Space expects to launch one module, the [[Axiom Station#PPTM|Payload Power Thermal Module (PPTM)]], to the ISS no earlier than 2027.<ref name="sn-20241218">{{cite web |last=Foust |first=Jeff |url=https://spacenews.com/axiom-space-revises-space-station-assembly-plans/ |title=Axiom Space revises space station assembly plans |work=[[SpaceNews]] |date=18 December 2024 |access-date=18 December 2024}}</ref> PPTM is expected to remain at the ISS until the launch of Axiom's Habitat One (Hab-1) module about one year later, after which it will detach from the ISS to join with Hab-1.<ref name="sn-20241218" />

==== US Deorbit Vehicle ====
The [[US Deorbit Vehicle]] (USDV) is a NASA-provided spacecraft intended to perform a controlled de-orbit and demise of the station after the end of its operational life in 2030. In June 2024, NASA awarded [[SpaceX]] a contract to build the Deorbit Vehicle.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.collectspace.com/news/news-091523a-soyuz-ms-24-launch-space-station.html|title=Russia's Soyuz MS-24 launches crew for up to yearlong stay on space station|access-date=15 September 2023|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231006173029/http://www.collectspace.com/news/news-091523a-soyuz-ms-24-launch-space-station.html|archive-date=6 October 2023|website=collectSPACE.com}}</ref> NASA plans to de-orbit ISS as soon as they have the "minimum capability" in orbit: "the USDV and at least one commercial station."<ref>{{cite news|title=NASA weighing options for continuous human presence in LEO after ISS|url=https://spacenews.com/nasa-weighing-options-for-continuous-human-presence-in-leo-after-iss/|work=[[SpaceNews]]|last=Foust|first=Jeff|date=16 October 2024|access-date=17 October 2024}}</ref>

===Cancelled components===
{{multiple image
| align             = right
| total_width       = 400
| image1            = ISS Habitation module.jpg
| caption1          = The cancelled Habitation module under construction at Michoud in 1997
| image2            = Nautilus-X demonstrator docked to the ISS (side).webp
| caption2          = Rendering of the Nautilus-X Centrifuge Demonstrator docked to the ISS (side)
}}

Several modules developed or planned for the station were cancelled over the course of the ISS program. Reasons include budgetary constraints, the modules becoming unnecessary, and station redesigns after the 2003 [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|''Columbia'' disaster]]. The US [[Centrifuge Accommodations Module]] would have hosted science experiments in varying levels of [[artificial gravity]].<ref>{{cite web|title=CAM – location?|url=http://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/index.php?topic=12560.msg265342|access-date=12 October 2009|website=NASA Spaceflight Forums|archive-date=11 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011031151/http://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/index.php?PHPSESSID=67c39f0a2f4c8510242de183bae73e6f&topic=12560.msg265342|url-status=live}}</ref> The US [[Habitation Module]] would have served as the station's living quarters. Instead, the living quarters are now spread throughout the station.<ref name="spacecom-20060214">{{Cite news|url=https://www.space.com/2050-nasa-recycles-iss-module-life-support-research.html|title=NASA Recycles Former ISS Module for Life Support Research|last=Malik|first=Tariq|date=14 February 2006|access-date=11 March 2009|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812225629/https://www.space.com/2050-nasa-recycles-iss-module-life-support-research.html|archive-date=12 August 2023|work=[[Space.com]]}}</ref> The US [[Interim Control Module]] and [[ISS Propulsion Module]] would have replaced the functions of ''Zvezda'' in case of a launch failure.<ref name="navy-code8200-icm">{{Cite web|url=http://code8200.nrl.navy.mil/icm.html|title=ICM Interim Control Module|publisher=U.S. Naval Center for Space Technology|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070208164211/http://code8200.nrl.navy.mil/icm.html|archive-date=8 February 2007}}</ref> Two [[Russian Research Module]]s were planned for scientific research.<ref name="boeing-russian-modules">{{Cite web|url=http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/spacestation/components/russian_laboratory.html|title=Russian Research Modules|publisher=[[Boeing]]|access-date=21 June 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100208034625/http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/spacestation/components/russian_laboratory.html|archive-date=8 February 2010}}</ref> They would have docked to a Russian [[Universal Docking Module]].<ref name="russianspaceweb-iss-segment">{{Cite web|url=https://www.russianspaceweb.com/iss_russia.html|title=Russian segment of the ISS|last=Zak|first=Anatoly|access-date=3 October 2009|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406134221/https://russianspaceweb.com/iss_russia.html|archive-date=6 April 2023|website=RussianSpaceWeb}}</ref> The Russian [[Science Power Platform]] would have supplied power to the Russian Orbital Segment independent of the ITS solar arrays.

==== Science Power Modules 1 and 2 (Repurposed Components) ====
'''Science Power Module 1''' ('''SPM-1''', also known as '''NEM-1''') and '''Science Power Module 2''' ('''SPM-2''', also known as '''NEM-2''') are modules that were originally planned to arrive at the ISS no earlier than 2024, and dock to the ''Prichal'' module, which is docked to the ''Nauka'' module.<ref name="NSF20200819" /><ref name="rsw-2024">{{Cite web|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/2024.html#nem|title=Russian space program in 2024|last=Zak|first=Anatoly|date=22 June 2020|access-date=23 June 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102064550/https://russianspaceweb.com/2024.html#nem|archive-date=2 November 2023|website=RussianSpaceWeb}}</ref> In April 2021, Roscosmos announced that NEM-1 would be repurposed to function as a core module of the proposed [[Russian Orbital Service Station]] (ROS), launching no earlier than 2027<ref name="tass-20230124">{{Cite news|date=24 January 2023|title=Russia to set up national orbital outpost in 2027 – Roscosmos|url=https://tass.com/science/1566383|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230609221841/https://tass.com/science/1566383|archive-date=9 June 2023|access-date=31 January 2023|agency=[[TASS]]}}</ref> and docking to the free-flying ''Nauka'' module.<ref name="tass-20210719">{{Cite web|url=https://tass.ru/kosmos/11934057|title=Роскосмос примет решение о пути развития российской орбитальной станции до конца июля|trans-title=Roscosmos to decide development path of Russian orbital station by end of July|date=19 July 2021|agency=[[TASS]]|language=ru|access-date=20 July 2021|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810131618/https://tass.ru/kosmos/11934057|archive-date=10 August 2023}}</ref><ref name="russianspaceweb-ros">{{Cite web|url=https://www.russianspaceweb.com/ros.html|title=Russian Orbital Service Station, ROSS|last=Zak|first=Anatoly|date=16 April 2021|access-date=26 April 2021|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230814171139/https://www.russianspaceweb.com/ros.html|archive-date=14 August 2023|website=RussianSpaceWeb}}</ref> NEM-2 may be converted into another core "base" module, which would be launched in 2028.<ref name="roscosmos-20210424">{{Cite web|url=https://www.roscosmos.ru/30863/|title=Научно-энергетический модуль запустят на "Ангаре" с Восточного|trans-title=The Science Power Module will be launched on an Angara from Vostochny|date=24 April 2021|publisher=[[Roscosmos]]|language=ru|access-date=26 April 2021|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220822035249/https://www.roscosmos.ru/30863/|archive-date=22 August 2022}}</ref> {{As of|December 2025}}, NEM-1—now referred to simply as '''NEM'''—is expected to be launched to the ISS in 2029, where it will dock with the Universal Node module replacing ''Prichal'' prior to the separation of the ROS modules around 2030.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ferapontov |first=Ivan |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/russia-scales-back-ambitions-for-its-next-space-station/ |title=Russia Quietly Changed Its Space Station Plans. Here's What That Means |work=[[Scientific American]] |date=29 December 2025 |access-date=24 March 2026}}</ref>

====XBASE====
{{main|B330}}

In August 2016, [[Bigelow Aerospace]] negotiated an agreement with NASA to develop a full-size ground prototype Deep Space Habitation based on the B330 under the second phase of Next Space Technologies for Exploration Partnerships. The module was called the Expandable Bigelow Advanced Station Enhancement (XBASE), as Bigelow hoped to test the module by attaching it to the International Space Station. However, in March 2020, Bigelow laid off all 88 of its employees, and {{As of|2024|02|lc=y}} the company remains dormant and is considered defunct,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://spacenews.com/bigelow-aerospace-lays-off-entire-workforce/|title=Bigelow Aerospace lays off entire workforce|publisher=[[SpaceNews]]|first=Jeff|last=Foust|date=23 March 2020|access-date=2 December 2023|archive-date=24 March 2020|archive-url=https://archive.today/20200324011153/https://spacenews.com/bigelow-aerospace-lays-off-entire-workforce/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Clark|first=Stephen|date=4 August 2023|title=Trans-Atlantic joint venture aims to build new "international" space station|url=https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/08/trans-atlantic-joint-venture-aims-to-build-new-international-space-station/|access-date=15 February 2024|website=Ars Technica|archive-date=27 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240227023202/https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/08/trans-atlantic-joint-venture-aims-to-build-new-international-space-station/|url-status=live}}</ref> making it appear unlikely that the XBASE module will ever be launched.

====Nautilus-X Centrifuge Demonstration====
{{main|Nautilus-X}}

A proposal was put forward in 2011 for a first in-space demonstration of a sufficiently scaled centrifuge for artificial partial-g gravity effects. It was designed to become a sleep module for the ISS crew. The project was cancelled in favour of other projects due to budget constraints.<ref name="m966">{{cite web|last=Hollingham|first=Richard|title=The rise and fall of artificial gravity|publisher=BBC Home|date=18 November 2014|url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20130121-worth-the-weight|access-date=22 July 2024}}</ref>

==Onboard systems==
===Life support===
{{Main|ISS ECLSS|Chemical oxygen generator}}

The critical systems are the atmosphere control system, the water supply system, the food supply facilities, the sanitation and hygiene equipment, and fire detection and suppression equipment. The Russian Orbital Segment's life-support systems are contained in the ''Zvezda'' service module. Some of these systems are supplemented by equipment in the USOS. The ''Nauka'' laboratory has a complete set of life-support systems.

====Atmospheric control systems====
[[File:SpaceStationCycle.svg|thumb|upright=2|The interactions between the components of the ISS Environmental Control and Life-Support System (ECLSS)|alt=A flowchart diagram showing the components of the ISS life-support system.]]
The atmosphere on board the ISS is similar to [[Atmosphere of Earth|that of Earth]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Freudenrich|first=Craig|date=20 November 2000|title=How Space Stations Work|url=http://science.howstuffworks.com/space-station2.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081212014934/http://science.howstuffworks.com/space-station2.htm|archive-date=12 December 2008|access-date=23 November 2008|publisher=Howstuffworks}}</ref> Normal air pressure on the ISS is {{cvt|101.3|kPa}}, the same as at sea level on Earth.<ref name=pressure>{{cite web|title=5–8: The Air Up There|url=http://nasaexplores.com/show2_5_8a.php?id=04-032&gl=58|archive-url=https://archive.today/2013.11.26-174838/http://web.archive.org/web/20041218024247/nasaexplores.com/show2_5_8a.php?id=04-032&gl=58|archive-date=26 November 2013|access-date=31 October 2008|website=NASAexplores|publisher=NASA}}</ref> While the crew would remain healthy at a lower pressure, some equipment is very pressure-sensitive.<ref name=pressure/>
<!---
A low-pressure pure oxygen atmosphere would also be healthy and NOT increase the risk of a fire: The Apollo 1 accident was caused by the use of pure oxygen at 16.7 psi (1.2 atm) overpressure during testing, i.e. six times the natural partial pressure of oxygen. The report on the accident<ref name="apollo-204-report">{{Cite report|url=https://history.nasa.gov/as204_senate_956.pdf|title=Apollo 204 Accident: Report of the Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences, United States Senate|last1=Anderson|first1=Clinton P.|date=30 January 1968|publisher=US Government Printing Office|location=Washington, D.C.|page=8|id=Report No. 956|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810130754/https://history.nasa.gov/as204_senate_956.pdf|archive-date=10 August 2023|display-authors=etal}}</ref> explicitly states on p. 11 that "NASA has recommended by detailed review that the inflight cabin atmosphere, outside the Earth's atmosphere, should continue to be 100 percent oxygen at 5 p.s.i.A." (c. 0.3 atm). FWIW, Andy Weir's 2021 SF novel [[Project Hail Mary]] claims that an Earth-like atmosphere is maintained in near-Earth space stations to simplify evacuation in case of emergency.-->

Earth-like atmospheric conditions have been maintained on all Russian and Soviet spacecraft,<ref name="spacemed">{{Cite book|last1=Davis|first1=Jeffrey R.|title=Fundamentals of Aerospace Medicine|last2=Johnson|first2=Robert|last3=Stepanek|first3=Jan|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|year=2008|volume=XII|place=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA|pages=261–264|name-list-style=amp}}</ref> while American spacecraft used pure oxygen atmospheres at 5 psi (0.3 atm) after launch.

The ''[[Elektron (ISS)|Elektron]]'' system aboard ''Zvezda'' and a similar system in ''Destiny'' generate oxygen aboard the station.<ref name="OGS">{{Cite news|url=https://www.space.com/2052-air-apparent-oxygen-systems-iss.html|title=Air Apparent: New Oxygen Systems for the ISS|last=Malik|first=Tariq|date=15 February 2006|access-date=21 November 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230814171139/https://www.russianspaceweb.com/ros.html|archive-date=14 August 2023|work=[[Space.com]]}}</ref> The crew has a backup option in the form of bottled oxygen and [[Vika oxygen generator|Solid Fuel Oxygen Generation]] (SFOG) canisters, a [[chemical oxygen generator]] system.<ref name="breath easy">{{cite web|first=Patrick L.|last=Barry|date=13 November 2000|title=Breathing Easy on the Space Station|url=https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2000/ast13nov_1.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080921141609/https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2000/ast13nov_1.htm|archive-date=21 September 2008|access-date=21 November 2008|publisher=NASA}}</ref> Carbon dioxide is removed from the air by the [[ISS ECLSS#Vozdukh|Vozdukh]] system in ''Zvezda''. Other by-products of human metabolism, such as methane from the intestines and ammonia from sweat, are removed by [[Activated carbon|activated charcoal]] filters.<ref name="breath easy" />

Part of the ROS atmosphere control system is the oxygen supply. Triple-redundancy is provided by the Elektron unit, solid fuel generators, and stored oxygen. The primary supply of oxygen is the Elektron unit which produces {{chem2|O2}} and {{chem2|H2}} by [[electrolysis]] of water and vents {{chem2|H2}} overboard. The {{cvt|1|kW}} system uses approximately one litre of water per crew member per day. This water is either brought from Earth or recycled from other systems. ''Mir'' was the first spacecraft to use recycled water for oxygen production. The secondary oxygen supply is provided by burning oxygen-producing [[Vika oxygen generator|Vika]] cartridges (see also [[ISS ECLSS]]). Each 'candle' takes 5–20 minutes to decompose at {{convert|450|-|500|C}}, producing {{convert|600|L}} of {{chem2|O2}}. This unit is manually operated.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://suzymchale.com/ruspace/issrslss.html|title=RuSpace {{!}} ISS Russian Segment Life Support System|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110809155257/http://suzymchale.com/ruspace/issrslss.html|archive-date=9 August 2011|website=Suzymchale.com|access-date=8 October 2011}}</ref>

The US Orbital Segment (USOS) has redundant supplies of oxygen, from a pressurised storage tank on the ''Quest'' airlock module delivered in 2001, supplemented ten years later by ESA-built Advanced Closed-Loop System (ACLS) in the ''Tranquility'' module (Node 3), which produces {{chem2|O2}} by electrolysis.<ref name="nasa-20001113">{{Cite web|url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2000/ast13nov_1|title=Breathing Easy on the Space Station|date=13 November 2000|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=8 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190311204439/https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2000/ast13nov_1|archive-date=11 March 2019}}</ref> Hydrogen produced is combined with carbon dioxide from the cabin atmosphere and converted to water and methane.

===Power and thermal control===
{{Main|Electrical system of the International Space Station|External Active Thermal Control System}}

{{multiple image
| align             = right
| total_width       = 400
| image1            = ROSSA.jpg
| caption1          = Russian solar arrays, backlit by sunset
| image2            = P4 deployed.jpg
| caption2          = One of the eight truss mounted pairs of USOS solar arrays
| image3            = ISS new iROSA deployed.jpg
| caption3          = ISS new roll out solar array as seen from a zoom camera on the P6 Truss
}}

Double-sided [[solar panel|solar arrays]] provide [[Electric power|electrical power]] to the ISS. These bifacial cells collect direct sunlight on one side and light [[Albedo|reflected off]] from the Earth on the other, and are more efficient and operate at a lower temperature than single-sided cells commonly used on Earth.<ref name="andreas-2005">{{Cite conference|url=http://wenku.baidu.com/view/a815121ffc4ffe473368ab7a.html|title=The early history of bifacial solar cell|last=Cuevas|first=Andrés|date=January 2005|publisher=WIP Renewable Energies|access-date=14 August 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405131511/https://wenku.baidu.com/view/a815121ffc4ffe473368ab7a.html|archive-date=5 April 2023|conference=European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference|hdl=1885/84487|volume=20}}</ref> <!-- don't worry about the 'lower absobance' thingy, that's about heat not electricity--><!--http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/gallery/search.cgi?startrow=1391&maxrows=10&page=1&pages=1878&count=18775&navpage=139&images=images&searchwhat=all shows a sequence of photographs taken on 11 September 2000, from the sequence and orientation of the station, it's a sunset in the background of ROSSA.jpg-->

The Russian segment of the station, like most spacecraft, uses 28&nbsp;[[volt|V]]&nbsp;[[Extra-low voltage|low voltage]] [[direct current|DC]] from two rotating solar arrays mounted on ''Zvezda''. The USOS uses 130–180&nbsp;V&nbsp;DC from the USOS&nbsp;PV array. Power is stabilised and distributed at 160&nbsp;V&nbsp;DC and converted to the user-required 124&nbsp;V&nbsp;DC. The [[High voltage|higher distribution voltage]] allows smaller, lighter conductors, at the expense of crew safety. The two station segments share power with converters.

The USOS solar arrays are arranged as four wing pairs, for a total production of 75 to 90 kilowatts.<ref name="ISS_stats" /> These arrays normally track the Sun to maximise power generation. Each array is about {{convert|375|m2|sqft|0|abbr=on}} in area and {{convert|58|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} long. In the complete configuration, the solar arrays track the Sun by rotating the ''alpha [[gimbal]]'' once per orbit; the ''beta gimbal'' follows slower changes in the angle of the Sun to the orbital plane. The [[Night Glider mode]] aligns the solar arrays parallel to the ground at night to reduce the significant aerodynamic drag at the station's relatively low orbital altitude.<ref name="Glider">{{Cite journal|author1=G. Landis|author2=C-Y. Lu|year=1991|title=Solar Array Orientation Options for a Space Station in Low Earth Orbit|journal=Journal of Propulsion and Power|volume=7|issue=1|pages=123–125|doi=10.2514/3.23302}}</ref>

The station originally used rechargeable [[nickel–hydrogen battery|nickel–hydrogen batteries]] ({{chem2|NiH2}}) for continuous power during the 45 minutes of every 90-minute orbit that it is eclipsed by the Earth. The batteries are recharged on the day side of the orbit. They had a 6.5-year lifetime (over 37,000 charge/discharge cycles) and were regularly replaced over the anticipated 20-year life of the station.<ref>{{cite web|first=Thomas B.|last=Miller|date=24 April 2000|title=Nickel-Hydrogen Battery Cell Life Test Program Update for the International Space Station|url=https://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/RT/RT1999/5000/5420miller.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090825125740/https://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/RT/RT1999/5000/5420miller.html|archive-date=25 August 2009|access-date=27 November 2009|series=Research & Technology|publisher=NASA{{\}}Glenn Research Center|website=grc.nasa.gov}}</ref> Starting in 2016, the nickel–hydrogen batteries were replaced by [[lithium-ion battery|lithium-ion batteries]], which are expected to last until the end of the ISS program.<ref name="sfn-20161213">{{Cite news|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2016/12/13/japanese-htv-makes-battery-delivery-to-international-space-station/|title=Japanese HTV makes battery delivery to International Space Station|last=Clark|first=Stephen|date=13 December 2016|access-date=29 January 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810132031/https://spaceflightnow.com/2016/12/13/japanese-htv-makes-battery-delivery-to-international-space-station/|archive-date=10 August 2023|work=Spaceflight Now}}</ref>

The station's large solar panels generate a high potential voltage difference between the station and the ionosphere. This could cause arcing through insulating surfaces and sputtering of conductive surfaces as ions are accelerated by the spacecraft plasma sheath. To mitigate this, [[plasma contactor]] units create current paths between the station and the ambient space plasma.<ref>{{cite web|last=Patterson|first=Michael J.|date=18 June 1999|title=Cathodes Delivered for Space Station Plasma Contactor System|url=https://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/RT/RT1998/5000/5430patterson.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110705135954/https://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/RT/RT1998/5000/5430patterson.html|archive-date=5 July 2011|series=Research & Technology|publisher=NASA{{\}}Lewis Research Center|website=grc.nasa.gov}}</ref>

[[File:EATCS.png|thumb|upright=2.2|ISS External Active Thermal Control System (EATCS) diagram]]
The station's systems and experiments consume a large amount of electrical power, almost all of which is converted to heat. To keep the internal temperature within workable limits, a passive thermal control system (PTCS) is made of external surface materials, insulation such as MLI, and heat pipes. If the PTCS cannot keep up with the heat load, an External Active Thermal Control System (EATCS) maintains the temperature. The EATCS consists of an internal, non-toxic, water coolant loop used to cool and dehumidify the atmosphere, which transfers collected heat into an external liquid [[ammonia]] loop. From the heat exchangers, ammonia is pumped into external radiators that emit heat as infrared radiation, then the ammonia is cycled back to the station.<ref name="nasa-stayingcool">{{Cite web|url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2001/ast21mar_1/|title=Staying Cool on the ISS|last1=Price|first1=Steve|last2=Phillips|first2=Tony|last3=Knier|first3=Gil|date=21 March 2001|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=22 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203012526/https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2001/ast21mar_1/|archive-date=3 February 2023}}</ref> The EATCS provides cooling for all the US pressurised modules, including ''Kibō'' and ''Columbus'', as well as the main power distribution electronics of the S0, S1 and P1 trusses. It can reject up to 70&nbsp;kW. This is much more than the 14&nbsp;kW of the Early External Active Thermal Control System (EEATCS) via the Early Ammonia Servicer (EAS), which was launched on [[STS-105]] and installed onto the P6 Truss.<ref name="acts-overview">{{Cite tech report|url=https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/473486main_iss_atcs_overview.pdf|title=Active Thermal Control System (ATCS) Overview|publisher=[[Boeing]]|access-date=8 October 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231016111319/https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/473486main_iss_atcs_overview.pdf|archive-date=16 October 2023}}</ref>

===Communications and computers===
{{Main|Tracking and Data Relay Satellite|Luch (satellite)}}

{{See also|ThinkPad#Use in space}}The ISS relies on various radio communication systems to provide [[telemetry]] and scientific data links between the station and [[mission control center]]s. Radio links are also used during [[Space rendezvous|rendezvous and docking procedures]] and for audio and video communication between crew members, flight controllers and family members. As a result, the ISS is equipped with internal and external communication systems used for different purposes.<ref name="BoeingComm" />

The Russian Orbital Segment primarily uses the ''[[Lira (ISS)|Lira]]'' antenna mounted on ''Zvezda'' for direct ground communication.<ref name="ISSRG" /><ref>{{cite web|last1=Mathews|first1=Melissa|last2=Hartsfield|first2=James|date=25 March 2005|title=International Space Station Status Report: SS05-015|url=http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2005/mar/HQ_ss05015_ISS_status_report.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111144205/http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2005/mar/HQ_ss05015_ISS_status_report.html|archive-date=11 January 2012|access-date=11 January 2010|website=NASA News|publisher=NASA}}</ref> It also had the capability to utilize the ''[[Luch (satellite)|Luch]]'' data relay satellite system,<ref name="ISSRG" /> which was in a state of disrepair when the station was built,<ref name="ISSRG" /><ref name="SSSM">{{Cite book|last=Harland|first=David|url=https://archive.org/details/storyofspacestat0000harl|title=The Story of Space Station Mir|publisher=Springer-Verlag New York Incorporated|year=2004|isbn=978-0-387-23011-5|location=New York|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="Harvey">{{Cite book|last=Harvey|first=Brian|title=The rebirth of the Russian space program: 50 years after Sputnik, new frontiers|publisher=Springer Praxis Books|year=2007|isbn=978-0-387-71354-0|page=263}}</ref> but was restored to operational status in 2011 and 2012 with the launch of Luch-5A and Luch-5B.<ref>{{cite web|last=Zak|first=Anatoly|date=4 January 2010|title=Space exploration in 2011|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/2011.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100626095747/http://www.russianspaceweb.com/2011.html|archive-date=26 June 2010|access-date=12 January 2010|website=RussianSpaceWeb}}</ref> Additionally, the [[Voskhod-M]] system provides internal telephone communications and VHF radio links to ground control.<ref>{{cite web|date=2 May 2010|title=ISS On-Orbit Status 05/02/10|url=http://www.nasa.gov/directorates/somd/reports/iss_reports/2010/05022010.html|access-date=7 July 2010|publisher=NASA|archive-date=19 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119101404/http://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/reports/iss_reports/2010/05022010.html}}</ref>

The [[US Orbital Segment]] (USOS) makes use of two separate radio links: [[S band]] (audio, telemetry, commanding – located on the P1/S1 truss) and [[Ku band|K<sub>u</sub> band]] (audio, video and data – located on the [[Z1 truss]]) systems. These transmissions are routed via the United States [[Tracking and Data Relay Satellite]] System (TDRSS) in [[geostationary orbit]], allowing for almost continuous real-time communications with [[Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center]] (MCC-H) in [[Houston]], Texas.<ref name="ISSRG" /><ref name="ISSBook">{{Cite book|last=Catchpole|first=John E.|url={{Google books|VsTdriusftgC|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|title=The International Space Station: Building for the Future|publisher=Springer-Praxis|year=2008|isbn=978-0-387-78144-0}}</ref><ref name="BoeingComm">{{Cite web|url=http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/spacestation/systems/communications_tracking.html|title=Communications and Tracking|publisher=[[Boeing]]|access-date=30 November 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080611115319/http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/spacestation/systems/communications_tracking.html|archive-date=11 June 2008|website=Integrated Defense Systems}}</ref> Data channels for the Canadarm2, European ''Columbus'' laboratory and Japanese ''Kibō'' modules were originally also routed via the S band and K<sub>u</sub> band systems, with the [[European Data Relay System]] and a similar Japanese system intended to eventually complement the TDRSS in this role.<ref name="ISSBook" /><ref name="JAXA-MOU">{{cite web|date=24 February 1998|title=Memorandum of Understanding Between the National Aeronautics and Space Administration of the United States of America and the Government of Japan Concerning Cooperation on the Civil International Space Station|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/nasa_japan.html|access-date=19 April 2009|publisher=NASA|archive-date=11 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111144216/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/nasa_japan.html}}</ref>

[[Ultra high frequency|UHF radio]] is used by astronauts and cosmonauts conducting EVAs and other spacecraft that dock to or undock from the station.<ref name="ISSRG" /> Automated spacecraft are fitted with their own communications equipment; the ATV used a [[laser]] attached to the spacecraft and the Proximity Communications Equipment attached to ''Zvezda'' to accurately dock with the station.<ref name="spaceref-20050228">{{Cite web|author1=Spaceref |url=https://spaceref.com/press-release/issatv-communication-system-flight-on-soyuz/|title=ISS/ATV communication system flight on Soyuz|work=SpaceNews |date=28 February 2005|publisher=[[EADS Astrium]]|access-date=30 November 2009}}</ref><ref name="nsf-20091110">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2009/11/sts-129-support-dragon-communication-demo-iss/|title=STS-129 ready to support Dragon communication demo with ISS|last=Bergin|first=Chris|date=10 November 2009|access-date=30 November 2009|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811174816/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2009/11/sts-129-support-dragon-communication-demo-iss/|archive-date=11 August 2023|work=[[NASASpaceFlight.com]]}}</ref>

{{multiple image
| align             = right
| total_width       = 600
| image1            = ISS-38 EVA-1 Laptops.jpg
| caption1          = An array of laptops in the US lab
| image2            = STS-128 ISS-20 Destiny Canadarm2.jpg
| caption2          = Laptop computers surround the Canadarm2 console.
| image3            = ISS laptop hard drive failure error message.jpg
| caption3          = An error message displays a problem with a hard drive on a laptop aboard the ISS.
}}

The US Orbital Segment of the ISS is equipped with approximately 100 [[commercial off-the-shelf]] laptops running Windows or Linux.<ref name="techrepublic-20160523">{{Cite news|last=Heath|first=Nick|date=23 May 2016|title=From Windows 10, Linux, iPads, iPhones to HoloLens: The tech astronauts use on the ISS|url=https://www.techrepublic.com/article/from-windows-10-linux-ipads-iphones-to-hololens-the-tech-space-station-astronauts-use/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160526014418/https://www.techrepublic.com/article/from-windows-10-linux-ipads-iphones-to-hololens-the-tech-space-station-astronauts-use/|archive-date=26 May 2016|access-date=29 June 2018|work=[[TechRepublic]]}}</ref> These devices are modified to use the station's 28V DC power system and with additional ventilation since heat generated by the devices can stagnate in the weightless environment. NASA prefers to keep a high commonality between laptops and spare parts are kept on the station so astronauts can repair laptops when needed.<ref name="esa-20130813">{{Cite web|last1=Zell|first1=Martin|last2=Suenson|first2=Rosita|date=13 August 2013|title=ESA ISS Science & System – Operations Status Report #150 Increment 36: 13–26 July 2013|url=https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Columbus/ESA_ISS_Science_System_-_Operations_Status_Report_150_Increment_36_13_26_July_2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812203259/https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Columbus/ESA_ISS_Science_System_-_Operations_Status_Report_150_Increment_36_13_26_July_2013|archive-date=12 August 2023|access-date=11 July 2018|publisher=[[European Space Agency]]}}</ref>

The laptops are divided into two groups: the Portable Computer System (PCS) and Station Support Computers (SSC).

PCS laptops run Linux and are used for connecting to the station's primary Command & Control computer (C&C MDM), which runs on [[Debian]] Linux,<ref name="register-20130510">{{Cite news|last=Thomson|first=Iain|date=10 May 2013|title=Penguins in spa-a-a-ce! ISS dumps Windows for Linux on laptops|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2013/05/10/iss_linux_debian_deployment/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811162138/https://www.theregister.com/2013/05/10/iss_linux_debian_deployment/|archive-date=11 August 2023|access-date=15 May 2013|work=[[The Register]]}}</ref> a switch made from Windows in 2013 for reliability and flexibility.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Gunter|first=Joel|date=10 May 2013|title=International Space Station to boldly go with Linux over Windows|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/news/10049444/International-Space-Station-to-boldly-go-with-Linux-over-Windows.html|url-access=subscription|url-status=live|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/news/10049444/International-Space-Station-to-boldly-go-with-Linux-over-Windows.html|archive-date=10 January 2022|access-date=15 May 2013|work=The Daily Telegraph}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The primary computer supervises the critical systems that keep the station in orbit and supporting life.<ref name="techrepublic-20160523" /> Since the primary computer has no display or keyboards, astronauts use a PCS laptop to connect as remote terminals via a USB to [[MIL-STD-1553|1553]] adapter.<ref name="nasa-20190430">{{Cite web|last=Keeter|first=Bill|date=30 April 2019|title=April 2019 – ISS On-Orbit Status Report|url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/stationreport/2019/04/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810144500/https://blogs.nasa.gov/stationreport/2019/04/|archive-date=10 August 2023|access-date=5 November 2021|website=blogs.nasa.gov|publisher=[[NASA]]}}</ref> The primary computer experienced failures in 2001,<ref name="roundup20010601">{{Cite news|last=Burt|first=Julie|date=1 June 2001|title=Computer problems overcome during STS-100|url=https://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/roundups/issues/2001-06-01.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161223230857/http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/roundups/issues/2001-06-01.pdf|archive-date=23 December 2016|access-date=11 July 2018|work=Space Center Roundup|publisher=NASA}}</ref> 2007,<ref name="reuters20070613">{{Cite news|last=Klotz|first=Irene|date=13 June 2007|title=NASA battles failure of space station computer|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-space-shuttle/nasa-battles-failure-of-space-station-computer-idUSN1337907120070614/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810131847/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-space-shuttle/nasa-battles-failure-of-space-station-computer-idUSN1337907120070614|archive-date=10 August 2023|access-date=11 July 2018|work=Reuters}}</ref> and 2017. The 2017 failure required a spacewalk to replace external components.<ref name="huffpost20170522">{{Cite news|last=Klotz|first=Irene|date=22 May 2017|title=NASA Plans Emergency Spacewalk To Replace Key Computer on International Space Station|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/iss-computer-failure-spacewalk_us_5922759ce4b03b485cb27a80|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811165009/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/iss-computer-failure-spacewalk_n_5922759ce4b03b485cb27a80|archive-date=11 August 2023|access-date=11 July 2018|work=Huffpost|agency=Reuters}}</ref>

SSC laptops are used for everything else on the station, including reviewing procedures, managing scientific experiments, communicating over e-mail or video chat, and for entertainment during downtime.<ref name="techrepublic-20160523" /> SSC laptops connect to the station's [[wireless LAN]] via [[Wi-Fi]], which connects to the ground via the K<sub>u</sub> band. While originally this provided speeds of 10&nbsp;[[Megabit per second|Mbit/s]] download and 3&nbsp;Mbit/s upload from the station,<ref name="tested20121019">{{Cite news|last=Smith|first=Will|date=19 October 2012|title=How Fast is the ISS's Internet? (and Other Space Questions Answered)|url=http://www.tested.com/science/space/449539-how-fast-isss-internet-and-other-space-questions-answered/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140429212053/http://www.tested.com/science/space/449539-how-fast-isss-internet-and-other-space-questions-answered/|archive-date=29 April 2014|access-date=29 April 2014|work=Tested.com}}</ref> NASA upgraded the system in 2019 and increased the speeds to 600&nbsp;Mbit/s.<ref name="universetoday-20190825">{{Cite news|last=Williams|first=Matt|date=25 August 2019|title=Upgraded ISS Now Has a 600 Megabit per Second Internet Connection|url=https://www.universetoday.com/143221/upgraded-iss-now-has-a-600-megabit-per-second-internet-connection/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906210636/https://www.universetoday.com/143221/upgraded-iss-now-has-a-600-megabit-per-second-internet-connection/|archive-date=6 September 2023|access-date=23 June 2020|work=Universe Today}}</ref> ISS crew members have access to the [[internet]].<ref name="Kuksov">{{Cite web|last1=Kuksov|first1=Igor|date=13 September 2019|title=Internet in space: Is there Net on Mars?|url=https://www.kaspersky.co.uk/blog/internet-in-space/16690/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230831095806/https://www.kaspersky.co.uk/blog/internet-in-space/16690/|archive-date=31 August 2023|access-date=5 December 2022|website=Kaspersky Daily|publisher=[[Kaspersky Lab]]}}</ref><ref name="ScienceAlert">{{Cite news|date=26 August 2019|title=The ISS Now Has Better Internet Than Most of Us After Its Latest Upgrade|url=https://www.sciencealert.com/the-iss-now-has-better-internet-than-most-of-us-after-its-latest-upgrade|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102150646/https://www.sciencealert.com/the-iss-now-has-better-internet-than-most-of-us-after-its-latest-upgrade|archive-date=2 November 2023|access-date=5 December 2022|work=ScienceAlert}}</ref>

==Operations==
===Expeditions===
{{See also|List of International Space Station expeditions}}
{{multiple image
| align             = right
| total_width       = 400
| image1            = Sts088-703-019e.jpg
| caption1          = ''Zarya'' and ''Unity'' were entered for the first time on 10 December 1998.
| image2            = Soyuz tm-31 transported to launch pad.jpg
| caption2          = Soyuz TM-31 being prepared to bring the first resident crew to the station in October 2000
}}

Each permanent crew is given an expedition number. Expeditions run up to six months, from launch until undocking, an 'increment' covers the same time period, but includes cargo spacecraft and all activities. Expeditions 1 to 6 consisted of three-person crews. After the destruction of NASA's Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', Expeditions 7 to 12 were reduced to two-person "caretaker" crews who could maintain the station, because a larger crew could not be fully resupplied by the small Russian Progress cargo spacecraft.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Harwood|first=William|date=27 February 2003|title=O'Keefe says station set for two-man caretaker crew|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/shuttle/sts107/030227station/|access-date=5 November 2024|work=Spaceflight Now|publisher=[[CBS News]]|archive-date=11 December 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241211191114/https://spaceflightnow.com/shuttle/sts107/030227station/}}</ref> After the Shuttle fleet returned to flight, three person crews also returned to the ISS beginning with Expedition 13. As the Shuttle flights expanded the station, crew sizes also expanded, eventually reaching six around 2010.<ref name="ISSEx">{{cite web|date=10 April 2009|title=International Space Station Expeditions|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/expeditions/index.html|access-date=13 April 2009|publisher=NASA|archive-date=14 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110814024250/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/expeditions/index.html}}</ref><ref name="current">{{cite web|last=NASA|year=2008|title=International Space Station|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/main/index.html|access-date=22 October 2008|publisher=NASA|archive-date=7 September 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050907073730/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/main/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> With the arrival of crew on larger US [[Development of the Commercial Crew Program|commercial spacecraft]] beginning in 2020,<ref name="bbc-20200119">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-51169705|title=SpaceX completes emergency crew escape manoeuvre|date=19 January 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811163510/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-51169705|archive-date=11 August 2023|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> crew size has been increased to seven, the number for which ISS was originally designed.<ref>{{Cite magazine|last=Morring|first=Frank|date=27 July 2012|title=ISS Research Hampered By Crew Availability|url=http://www.aviationweek.com/article.aspx?id=/article-xml/asd_07_26_2012_p01-02-480253.xml|magazine=Aviation Week|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501214851/http://www.aviationweek.com/article.aspx?id=%2Farticle-xml%2Fasd_07_26_2012_p01-02-480253.xml|archive-date=1 May 2013|access-date=30 July 2012|quote=A commercial capability would allow the station's crew to grow from six to seven by providing a four-seat vehicle for emergency departures in addition to the three-seat Russian Soyuz capsules in use today.}}</ref><ref name="airandspace-201104">{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/air-space-magazine/assembly-nearly-complete-2091210/|title=Assembly (Nearly) Complete|last=Hoversten|first=Paul|date=April 2011|publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]]|access-date=8 May 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230607224549/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/air-space-magazine/assembly-nearly-complete-2091210/|archive-date=7 June 2023|quote=In fact, we're designed on the U.S. side to take four crew. The ISS design is actually for seven. We operate with six because first, we can get all our work done with six, and second, we don't have a vehicle that allows us to fly a seventh crew member. Our requirement for the new vehicles being designed is for four seats. So I don't expect us to go down in crew size. I would expect us to increase it.|magazine=[[Air & Space]]}}</ref>

[[Oleg Kononenko]] of Roscosmos holds the record for the longest time spent in space and at the ISS, accumulating nearly 1,111 days in space over the course of five long-duration missions on the ISS ([[Expedition 17]], [[Expedition 30|30]]/[[Expedition 31|31]], [[Expedition 44|44]]/[[Expedition 45|45]], [[Expedition 57|57]]/[[Expedition 58|58]]/[[Expedition 59|59]] and [[Expedition 69|69]]/[[Expedition 70|70]]/[[Expedition 71|71]]). He also served as commander three times (Expedition 31, 58/59 and 70/71).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Cosmonaut Biography: Oleg D. Kononenko|url=http://spacefacts.de/bios/cosmonauts/english/kononenko_oleg_d.htm|access-date=5 November 2024|website=spacefacts.de}}</ref>

[[Peggy Whitson]] of NASA and [[Axiom Space]] has spent the most time in space of any American, accumulating over 675 days in space during her time on Expeditions [[Expedition 5|5]], [[Expedition 16|16]], and [[Expedition 50|50]]/[[Expedition 51|51]]/[[Expedition 52|52]] and Axiom Missions [[Axiom Mission 2|2]] and [[Axiom Mission 4|4]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Biographies of U.S. Astronauts: Whitson|url=http://www.spacefacts.de/bios/astronauts/english/whitson_peggy.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230618112418/http://www.spacefacts.de/bios/astronauts/english/whitson_peggy.htm|archive-date=18 June 2023|access-date=18 June 2023|publisher=Spacefacts}}</ref><ref name="ax2commander">{{Cite press release|url=https://www.axiomspace.com/press-release/ax2|title=Record-holding astronaut Peggy Whitson and mission pilot John Shoffner to lead Axiom Space's Ax-2 mission to enable new research in space|date=25 May 2021|publisher=[[Axiom Space]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231111164639/https://www.axiomspace.com/press-release/ax2|archive-date=11 November 2023}}</ref>

===Private flights===
{{see also|Space tourism}}

As of June 2023, 13 individuals have paid for their own travel to visit the ISS. In news coverage, such travellers are often referred to as "space tourists"; however, many have objected to the term, as they typically undergo professional training and conduct scientific, educational, or outreach activities while on orbit.{{efn|Privately funded travellers who have objected to the term include Dennis Tito,<ref>Associated Press, 8 May 2001</ref> [[Mark Shuttleworth]],<ref>Associated Press, ''The Spokesman Review'', 6 January 2002, p. A4</ref> Gregory Olsen, [[Richard Garriott]],<ref>{{Cite news|last=Schwartz|first=John|date=10 October 2008|title=Russia Leads Way in Space Tourism With Paid Trips into Orbit|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/11/science/space/11space.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160722130339/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/11/science/space/11space.html|archive-date=22 July 2016}}</ref><ref name="nbc-20050913">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna9323509|title=Space passenger Olsen to pull his own weight|last=Boyle|first=Alan|date=13 September 2005|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812203905/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna9323509|archive-date=12 August 2023|publisher=[[NBC News]]}}</ref> and [[Anousheh Ansari]].<ref name="esa-notatourist">{{Cite web|url=https://www.esa.int/Applications/Technology_Transfer/I_am_NOT_a_tourist|title=I am NOT a tourist|date=16 February 2007|publisher=[[European Space Agency]]|access-date=1 May 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231126165131/https://www.esa.int/Applications/Technology_Transfer/I_am_NOT_a_tourist|archive-date=26 November 2023}}</ref>}}<ref name="rfe-20060915">{{Cite news |last=Maher |first=Heather |date=15 September 2006 |title=U.S.: Iranian-American To Be First Female Civilian in Space |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/1071358.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906105719/https://www.rferl.org/a/1071358.html |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=1 May 2012 |publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty}}</ref> Accordingly, Roscosmos and NASA classify them as [[spaceflight participant]]s.

Initially, privately funded access to the ISS was provided exclusively by Roscosmos through seats on Soyuz spacecraft, either during crew rotations or on dedicated missions. These seats were marketed by Space Adventures at prices of about US$40&nbsp;million.<ref name="space adventures">{{Cite web |last=Jefferson |first=Mark |date=9 January 2018 |title=Space Station Experience |url=https://spaceadventures.com/experiences/space-station/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180925164032/http://www.spaceadventures.com/experiences/space-station |archive-date=25 September 2018 |access-date=18 June 2023 |publisher=[[Space Adventures]]}}</ref><ref name="tass20200219">{{Cite news |date=19 February 2019 |title=Roscosmos signs new contract on flight of two space tourists to ISS |url=https://tass.com/science/1045321 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810132826/https://tass.com/science/1045321 |archive-date=10 August 2023 |agency=[[TASS]]}}</ref> NASA and the ESA initially criticised the practice, and NASA resisted training [[Dennis Tito]], the first person to pay for an ISS stay.{{efn|ESA director Jörg Feustel-Büechl said Russia had no right to send “amateurs” to the ISS. A standoff at the Johnson Space Center occurred when NASA manager [[Robert Cabana]] refused to train Tito alongside commander [[Talgat Musabayev]] and his crew, who insisted Tito was adequately qualified.}}

Beginning in 2021, NASA also began authorizing commercially organized visits known as Private Astronaut Missions (PAMs). These flights are required to use a NASA-certified U.S. commercial vehicle and to include a mission commander who is a former NASA astronaut, responsible for spacecraft operations and oversight of the other spaceflight participants.<ref>{{cite web |title=Private Astronaut Mission Industry Day |url=https://sam.gov/api/prod/opps/v3/opportunities/resources/files/8a8cebf36e00450abc9c1f1b0aeb4ebe/download |access-date=1 October 2025 |website=sam.gov |publisher=NASA |format=PDF}}</ref> The first PAM, [[Axiom Mission 1]], launched in 2022 with one Axiom commander and three private passengers,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/axiom-private-astronauts-headed-to-international-space-station/|title=Axiom Private Astronauts Headed to International Space Station - NASA}}</ref><ref name="axiom-first-private">{{Cite press release |title=Axiom Space plans first-ever fully private human spaceflight mission to International Space Station |date=5 March 2020 |publisher=[[Axiom Space]] |url=https://www.axiomspace.com/post/axiom-space-plans-first-ever-fully-private-human-spaceflight-mission-to-international-space-station |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812223849/https://www.axiomspace.com/news/axiom-space-plans-first-ever-fully-private-human-spaceflight-mission-to-international-space-station |archive-date=12 August 2023}}</ref><ref name="ax1overview">{{Cite web |title=Meet Ax-1, The Beginning of a New Era |url=https://www.axiomspace.com/missions/ax1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124155314/https://www.axiomspace.com/missions/ax1 |archive-date=24 November 2023 |access-date=18 June 2023 |publisher=[[Axiom Space]]}}</ref> followed in 2023 by [[Axiom Mission 2]], with one private passenger and two astronauts from the [[Saudi Space Agency]].<ref name="Sheetz 2021">{{Cite news |last=Sheetz |first=Michael |date=2 June 2021 |title=Axiom Space expands SpaceX private crew launch deal, with four total missions to the space station |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/06/02/axiom-space-expands-spacex-deal-for-private-crew-launches-to-iss-.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529151534/https://www.cnbc.com/2021/06/02/axiom-space-expands-spacex-deal-for-private-crew-launches-to-iss-.html |archive-date=29 May 2023 |access-date=2 August 2022 |publisher=[[CNBC]]}}</ref><ref name="Ax-2 Overview">{{Cite web |title=Ax-2: The second private mission to the International Space Station |url=https://www.axiomspace.com/missions/ax2 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124155431/https://www.axiomspace.com/missions/ax2 |archive-date=24 November 2023 |access-date=18 June 2023 |publisher=[[Axiom Space]]}}</ref> As of 2025, NASA offers up to two PAM opportunities per year.<ref>{{cite web |title=Research Opportunities for ISS Utilization |url=https://nspires.nasaprs.com/external/viewrepositorydocument/cmdocumentid=1089479/solicitationId=%7B21E0270C-BC1F-EFC4-3D87-30713B5FF373%7D/viewSolicitationDocument=1/Research%20Opportunities%20for%20ISS%20Utilization%20NRA_07_30_2025%20Focus%20Area%202.pdf |publisher=NASA |access-date=1 October 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250730222056/https://nspires.nasaprs.com/external/viewrepositorydocument/cmdocumentid=1089479/solicitationId=%7B21E0270C-BC1F-EFC4-3D87-30713B5FF373%7D/viewSolicitationDocument=1/Research%20Opportunities%20for%20ISS%20Utilization%20NRA_07_30_2025%20Focus%20Area%202.pdf |archive-date=30 July 2025 }}</ref> In addition to private individuals, PAMs are frequently used by ESA and other national governments to fly astronauts for short-term missions.

=== Fleet operations ===
Various crewed and uncrewed spacecraft have supported the station's operations. Flights to the ISS have included <!-- current to Progress MS-32 -->93 Progress,{{Efn|Including the modified DC-1, M-MIM2 and M-UM module transports}} <!-- current to Soyuz MS-28 -->73 Soyuz, <!-- Current to Crew-12, CRS-33 and Ax-4 -->51 [[SpaceX Dragon]],{{Efn|Includes both crewed and uncrewed missions}} 37 Space Shuttle, <!-- Current to CRS NG-23 -->21 [[Cygnus (spacecraft)|Cygnus]], <!-- Current to HTV-X1 -->10 [[H-II Transfer Vehicle|HTV]]/[[HTV-X]], 5 [[Automated Transfer Vehicle|ATV]], and <!-- OFT-2 and CFT -->2 [[Boeing Starliner]] missions.<ref name="spacecom-20210810">{{Cite news|url=https://www.space.com/northrop-grumman-heaviest-cygnus-cargo-ship-launch|title=Antares rocket launches heaviest Cygnus cargo ship ever to space station for NASA|last=Thompson|first=Amy|date=10 August 2021|access-date=11 August 2021|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405033657/https://www.space.com/northrop-grumman-heaviest-cygnus-cargo-ship-launch|archive-date=5 April 2023|work=[[Space.com]]}}</ref>

There are currently eight docking ports for visiting spacecraft, with four additional ports installed but not yet put into service:<ref name="her">{{Cite conference|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20110010964/downloads/20110010964.pdf|title=ISS Interface Mechanisms and their Heritage|last1=Cook|first1=John|last2=Aksamentov|first2=Valery|last3=Hoffman|first3=Thomas|last4=Bruner|first4=Wes|date=September 2011|publisher=[[Boeing]]|location=Houston, Texas|access-date=31 March 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810133110/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20110010964/downloads/20110010964.pdf|archive-date=10 August 2023|quote=Docking is when one incoming spacecraft rendezvous with another spacecraft and flies a controlled collision trajectory in such a manner so as to align and mesh the interface mechanisms. The spacecraft docking mechanisms typically enter what is called soft capture, followed by a load attenuation phase, and then the hard docked position which establishes an air-tight structural connection between spacecraft. Berthing, by contrast, is when an incoming spacecraft is grappled by a robotic arm and its interface mechanism is placed in close proximity of the stationary interface mechanism. Then typically there is a capture process, coarse alignment and fine alignment and then structural attachment.|conference=AIAA Space}}</ref>

# ''[[Harmony (ISS module)|Harmony]]'' forward (with [[Pressurized Mating Adapter|''PMA 2'']] & [[International Docking Adapter|''IDA 2'']])
# ''Harmony'' zenith (with [[Pressurized Mating Adapter|''PMA 3'']] & [[International Docking Adapter|''IDA 3'']])
# ''Harmony'' nadir ([[Common Berthing Mechanism|CBM]] port)
# ''[[Unity (ISS module)|Unity]]'' nadir ([[Common Berthing Mechanism|CBM]] port)
# ''[[Prichal (ISS module)|Prichal]]'' aft{{Efn|The Prichal aft, forward, port and starboard ports still have their protective covers in place and have yet to be used since the module originally docked at the station.|name=Prichal}}
# ''Prichal'' forward{{Efn|name=Prichal}}
# ''Prichal'' nadir
# ''Prichal'' port{{Efn|name=Prichal}}
# ''Prichal'' starboard{{Efn|name=Prichal}}
# ''[[Poisk (ISS module)|Poisk]]'' zenith
# ''[[Rassvet (ISS module)|Rassvet]]'' nadir
# ''[[Zvezda (ISS module)|Zvezda]]'' aft

[[List of ship directions|Forward]] ports are at the front of the station in its usual orientation and direction of travel. [[List of ship directions|Aft]] is the opposite, at the rear. [[Nadir]] points toward Earth, while [[zenith]] points away from it. [[port and starboard|Port]] is to the left and [[port and starboard|starboard]] to the right when one's feet are toward Earth and one is facing forward, in the direction of travel.

Cargo spacecraft that will perform an orbital re-boost of the station will typically dock at an aft, forward or nadir-facing port.

==== Crewed ====
{{Main|List of human spaceflights to the International Space Station}}

{{As of|2026|02|14|url=https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/space-station-visitors-by-country/}}, a total of 294 individuals from 26 countries had visited the ISS, including both government-sponsored astronauts and privately funded spaceflight participants. The United States accounted for 172 of these visitors, followed by Russia with 65, Japan with 11, and [[Canada]] with 9. [[Italy]] had 6 visitors, [[France]] had 5 and [[Germany]] had sent 4. [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Sweden]], and the [[United Arab Emirates]] each had 2 individuals visit the ISS. One person had traveled to the ISS from each of the following countries: [[Belarus]], [[Belgium]], [[Brazil]], [[Denmark]], [[Hungary]], [[India]], [[Israel]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Malaysia]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Poland]], [[South Africa]], [[South Korea]], [[Spain]], [[Turkey]], and the [[United Kingdom]].<ref name="NASA Visitor Count 2023">{{cite web|last=Garcia|first=Mark A.|title=Visitors to the Station by Country|website=NASA|date=4 August 2025|url=https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/space-station-visitors-by-country/|access-date=4 August 2025}}</ref>

===== List of current crew members =====
[[File:Roscosmos cosmonaut Sergey Kud-Sverchkov poses for a portrait at NASA's Johnson Space Center (jsc2024e077067 alt).jpg|thumb|upright|Sergey Kud-Sverchkov, current commander]]
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;"
! Astronaut !! Role !! Agency
|-
| [[Sergey Kud-Sverchkov]] || Commander || [[Roscosmos]]
|-
| [[Sophie Adenot]] || Flight engineer || [[ESA]]
|-
| [[Andrey Fedyaev]] || Flight engineer || Roscosmos
|-
| [[Jack Hathaway]] || Flight engineer || [[NASA]]
|-
| [[Jessica Meir]]   || Flight engineer || NASA
|-
| [[Sergei Mikayev]] || Flight engineer || Roscosmos
|-
| [[Christopher Williams (astronaut)|Christopher Williams]] || Flight engineer || NASA
|}

==== Uncrewed ====
{{Main|Uncrewed spaceflights to the International Space Station}}

Uncrewed spaceflights are primarily used to deliver cargo to the station including crew supplies, scientific investigations, spacewalk equipment, vehicle hardware, propellant, water, and gases. Cargo resupply missions have typically used Russian Progress spacecraft, the now-retired European ATV, the Japanese HTV, and American Dragon and Cygnus spacecraft. Additionally, several Russian modules have been launched on uncrewed rockets and autonomously docked with the station.

==== Currently docked/berthed ====
[[File:December 1, 2025 International Space Station Configuration.png|thumb|Rendering of the ISS and visiting vehicles {{As of|2025|12|1|lc=y}}. [https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/space-station-visiting-vehicles/ Live link at nasa.gov].]]

''All dates are [[UTC]]. Departure dates are the earliest possible ({{abbr|NET|not earlier than}}) and may change.''
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="font-size:90%;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
! scope="col" colspan="2" | Mission
! scope="col" | Type
! scope="col" | Spacecraft
! scope="col" | Arrival
! scope="col" | Departure
! scope="col" | Port
|-
| [[Progress MS-32]]
| {{flagicon|RUS}}
| style="background:lightblue" | Uncrewed
| [[Progress MS]] No. 462
| 13&nbsp;September 2025
| April 2026
| [[Zvezda (ISS module)|''Zvezda'']] aft
|-
| [[Soyuz MS-28]]
| {{flagicon|RUS}}
| style="background:#cfc" | Crewed
| [[Soyuz MS]] No.&nbsp;753 ''Gyrfalcon''
| 27&nbsp;November 2025
| July 2026
| [[Rassvet (ISS module)|''Rassvet'']] nadir
|-
| [[SpaceX Crew-12|Crew-12]]
| {{flagicon|USA}}
| style="background:#cfc" | Crewed
| {{ComV|Crew Dragon|Freedom}}
| 14&nbsp;February 2026
| November 2026
| ''[[Harmony (ISS module)|Harmony]]'' Zenith 
|}

==== Scheduled missions ====
''All dates are [[UTC]]. Launch dates are the earliest possible ({{abbr|NET|not earlier than}}) and may change.''

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="font-size:90%;"
! scope="col" colspan="2" | Mission
! scope="col" | Type
! scope="col" | Spacecraft
! scope="col" | Launch date<ref>{{Cite web|title=Rocket Launch Schedule|url=https://nextspaceflight.com/launches/|access-date=7 August 2024|website=Next Spaceflight}}</ref>
! scope="col" | Launch vehicle
! scope="col" | Launch site
! scope="col" | Launch provider
! scope="col" | Docking/berthing port
|-
| [[Progress MS-33]]
| {{flagicon|RUS}}
| style="background:lightblue" | Uncrewed
| [[Progress MS]] No.&nbsp;463
| 22&nbsp;March 2026 
| [[Soyuz-2|Soyuz{{nbhyph}}2.1a]]
| [[Baikonur Cosmodrome|Baikonur]], [[Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 31|Site&nbsp;31/6]]
| [[RKTs Progress]]
| [[Poisk (ISS module)|''Poisk'']] zenith
|-
| [[CRS NG-24]]
| {{flagicon|USA}}
| style="background:lightblue" | Uncrewed
| [[Cygnus (spacecraft)|Cygnus XL]]
| 1&nbsp;April 2026
| [[Falcon&nbsp;9 Block&nbsp;5]]
| [[Cape Canaveral Space Force Station|Cape&nbsp;Canaveral]], [[Cape Canaveral Space Launch Complex 40|SLC{{nbhyph}}40]]
| [[SpaceX]]
| [[Unity (ISS module)|''Unity'']] nadir
|-
| [[Progress MS-34]]
| {{flagicon|RUS}}
| style="background:lightblue" | Uncrewed
| [[Progress MS]] No.&nbsp;464
| 25&nbsp;April 2026
| [[Soyuz-2|Soyuz{{nbhyph}}2.1a]]
| [[Baikonur Cosmodrome|Baikonur]], [[Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 31|Site&nbsp;31/6]]
| [[RKTs Progress]]
| [[Zvezda (ISS module)|''Zvezda'']] aft
|-
| [[CRS SpX-34]]
| {{flagicon|USA}}
| style="background:lightblue" | Uncrewed
| {{ComV|Cargo Dragon}} {{Abbr|TBA|to be announced}}
| May 2026
| [[Falcon&nbsp;9 Block&nbsp;5]]
| [[Cape Canaveral Space Force Station|Cape&nbsp;Canaveral]], [[Cape Canaveral Space Launch Complex 40|SLC{{nbhyph}}40]]
| [[SpaceX]]
| [[Harmony (ISS module)|''Harmony'']]
|-
| [[Soyuz MS-29]]
| {{flagicon|RUS}}
| style="background:#cfc" | Crewed
| [[Soyuz MS]] No.&nbsp;759 ''Tigris''
| June 2025
| [[Soyuz-2|Soyuz{{nbhyph}}2.1a]]
| [[Baikonur Cosmodrome|Baikonur]], [[Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 31|Site&nbsp;31/6]]
| [[RKTs Progress]]
| [[Prichal (ISS module)|''Prichal'']] nadir
|-
| [[CRS SpX-35]]
| {{flagicon|USA}}
| style="background:lightblue" | Uncrewed
| {{ComV|Cargo Dragon}} {{Abbr|TBA|to be announced}}
| August 2026
| [[Falcon&nbsp;9 Block&nbsp;5]]
| [[Cape Canaveral Space Force Station|Cape&nbsp;Canaveral]], [[Cape Canaveral Space Launch Complex 40|SLC{{nbhyph}}40]]
| [[SpaceX]]
| [[Harmony (ISS module)|''Harmony'']]
|-
| [[Progress MS-35]]
| {{flagicon|RUS}}
| style="background:lightblue" | Uncrewed
| [[Progress MS]] No.&nbsp;465
| 17&nbsp;June 2026
| [[Soyuz-2|Soyuz{{nbhyph}}2.1a]]
| [[Baikonur Cosmodrome|Baikonur]], [[Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 31|Site&nbsp;31/6]]
| [[RKTs Progress]]
| [[Poisk (ISS module)|''Poisk'']] zenith
|-
| [[SpaceX Crew-13|Crew-13]]
| {{flagicon|USA}}
| style="background:#cfc" | Crewed
| {{ComV|Crew Dragon|TBA}}
| {{Abbr|TBA|to be announced}} 2026
| [[Falcon&nbsp;9 Block&nbsp;5]]
| [[Cape Canaveral Space Force Station|Cape&nbsp;Canaveral]], [[Cape Canaveral Space Launch Complex 40|SLC{{nbhyph}}40]]
| [[SpaceX]]
| [[Harmony (ISS module)|''Harmony'']]
|-
| [[Progress MS-36]]
| {{flagicon|RUS}}
| style="background:lightblue" | Uncrewed
| [[Progress MS]] No.&nbsp;466
| {{Abbr|TBA|to be announced}} 2026
| [[Soyuz-2|Soyuz{{nbhyph}}2.1a]]
| [[Baikonur Cosmodrome|Baikonur]], [[Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 31|Site&nbsp;31/6]]
| [[RKTs Progress]]
| [[Zvezda (ISS module)|''Zvezda'']] aft
|-
| [[Starliner-1]]
| {{flagicon|USA}}
| style="background:lightblue" | Uncrewed
| {{ComV|Starliner|2}}
| {{Abbr|TBA|to be announced}} 2026
| [[Atlas V N22]]
| [[Cape Canaveral Space Force Station|Cape Canaveral]], [[Cape Canaveral Space Launch Complex 41|SLC-41]]
| [[United Launch Alliance|ULA]]
| [[Harmony (ISS module)|''Harmony'']]
|-
| [[Progress MS-37]]
| {{flagicon|RUS}}
| style="background:lightblue" | Uncrewed
| [[Progress MS]] No.&nbsp;467
| {{Abbr|TBA|to be announced}}
| [[Soyuz-2|Soyuz{{nbhyph}}2.1a]]
| [[Baikonur Cosmodrome|Baikonur]], [[Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 31|Site&nbsp;31/6]]
| [[RKTs Progress]]
| [[Poisk (ISS module)|''Poisk'']] zenith
|}

==== Docking and berthing of spacecraft ====
{{See also|Docking and berthing of spacecraft}}
[[File:Progress M-14M.jpg|thumb|The [[Progress M-14M]] resupply vehicle approaching the ISS in 2012. Nearly 100 unpiloted [[Progress (spacecraft)|Progress]] spacecraft have delivered supplies during the lifetime of the station.]]
Russian spacecraft can autonomously rendezvous and dock with the station without human intervention. Once within about {{Convert|200|km}} the spacecraft activates its [[Kurs (docking navigation system)|Kurs docking navigation system]], exchanging radio signals with the station's beacon to guide orbital manoeuvres. As it closes in, more accurate transceivers align the craft with the docking port and control the final approach. The crew supervises the procedure and can intervene using the [[TORU]] (Tele-robotically Operated Rendezvous Unit) system if required.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Zak |first=Anatoly |date=11 March 2024 |title=Kurs-NA rendezvous system for Soyuz-MS spacecraft |url=https://www.russianspaceweb.com/soyuz-ms-kurs-na.html |access-date=8 September 2025 |website=RussianSpaceWeb.com}}</ref> Automated docking has been used by the Soviet program since 1967, with Kurs introduced on ''Mir'' in 1986 and refined since. Though costly to develop, its reliability and standardised components have delivered significant long-term savings.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Woffinden|first1=David C.|last2=Geller|first2=David K.|date=July 2007|title=Navigating the Road to Autonomous Orbital Rendezvous|journal=Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets|volume=44|issue=4|pages=898–909|bibcode=2007JSpRo..44..898W|doi=10.2514/1.30734}}</ref>

The American [[SpaceX Dragon 2]] cargo and crewed spacecraft can autonomously rendezvous and dock with the station without human intervention. However, on crewed Dragon missions, the astronauts have the capability to intervene and fly the vehicle manually.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Burghardt|first=Thomas|date=3 March 2019|title=Crew Dragon successfully conducts debut docking with the ISS|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2019/03/crew-dragon-first-docking-iss-dm1/|access-date=7 August 2024|website=NASASpaceFlight.com}}</ref>

[[File:ISS-36 HTV-4 berthing 2.jpg|thumb|Japan's [[Kounotori 4]] berthing]]
Other [[automated cargo spacecraft]] typically use a semi-automated process when arriving and departing from the station. These spacecraft are instructed to approach and park near the station. Once the crew on board the station is ready, the spacecraft is commanded to come close to the station, so that it can be grappled by an astronaut using the [[Mobile Servicing System]] robotic arm. The final mating of the spacecraft to the station is achieved using the robotic arm (a process known as berthing). Spacecraft using this semi-automated process include the American [[Cygnus (spacecraft)|Cygnus]] and the Japanese [[HTV-X]]. The now-retired American [[SpaceX Dragon 1]], European [[Automated Transfer Vehicle|ATV]] and Japanese [[H-II Transfer Vehicle|HTV]] also used this process.

==== Launch and docking windows ====
Prior to a spacecraft's docking to the ISS, navigation and attitude control ([[Guidance, navigation, and control|GNC]]) is handed over to the ground control of the spacecraft's country of origin. GNC is set to allow the station to drift in space, rather than fire its thrusters or turn using gyroscopes. The solar panels of the station are turned edge-on to the incoming spacecraft, so residue from its thrusters does not damage the cells. Before its retirement, Shuttle launches were often given priority over Soyuz, with occasional priority given to Soyuz arrivals carrying crew and time-critical cargoes, such as biological experiment materials.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Trinidad|first1=Katherine|last2=Thomas|first2=Candrea|date=22 May 2009|title=NASA's Space Shuttle Landing Delayed by Weather|url=http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2009/may/HQ_09-118_Shuttle_Landing_Delayed.html|access-date=26 June 2015|publisher=NASA|archive-date=7 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307235001/http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2009/may/HQ_09-118_Shuttle_Landing_Delayed.html}}</ref>

===Repairs===
{{Main|Maintenance of the International Space Station}}

[[File:ISS Unpressurized Platforms.png|thumb|upright=1.8|Spare parts are called [[orbital replacement unit|ORUs]]; some are externally stored on pallets called [[ExPRESS Logistics Carrier|ELCs]] and [[External stowage platform|ESPs]].]]
[[File:STS-120 EVA Scott Parazynski.jpg|thumb|While anchored on the end of the [[Orbiter Boom Sensor System]] during [[STS-120]], astronaut [[Scott Parazynski]] performs makeshift repairs to a US solar array that was damaged during unfolding|alt=Two black and orange solar arrays, shown uneven and with a large tear visible. A crew member in a spacesuit, attached to the end of a robotic arm, holds a latticework between two solar sails.]]
[[File:Astronaut Mike Hopkins on Dec. 24 Spacewalk.jpg|thumb|[[Michael S. Hopkins|Mike Hopkins]] during a spacewalk]]

[[Orbital Replacement Unit]]s (ORUs) are spare parts that can be readily replaced when a unit either passes its design life or fails. Examples of ORUs are pumps, storage tanks, controller boxes, antennas, and battery units. Some units can be replaced using robotic arms. Most are stored outside the station, either on small pallets called [[ExPRESS Logistics Carrier]]s (ELCs) or share larger platforms called [[External Stowage Platform]]s (ESPs) which also hold science experiments. Both kinds of pallets provide electricity for many parts that could be damaged by the cold of space and require heating. The larger logistics carriers also have local area network (LAN) connections for telemetry to connect experiments. A heavy emphasis on stocking the USOS with ORU's occurred around 2011, before the end of the NASA shuttle program, as its commercial replacements, Cygnus and Dragon, carry one tenth to one quarter the payload.

Unexpected problems and failures have impacted the station's assembly time-line and work schedules leading to periods of reduced capabilities and, in some cases, could have forced abandonment of the station for safety reasons. Serious problems include an air leak from the USOS in 2004,<ref name="nbc-20040106">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna3882962|title=Crew finds 'culprit' in space station leak|last=Oberg|first=James|date=6 January 2004|access-date=22 August 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812204804/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna3882962|archive-date=12 August 2023|publisher=[[NBC News]]}}</ref> the venting of fumes from an ''[[Elektron (ISS)|Elektron]]'' oxygen generator in 2006,<ref name="sfn-20060918">{{Cite news|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/station/exp13/060918elektron.html|title=Oxygen Generator Problem Triggers Station Alarm|last=Harwood|first=William|date=18 September 2006|access-date=24 November 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811173756/https://spaceflightnow.com/station/exp13/060918elektron.html|archive-date=11 August 2023|work=Spaceflight Now for [[CBS News]]}}</ref> and the failure of the computers in the ROS in 2007 during [[STS-117]] that left the station without thruster, ''Elektron'', ''[[ISS ECLSS#Vozdukh|Vozdukh]]'' and other environmental control system operations. In the latter case, the root cause was found to be condensation inside electrical connectors leading to a short circuit.<ref name="toledo-blade-20081004">{{Cite news|last=Reindl|first=J. C.|date=4 October 2008|title=University of Toledo alumnus had role in rescue of space station|url=https://www.toledoblade.com/local/education/2008/10/04/University-of-Toledo-alumnus-had-role-in-rescue-of-space-station/stories/200810040061|url-access=subscription|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811162936/https://www.toledoblade.com/local/education/2008/10/04/University-of-Toledo-alumnus-had-role-in-rescue-of-space-station/stories/200810040061|archive-date=11 August 2023|access-date=31 July 2019|website=[[The Blade (Toledo, Ohio)|Toledo Blade]]|location=Toledo, Ohio}}</ref>

During STS-120 in 2007 and following the relocation of the P6 truss and solar arrays, it was noted during unfurling that the solar array had torn and was not deploying properly.<ref name="Astronauts notice tear in solar panel">{{Cite news|url=https://www.redorbit.com/news/space/1123767/astronauts_notice_tear_in_solar_panel|title=Astronauts notice tear in solar panel|last=Savage|first=Sam|date=30 October 2007|access-date=30 October 2007|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230813201109/https://www.redorbit.com/news/space/1123767/astronauts_notice_tear_in_solar_panel/|archive-date=13 August 2023|agency=[[Associated Press]]|work=redOrbit.com}}</ref> An EVA was carried out by [[Scott E. Parazynski|Scott Parazynski]], assisted by [[Douglas H. Wheelock|Douglas Wheelock]]. Extra precautions were taken to reduce the risk of electric shock, as the repairs were carried out with the solar array exposed to sunlight.<ref name="Space Station">{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/11/03/AR2007110300227.html|title=Space Station's Damaged Panel Is Fixed|last=Stein|first=Rob|date=4 November 2007|access-date=4 November 2007|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629024200/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/11/03/AR2007110300227.html|archive-date=29 June 2011|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]}}</ref> The issues with the array were followed in the same year by problems with the starboard Solar Alpha Rotary Joint (SARJ), which rotates the arrays on the starboard side of the station. Excessive vibration and high-current spikes in the array drive motor were noted, resulting in a decision to substantially curtail motion of the starboard SARJ until the cause was understood. Inspections during EVAs on STS-120 and [[STS-123]] showed extensive contamination from metallic shavings and debris in the large drive gear and confirmed damage to the large metallic bearing surfaces, so the joint was locked to prevent further damage.<ref name="joint-update">{{Cite news|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/shuttle/sts123/080325sarj/index.html|title=Station chief gives detailed update on joint problem|last=Harwood|first=William|date=25 March 2008|access-date=5 November 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811162701/https://spaceflightnow.com/shuttle/sts123/080325sarj/index.html|archive-date=11 August 2023|work=Spaceflight Now for [[CBS News]]}}</ref><ref name="iss-joint-investigation">{{Cite conference|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20100003841/downloads/20100003841.pdf|title=The International Space Station Solar Alpha Rotary Joint Anomaly Investigation|last1=Harik|first1=Elliot P.|last2=McFatter|first2=Justin|last3=Sweeney|first3=Daniel J.|last4=Enriquez|first4=Carlos F.|last5=Taylor|first5=Deneen M.|last6=McCann|first6=David S.|year=2010|id=JSC-CN-19606|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406025937/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20100003841/downloads/20100003841.pdf|archive-date=6 April 2023|display-authors=1|conference=40th Aerospace Mechanisms Symposium. 12–14 May 2010. Cocoa Beach, Florida.}}</ref> Repairs to the joints were carried out during [[STS-126]] with lubrication and the replacement of 11 out of 12 trundle bearings on the joint.<ref>{{cite web|date=30 October 2008|title=Crew Expansion Prep, SARJ Repair Focus of STS-126|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/sts126/126_overview.html|access-date=5 November 2008|publisher=NASA|archive-date=28 November 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081128072943/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/sts126/126_overview.html}}</ref><ref name="sfn-20081118">{{Cite news|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/shuttle/sts126/081118fd5/index.html|title=Astronauts prepare for first spacewalk of shuttle flight|last=Harwood|first=William|date=18 November 2008|access-date=22 November 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810131509/https://spaceflightnow.com/shuttle/sts126/081118fd5/index.html|archive-date=10 August 2023|work=Spaceflight Now for [[CBS News]]}}</ref>

In September 2008, damage to the S1 radiator was first noticed in Soyuz imagery. The problem was initially not thought to be serious.<ref name="Radiator">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2009/04/iss-concern-s1-radiator-may-require-replacement-shuttle-mission/|title=ISS concern over S1 Radiator – may require replacement via shuttle mission|last=Bergin|first=Chris|date=1 April 2009|access-date=3 April 2009|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811165211/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2009/04/iss-concern-s1-radiator-may-require-replacement-shuttle-mission/|archive-date=11 August 2023|work=[[NASASpaceFlight.com]]}}</ref> The imagery showed that the surface of one sub-panel had peeled back from the underlying central structure, possibly because of micro-meteoroid or debris impact. On 15 May 2009, the damaged radiator panel's ammonia tubing was mechanically shut off from the rest of the cooling system by the computer-controlled closure of a valve. The same valve was then used to vent the ammonia from the damaged panel, eliminating the possibility of an ammonia leak.<ref name="Radiator" /> It is also known that a Service Module thruster cover struck the S1 radiator after being jettisoned during an EVA in 2008, but its effect, if any, has not been determined.

In the early hours of 1 August 2010, a failure in cooling Loop A (starboard side), one of two external cooling loops, left the station with only half of its normal cooling capacity and zero redundancy in some systems.<ref name="SpaceFlightNow1007_31">{{Cite news|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/news/n1007/31station/|title=Spacewalks needed to fix station cooling problem|last=Harwood|first=William|date=31 July 2010|access-date=16 November 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811162357/https://spaceflightnow.com/news/n1007/31station/|archive-date=11 August 2023|work=Spaceflight Now for [[CBS News]]}}</ref><ref name="iss-report-20100801">{{Cite press release|url=https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/reports/iss_reports/2010/08012010.html|title=ISS On-Orbit Status 08/01/10|date=June 2023|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=16 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230917233416/https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/reports/iss_reports/2010/08012010.html|archive-date=17 September 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=21 November 2006|title=International Space Station Active Thermal Control System|url=http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/spacestation/systems/atcs.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100330004837/http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/spacestation/systems/atcs.html|archive-date=30 March 2010|access-date=16 November 2010|publisher=Boeing}}</ref> The problem appeared to be in the ammonia pump module that circulates the ammonia cooling fluid. Several subsystems, including two of the four CMGs, were shut down.

Planned operations on the ISS were interrupted through a series of EVAs to address the cooling system issue. A first EVA on 7 August 2010, to replace the failed pump module, was not fully completed because of an ammonia leak in one of four quick-disconnects. A second EVA on 11 August removed the failed pump module.<ref name="sfn-20100810">{{Cite news|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/station/exp24/100810evapre/|title=Wednesday spacewalk to remove failed coolant pump|last=Harwood|first=William|date=10 August 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810131919/https://spaceflightnow.com/station/exp24/100810evapre/|archive-date=10 August 2023|work=Spaceflight Now for [[CBS News]]}}</ref><ref name="nsf-20100811">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2010/08/live-second-eva-with-pump-module-changeout/|title=Large success for second EVA as failed Pump Module is removed|last=Gebhardt|first=Chris|date=11 August 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810132125/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2010/08/live-second-eva-with-pump-module-changeout/|archive-date=10 August 2023|work=[[NASASpaceFlight.com]]}}</ref> A third EVA was required to restore Loop A to normal functionality.<ref name="sfn-20100811">{{Cite news|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/station/exp24/100811eva2/index5.html|title=Station's bad pump removed; more spacewalking ahead|last=Harwood|first=William|date=11 August 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810133016/https://spaceflightnow.com/station/exp24/100811eva2/index5.html|archive-date=10 August 2023|work=Spaceflight Now for [[CBS News]]}}</ref><ref name="nsf-20100818">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2010/08/iss-cooling-returning-normal-confirming-etcs-pm-success/|title=ISS cooling configuration returning to normal confirming ETCS PM success|last=Bergin|first=Chris|date=18 August 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101024194307/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2010/08/iss-cooling-returning-normal-confirming-etcs-pm-success/|archive-date=24 October 2010|work=[[NASASpaceFlight.com]]}}</ref>

The USOS's cooling system is largely built by the US company Boeing,<ref name="spacecom-20100802">{{Cite news|url=https://www.space.com/8865-cooling-system-malfunction-highlights-space-station-complexity.html|title=Cooling System Malfunction Highlights Space Station's Complexity|last=Chow|first=Denise|date=2 August 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811162718/https://www.space.com/8865-cooling-system-malfunction-highlights-space-station-complexity.html|archive-date=11 August 2023|work=[[Space.com]]}}</ref> which is also the manufacturer of the failed pump.<ref name=SpaceFlightNow1007_31 />

The four Main Bus Switching Units (MBSUs, located in the S0 truss), control the routing of power from the four solar array wings to the rest of the ISS. Each MBSU has two power channels that feed 160V DC from the arrays to two DC-to-DC power converters (DDCUs) that supply the 124V power used in the station. In late 2011, MBSU-1 ceased responding to commands or sending data confirming its health. While still routing power correctly, it was scheduled to be swapped out at the next available EVA. A spare MBSU was already on board, but a 30 August 2012 EVA failed to be completed when a bolt being tightened to finish installation of the spare unit jammed before the electrical connection was secured.<ref name="nsf-20120830">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2012/08/astronaut-perform-first-post-shuttle-spacewalk-iss|title=Astronaut duo complete challenging first post-Shuttle US spacewalk on ISS|last=Harding|first=Pete|date=30 August 2012|access-date=22 October 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811162809/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2012/08/astronaut-perform-first-post-shuttle-spacewalk-iss/|archive-date=11 August 2023|work=[[NASASpaceFlight.com]]}}</ref> The loss of MBSU-1 limited the station to 75% of its normal power capacity, requiring minor limitations in normal operations until the problem could be addressed.

On 5 September 2012, in a second six-hour EVA, astronauts Sunita Williams and Akihiko Hoshide successfully replaced MBSU-1 and restored the ISS to 100% power.<ref name="spaceref-20120905">{{Cite news|url=https://spaceref.com/space-stations/critical-space-station-spacewalk-a-success/|title=Critical Space Station Spacewalk a Success|last=Boucher|first=Marc|date=5 September 2012|work=SpaceRef}}</ref>

On 24 December 2013, astronauts installed a new ammonia pump for the station's cooling system. The faulty cooling system had failed earlier in the month, halting many of the station's science experiments. Astronauts had to brave a "mini blizzard" of ammonia while installing the new pump. It was only the second Christmas Eve spacewalk in NASA history.<ref>{{Cite news|date=24 December 2013|title=Astronauts Complete Rare Christmas Eve Spacewalk|work=Leaker|agency=Associated Press|url=http://www.leaker.com/astronauts-complete-rare-christmas-eve-spacewalk/|access-date=24 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131226025635/http://www.leaker.com/astronauts-complete-rare-christmas-eve-spacewalk/|archive-date=26 December 2013}}</ref>

=== Mission control centers ===
{{main|International Space Station program#Mission control centers}}

The components of the ISS are operated and monitored by their respective space agencies at [[mission control center]]s across the globe, primarily the [[Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center]] in Houston and the [[RKA Mission Control Center]] (TsUP) in Moscow, with support from [[Tsukuba Space Center]] in Japan, [[Payload Operations and Integration Center]] in Huntsville, Alabama, U.S., [[Columbus Control Center]] in Munich, Germany and [[Mobile Servicing System]] Control at the [[Canadian Space Agency]]'s headquarters in [[Saint-Hubert, Quebec]].

==Orbit, debris and visibility==
{{anchor|Orbit}}
===Altitude and orbital inclination===
{{multiple image
| align             = right
| total_width       = 400
| image2            = Altitude of International Space Station.svg
| caption2          = Graph showing the changing altitude of the ISS from November 1998 until November 2018
| image1            = Animation of International Space Station trajectory.gif
| caption1          = Animation of ISS orbit from 14 September 2018 to 14 November 2018. Earth is not shown.
}}

The ISS is currently maintained in a nearly circular orbit with an [[eccentricity]] of 0.0002267<ref>{{Cite web |title=ISS - Orbit |url=https://heavens-above.com/orbit.aspx?satid=25544 |access-date=2025-06-29 |website=heavens-above.com}}</ref>{{Update inline|date=June 2025}} and at an [[inclination]] of 51.6 degrees to Earth's equator.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Satellite Orbits |url=https://www.teledyne.com/digital-imaging-space-science-monthly/satellite-orbits#:~:text=The%20ISS%20orbit%20has%20an,90%25%20of%20the%20inhabited%20Earth. |access-date=2025-06-29 |website=www.teledyne.com}}</ref> This orbit was selected because it is the lowest inclination that can be directly reached by Russian Soyuz and Progress spacecraft launched from [[Baikonur Cosmodrome]] at 46° N latitude without overflying China or dropping spent rocket stages in inhabited areas.<ref name="MCC Answer">{{cite web|last=Cooney|first=Jim|title=Mission Control Answers Your Questions|url=http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/feedback/expert/answer/mcc/sts-112/09_04_12_54_17.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090627185009/http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/feedback/expert/answer/mcc/sts-112/09_04_12_54_17.html|archive-date=27 June 2009|access-date=12 June 2011|quote=Jim Cooney ISS Trajectory Operations Officer|location=Houston, Texas}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Pelt|first=Michel van|title=Into the Solar System on a String: Space Tethers and Space Elevators|publisher=Springer New York|year=2009|isbn=978-0-387-76555-6|edition=1st|location=New York, New York|page=133}}</ref> As a result, it makes more polar latitudes accessible and observable, for example the [[Chinese Space Station]] orbits more equatorial with an inclination of 41.47°. The ISS travels [[Retrograde and prograde motion|prograde]] (with Earth's rotation, west to east) at an average speed of {{convert|28000|km/h|mph|-3|abbr=}}, and completes {{Orbit|daily orbits|15.5}} orbits per day (93 minutes per orbit).{{Orbit|ref|<ref name="heavens-above" />}}<ref name="tracking">{{Cite web|url=http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/realdata/tracking/index.html|title=Current ISS Tracking data|date=15 December 2008|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=28 January 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151225022741/http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/realdata/tracking/index.html|archive-date=25 December 2015}} {{PD-notice}}</ref>

The station orbits in [[Low Earth Orbit]] (LEO) at a minimum mean altitude of {{convert|370|km|mi|-1|abbr=on}} and a maximum of {{convert|460|km|mi|-1|abbr=on}},<ref name="nasa-iss-overview">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/space-station-overview/|title=International Space Station Overview|last=Garcia|first=Mark|date=28 April 2016|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=28 March 2021|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231120175258/https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/space-station-overview/|archive-date=20 November 2023}}</ref> in the center of the [[thermosphere]]. The altitude was in the past allowed to fall around the time of each NASA [[Space Shuttle]] flight to permit heavier loads to be transferred to the station. After the retirement of the shuttle, the nominal orbit of the space station was raised in altitude (from about 350&nbsp;km to about 400&nbsp;km).<ref name="nsf-20110620">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2011/06/europes-atv-2-depart-iss-make-way-russias-progress-m-11m/|title=Europe's ATV-2 departs ISS to make way for Russia's Progress M-11M|date=20 June 2011|access-date=1 May 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811170911/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2011/06/europes-atv-2-depart-iss-make-way-russias-progress-m-11m/|archive-date=11 August 2023|work=[[NASASpaceFlight.com]]}}</ref><ref name="Popular Mechanics">{{Cite magazine|first=Rand|last=Simberg|date=29 July 2008|title=The Uncertain Future of the International Space Station: Analysis|url=http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/air_space/4275571.html|magazine=[[Popular Mechanics]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090331140838/http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/air_space/4275571.html|archive-date=31 March 2009|access-date=6 March 2009}}</ref> Other, more frequent supply spacecraft do not require this adjustment as they are substantially higher performance vehicles.<ref name="Worldbook at NASA">{{cite web|last=Oberg|first=James|year=2005|title=International Space Station|url=http://www.worldbookonline.com/pl/referencecenter/article?id=ar279523|access-date=3 April 2016|publisher=World Book Online Reference Center}}{{Dead link|date=October 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="nasa.gov-iss-environment">{{cite web|title=ISS Environment|url=http://pdlprod3.hosc.msfc.nasa.gov/D-aboutiss/D6.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080213164432/http://pdlprod3.hosc.msfc.nasa.gov/D-aboutiss/D6.html|archive-date=13 February 2008|access-date=15 October 2007|publisher=[[Johnson Space Center]]}}</ref>

Atmospheric drag reduces the altitude by about 2&nbsp;km a month on average. To reduce drag the ISS puts its solar arrays while in the dark of Earth's night side edge on toward the flight direction into [[Night Glider mode]].<ref name="Glider"/> For [[Orbital station-keeping|station keeping]], to bring the station back to a higher altitude, a so-called [[reboost]] is performed, which takes approximately two orbits (three hours) to be completed.<ref name="nasa.gov-iss-environment" /> Maintaining ISS altitude uses about 7.5 tonnes of chemical fuel per annum<ref name="newscientist.com">{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn17918-rocket-company-tests-worlds-most-powerful-ion-engine/|title=Rocket company tests world's most powerful ion engine|last=Shiga|first=David|date=5 October 2009|access-date=10 August 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810145849/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn17918-rocket-company-tests-worlds-most-powerful-ion-engine/|archive-date=10 August 2023|magazine=[[New Scientist]]}}</ref> at an annual cost of about $210&nbsp;million.<ref name="aaESummary20100124">{{cite web|date=24 January 2010|title=Executive summary|url=http://www.adastrarocket.com/EXECUTIVE%20SUMMARY240110.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100331171616/http://www.adastrarocket.com/EXECUTIVE%20SUMMARY240110.pdf|archive-date=31 March 2010|access-date=27 February 2010|publisher=Ad Astra Rocket Company}}</ref>

Orbital boosting can be performed by the station's two main engines on the ''Zvezda'' service module, or Russian or European spacecraft docked to ''Zvezda''{{'s}} aft port. The Automated Transfer Vehicle is constructed with the possibility of adding a [[Automated Transfer Vehicle#ATV evolution proposals|second docking port]] to its aft end, allowing other craft to dock and boost the station.

[[File:ISS orbits 04132013.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Orbits of the ISS, shown in April 2013]]

The Russian Orbital Segment contains the Data Management System, which handles Guidance, Navigation and Control (ROS GNC) for the entire station.<ref name="Navigation">{{Cite web|url=https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/International_Space_Station/DMS-R_ESA_s_Data_Management_System|title=DMS-R: ESA's Data Management System|publisher=[[European Space Agency]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811163127/https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/International_Space_Station/DMS-R_ESA_s_Data_Management_System|archive-date=11 August 2023}}</ref> Initially, ''Zarya'', the first module of the station, controlled the station until a short time after the Russian service module ''Zvezda'' docked and was transferred control. ''Zvezda'' contains the ESA built DMS-R Data Management System.<ref name="EsaComputer">{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.esa.int/esapub/onstation/onstation17/os17_chapter6.pdf|title=Exercising Control 49 months of DMS-R Operations|last1=Reimers|first1=Claus|last2=Guyomard|first2=Daniel|date=August 2004|publisher=[[European Space Agency]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811162355/https://www.esa.int/esapub/onstation/onstation17/os17_chapter6.pdf|archive-date=11 August 2023|magazine=on Station|volume=17}}</ref> Using two fault-tolerant computers (FTC), ''Zvezda'' computes the station's position and orbital trajectory using redundant Earth horizon sensors, Solar horizon sensors as well as Sun and star trackers. The FTCs each contain three identical processing units working in parallel and provide advanced fault-masking by majority voting.

===Orientation===
''Zvezda'' uses gyroscopes ([[reaction wheel]]s) and thrusters to turn itself. Gyroscopes do not require propellant; instead they use electricity to 'store' momentum in flywheels by turning in the opposite direction to the station's movement. The USOS has its own computer-controlled gyroscopes to handle its extra mass. When gyroscopes [[Control moment gyroscope#Saturation|'saturate']], thrusters are used to cancel out the stored momentum. In February 2005, during Expedition 10, an incorrect command was sent to the station's computer, using about 14&nbsp;kilograms of propellant before the fault was noticed and fixed. When attitude control computers in the ROS and USOS fail to communicate properly, this can result in a rare 'force fight' where the ROS GNC computer must ignore the USOS counterpart, which itself has no thrusters.<ref>{{cite web|date=7 October 2003|title=Russian / US GNC Force Fight|url=http://pims.grc.nasa.gov/pimsdocs/public/ISS%20Handbook/hb_qs_vehicle_RussianUSGNCForceFight.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120720193844/http://pims.grc.nasa.gov/pimsdocs/public/ISS%20Handbook/hb_qs_vehicle_RussianUSGNCForceFight.pdf|archive-date=20 July 2012|access-date=1 May 2012|website=pims.grc.nasa.gov|publisher=[[Glenn Research Center]]}}</ref><ref name="iss-report-05-07">{{Cite web|url=http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/spacenews/reports/issreports/2005/iss05-7.html|title=International Space Station Status Report #05-7|date=11 February 2005|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=23 November 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050317194246/http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/spacenews/reports/issreports/2005/iss05-7.html|archive-date=17 March 2005}}</ref><ref name="nasa-dynamics-report">{{Cite tech report|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20030038806/downloads/20030038806.pdf|title=Dynamics and Control of Attitude, Power, and Momentum for a Spacecraft Using Flywheels and Control Moment Gyroscopes|last1=Roithmayr|first1=Carlos M.|last2=Karlgaard|first2=Christopher D.|last3=Kumar|first3=Renjith R.|last4=Seywald|first4=Hans|last5=Bose|first5=David M.|date=April 2003|publisher=[[NASA]]|location=Hampton, Virginia|id=TP-2003-212178|access-date=12 July 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810132103/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20030038806/downloads/20030038806.pdf|archive-date=10 August 2023}}</ref>

Docked spacecraft can also be used to maintain station attitude, such as for troubleshooting or during the [[STS-117|installation of the S3/S4 truss]], which provides electrical power and data interfaces for the station's electronics.<ref name="nsf-20070614">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2007/06/atlantis-ready-to-support-iss-troubleshooting/|title=Atlantis ready to support ISS troubleshooting|last=Bergin|first=Chris|date=14 June 2007|access-date=6 March 2009|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100131051544/http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2007/06/atlantis-ready-to-support-iss-troubleshooting/|archive-date=31 January 2010|work=[[NASASpaceFlight.com]]}}</ref>

===Orbital debris threats===
{{Main|Space debris}}

The low altitudes at which the ISS orbits are also home to a variety of space debris,<ref>{{cite web|last=Hoffman|first=Michael|date=3 April 2009|title=National Space Symposium 2009: It's getting crowded up there|url=http://defensenews.com/blogs/space-symposium/2009/04/03/its-getting-crowded-up-there/#more-155|access-date=7 October 2009|publisher=Defense News}}{{dead link|date=August 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> including spent rocket stages, defunct satellites, explosion fragments (including materials from [[anti-satellite weapon]] tests), paint flakes, slag from solid rocket motors, and coolant released by [[US-A]] nuclear-powered satellites. These objects, in addition to natural [[micrometeoroid]]s,<ref>{{Cite magazine|first=F. L.|last=Whipple|year=1949|title=The Theory of Micrometeoroids|magazine=Popular Astronomy|volume=57|page=517|bibcode=1949PA.....57..517W}}</ref> are a significant threat. Objects large enough to destroy the station can be tracked, and therefore are not as dangerous as smaller debris.<ref name="NSFdebris">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2011/06/sts-135-frr-july-8-atlantis-debris-misses-iss/|title=STS-135: FRR sets 8 July Launch Date for Atlantis – Debris misses ISS|last=Bergin|first=Chris|date=28 June 2011|access-date=28 June 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811180427/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2011/06/sts-135-frr-july-8-atlantis-debris-misses-iss/|archive-date=11 August 2023|work=[[NASASpaceFlight.com]]}}</ref><ref name="nasa-micrometeoroid-report">{{Cite conference|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19890016664/downloads/19890016664.pdf|title=Effect of Micrometeoroid and Space Debris Impacts on the Space Station Freedom Solar Array Surfaces|last=Nahra|first=Henry|date=24–29 April 1989|publisher=[[NASA]]|location=San Diego, CA|id=TM-102287|access-date=7 October 2009|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125180642/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19890016664/downloads/19890016664.pdf|archive-date=25 November 2023|conference=Spring Meeting of the Materials Research Society}}</ref> Objects too small to be detected by optical and radar instruments, from approximately 1&nbsp;cm down to microscopic size, number in the trillions. Despite their small size, some of these objects are a threat because of their [[kinetic energy]] and direction in relation to the station. Spacewalking crew in spacesuits are also at risk of suit damage and consequent [[Space exposure|exposure to vacuum]].<ref name="debrisdecomp">{{cite web|title=Space Suit Punctures and Decompression|url=http://www.asi.org/adb/04/03/08/suit-punctures.html|access-date=20 July 2011|publisher=The Artemis Project|archive-date=15 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170615061834/http://www.asi.org/adb/04/03/08/suit-punctures.html}}</ref>

Ballistic panels, also called micrometeorite shielding, are incorporated into the station to protect pressurised sections and critical systems. The type and thickness of these panels depend on their predicted exposure to damage. The station's shields and structure have different designs on the ROS and the USOS. On the USOS, [[Whipple Shield]]s are used. The US segment modules consist of an inner layer made from {{cvt|1.5|–|5.0|cm|in|adj=mid|-thick}} [[2219 aluminium alloy|aluminium]], a {{cvt|10|cm|in|adj=mid|-thick}} intermediate layers of [[Kevlar]] and Nextel (a ceramic fabric),<ref name="nasa-20040716">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/missions/science/spinoff9_nextel_f.html|title=Superhero Ceramics!|last=Plain|first=Charlie|date=16 July 2004|publisher=[[NASA]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080123170947/https://www.nasa.gov/missions/science/spinoff9_nextel_f.html|archive-date=23 January 2008}}</ref> and an outer layer of [[stainless steel]], which causes objects to shatter into a cloud before hitting the hull, thereby spreading the energy of impact. On the ROS, a [[carbon fibre reinforced polymer]] honeycomb screen is spaced from the hull, an aluminium honeycomb screen is spaced from that, with a screen-vacuum thermal insulation covering, and glass cloth over the top.<ref name="roscomos-iss">{{Cite web|url=http://en.roscosmos.ru/202/|title=International Space Station|publisher=[[Roscosmos]]|access-date=14 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210627235737/http://en.roscosmos.ru/202/|archive-date=27 June 2021}}</ref>

Space debris is tracked remotely from the ground, and the station crew can be notified.<ref name="nasa-debris-package">{{Cite web|url=http://www.orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/library/EducationPackage.pdf|title=Orbital Debris Education Package|last1=Jorgensen|first1=Kira|last2=Johnson|first2=Nicholas|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=1 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080408183946/http://www.orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/library/EducationPackage.pdf|archive-date=8 April 2008}}</ref> If necessary, thrusters on the Russian Orbital Segment can alter the station's orbital altitude, avoiding the debris. These [[Debris Avoidance Manoeuvre]]s (DAMs) are not uncommon, taking place if computational models show the debris will approach within a certain threat distance. Ten DAMs had been performed by the end of 2009.<ref name="newscientist-20090316">{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn16777-space-station-may-move-to-dodge-debris.html|title=Space station may move to dodge debris|last=Courtland|first=Rachel|date=16 March 2009|access-date=20 April 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812203203/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn16777-space-station-may-move-to-dodge-debris/|archive-date=12 August 2023|magazine=[[New Scientist]]}}</ref><ref name="ODOct08">{{Cite journal|date=October 2008|title=ISS Maneuvers to Avoid Russian Fragmentation Debris|url=http://www.orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/newsletter/pdfs/ODQNv12i4.pdf|journal=Orbital Debris Quarterly News|volume=12|issue=4|pages=1&2|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527134134/http://orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/newsletter/pdfs/ODQNv12i4.pdf|archive-date=27 May 2010|access-date=20 April 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=January 2010|title=Avoiding satellite collisions in 2009|url=http://www.orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/newsletter/pdfs/ODQNv14i1.pdf|journal=Orbital Debris Quarterly News|volume=14|issue=1|page=2|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527142755/http://orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/newsletter/pdfs/ODQNv14i1.pdf|archive-date=27 May 2010|access-date=20 April 2010}}</ref> Usually, an increase in orbital velocity of the order of 1&nbsp;m/s is used to raise the orbit by one or two kilometres. If necessary, the altitude can also be lowered, although such a manoeuvre wastes propellant.<ref name=ODOct08 /><ref name="esa-20080828">{{Cite press release|url=https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Operations/ATV_carries_out_first_debris_avoidance_manoeuvre_for_the_ISS|title=ATV carries out first debris avoidance manoeuvre for the ISS|date=28 August 2008|publisher=[[European Space Agency]]|access-date=26 February 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929091613/https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Operations/ATV_carries_out_first_debris_avoidance_manoeuvre_for_the_ISS|archive-date=29 September 2022}}</ref> If a threat from orbital debris is identified too late for a DAM to be safely conducted, the station crew close all the hatches aboard the station and retreat into their spacecraft in order to be able to evacuate in the event the station was seriously damaged by the debris. Partial station evacuations have occurred on 13 March 2009, 28 June 2011, 24 March 2012, 16 June 2015,<ref name="bbc-20120324">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-17497766|title=ISS crew take to escape capsules in space junk alert|date=24 March 2012|access-date=24 March 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107060517/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-17497766|archive-date=7 November 2023|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> November 2021,<ref name="reuters-20211203">{{Cite news|last=Tétrault-Farber|first=Gabrielle|date=3 December 2021|editor1-last=Coghill|editor1-first=Kim|title=International Space Station swerves to dodge space junk|url=https://www.reuters.com/lifestyle/science/international-space-station-swerves-dodge-space-junk-2021-12-03/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810131607/https://www.reuters.com/lifestyle/science/international-space-station-swerves-dodge-space-junk-2021-12-03/|archive-date=10 August 2023|access-date=3 December 2021|work=Reuters|editor2-last=Jones|editor2-first=Gareth}}</ref> and [[Resurs-P No.1|27 June 2024]].<ref name="cnn_27Jun2024">{{cite news|title=Russian satellite blasts debris in space, forces ISS astronauts to shelter|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2024/06/27/russian-satellite-blasts-debris-in-space-forces-iss-astronauts-to-shelter.html|access-date=27 June 2024|publisher=CNBC|date=27 June 2024}}</ref>

The November 2021 evacuation was caused by a Russian anti-satellite [[Kosmos 1408|weapon test]].<ref name="verge-20211115">{{Cite news|last1=Grush|first1=Loren|date=15 November 2021|title=Russia blows up a satellite, creating a dangerous debris cloud in space|url=https://www.theverge.com/2021/11/15/22782946/russia-asat-test-satellite-international-space-station-debris|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005233548/https://www.theverge.com/2021/11/15/22782946/russia-asat-test-satellite-international-space-station-debris|archive-date=5 October 2023|work=[[The Verge]]}}</ref><ref name="BBC_16Nov21">{{cite news|date=16 November 2021|title=Russian Anti-Satellite Missile Test Poses No Threat – Moscow|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-59169899|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211117062626/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-59169899|archive-date=17 November 2021|access-date=19 November 2021|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> NASA administrator [[Bill Nelson]] said it was unthinkable that Russia would endanger the lives of everyone on ISS, including their own cosmonauts.<ref name="cnn_15Nov21">{{cite news|last1=Atwood|first1=Kylie|last2=Sciutto|first2=Jim|last3=Fisher|first3=Kristin|last4=Gaouette|first4=Nicole|title=US says it "won't tolerate" Russia's "reckless and dangerous" anti-satellite missile test|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2021/11/15/politics/russia-anti-satellite-weapon-test-scn/index.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211119112659/https://edition.cnn.com/2021/11/15/politics/russia-anti-satellite-weapon-test-scn/index.html|archive-date=19 November 2021|access-date=20 November 2021|publisher=CNN}}</ref>

<gallery widths="200" heights="160">
File:SDIO KEW Lexan projectile.jpg|A 7-gram object (shown in center) shot at {{convert|7|km/s|ft/s|abbr=on}}, the orbital velocity of the ISS, made this {{convert|15|cm|in|abbr=on}} crater in a solid block of [[aluminium]].
File:Debris-GEO1280.jpg|[[Radar]]-trackable objects, including debris, with distinct ring of [[Geostationary orbit|geostationary]] satellites
File:ISS impact risk.jpg|Example of [[risk management]]: A NASA model showing areas at high risk from impact for the International Space Station
</gallery>

===Visibility from Earth===
{{further|Satellite watching|Satellite flare}}

[[File:The ISS passing nearly overhead shortly after sunset in June 2014.jpg|thumb|The ISS visible as a skytrack line drawn in the sky nearly overhead shortly after sunset by a long exposure photo]]

The ISS is visible in the [[sky]] to the [[naked eye]] as a visibly moving, bright white dot, when crossing the sky and being illuminated by the Sun, during [[twilight]], the hours after sunset and before sunrise, when the station remains sunlit, outside of [[Earth's shadow]], but the ground and sky are dark.<ref name="Price2005">{{Cite book|last=Price|first=Pat|title=The Backyard Stargazer: An Absolute Beginner's Guide to Skywatching With and Without a Telescope|publisher=Quarry Books|year=2005|isbn=978-1-59253-148-6|location=Gloucester, Massachusetts|page=140}}</ref> It crosses the skies at latitudes between the [[polar region]]s.<ref name="d361">{{cite web|last=Litvinov|first=Nikita|title=The season of summer visibility of the ISS has begun in Ukraine|website=Universe Space Tech|date=10 July 2024|url=https://universemagazine.com/en/do-look-up-the-season-of-summer-visibility-of-the-iss-has-begun-in-ukraine/|access-date=22 July 2024}}</ref> Depending on the path it takes across the sky, the time it takes the station to move across the horizon or from one to the other may be short or up to 10 minutes, while likely being only visible part of that time because of it moving into or out of Earth's shadow. It then returns around every 90 minutes, with the time of the day that it crosses the sky shifting over the course of some weeks, and therefore before returning to twilight and visible illumination.

Because of the size of its reflective surface area, the ISS is the brightest artificial object in the sky (excluding other [[satellite flare]]s), with an approximate maximum [[apparent magnitude|magnitude]] of −4 when in sunlight and overhead (similar to [[Venus]]), and a maximum [[angular size]] of 63 arcseconds.<ref name="Angular size">{{Cite web|url=https://spacemath.gsfc.nasa.gov/weekly/7Page1.pdf|title=Problem 346: The International Space Station and a Sunspot: Exploring angular scales|date=19 August 2018|access-date=20 May 2022|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810130645/https://spacemath.gsfc.nasa.gov/weekly/7Page1.pdf|archive-date=10 August 2023|website=Space Math @ NASA !}}</ref>

Tools are provided by a number of websites such as [[Heavens-Above]] (see [[#Live viewing|''Live viewing'']] below) as well as [[smartphone]] applications that use [[ephemeris|orbital data]] and the observer's longitude and latitude to indicate when the ISS will be visible (weather permitting), where the station will appear to rise, the altitude above the horizon it will reach and the duration of the pass before the station disappears either by setting below the horizon or entering into Earth's shadow.<ref name="see">{{cite web|date=2 July 2008|title=International Space Station Sighting Opportunities|url=http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/realdata/sightings/index.html|access-date=28 January 2009|publisher=NASA|archive-date=21 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221111201/http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/realdata/sightings/index.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=ISS&nbsp;– Information|url=http://www.heavens-above.com/satinfo.aspx?satid=25544&lat=0&lng=0&loc=Unspecified&alt=0&tz=CET|access-date=8 July 2010|publisher=Heavens-Above.com|archive-date=24 June 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100624080244/http://www.heavens-above.com/satinfo.aspx?lat=0&lng=0&alt=0&loc=Unspecified&TZ=CET&satid=25544|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|first=Harold F.|last=Weaver|year=1947|title=The Visibility of Stars Without Optical Aid|journal=Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific|volume=59|issue=350|page=232|bibcode=1947PASP...59..232W|doi=10.1086/125956|s2cid=51963530}}</ref><ref name="daytime visibility">{{Cite web|url=http://spaceweather.com/archive.php?view=1&day=05&month=06&year=2009|title=ISS visible during the daytime|date=5 June 2009|publisher=Spaceweather.com|access-date=5 June 2009|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811172429/https://spaceweather.com/archive.php?view=1&day=05&month=06&year=2009|archive-date=11 August 2023}}</ref>

In November 2012 NASA launched its "Spot the Station" service, which sends people text and email alerts when the station is due to fly above their town.<ref>{{Cite news|date=6 November 2012|title=Get notified when the International Space Station is in your area|work=3 News NZ|url=http://www.3news.co.nz/Get-notified-when-the-International-Space-Station-is-in-your-area/tabid/1160/articleID/275612/Default.aspx|access-date=21 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012231134/http://www.3news.co.nz/Get-notified-when-the-International-Space-Station-is-in-your-area/tabid/1160/articleID/275612/Default.aspx|archive-date=12 October 2013}}</ref> The station is visible from 95% of the inhabited land on Earth, but is not visible from extreme northern or southern latitudes.<ref name="MCC Answer" />

Under specific conditions, the ISS can be observed at night on five consecutive orbits. Those conditions are 1) a mid-latitude observer location, 2) near the time of the solstice with 3) the ISS passing in the direction of the pole from the observer near midnight local time. The three photos show the first, middle and last of the five passes on 5–6&nbsp;June 2014.

====Astrophotography====
<!-- Re: Section title: using the popular conversational usage of the term-->[[File:Isshtv120090917200858nm.jpg|thumb|The ISS and HTV photographed from Earth by [[Ralf Vandebergh]]]]
Using a telescope-mounted camera to photograph the station is a popular hobby for astronomers,<!-- there are a million refs that can go here, pick one from google --><ref name="hobbyspace-satwatching">{{Cite web|url=https://www.hobbyspace.com/SatWatching/|title=Satellite Watching|publisher=HobbySpace|access-date=1 May 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811162457/https://www.hobbyspace.com/SatWatching/|archive-date=11 August 2023}}</ref> while using a mounted camera to photograph the Earth and stars is a popular hobby for crew.<ref name="nasa-20030324">{{Cite web|url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2003/24mar_noseprints/|title=Space StationAstrophotography – NASA Science|date=24 March 2003|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=1 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811173359/https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2003/24mar_noseprints|archive-date=11 August 2023}}</ref> The use of a telescope or binoculars allows viewing of the ISS during daylight hours.<ref>{{cite web|date=20 July 2011|title=[VIDEO&#93; The ISS and Atlantis shuttle as seen in broad daylight|url=http://www.zmescience.com/space/video-the-iss-and-atlantis-shuttle-as-seen-in-broad-daylight/|access-date=1 May 2012|publisher=Zmescience.com|archive-date=20 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120820023638/http://www.zmescience.com/space/video-the-iss-and-atlantis-shuttle-as-seen-in-broad-daylight/|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Composite of 6 photos of the ISS transiting the gibbous Moon.jpg|thumb|Composite of six photos of the ISS transiting the [[Lunar phase|gibbous]] Moon]]

[[Transit (astronomy)|Transits]] of the ISS in front of the Sun, particularly during an [[Solar eclipse|eclipse]] (and so the Earth, Sun, Moon, and ISS are all positioned approximately in a single line) are of particular interest for amateur astronomers.<ref>{{cite web|date=22 August 2017|title=Space Station Transiting 2017 ECLIPSE, My Brain Stopped Working – Smarter Every Day 175|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lepQoU4oek4|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/lepQoU4oek4|archive-date=11 December 2021|url-status=live|via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="wired-20110105">{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2011/01/double-eclipse/|title=Moon and Space Station Eclipse the Sun|last=Grossman|first=Lisa|date=5 January 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810130728/https://www.wired.com/2011/01/double-eclipse/|archive-date=10 August 2023|magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|WIRED]]}}</ref>

==Environment, safety and crew health==

===Environment===
====Microgravity====
Gravity at the altitude of the ISS is approximately 90% as strong as on Earth's surface, but objects in orbit are in continuous [[Free fall|freefall]], resulting in a state of [[weightlessness]] known as microgravity.<ref name="nasa-whatismicrogravity">{{Cite web|last=May|first=Sandra|date=15 February 2012|title=What Is Microgravity?|url=https://www.nasa.gov/learning-resources/for-kids-and-students/what-is-microgravity-grades-5-8/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107174300/https://www.nasa.gov/learning-resources/for-kids-and-students/what-is-microgravity-grades-5-8/|archive-date=7 November 2023|access-date=3 September 2018|series=NASA Knows! (Grades 5–8)|publisher=[[NASA]]}} {{PD-notice}}</ref> This perceived weightlessness is disturbed by five effects:<ref name="gravity">{{cite web|date=6 December 2005|title=European Users Guide to Low Gravity Platforms|url=http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Human_Spaceflight/Human_Spaceflight_Research/European_User_Guide_to_Low-Gravity_Platforms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130402225556/http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Human_Spaceflight/Human_Spaceflight_Research/European_User_Guide_to_Low-Gravity_Platforms|archive-date=2 April 2013|access-date=22 March 2013|publisher=European Space Agency}}</ref>
* Drag from the residual atmosphere.
* Vibration from the movements of mechanical systems and the crew.
* Actuation of the on-board attitude [[control moment gyroscope]]s.
* [[Rocket engine|Thruster]] firings for attitude or orbital changes.
* [[Gravity-gradient stabilization|Gravity-gradient effects]], also known as [[tidal force|tidal]] effects. Items at different locations within the ISS would, if not attached to the station, follow slightly different orbits. Being mechanically connected, these items experience small forces that keep the station moving as a [[rigid body]].

====Radiation====
{{See also|Coronal mass ejection}}
[[File:Aurora Australis from ISS 2011 - 1.ogv|thumb|upright=1.1|Video of the [[Aurora Australis]], taken by the crew of [[Expedition 28]] on an ascending pass from south of [[Madagascar]] to just north of Australia over the Indian Ocean]]

The ISS is partially protected from the space environment by [[Earth's magnetic field]]. From an average distance of about {{convert|70000|km|abbr=on}} from the Earth's surface, depending on Solar activity, the [[magnetosphere]] begins to deflect [[solar wind]] around Earth and the space station. [[Solar flare]]s are still a hazard to the crew, who may receive only a few minutes warning. In 2005, during the initial "proton storm" of an X-3 class solar flare, the crew of [[Expedition 10]] took shelter in a more heavily shielded part of the ROS designed for this purpose.<ref name="spacecom-20060223">{{Cite news|url=https://www.space.com/2080-solar-flare-hits-earth-mars.html|title=Solar Flare Hits Earth and Mars|last=Than|first=Ker|date=23 February 2006|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811164550/https://www.space.com/2080-solar-flare-hits-earth-mars.html|archive-date=11 August 2023|work=[[Space.com]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=10 June 2005|title=A new kind of solar storm|url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2005/10jun_newstorm/|publisher=NASA|access-date=12 July 2017|archive-date=16 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170516030602/https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2005/10jun_newstorm/}}</ref>

Subatomic charged particles, primarily [[proton]]s from cosmic rays and solar wind, are normally absorbed by Earth's atmosphere. When they interact in sufficient quantity, their effect is visible to the naked eye in a phenomenon called an [[aurora]]. Outside Earth's atmosphere, ISS crews are exposed to approximately one [[millisievert]] each day (about a year's worth of natural exposure on Earth), resulting in a higher risk of cancer. Radiation can penetrate living tissue and damage the DNA and [[chromosome]]s of [[lymphocyte]]s; being central to the [[immune system]], any damage to these cells could contribute to the lower [[immunity (medical)|immunity]] experienced by astronauts. Radiation has also been linked to a higher incidence of [[cataract]]s in astronauts. Protective shielding and medications may lower the risks to an acceptable level.<ref name="JCB" />

Radiation levels on the ISS are between 12 and 28.8 milli rads per day,<ref name="Forbes 2018">{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/quora/2018/11/13/how-much-radiation-are-iss-astronauts-exposed-to/|title=How Much Radiation Are ISS Astronauts Exposed To?|last=Frost|first=Robert|date=13 November 2018|work=[[Forbes]]|access-date=4 September 2022|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810131701/https://www.forbes.com/sites/quora/2018/11/13/how-much-radiation-are-iss-astronauts-exposed-to/?sh=704809db18a9|archive-date=10 August 2023}}</ref> about five times greater than those experienced by airline passengers and crew, as Earth's electromagnetic field provides almost the same level of protection against solar and other types of radiation in low Earth orbit as in the stratosphere. For example, on a 12-hour flight, an airline passenger would experience 0.1 millisieverts of radiation, or a rate of 0.2 millisieverts per day; this is one fifth the rate experienced by an astronaut in LEO. Additionally, airline passengers experience this level of radiation for a few hours of flight, while the ISS crew are exposed for their whole stay on board the station.<ref>{{cite web|title=Galactic Radiation Received in Flight|url=http://jag.cami.jccbi.gov./cariprofile.asp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100329130826/http://jag.cami.jccbi.gov/cariprofile.asp|archive-date=29 March 2010|access-date=20 May 2010|publisher=FAA Civil Aeromedical Institute}}</ref>

====Microbiological environmental hazards====
{{see also|Mir#Microbiological environmental hazards|l1=Microbiological environmental hazards on the Mir space station}}
Hazardous molds that can foul air and water filters may develop aboard space stations. They can produce acids that degrade metal, glass, and rubber. They can also be harmful to the crew's health. Microbiological hazards have led to a development of the [[LOCAD#Portable Test System|LOCAD-PTS]] (a portable test system) which identifies common bacteria and molds faster than standard methods of [[Cell culture|culturing]], which may require a sample to be sent back to Earth.<ref>{{cite web|last=Bell|first=Trudy E.|date=11 May 2007|title=Preventing "Sick" Spaceships|url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2007/11may_locad3/|access-date=29 March 2015|publisher=NASA|archive-date=14 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170514233537/https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2007/11may_locad3}}</ref> Researchers in 2018 reported, after detecting the presence of five ''[[Enterobacter|Enterobacter bugandensis]]'' bacterial strains on the ISS (none of which are [[pathogen]]ic to humans), that microorganisms on the ISS should be carefully monitored to continue assuring a medically healthy environment for astronauts.<ref name="EA-20181122">{{Cite press release|url=https://www.biomedcentral.com/about/press-center/science-press-releases/23-11-18|title=ISS microbes should be monitored to avoid threat to astronaut health|last=Korn|first=Anne|date=23 November 2018|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|access-date=11 January 2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810145840/https://www.biomedcentral.com/about/press-center/science-press-releases/23-11-18|archive-date=10 August 2023}}</ref><ref name="BMC-20181123">{{Cite journal|last1=Singh|first1=Nitin K.|last2=Bezdan|first2=Daniela|last3=Sielaff|first3=Aleksandra Checinska|last4=Wheeler|first4=Kevin|last5=Mason|first5=Christopher E.|last6=Vendateswaran|first6=Kasthuri|display-authors=1|date=23 November 2018|title=Multi-drug resistant Enterobacter bugandensis species isolated from the International Space Station and comparative genomic analyses with human pathogenic strains|journal=[[BMC Microbiology]]|volume=18|issue=1|page=175|doi=10.1186/s12866-018-1325-2|pmc=6251167|pmid=30466389|doi-access=free|bibcode=2018BMCMb..18..175S }}</ref>

Contamination on space stations can be prevented by reduced humidity, and by using paint that contains mold-killing chemicals, as well as the use of antiseptic solutions. All materials used in the ISS are tested for resistance against [[fungi]].<ref>{{cite web|first=Patrick L.|last=Barry|year=2000|title=Microscopic Stowaways on the ISS|url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2000/ast26nov_1/|access-date=29 March 2015|archive-date=2 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150302090949/http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2000/ast26nov_1/}}</ref> Since 2016, a series of ESA-sponsored experiments have been conducted to test the anti-bacterial properties of various materials, with the goal of developing "smart surfaces" that mitigate bacterial growth in multiple ways, using the best method for a particular circumstance. Dubbed "Microbial Aerosol Tethering on Innovative Surfaces" (MATISS), the program involves deployment of small plaques containing an array of glass squares covered with different test coatings. They remain on the station for six months before being returned to earth for analysis.<ref name="eoportal-iss-matiss">{{Cite web|url=https://www.eoportal.org/other-space-activities/iss-matiss|title=ISS: MATISS|date=30 June 2023|publisher=[[European Space Agency]]|access-date=11 June 2023|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810132645/https://www.eoportal.org/other-space-activities/iss-matiss|archive-date=10 August 2023|website=eoportal.org}}</ref> The most recent and final experiment of the series was launched on 5 June 2023 aboard the [[SpaceX CRS-28]] cargo mission to ISS, comprising four plaques. Whereas previous experiments in the series were limited to analysis by [[Microscopy|light microsocopy]], this experiment uses quartz glass made of pure silica, which will allow [[Spectroscopy|spectrographic analysis]]. Two of the plaques were returned after eight months and the remaining two after 16 months.<ref name="arstechnica-20230608">{{Cite news|url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2023/06/testing-antibacterial-surfaces-on-the-international-space-station/|title=Testing antibacterial surfaces on the International Space Station|last=Khadilkar|first=Dhananjay|date=8 June 2023|access-date=11 June 2023|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231108032832/https://arstechnica.com/science/2023/06/testing-antibacterial-surfaces-on-the-international-space-station/|archive-date=8 November 2023|work=[[Ars Technica]]}}</ref>

In April 2019, NASA reported that a comprehensive study had been conducted into the microorganisms and fungi present on the ISS. The experiment was performed over a period of 14 months on three different flight missions, and involved taking samples from 8 predefined locations inside the station, then returning them to Earth for analysis. In prior experiments, analysis was limited to culture-based methods, thus overlooking microbes which cannot be grown in culture. The present study used [[Molecular diagnostics|molecular]]-based methods in addition to culturing, resulting in a more complete catalog. The results may be useful in improving the health and safety conditions for astronauts, as well as better understanding other closed-in environments on Earth such as clean rooms used by the pharmaceutical and medical industries.<ref name="EA-20190407">{{Cite press release|url=https://www.biomedcentral.com/about/press-center/science-press-releases/08-04-19|title=NASA researchers catalogue all microbes and fungi on the International Space Station|last=Korn|first=Anne|date=7 April 2019|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|access-date=30 August 2021|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810131751/https://www.biomedcentral.com/about/press-center/science-press-releases/08-04-19|archive-date=10 August 2023}}</ref><ref name="MBJ-20190408">{{Cite journal|last=Sielaff|first=Aleksandra Checinska|display-authors=et al.|date=8 April 2019|title=Characterization of the total and viable bacterial and fungal communities associated with the International Space Station surfaces|journal=Microbiome|volume=7|issue=50|article-number=50|doi=10.1186/s40168-019-0666-x|pmc=6452512|pmid=30955503|doi-access=free}}</ref>

====Noise====
Space flight is not inherently quiet, with noise levels exceeding acoustic standards as far back as the [[Apollo missions]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Limardo|first1=José G.|last2=Allen|first2=Christopher S.|last3=Danielson|first3=Richard W.|title=43rd International Conference on Environmental Systems|chapter=Assessment of Crewmember Noise Exposures on the International Space Station|date=14 July 2013|location=Vail, Colorado|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics|doi=10.2514/6.2013-3516|isbn=978-1-62410-215-8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Nakashima|first1=Ann|last2=Limardo|first2=José|last3=Boone|first3=Andrew|last4=Danielson|first4=Richard W.|date=31 January 2020|title=Influence of impulse noise on noise dosimetry measurements on the International Space Station|journal=International Journal of Audiology|volume=59|issue=sup1|pages=S40–S47|doi=10.1080/14992027.2019.1698067|issn=1499-2027|pmid=31846378|s2cid=209407363|doi-access=free}}</ref> For this reason, NASA and the International Space Station international partners have developed [[noise control]] and [[hearing loss]] prevention goals as part of the health program for crew members. Specifically, these goals have been the primary focus of the ISS Multilateral Medical Operations Panel (MMOP) Acoustics Subgroup since the first days of ISS assembly and operations.<ref name="MMOP_SSP_50260">{{cite web|date=May 2003|title=International Space Station Medical Operations Requirements Documents (ISS MORD), SSP 50260 Revision B|url=http://emits.sso.esa.int/emits-doc/ESTEC/AO6216-SoW-RD9.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200220193031/http://emits.sso.esa.int/emits-doc/ESTEC/AO6216-SoW-RD9.pdf|archive-date=20 February 2020|website=emits.sso.esa.int|publisher=NASA}}</ref><ref name="iss-acoustics">{{Cite conference|last1=Allen|first1=Christopher S.|last2=Denham|first2=Samuel A.|date=17 July 2011|title=International Space Station Acoustics – A Status Report|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20100039608/downloads/20100039608.pdf|conference=International Conference on Environmental Systems|location=Portland, Oregon|id=JSC-CN-24071 / JSC-CN-22173|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231118185324/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20100039608/downloads/20100039608.pdf|archive-date=18 November 2023|hdl-access=free|url-status=live|hdl=2060/20150010438|website=ntrs.nasa.gov}}</ref> The effort includes contributions from [[Acoustical engineering|acoustical engineers]], [[audiologists]], [[industrial hygienists]], and physicians who comprise the subgroup's membership from NASA, Roscosmos, the European Space Agency (ESA), the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA).

When compared to terrestrial environments, the noise levels experienced by astronauts and cosmonauts on the ISS may seem insignificant and typically occur at levels that would not be of major concern to the [[Occupational Safety and Health Administration]] – rarely reaching 85 dBA. But crew members are exposed to these levels 24 hours a day, seven days a week, with current missions averaging six months in duration. These levels of noise also impose risks to crew health and performance in the form of sleep interference and communication, as well as reduced alarm [[Hearing|audibility]].

Over the 19 plus year history of the ISS, significant efforts have been put forth to limit and reduce noise levels on the ISS. During design and pre-flight activities, members of the Acoustic Subgroup have written acoustic limits and verification requirements, consulted to design and choose the quietest available payloads, and then conducted acoustic verification tests prior to launch.<ref name=MMOP_SSP_50260 />{{rp|5.7.3}} During spaceflights, the Acoustics Subgroup has assessed each ISS module's in flight sound levels, produced by a large number of vehicle and science experiment noise sources, to assure compliance with strict acoustic standards. The acoustic environment on ISS changed when additional modules were added during its construction, and as additional spacecraft arrive at the ISS. The Acoustics Subgroup has responded to this dynamic operations schedule by successfully designing and employing acoustic covers, absorptive materials, [[noise barrier]]s, and vibration isolators to reduce noise levels. Moreover, when pumps, fans, and ventilation systems age and show increased noise levels, this Acoustics Subgroup has guided ISS managers to replace the older, noisier instruments with quiet fan and pump technologies, significantly reducing [[ambient noise level]]s.

NASA has adopted most-conservative damage risk criteria (based on recommendations from the [[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]] and the [[World Health Organization]]), in order to protect all crew members. The MMOP Acoustics Subgroup has adjusted its approach to managing noise risks in this unique environment by applying, or modifying, terrestrial approaches for hearing loss prevention to set these conservative limits. One innovative approach has been NASA's Noise Exposure Estimation Tool (NEET), in which noise exposures are calculated in a task-based approach to determine the need for [[hearing protection device]]s (HPDs). Guidance for use of HPDs, either mandatory use or recommended, is then documented in the Noise Hazard Inventory, and posted for crew reference during their missions. The Acoustics Subgroup also tracks spacecraft noise exceedances, applies [[engineering controls]], and recommends hearing protective devices to reduce crew noise exposures. Finally, hearing thresholds are monitored on-orbit, during missions.

There have been no persistent mission-related hearing threshold shifts among US Orbital Segment crewmembers (JAXA, CSA, ESA, NASA) during what is approaching 20 years of ISS mission operations, or nearly 175,000 work hours. In 2020, the MMOP Acoustics Subgroup received the [[Safe-In-Sound Award]] for Innovation for their combined efforts to mitigate any health effects of noise.<ref>{{cite web|year=2020|title=Safe in Sound Winners|url=https://www.safeinsound.us/winners.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200625051514/https://www.safeinsound.us/winners.html|archive-date=25 June 2020|website=safeinsound.us}}</ref>

====Fire and toxic gases====
An onboard fire or a toxic gas leak are other potential hazards. Ammonia is used in the external radiators of the station and could potentially leak into the pressurised modules.<ref>{{Cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=doN4t5NKW-k|title=Departing Space Station Commander Provides Tour of Orbital Laboratory|date=3 July 2015|last=Williams|first=Suni (presenter)|publisher=NASA|time=18.00–18.17|access-date=1 September 2019|quote=And some of the things we have to worry about in space are fire ... or if we had some type of toxic atmosphere. We use ammonia for our radiators so there is a possibility that ammonia could come into the vehicle.|medium=video|archive-date=14 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814155134/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=doN4t5NKW-k|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Overall health effects===
{{Main|Effect of spaceflight on the human body}}

On 12 April 2019, NASA reported medical results from the [[ISS year long mission|Astronaut Twin Study]]. Astronaut [[Scott Kelly (astronaut)|Scott Kelly]] spent a year in space on the ISS, while [[Mark Kelly|his identical twin]] spent the year on Earth. Several long-lasting changes were observed, including those related to alterations in [[DNA]] and [[cognition]], when one twin was compared with the other.<ref name="NYT-20190412">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/11/science/scott-mark-kelly-twins-space-nasa.html|url-access=subscription|title=Scott Kelly Spent a Year in Orbit. His Body Is Not Quite the Same|last=Zimmer|first=Carl|author-link=Carl Zimmer|date=11 April 2019|access-date=12 April 2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200522170617/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/11/science/scott-mark-kelly-twins-space-nasa.html|archive-date=22 May 2020|quote=NASA scientists compared the astronaut to his earthbound twin, Mark. The results hint at what humans will have to endure on long journeys through space.|work=The New York Times}}</ref><ref name="SCI-20190412">{{Cite journal|title=The NASA Twins Study: A multidimensional analysis of a year-long human spaceflight|last=Garrett-Bakeman|first=Francine E.|date=12 April 2019|article-number=eaau8650|bibcode=2019Sci...364.8650G|doi=10.1126/science.aau8650|display-authors=et al.|volume=364|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|pmc=7580864|issue=6436|pmid=30975860}}</ref>

In November 2019, researchers reported that astronauts experienced serious [[Hemodynamics|blood flow]] and [[Thrombus|clot]] problems while on board the ISS, based on a six-month study of 11 healthy astronauts. The results may influence long-term spaceflight, including a mission to the planet Mars, according to the researchers.<ref name="CNN-20191115">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/11/15/health/astronaut-blood-flow-clot-scn-trnd/index.html|title=Astronauts experienced reverse blood flow and blood clots on the space station, study says|last=Strickland|first=Ashley|date=15 November 2019|access-date=16 November 2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811175409/https://edition.cnn.com/2019/11/15/health/astronaut-blood-flow-clot-scn-trnd/index.html|archive-date=11 August 2023|publisher=CNN}}</ref><ref name="JAMA-20191113">{{Cite journal|last=Marshall-Goebel|first=Karina|display-authors=et al.|date=13 November 2019|title=Assessment of Jugular Venous Blood Flow Stasis and Thrombosis During Spaceflight|journal=[[JAMA Network Open]]|volume=2|issue=11|pages=e1915011|doi=10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.15011|pmc=6902784|pmid=31722025}}</ref>

====Stress====
There is considerable evidence that [[psychosocial]] stressors are among the most important impediments to optimal crew morale and performance.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Suedfeld|first1=Peter|author1-link=Peter Suedfeld|last2=Wilk|first2=Kasia E.|last3=Cassel|first3=Lindi|contribution=Flying with Strangers: Postmission Reflections of Multinational Space Crews|title=Psychology of Space Exploration, Contemporary Research in Historical Perspective|editor-last=Vakoch|editor-first=Douglas A.|year=2011|publisher=CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform|pages=143–176|isbn=978-1-46999770-4}}</ref> Cosmonaut [[Valery Ryumin]] wrote in his journal during a particularly difficult period on board the [[Salyut 6|''Salyut'' 6]] space station: "All the conditions necessary for murder are met if you shut two men in a cabin measuring 18 feet by 20 [5.5&nbsp;m × 6&nbsp;m] and leave them together for two months."

NASA's interest in [[Stress (psychological)|psychological stress]] caused by space travel, initially studied when their crewed missions began, was rekindled when astronauts joined cosmonauts on the Russian space station ''Mir''. Common sources of stress in early US missions included maintaining high performance under public scrutiny and isolation from peers and family. The latter is still often a cause of stress on the ISS, such as when the mother of NASA astronaut [[Daniel M. Tani|Daniel Tani]] died in a car accident, and when Michael Fincke was forced to miss the birth of his second child.

A study of the longest spaceflight concluded that the first three weeks are a critical period where attention is adversely affected because of the demand to adjust to the extreme change of environment.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Manzey|first1=D.|last2=Lorenz|first2=B.|last3=Poljakov|first3=V.|year=1998|title=Mental performance in extreme environments: Results from a performance monitoring study during a 438-day spaceflight|journal=Ergonomics|volume=41|issue=4|pages=537–559|doi=10.1080/001401398186991|pmid=9557591}}</ref> ISS crew flights typically last about five to six months.

The ISS working environment includes further stress caused by living and working in cramped conditions with people from very different cultures who speak a different language. First-generation space stations had crews who spoke a single language; second- and third-generation stations have crew from many cultures who speak many languages. Astronauts must speak English and Russian, and knowing additional languages is even better.<ref>{{cite web|date=23 August 2004|title=Behind the Scenes: The Making of an Astronaut|url=https://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/support/training/isstraining/index.html|publisher=NASA|access-date=29 June 2018|archive-date=19 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160719025001/http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/support/training/isstraining/index.html}}</ref>

Due to the lack of gravity, confusion often occurs. Even though there is no up and down in space, some crew members feel like they are oriented upside down. They may also have difficulty measuring distances. This can cause problems like getting lost inside the space station, pulling switches in the wrong direction or misjudging the speed of an approaching vehicle during docking.<ref name="bbc-20141007">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20141007-why-astronauts-get-space-stupid|title=Why astronauts get the 'space stupids'|last=Robson|first=David|date=7 October 2014|publisher=BBC|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811164510/https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20141007-why-astronauts-get-space-stupid|archive-date=11 August 2023}}</ref>

====Medical====
[[File:Frank De Winne on treadmill cropped.jpg|thumb|Astronaut [[Frank De Winne]], attached to the [[Treadmill with Vibration Isolation Stabilization|TVIS treadmill]] with bungee cords aboard the ISS|alt=A man running on a treadmill, smiling at the camera, with bungee cords stretching down from his waistband to the sides of the treadmill]]
The [[physiology|physiological]] effects of long-term weightlessness include [[muscle atrophy]], deterioration of the skeleton ([[spaceflight osteopenia|osteopenia]]), fluid redistribution, a slowing of the cardiovascular system, decreased production of red blood cells, balance disorders, and a weakening of the immune system. Lesser symptoms include loss of body mass, and puffiness of the face.<ref name="JCB" />

Sleep is regularly disturbed on the ISS because of mission demands, such as incoming or departing spacecraft. Sound levels in the station are unavoidably high. The atmosphere is unable to [[thermosiphon]] naturally, so fans are required at all times to process the air which would stagnate in the freefall (zero-G) environment.

To prevent some of the adverse effects on the body, the station is equipped with: two [[Treadmill with Vibration Isolation Stabilization|TVIS]] treadmills (including the COLBERT); the [[ARED]] (Advanced Resistive Exercise Device), which enables various weightlifting exercises that add muscle without raising (or compensating for) the astronauts' reduced bone density;<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Schneider|first1=S. M.|last2=Amonette|first2=W. E.|last3=Blazine|first3=K.|last4=Bentley|first4=J.|last5=c. Lee|first5=S. M.|last6=Loehr|first6=J. A.|last7=Moore|first7=A. D.|last8=Rapley|first8=M.|last9=Mulder|first9=E. R. |last10=Smith |first10=S. M.|year=2003|title=Training with the International Space Station Interim Resistive Exercise Device|journal=Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise|volume=35|issue=11|pages=1935–1945|doi=10.1249/01.MSS.0000093611.88198.08|pmid=14600562|doi-access=free}}</ref> and a stationary bicycle. Each astronaut spends at least two hours per day exercising on the equipment.<ref name="ESALife" /><ref name="NASACrewEquip" /> Astronauts use bungee cords to strap themselves to the treadmill.<ref>{{cite web|date=16 June 2009|title=Bungee Cords Keep Astronauts Grounded While Running|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/behindscenes/bungee_running.html|access-date=23 August 2009|publisher=NASA|archive-date=15 August 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090815015910/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/behindscenes/bungee_running.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Kauderer|first=Amiko|date=19 August 2009|title=Do Tread on Me|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/behindscenes/colbert_feature.html|access-date=23 August 2009|publisher=NASA|archive-date=21 August 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090821165909/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/behindscenes/colbert_feature.html}}</ref>

==Life aboard==
===Living quarters===
[[File:Nikolai Budarin in a sleep station in Zvezda.jpg|thumb|Cosmonaut [[Nikolai Budarin]] at work inside the ''[[Zvezda (ISS module)|Zvezda]]'' service module crew quarters]]The living and working space aboard the International Space Station (ISS) is larger than a six-bedroom house, equipped with seven private sleeping quarters, three bathrooms, two dining rooms, a gym, and a panoramic 360-degree-view bay window.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Howell |first=Elizabeth |date=24 August 2022 |title=International Space Station: Facts, History & Tracking |url=https://www.space.com/16748-international-space-station.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401024329/https://www.space.com/16748-international-space-station.html |archive-date=1 April 2019 |access-date=27 April 2024 |website=Space.com}}</ref>

The station provides dedicated crew quarters for long-term crew members. Two are located in ''Zvezda'', one in ''Nauka'', and four in ''Harmony''.<ref name="roscomos-20210811">{{Cite web |date=11 August 2021 |title=Новости. Космонавт рассказал, кто может первым заселиться в модуль "Наука" на МКС |trans-title=A cosmonaut explained who can be the first to settle in the 'Nauka' module on the ISS |url=https://www.roscosmos.ru/32150/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220822052138/https://www.roscosmos.ru/32150/ |archive-date=22 August 2022 |access-date=12 August 2021 |publisher=[[Roscosmos]] |language=ru}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=6 December 2010 |title=At Home with Commander Scott Kelly (Video) |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q4dG9vSyUFQ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/Q4dG9vSyUFQ |archive-date=11 December 2021 |access-date=8 May 2011 |publisher=NASA |location=International Space Station}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="roscomos-nauka-booklet">{{Cite web |title=Nauka module prelaunch booklet |url=https://www.roscosmos.ru/media/files/nauka.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220822181356/https://www.roscosmos.ru/media/files/nauka.pdf |archive-date=22 August 2022 |publisher=[[Roscosmos]]}}</ref><ref name="sae-08ICES-0222">{{Cite conference |last1=Broyan |first1=James Lee |last2=Borrego |first2=Melissa Ann |last3=Bahr |first3=Juergen F. |year=2008 |title=International Space Station USOS Crew Quarters Development |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20080013462/downloads/20080013462.pdf |conference=International Conference on Environmental Systems |location=San Francisco, California |publisher=[[SAE International]] |volume=38 |id=08ICES-0222 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231118224703/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20080013462/downloads/20080013462.pdf |archive-date=18 November 2023 |access-date=8 May 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> These soundproof, person-sized booths offer privacy, ventilation, and basic amenities such as a sleeping bag, a reading lamp, and storage for personal items.<ref name="ESALife">{{Cite web |date=19 July 2004 |title=Daily life |url=https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Astronauts/Daily_life |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812210927/https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Astronauts/Daily_life |archive-date=12 August 2023 |access-date=28 October 2009 |publisher=[[European Space Agency]]}}</ref><ref name="NASACrewEquip">{{cite web |last=Mansfield |first=Cheryl L. |date=7 November 2008 |title=Station Prepares for Expanding Crew |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/behindscenes/126_payload.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204054653/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/behindscenes/126_payload.html |archive-date=4 December 2008 |access-date=17 September 2009 |publisher=NASA}}</ref><ref name="CSALife">{{cite web |title=Living and Working on the International Space Station |url=http://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/pdf/educator-liv_wor_iss.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090419045323/http://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/pdf/educator-liv_wor_iss.pdf |archive-date=19 April 2009 |access-date=28 October 2009 |publisher=CSA}}</ref> The quarters in ''Zvezda'' include a small window but have less ventilation and soundproofing.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20080013462/downloads/20080013462.pdf |title=International Space Station USOS Crew Quarters Development |last1=Broyan, Jr. |first1=James Lee |last2=Borrego |first2=Melissa Ann |last3=Bahr |first3=Juergen F. |date=2008}}</ref>

Visiting crew members use tethered sleeping bags attached to available wall space or inside their spacecraft. While it is possible to sleep floating freely, this is generally avoided to prevent collisions with sensitive equipment.<ref name="SRLife">{{Cite news |last=Malik |first=Tariq |date=27 July 2009 |title=Sleeping in Space is Easy, But There's No Shower |url=https://www.space.com/7060-sleeping-space-easy-shower.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812222844/https://www.space.com/7060-sleeping-space-easy-shower.html |archive-date=12 August 2023 |access-date=29 October 2009 |work=[[Space.com]]}}</ref> Proper ventilation is critical, as astronauts risk oxygen deprivation if exhaled carbon dioxide accumulates in a bubble around their heads.<ref name="ESALife" />

The station's lighting system is adjustable, allowing for dimming, switching off, and [[color temperature]] changes to support crew activities and rest.<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yNgMzNN23kE |title=Bedtime in space |time={{time needed|date=September 2019}} |access-date=21 September 2019 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/yNgMzNN23kE |archive-date=11 December 2021 |url-status=live |via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="nasa-stem-sleepscience">{{Cite web |date=13 December 2018 |title=STEMonstrations: Sleep Science |url=https://images.nasa.gov/details-jsc2018m000902-STEMonstrations_Sleep_Science_MP4 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125172450/https://images.nasa.gov/details-jsc2018m000902-STEMonstrations_Sleep_Science_MP4 |archive-date=25 November 2023 |access-date=13 June 2020 |website=NASA Image and Video Library |publisher=[[NASA]] |format=AV media |id=jsc2018m000902-STEMonstrations_Sleep_Science_MP4}}</ref>

===Crew activities===
[[File:Exp18home nasa big.jpg|thumb|Engineer [[Gregory Chamitoff]] looking out of a window|left]]

The ISS operates on [[Coordinated Universal Time]] (UTC).<ref name="bbc-iss-timezone">{{Cite magazine |last=Mitchell |first=Gareth |title=What time zone do they use on the International Space Station? |url=https://www.sciencefocus.com/space/what-time-zone-do-they-use-on-the-international-space-station/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324101052/https://www.sciencefocus.com/space/what-time-zone-do-they-use-on-the-international-space-station/ |archive-date=24 March 2023 |access-date=26 May 2021 |magazine=[[BBC Science Focus]]}}</ref> A typical day aboard the ISS begins at 06:00 with wake-up, post-sleep routines, and a morning inspection of the station. After breakfast, the crew holds a daily planning conference with Mission Control, starting work around 08:10. Morning tasks include scheduled exercise, scientific experiments, maintenance, or operational duties. Following a one-hour lunch break at 13:05, the crew resumes their afternoon schedule of work and exercise. Pre-sleep activities, including dinner and a crew conference, begin at 19:30, with the scheduled sleep period starting at 21:30.<ref name=":3">{{cite web |date=5 November 2008 |title=ISS Crew Timeline |url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/287386main_110508_tl.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160730044854/http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/287386main_110508_tl.pdf |archive-date=30 July 2016 |access-date=5 November 2008 |publisher=NASA}}</ref>

The crew works approximately 10 hours on weekdays and 5 hours on Saturdays, with the remaining time allocated for relaxation or catching up on tasks. Free time often involves enjoying personal hobbies, communicating with family, or gazing out at Earth through the station's windows.<ref name=":3" /> The crew can watch TV aboard the station.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Novak |first=Matt |date=4 August 2024 |title=Every TV Show Astronauts Can Watch on the ISS Right Now |url=https://gizmodo.com/every-tv-show-astronauts-can-watch-on-the-iss-right-now-1851567279 |access-date=13 February 2025 |work=Gizmodo |type=Digital}}</ref>

When the Space Shuttle was operating, the ISS crew aligned with the shuttle crew's [[Mission Elapsed Time]], a flexible schedule based on the shuttle's launch.<ref>{{cite web |title=NASA – Time in Space, A Space in Time |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/news/time_in_space.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150420050836/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/news/time_in_space.html |archive-date=20 April 2015 |access-date=5 May 2015 |website=nasa.gov}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=17 March 2013 |title=A Slice of Time Pie |url=http://blogs.nasa.gov/cm/blog/ISS%20Science%20Blog/posts/post_1340820317951.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130317075600/http://blogs.nasa.gov/cm/blog/ISS%20Science%20Blog/posts/post_1340820317951.html |archive-date=17 March 2013 |access-date=5 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Human Space Flight (HSF) – Crew Answers |url=http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/feedback/expert/answer/crew/sts-113/index_2.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721054011/http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/feedback/expert/answer/crew/sts-113/index_2.html |archive-date=21 July 2011 |access-date=5 May 2015 |website=spaceflight.nasa.gov}}</ref>

To simulate night conditions, the station's windows are covered during designated sleep periods, as the ISS experiences 16 sunrises and sunsets daily due to its orbital speed.

=== Reflection and material culture ===
Reflection of individual and crew characteristics are found particularly in the decoration of the station and expressions in general, such as religion.<ref name="z534">{{cite web|last=Archaeology|first=ISS|title=Religious life on ISS|website=ISS Archaeology|date=11 November 2017|url=https://issarchaeology.org/religious-life-on-iss/|access-date=22 July 2024}}</ref> The latter has produced a certain material economy between the station and Russia in particular.<ref name="q938">{{cite journal|last1=Salmond|first1=Wendy|last2=Walsh|first2=Justin|last3=Gorman|first3=Alice|title=Eternity in Low Earth Orbit: Icons on the International Space Station|journal=Religions|volume=11|issue=11|date=17 November 2020|issn=2077-1444|doi=10.3390/rel11110611|doi-access=free|page=611}}</ref>

The micro-society of the station, as well as wider society, and possibly the emergence of distinct station cultures,<ref name="p157">{{cite journal|last1=Walsh|first1=Justin St. P.|last2=Gorman|first2=Alice C.|last3=Salmond|first3=Wendy|title=Visual Displays in Space Station Culture: An Archaeological Analysis|journal=Current Anthropology|volume=62|issue=6|date=1 December 2021|issn=0011-3204|doi=10.1086/717778|pages=804–818|doi-access=free}}</ref> is being studied by analyzing many aspects, from art to dust accumulation, as well as archaeologically how material of the ISS has been discarded.<ref name="e121">{{cite web|title=Life and culture on the International Space Station|website=News|date=10 October 2021|url=https://news.flinders.edu.au/blog/2021/10/11/life-and-culture-on-the-international-space-station/|access-date=22 July 2024}}</ref>

===Food===
{{See also|Space food|Plants in space}}
[[File:ISS-43 Food table in the Unity module.jpg|thumb|Main dining desk in ''Unity'']]Food aboard the International Space Station (ISS) is preserved and packaged to withstand long storage times, minimize waste, and prevent contamination of station systems. Because microgravity dulls taste, meals are often seasoned more heavily than on Earth.<ref name="ESALife" /> Crews particularly look forward to resupply missions, which deliver perishable items such as fresh fruit and vegetables. To reduce the risk of crumbs and spills damaging equipment, foods are prepared in specialized packaging, liquid condiments are preferred over powdered ones, and containers are secured with Velcro or magnets. Drinks are delivered as powders to be mixed with water, while soups and beverages are sipped from plastic bags with straws.<ref name="NASACrewEquip" /><ref name="CSALife" /> Solid foods are eaten with utensils attached to trays by magnets, and any stray food must be collected to prevent it from clogging air filters and other systems.<ref name="CSALife" />

The first [[Galley (kitchen)|galley]] was installed in ''Zvezda'', equipped with an electro-resistive can warmer and a water dispenser for both hot and ambient water. Many Russian meals are still packaged in [[Steel and tin cans|cans]], which are eaten directly, while others are provided in [[retort pouch]]es rehydrated with the water dispenser.
[[File:Iss067e043370.jpg|thumb|The Expedition 67 crew during a group dinner in ''Unity'']]
A second galley was later added to ''Unity'' to support the station's larger crew. It contains two briefcase-shaped food warmers, a refrigerator (added in 2008), and a water dispenser.<ref name="NASACrewEquip" /> Most food in the U.S. Orbital Segment is packaged in retort pouches, which are rehydrated if necessary and heated or chilled in a food warmer or refrigerator as desired.

While crews occasionally gather for group meals in ''Unity'', especially during holidays or special occasions, they more often eat in small groups because of differing schedules. Russian cosmonauts also retain the option of dining separately in ''Zvezda'', where the can warmer is located. With the growing diversity of NASA's astronaut corps and the large number of international astronauts who have flown to the ISS, the variety of food available has expanded significantly. Efforts are made to provide meals that reflect astronauts' cultural backgrounds and personal preferences, and food is often shared among crew members.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Uri |first=John |date=2020-08-14 |title=Space Station 20th: Food on ISS |url=https://www.nasa.gov/history/space-station-20th-food-on-iss/ |access-date=2025-09-21 |website=NASA |language=en-US}}</ref>

[[File:ScienceCasts- Historic Vegetable Moment on the Space Station.webm|thumb|Fresh vegetables are grown on ISS]]
Experiments have also been conducted aboard the ISS to grow fresh vegetables in orbit.<ref name="semp">{{Cite web |last=Sempsrotti |first=Danielle |date=December 8, 2023 |title=Growing Plants in Space |url=https://www.nasa.gov/exploration-research-and-technology/growing-plants-in-space/ |access-date=2025-09-21 |website=NASA |language=en-US}}</ref> These studies aim to supplement astronauts' diets with additional nutrients, provide psychological benefits, and advance space agricultural techniques needed for long-duration missions to the Moon and Mars.<ref name=semp/> As of 2023, crops grown include three types of [[lettuce]], [[Chinese cabbage]], [[mizuna|mizuna mustard]], and red Russian [[kale]].<ref name=semp/> Some of the plants are harvested and eaten by the crew, while others were returned to Earth for analysis. In the future, NASA plans to grow tomatoes and [[bell pepper|peppers]], and eventually berries, beans, and other nutrient-rich foods. Such crops could offer not only improved nutrition, but also potential protection against space radiation for crew members who consume them.<ref name=semp/>

=== Personal hygiene ===
{{multiple image
| align             = right
| total_width       = 250
| image1            = Zvezda toilet.jpg
| caption1          = The space toilet in the ''[[Zvezda (ISS module)|Zvezda]]'' module in the Russian segment
| image2            = Waste and hygiene compartment in the Destiny laboratory of the International Space Station - 20090412.jpg
| caption2          = The main toilet in the US Segment inside the ''[[Tranquility (ISS module)|Tranquility]]'' module
| caption3          = 
}}

The ISS is equipped with three Russian-designed toilets, located in ''Zvezda'', ''Tranquility'' and ''Nauka''.<ref name="NASACrewEquip" /><ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fJyMw5J-GsQ |title=Thomas tours the MLM module (in French with English subtitles available) |date=18 August 2021 |last=Pesquet |first=Thomas |publisher=ESA |access-date=29 August 2021 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/fJyMw5J-GsQ |archive-date=11 December 2021 |url-status=live |via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Inside these "Waste and Hygiene Compartments" the occupant fastens themselves to the toilet seat, which is equipped with spring-loaded restraining bars to ensure a proper seal.<ref name="ESALife" /> A lever activates a powerful fan while opening a suction port at the bottom of the toilet bowl, and the airstream carries waste away. Solid waste is stored in individual bags placed in an aluminium container, which is later transferred to cargo spacecraft that will burn up on reentry.<ref name="NASACrewEquip" /><ref>{{cite web |last=Lu |first=Ed |date=8 September 2003 |title=Greetings Earthling |url=http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/station/crew/exp7/luletters/lu_letter9.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120901183936/http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/station/crew/exp7/luletters/lu_letter9.html |archive-date=1 September 2012 |access-date=1 November 2009 |publisher=NASA}}</ref> Liquid waste is collected through a hose with anatomically shaped funnel adapters so that both men and women can use the same system. The [[Urine diversion|urine is diverted]] to the Water Recovery System, where it is processed into drinking water.<ref name="CSALife" />

Showers were first introduced on space stations in the early 1970s aboard ''Skylab'' and ''Salyut''&nbsp;3.<ref name="livingandworking">{{Cite web |last1=Benson |first1=Charles Dunlap |last2=Compton |first2=William David |date=January 1983 |title=Living and Working in Space: A History of Skylab |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4208/contents.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124155632/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4208/contents.htm |archive-date=24 November 2023 |publisher=[[NASA]] |id=SP-4208}}</ref>{{rp|139}}<!--<ref name="belew1977" />{{rp|80}}--> However, crews complained about the complexity of showering, and by the time of ''Salyut 6'' in the early 1980s, it had been reduced to a monthly activity.<ref name="Portree1995-86">{{Cite tech report |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4225/documentation/mhh/mirheritage.pdf |title=Mir Hardware Heritage |last=Portree |first=David S. F. |date=March 1995 |page=86 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810130808/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4225/documentation/mhh/mirheritage.pdf |url-status=live |archive-date=10 August 2023 |publisher=[[NASA]] |oclc=755272548 |id=Reference Publication 1357}}</ref> The ISS, like later Russian stations after has no shower; instead, astronauts clean themselves with wet wipes or with a water jet and using soap dispensed from a toothpaste-like tube. Rinseless shampoo and edible toothpaste are also provided to conserve water.<ref name="SRLife" /><ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uIjNfZbUYu8 |title=Karen Nyberg Shows How You Wash Hair in Space |date=12 July 2013 |last=Nyberg |first=Karen |publisher=NASA |access-date=6 June 2015 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/uIjNfZbUYu8 |archive-date=11 December 2021 |url-status=live |via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

==End of mission==
[[File:Jules Verne Automated Transfer Vehicle re-enters Earth's atmosphere.jpg|thumb|right|Many ISS resupply spacecraft have already undergone [[Atmospheric entry|atmospheric re-entry]], such as [[Jules Verne ATV|''Jules Verne'' ATV]].]]

The ISS was originally intended for a 15-year mission, but the mission has been repeatedly extended due to its success and support.<ref name="s750">{{cite web|title=Future Plans for the International Space Station|website=NASA|date=24 July 2022|url=https://www.nasa.gov/missions/station/iss-research/ad-astra-future-plans-for-the-international-space-station/|access-date=20 July 2024}}</ref><ref name="q972">{{cite web|title=The ISS was never supposed to end like this|publisher=NBC News|date=22 February 2018|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/mach/science/iss-was-never-supposed-end-ncna848771|access-date=20 July 2024}}</ref> As a result, the oldest modules of the ISS have been in orbit for more than 20 years.

The US planned in 2009 to deorbit the ISS in 2016.<ref name="q972"/> But on 30 September 2015, Boeing's contract with NASA as prime contractor for the ISS was extended to 30 September 2020. Part of Boeing's services under the contract related to extending the station's primary structural hardware past 2020 to the end of 2028.<ref name="spacedaily-20150930">{{Cite news|url=https://www.spacedaily.com/reports/NASA_extends_Boeing_contract_for_International_Space_Station_999.html|title=NASA extends Boeing contract for International Space Station|last=Maass|first=Ryan|date=30 September 2015|access-date=2 October 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230824213345/https://www.spacedaily.com/reports/NASA_extends_Boeing_contract_for_International_Space_Station_999.html|archive-date=24 August 2023|work=Space Daily|agency=[[United Press International|UPI]]}}</ref> In July 2018, the Space Frontier Act of 2018 was intended to extend operations of the ISS to 2030. This bill was unanimously approved in the Senate, but failed to pass in the U.S. House.<ref name="nelson-20181020">{{cite web|date=22 December 2018|title=Commercial space bill dies in the House|url=https://spacenews.com/commercial-space-bill-dies-in-the-house/|access-date=18 March 2019|website=SpaceNews.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Cruz|first=Ted|date=21 December 2018|title=S.3277 – 115th Congress (2017–2018): Space Frontier Act of 2018|url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/senate-bill/3277|access-date=18 March 2019|publisher=United States Congress|archive-date=9 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190109091955/https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/senate-bill/3277|url-status=live}}</ref> In September 2018, the Leading Human Spaceflight Act was introduced with the intent to extend operations of the ISS to 2030, and was confirmed in December 2018.<ref name="auto">{{Cite tweet|number=1075840067569139712|user=SenBillNelson|title=The Senate just passed my bill to help commercial space companies launch more than one rocket a day from Florida! This is an exciting bill that will help create jobs and keep rockets roaring from the Cape. It also extends the International Space Station to 2030!|first=Bill|last=Nelson|date=20 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200606083410/https://twitter.com/SenBillNelson/status/1075840067569139712|archive-date=6 June 2020|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite web|date=27 September 2018|title=House joins Senate in push to extend ISS|url=https://spacenews.com/house-joins-senate-in-push-to-extend-iss/|access-date=9 May 2021|website=SpaceNews|archive-date=21 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230221112740/https://spacenews.com/house-joins-senate-in-push-to-extend-iss/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Babin|first=Brian|date=26 September 2018|title=H.R.6910 – 115th Congress (2017–2018): Leading Human Spaceflight Act|url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/house-bill/6910|access-date=18 March 2019|publisher=United States Congress|archive-date=12 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190112142740/https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/house-bill/6910|url-status=live}}</ref> Congress later passed similar provisions in its [[CHIPS and Science Act]], signed into law by U.S. President [[Joe Biden]] on 9 August 2022.<ref name="politico-20220809">{{Cite news|url=https://www.politico.com/news/2022/08/09/biden-ends-slog-on-semiconductor-bill-with-signature-00050530|title=Biden ends slog on semiconductor bill with signature|last=Johnson|first=Lamar|date=9 August 2022|access-date=24 August 2022|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230621192521/https://www.politico.com/news/2022/08/09/biden-ends-slog-on-semiconductor-bill-with-signature-00050530|archive-date=21 June 2023|work=[[Politico]]}}</ref><ref name="Errick 2022">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nextgov.com/emerging-tech/2022/08/nasa-authorization-act-aims-strengthen-us-space-exploration/375394/|title=NASA Authorization Act Aims to Strengthen U.S. Space Exploration|last=Errick|first=Kirsten|date=4 August 2022|access-date=24 August 2022|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810144458/https://www.nextgov.com/emerging-tech/2022/08/nasa-authorization-act-aims-strengthen-us-space-exploration/375394/|archive-date=10 August 2023|work=Nextgov.com}}</ref>

NASA has suggested extending ISS operations beyond 2030 if [[Commercial LEO Destinations program|Commercial LEO Destinations providers]] prove insufficient to accommodate NASA's needs.<ref name="2024DV">{{Cite tech report|url=https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/iss-deorbit-analysis-summary.pdf?emrc=669c48a232340|title=International Space Station Deorbit Analysis Summary|date=July 2024|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=21 July 2024|quote=If there are no commercial LEO destinations ready to support NASA’s ongoing needs in LEO by 2030, extension of space station operations is a possibility. }}</ref> In February 2026, during a vote to approve the NASA Reauthorization Act of 2026, members of the [[United States House Committee on Science, Space, and Technology]] introduced an amendment requiring NASA to explore the feasibility of relocating the ISS to a safe orbital harbor following its end-of-life so that it can be preserved for potential re-use, as an alternative to destructive atmospheric re-entry, with the amendment submitted by [[George T. Whitesides]] with bipartisan support from [[Nick Begich III]], [[Brian Babin]] and [[Don Beyer]].<ref name="store">{{cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/02/congress-advances-bill-requiring-nasa-to-reconsider-deorbiting-space-station/|title=Lawmakers ask what it would take to “store” the International Space Station|author=Stephen Clark|date=7 February 2026|website=Ars Technica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260207063243/https://arstechnica.com/space/2026/02/congress-advances-bill-requiring-nasa-to-reconsider-deorbiting-space-station/|archive-date=7 February 2026|url-status=live}}</ref>

In a January 2026 plan, [[Axiom Station]], while a segment of the ISS, would pick up and use established science hardware and the [[Canadarm2]] from the ISS.<ref name="v614"/><ref name="axiom-assembly"/>

Russia meanwhile has stated that it plans to pull out of the ISS program after 2025.<ref name="y941"/> However, Russian modules will provide [[orbital station-keeping]] until 2028.<ref name="w234">{{cite web|title=What will replace the International Space Station?|website=BBC Sky at Night Magazine|date=7 December 2023|url=https://www.skyatnightmagazine.com/space-missions/replace-international-space-station|access-date=20 July 2024}}</ref> Recommendations by the U.S.-Russian Joint Commission identified the thrusters of the [[Russian Orbital Segment|Russian ISS segment]] as a deorbit backup.<ref name="v629"/> In late 2025 Russia has under budget constraints reconsidered [[Russian Orbital Service Station|their future space station plans]] to again include modules from the ISS.<ref name="s157"/>

===End of mission considerations===
The reliability of the station has decreased over its longer than designed operation.<ref name="w234"/> Astronauts have been having to spend half of their time on station maintenance,<ref name="s157">{{cite web | last=Berger | first=Eric | title=Russia is about to do the most Russia thing ever with its next space station | website=Ars Technica | date=2025-12-19 | url=https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/12/russia-is-about-to-do-the-most-russia-thing-ever-with-its-next-space-station/ | access-date=2026-03-29}}</ref> and air leaks, as well as mold, have increasingly called the safety of the station into doubt.<ref name="v629">{{cite web | title=U.S.-Russian ISS Commission: Controlled Deorbit, No Gap, are Imperatives | website=SpacePolicyOnline.com – Your first stop for news | date=2025-04-24 | url=https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/u-s-russian-iss-commission-controlled-deorbit-no-gap-are-imperatives/ | access-date=2026-03-29}}</ref> Furthermore [[Orbital station-keeping|station-keeping]] needs funds, which have been suggested to be used elsewhere, while its preservation, as an institution or landmark, has also been raised.<ref name="q972"/><ref name="store"/>

An unmaintained station would pose a [[space debris]] and [[re-entry]] hazard. According to the [[Outer Space Treaty]], the parties are legally responsible for all spacecraft or modules they launch.<ref name="outerspacetreaty">{{Cite book|url=https://www.unoosa.org/pdf/publications/STSPACE11E.pdf|title=United Nations Treaties and Principles on Outer Space|year=2002|publisher=[[United Nations]]|location=New York|isbn=92-1-100900-6|id=ST/SPACE/11|access-date=8 October 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107063629/https://www.unoosa.org/pdf/publications/STSPACE11E.pdf|archive-date=7 November 2023}}</ref>

===Post mission===
NASA considered originally several possible options for the station's fate after its mission: natural orbital decay with random reentry (as with Skylab), boosting the station to a higher altitude (which would delay reentry), and a controlled de-orbit targeting a remote ocean area.<ref name="ISSEIS">{{Cite tech report|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19960053133/downloads/19960053133.pdf|title=Final Tier 2 Environmental Impact Statement for International Space Station|date=May 1996|publisher=[[NASA]]|id=TM-111720|access-date=12 July 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407113700/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19960053133/downloads/19960053133.pdf|archive-date=7 April 2023}} {{PD-notice}}</ref>

====De-orbiting plans====
NASA determined that random reentry carried an unacceptable risk of producing hazardous space debris that could hit people or property and re-boosting the station would be costly and could also create hazards.

Prior to 2010, plans had contemplated using a slightly modified Progress spacecraft to de-orbit the ISS. However, NASA concluded Progress would not be adequate for the job, and decided on a spacecraft specifically designed for the task.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.planetary.org/articles/how-nasa-plans-to-deorbit-the-international-space-station|title=How NASA plans to deorbit the International Space Station|first=Jason|last=Davis|date=21 November 2023|publisher=[[The Planetary Society]]|access-date=8 June 2024}}</ref>

{{Location map | Pacific Ocean
| width = 220
| lon_deg  = 142
| lon_min  = 43
| lon_sec  = 12
| lon_dir  = W
| lat_deg  = 43
| lat_min  = 34
| lat_sec  = 48
| lat_dir  = S
| mark     = Cercle rouge 100%.svg
| marksize = 20
| caption  = Destination of the deorbiting ISS: the [[spacecraft cemetery]] (roughly centered on "[[Pole of inaccessibility#Oceanic pole of inaccessibility|Point Nemo]]", the [[Pole of inaccessibility#Oceanic pole of inaccessibility|oceanic pole of inaccessibility]]) in the Pacific Ocean
}}

In January 2022, NASA announced a planned date of January 2031 to de-orbit the ISS using the "U.S. Deorbit Vehicle" and direct any remnants into a remote area of the South Pacific Ocean that has come to be known as the [[spacecraft cemetery]].<ref name="sky-20220201">{{Cite news|url=https://news.sky.com/story/nasa-plans-to-take-international-space-station-out-of-orbit-in-january-2031-by-crashing-it-into-spacecraft-cemetery-12530194|title=NASA plans to take International Space Station out of orbit in January 2031 by crashing it into 'spacecraft cemetery'|date=1 February 2022|access-date=1 February 2022|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231010112515/https://news.sky.com/story/nasa-plans-to-take-international-space-station-out-of-orbit-in-january-2031-by-crashing-it-into-spacecraft-cemetery-12530194|archive-date=10 October 2023|publisher=[[Sky News]]}}</ref> NASA plans to launch the deorbit vehicle in 2030, docking at the Harmony forward port.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Harwood|first=William|date=18 July 2024|title=NASA plans for space station's demise with new SpaceX 'Deorbit Vehicle'|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2024/07/18/nasa-plans-for-space-stations-demise-with-new-spacex-deorbit-vehicle/|access-date=9 August 2024|website=Spaceflight Now}}</ref> The deorbit vehicle will remain attached, dormant, for about a year as the station's orbit naturally decays to {{cvt|220|km}}. The spacecraft would then conduct one or more orientation burns to lower the perigee to {{cvt|150|km}}, followed by a final deorbiting burn.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Foust|first=Jeff|date=9 May 2023|title=NASA proposes 'hybrid' contract approach for space station deorbit vehicle|url=https://spacenews.com/nasa-proposals-hybrid-contract-approach-for-space-station-deorbit-vehicle/|access-date=10 May 2023|website=SpaceNews}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Casillas|first=Beverly|date=25 July 2024|title=NASA, SpaceX Share Updates on ISS Deorbit Vehicle|url=https://www.spacescout.info/2024/07/nasa-spacex-share-updates-on-iss-deorbit-vehicle/|access-date=9 August 2024|website=Space Scout}}</ref>

NASA began planning for the deorbit vehicle after becoming wary of Russia pulling out of the ISS abruptly, leaving the other partners with few good options for a controlled reentry.<ref name="Nelson">{{Cite web|last=Foust|first=Jeff|date=1 May 2024|title=Nelson lobbies Congress to fund ISS deorbit vehicle in supplemental spending bill|url=https://spacenews.com/nelson-lobbies-congress-to-fund-iss-deorbit-vehicle-in-supplemental-spending-bill/|access-date=3 May 2024|website=SpaceNews}}</ref> In June 2024, NASA selected SpaceX to develop the U.S. Deorbit Vehicle, a contract potentially worth $843 million. The vehicle will consist of an existing [[SpaceX Dragon 2|Cargo Dragon]] spacecraft which will be paired with a significantly lengthened [[Service module|trunk module]] which will be equipped with 46 Draco thrusters (instead of the normal 16) and will carry {{Convert|30000|kg|abbr=on}} of propellant, nearly six times the normal load. NASA is still working to secure all the necessary funding to build, launch and operate the deorbit vehicle.<ref name=":2b" /><ref name="Nelson" />

On 20 February 2025, [[Elon Musk]], CEO of SpaceX and [[Senior Advisor to the President of the United States|Senior Advisor to President Trump]], suggested in a tweet that the International Space Station be de-orbited "two years from now" as Musk believes the station has "served its purpose" and has "very little incremental utility". Despite this, no official decisions on moving up the de-orbiting date have been made yet by the president.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Foust |first=Jeff |date=2025-02-20 |title=Musk calls for deorbiting ISS "as soon as possible" |url=https://spacenews.com/musk-calls-for-deorbiting-iss-as-soon-as-possible/ |access-date=2025-03-01 |website=SpaceNews |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kekatos |first=Mary |title=Elon Musk calls for deorbiting of the ISS. Here's what the space station does |url=https://abcnews.go.com/US/elon-musk-calls-deorbiting-iss-space-station/story?id=119037770 |access-date=2025-03-01 |website=ABC News |language=en |publication-date=2025-02-22}}</ref>

===Follow up plans===
The follow-up to NASA's program/strategy is the [[Commercial LEO Destinations program|Commercial LEO Destinations Program]], meant to allow private industry to build and maintain their own stations, and NASA procuring access as a customer, starting in 2028.<ref name="f400">{{cite web|title=How NASA plans to deorbit the International Space Station|publisher=The Planetary Society|date=21 November 2023|url=https://www.planetary.org/articles/how-nasa-plans-to-deorbit-the-international-space-station|access-date=20 July 2024}}</ref> Similarly, the ESA has been seeking new private space stations to provide orbital services, as well as retrieve materials, from the ISS.<ref name="s075">{{cite web|last=Lea|first=Robert|title=European Space Agency signs on to upcoming 'Starlab' space station|website=Space.com|date=14 November 2023|url=https://www.space.com/starlab-space-station-esa-airbus-voyager-space|access-date=20 July 2024}}</ref><ref name="y695">{{cite news|last=Speed|first=Richard|title=ESA to fetch stuff from space before ISS takes the plunge|website=The Register|date=23 May 2024|url=https://www.theregister.com/2024/05/23/esa_iss_retrieval/|access-date=20 July 2024}}</ref> [[Axiom Station]] is planned to begin as a single module temporarily hosted at the ISS in 2027.<ref name="sn-20241218" /> Additionally, there have been suggestions in the commercial space industry that the ISS could be converted to commercial operations after it is retired by government entities,<ref name="trump-budget-request">{{Cite news|url=https://www.theverge.com/2018/1/24/16930154/nasa-international-space-station-president-trump-budget-request-2025|title=Trump administration wants to end NASA funding for the International Space Station by 2025|last=Grush|first=Loren|date=24 January 2018|access-date=24 April 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810131807/https://www.theverge.com/2018/1/24/16930154/nasa-international-space-station-president-trump-budget-request-2025|archive-date=10 August 2023|work=[[The Verge]]}}</ref> including turning it into a space hotel.<ref name="q972"/>

Russia previously has planned to use its orbital segment for the construction of its [[Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex|OPSEK]] station after the ISS is decommissioned. The modules under consideration for removal from the current ISS included the Multipurpose Laboratory Module (''Nauka''; ''MLM''), launched in July 2021, and the other new Russian modules that are proposed to be attached to ''Nauka''. These newly launched modules would still be well within their useful lives in 2024.<ref name="RussiaSave">{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8064060.stm|title=Russia 'to save its ISS modules'|last=Zak|first=Anatoly|date=22 May 2009|access-date=23 May 2009|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230624122107/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8064060.stm|archive-date=24 June 2023|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> At the end of 2011, the [[Exploration Gateway Platform]] concept also proposed using leftover USOS hardware and ''Zvezda 2'' as a refuelling depot and service station located at one of the Earth–Moon [[Lagrange points]]. However, the entire USOS was not designed for disassembly and will be discarded.<ref>{{cite web|title=DC-1 and MIM-2|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/iss_dc.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090210130224/http://www.russianspaceweb.com/iss_dc.html|archive-date=10 February 2009|access-date=12 July 2011|website=RussianSpaceWeb}}</ref>

In 2022, companies such as CisLunar suggested using the ISS as a platform to develop orbital salvage capacities. They propose to repurpose components from the station, or at least to use space debris for its raw materials, or fuel,<ref name="g664">{{cite web|last=Manov|first=Elyse|title=Neumann Drive to fuel US Space Force project – SASIC|website=SASIC|date=16 May 2023|url=https://sasic.sa.gov.au/events-news-media/news/neumann-drive-to-fuel-us-space-force-project/|access-date=21 July 2024}}</ref> instead of plunging it into the ocean.<ref name="y941">{{cite web|last=O'Callaghan|first=Jonathan|title=A fiery end? How the ISS will end its life in orbit|publisher=BBC Home|date=3 May 2023|url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20230502-a-fiery-end-how-the-iss-will-end-its-life-in-orbit|access-date=20 July 2024}}</ref>

In July 2024, NASA stated that it had not seen any viable proposals for reuse of the ISS or parts of it.<ref name="2024DV"/>

==Cost==
The ISS has been described as the [[Lists of most expensive items by category|most expensive single item]] ever constructed.<ref name="zidbits-expensive">{{Cite web|url=http://zidbits.com/?p=19|title=What Is The Most Expensive Object Ever Built?|date=6 November 2010|access-date=22 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210805150710/https://zidbits.com/?p=19|archive-date=5 August 2021|website=Zidbits.com}}</ref> As of 2010, the total cost was US$150&nbsp;billion. This includes [[NASA]]'s budget of $58.7&nbsp;billion ($89.73&nbsp;billion in 2021 dollars) for the station from 1985 to 2015, Russia's $12&nbsp;billion, Europe's $5&nbsp;billion, Japan's $5&nbsp;billion, Canada's $2&nbsp;billion, and the cost of 36 shuttle flights to build the station, estimated at $1.4&nbsp;billion each, or $50.4&nbsp;billion in total. Assuming 20,000 man-days of use from 2000 to 2015 by two- to six-person crews, each man-day would cost $7.5&nbsp;million, less than half the inflation-adjusted $19.6&nbsp;million ($5.5&nbsp;million before inflation) per man-day of [[Skylab]].<ref name="lafleur20100308">{{Cite news|url=https://www.thespacereview.com/article/1579/1|title=Costs of US piloted programs|last=Lafleur, Claude|date=8 March 2010|access-date=18 February 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230801132840/https://www.thespacereview.com/article/1579/1|archive-date=1 August 2023|work=The Space Review}} See author correction in comments.</ref>

== In culture ==
The ISS has become an international symbol of human capabilities, particularly human cooperation and science,<ref name="w619">{{cite web|title=The International Space Station (ISS), humanity's shared orbital…|publisher=The Planetary Society|date=14 March 2019|url=https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/international-space-station|access-date=22 July 2024}}</ref> defining a cooperative international approach and period, instead of a looming [[Commercialization of space|commercialized]] and [[Militarization of space|militarized]] interplanetary world.<ref name="v592">{{cite web|last=McNulty|first=Stephen|title=The International Space Station was a symbol of solidarity. Its impending doom should worry us.|website=America Magazine|date=28 July 2022|url=https://www.americamagazine.org/politics-society/2022/07/28/international-space-station-russia-withdrawal-243434|access-date=22 July 2024}}</ref>

===Film ===
Beside numerous documentaries such as the IMAX documentaries ''[[Space Station 3D]]'' from 2002,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0290296/|title=Space Station 3D|publisher=IMDb|access-date=20 March 2022|archive-date=19 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319150635/https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0290296/|url-status=live}}</ref> or ''[[A Beautiful Planet]]'' from 2016,<ref>{{cite web|title=A Beautiful Planet – Experience Earth Like Never Before|url=http://abeautifulplanet.imax.com/|access-date=20 March 2022|work=abeautifulplanet.imax.com|archive-date=21 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160421182448/http://abeautifulplanet.imax.com/|url-status=live}}</ref> and films like ''[[Apogee of Fear]]'' (2012)<ref name="huffpost-20120114">{{Cite news|url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/richard-garriott-space-movie_n_1206198|title=Richard Garriott's "Apogee of Fear," First Sci Fi Movie Ever Shot in Space, Fails To Launch|last=Wall|first=Mike|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410150201/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/richard-garriott-space-movie_n_1206198|archive-date=10 April 2023|work=[[HuffPost]]}}</ref> and ''[[Yolki 5]]'' (2016)<ref name="ria-20161212">{{Cite web|url=https://ria.ru/rus_cinema/20161212/1483374933.html|title=Бекмамбетов: фильм "Елки-5" могут включить в книгу Гиннесса|trans-title=Bekmambetov: the movie 'Yolki-5' might be included in the Guinness Book of Records|date=12 December 2016|publisher=[[RIA Novosti]]|language=ru|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230427142206/https://ria.ru/20161212/1483374933.html|archive-date=27 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=Ёлки 5 в 720HD|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BdqByKDISFg|access-date=30 October 2023|language=ru|archive-date=30 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231030163850/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BdqByKDISFg&gl=US&hl=en|url-status=live}}</ref> the ISS is the subject of feature films such as ''[[The Day After Tomorrow]]'' (2004),<ref name="shaw2008">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/technoculturekey0000shaw|title=Technoculture: The Key Concepts|last=Shaw|first=Debra Benita|date=2008|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|page=67|isbn=978-1-84520-298-9}}</ref> ''[[Love (2011 film)|Love]]'' (2011),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1541874/|title=Love|publisher=IMDb|access-date=20 March 2022|archive-date=20 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220320185158/https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1541874/|url-status=live}}</ref> together with the Chinese station [[Tiangong 1]] in ''[[Gravity (2013 film)|Gravity]]'' (2013),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1454468/?ref_=ttpl_pl_tt|title=Gravity|publisher=IMDb|access-date=21 March 2022|archive-date=21 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220321195947/https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1454468/?ref_=ttpl_pl_tt|url-status=live}}</ref> ''[[Life (2017 film)|Life]]'' (2017),<ref name="sony-life">{{Cite web|title=Life|url=https://www.sonypictures.com/movies/life|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810132103/https://www.sonypictures.com/movies/life|archive-date=10 August 2023|access-date=20 March 2022|work=Sony Pictures|publisher=[[Sony Pictures]]}}</ref> and ''[[I.S.S. (film)|I.S.S.]]'' (2023).<ref>{{Cite magazine|last=Coggan|first=Devan|date=4 December 2023|title=Ariana DeBose is an astronaut at war in trailer for space-set thriller I.S.S.|url=https://ew.com/ariana-debose-iss-trailer-8409986|access-date=22 January 2024|magazine=[[Entertainment Weekly]]|archive-date=16 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116012349/https://ew.com/ariana-debose-iss-trailer-8409986|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2022, the movie [[The Challenge (2023 film)|''The Challenge'' (''Doctor's House Call'')]] was filmed aboard the ISS, and was notable for being the first feature film in which both professional actors and director worked together in space.<ref name="nyt-20210916">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/16/world/europe/russia-movie-space.html|url-access=subscription|title=Russia to Open New Frontier in Space, Shooting First Full-Length Movie|last1=Kramer|first1=Andrew E.|date=16 September 2021|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810145219/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/16/world/europe/russia-movie-space.html|archive-date=10 August 2023|work=The New York Times}}</ref>

=== Literature ===
[[Neal Stephenson]]'s 2015 novel ''[[Seveneves]]'' is set largely on the ISS for the first and second parts of the novel. The ISS is depicted largely as it was when the novel was written, but with the addition of a large captured asteroid attached to the station.

The 2023 novel ''[[Orbital (novel)|Orbital]]'' by English writer [[Samantha Harvey]] is set on the ISS. It won the [[2024 Booker Prize]].<ref>{{cite web |date=12 November 2024 |title='Orbital' by Samantha Harvey wins 2024 Booker Prize |url=https://www.npr.org/2024/11/12/nx-s1-5184530/orbital-by-samantha-harvey-wins-2024-booker-prize |website=NPR}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=15 November 2024 |title=Science Fiction Novel Wins The Booker Prize |url=https://www.starburstmagazine.com/science-fiction-novel-wins-the-booker-prize/ |website=Starburst Magazine}}</ref>

[[Ceridwen Dovey]]'s ''Only the Astronauts'', a 2024 collection of short stories in which the narrator in each story is an inanimate object in space, includes the International Space Station.<ref>{{cite web |last=Dumont |first=Adele |title=Only the Astronauts by Ceridwen Dovey review – playful and deeply moving close encounters |website=The Guardian |date=16 May 2024 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/article/2024/may/17/only-the-astronauts-by-ceridwen-dovey-review-playful-and-deeply-moving-close-encounters |access-date=13 March 2025}}</ref>

===Video games===
The ISS is blown up during the ''[[Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2]]'' mission "Second Sun", in which the character Captain Price launches an [[Intercontinental ballistic missile|ICBM]] into the earth's atmosphere; the resulting shockwave destroys the station.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gamerant.com/call-of-duty-modern-warfare-2-best-moments-cliffhanger-no-russian/|title=The Most Memorable Moments of the Original Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2|last=Warren|first=Richard|publisher=[[Valnet]]|website=Gamerant.com|date=June 6, 2022|access-date=July 6, 2025}}</ref>

The ISS is present in ''[[Far Cry New Dawn]]'' as an expedition site, having fallen to earth during a [[Nuclear warfare|nuclear war]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ign.com/wikis/far-cry-new-dawn/I.S.S._Crash_Site|title=I.S.S. Crash Site|date=February 21, 2019|access-date=July 6, 2025|first=Hope|last=Corrigan|website=IGN.com|publisher=[[IGN]]}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Astronomy|Aviation|Earth sciences|Spaceflight|Stars|Outer space}}
* ''[[A Beautiful Planet]]'' (2016) – IMAX documentary film showing scenes of Earth, as well as astronaut life aboard the ISS
* [[Center for the Advancement of Science in Space]] – operates the US National Laboratory on the ISS
* [[List of accidents and incidents involving the International Space Station]]
* [[List of commanders of the International Space Station]]
* [[List of human spaceflights to the International Space Station]]
* [[Uncrewed spaceflights to the International Space Station]]
* [[List of International Space Station expeditions]]
* [[List of International Space Station spacewalks]]
* [[List of visitors to the International Space Station]]
* [[List of space stations]]
* [[List of spacecraft deployed from the International Space Station]]
* [[Politics of outer space]]
* [[Science diplomacy]]
* ''[[Space Station 3D]]'' (2002) – Canadian documentary

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

=== Attributions ===
{{Include-NASA}}<br/>
{{NARA|url=https://nara.getarchive.net/collections/building-iss-timeline|article=Building ISS}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite book|url=https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/np-2015-05-022-jsc-iss-guide-2015-update-111015-508c.pdf|title=Reference Guide to the International Space Station|date=September 2015|publisher=NASA|edition=Utilization|id=NP-2015-05-022-JSC|access-date=11 January 2018|archive-date=4 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210504183603/https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/np-2015-05-022-jsc-iss-guide-2015-update-111015-508c.pdf|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/508318main_ISS_ref_guide_nov2010.pdf|title=Reference Guide to the International Space Station|year=2010|publisher=NASA|isbn=978-0-16-086517-6|edition=Assembly Complete|id=NP-2010-09-682-HQ|access-date=9 January 2018|archive-date=3 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210503192448/https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/508318main_ISS_ref_guide_nov2010.pdf|url-status=live}}
* O'Sullivan, John. ''European Missions to the International Space Station: 2013 to 2019'' (Springer Nature, 2020).
* {{cite journal|last1=Ruttley|first1=Tara M.|author-link1=Tara Ruttley|last2=Robinson|first2=Julie A.|author-link2=Julie A. Robinson (biologist)|last3=Gerstenmaier|first3=William H.|author-link3=William H. Gerstenmaier|title=The International Space Station: Collaboration, Utilization, and Commercialization|journal=Social Science Quarterly|volume=98|issue=4|year=2017|issn=0038-4941|doi=10.1111/ssqu.12469|pages=1160–1174|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322066773}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|wikt=no|n=Category:International Space Station|voy=Space}}
* {{Official website}}
* [https://www.karhukoti.com/Satellites/?search=ISS ISS Location] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814110202/https://www.karhukoti.com/Satellites/?search=ISS |date=14 August 2021 }}

===Agency ISS websites===
* {{flagicon|CAN}}&nbsp;[http://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/iss/default.asp Canadian Space Agency] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090404061218/http://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/iss/default.asp |date=4 April 2009 }}
* [[Image:ESA logo simple.svg|20px]]&nbsp;[http://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/International_Space_Station European Space Agency] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200513175732/http://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/International_Space_Station |date=13 May 2020 }}
* {{flagicon|FRA}}&nbsp;[https://iss.cnes.fr/en/internatinal-space-station center national d'études spatiales (National center for Space Studies)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200228205138/https://iss.cnes.fr/en/internatinal-space-station |date=28 February 2020 }}
* {{flagicon|GER}}&nbsp;[https://www.dlr.de/content/en/articles/missions-projects/iss/iss-international-space-station.html German Aerospace Center]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201107055123/https://www.dlr.de/content/en/articles/missions-projects/iss/iss-international-space-station.html |date=7 November 2020 }}.
* {{flagicon|ITA}}&nbsp;[https://www.asi.it/en/life-in-space/international-space-station/ Italian Space Agency] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809232228/https://www.asi.it/en/life-in-space/international-space-station/ |date=9 August 2020 }}
* {{flagicon|JPN}}&nbsp;[http://iss.jaxa.jp/en/ Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720095815/http://iss.jaxa.jp/en/ |date=20 July 2011 }}
* {{flagicon|RUS}}&nbsp;[https://www.energia.ru/eng/iss/iss.html S.P. Korolev Rocket and Space Corporation Energia]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170627050937/http://www.energia.ru/eng/iss/iss.html |date=27 June 2017 }}.
* {{flagicon|RUS}}&nbsp;[http://en.roscosmos.ru/202/ Russian Federal Space Agency]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210627235737/http://en.roscosmos.ru/202/ |date=27 June 2021 }}.
* {{flagicon|USA}}&nbsp;[https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/main/index.html National Aeronautics and Space Administration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050907073730/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/main/index.html |date=7 September 2005 }}

===Research===
* [https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/ NASA: Daily ISS Reports] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190303120134/https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/ |date=3 March 2019 }}
* [https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/index.html NASA: Station Science] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180816151423/https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/index.html |date=16 August 2018 }}
* [http://www.esa.int/Columbus ESA: ''Columbus'']
* [https://www.energia.ru/en/iss/researches/iss-researches.html RSC Energia: Science Research on ISS Russian Segment]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180111224059/https://www.energia.ru/en/iss/researches/iss-researches.html |date=11 January 2018 }}.

===Live viewing===
{{See also|List of satellite pass predictors}}
* [http://www.ustream.tv/channel/live-iss-stream Live ISS webcam] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019125241/http://www.ustream.tv/channel/live-iss-stream |date=19 October 2013 }} by NASA at uStream.tv
* [http://www.ustream.tv/channel/iss-hdev-payload Live HD ISS webcams] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229042858/http://www.ustream.tv/channel/iss-hdev-payload |date=29 December 2016 }} by NASA [[High Definition Earth Viewing cameras|HDEV]] at uStream.tv
* [https://spotthestation.nasa.gov Sighting opportunities] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210825234753/https://spotthestation.nasa.gov/ |date=25 August 2021 }} at NASA.gov
* [https://karhukoti.com/webtracker?s=25544 Complete Orbital Position] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221012161445/https://karhukoti.com/webtracker?s=25544 |date=12 October 2022 }} at KarhuKoti.com
* [http://heavens-above.com/orbit.aspx?satid=25544 Real-time position] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210827200011/http://heavens-above.com/orbit.aspx?satid=25544 |date=27 August 2021 }} at Heavens-above.com
* [https://uphere.space/satellites/25544 Real-time tracking and position] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817053537/https://uphere.space/satellites/25544 |date=17 August 2021 }} at uphere.space

===Multimedia===
* [https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasa2explore Johnson Space Center image gallery] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816021011/https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasa2explore |date=16 August 2021 }} at [[Flickr]]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=doN4t5NKW-k ISS tour with Sunita Williams] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814155134/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=doN4t5NKW-k |date=14 August 2021 }} by NASA (on [[YouTube]])
* [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLbyvawxScNbsoD_tGlw8kWCw3S5htiVKZ Journey to the ISS] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818023349/https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLbyvawxScNbsoD_tGlw8kWCw3S5htiVKZ |date=18 August 2021 }} by ESA (on YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vMmcLmu3V1k ''The Future of Hope'', ''Kibō'' module documentary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818123538/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vMmcLmu3V1k |date=18 August 2021 }} by JAXA (on YouTube)
* Seán Doran's compiled videos of orbital photography from the ISS: 
** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=1&v=7KXGZAEWzn0 ''Orbit – Remastered''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817165952/https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=1&v=7KXGZAEWzn0 |date=17 August 2021 }} 
** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RkEV4FljRaM ''Orbit: Uncut''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818150554/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RkEV4FljRaM |date=18 August 2021 }} 
** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=loOVYBSkLXQ ''The Four Seasons''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210821060425/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=loOVYBSkLXQ |date=21 August 2021 }} 
** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8gPzIKe92-M ''Nocturne – Earth at Night''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819060741/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8gPzIKe92-M |date=19 August 2021 }} 
** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x9vWyEPAboM ''Earthbound''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818012012/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x9vWyEPAboM |date=18 August 2021 }} 
** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3djDeb-GW3g ''The Pearl''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220310081852/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3djDeb-GW3g |date=10 March 2022 }} (see [https://www.flickr.com/photos/seandoran/albums/72157665417217399 Flickr album] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815190051/https://www.flickr.com/photos/seandoran/albums/72157665417217399 |date=15 August 2021 }} for more)
* [https://www.g3xwh.com/index.php/home/iss-contact-march-2002/hlc-video-of-the-iss-contact Amateur Radio ISS Contact with Harrogate Ladies College in 2002] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231017200406/https://g3xwh.com/index.php/home/iss-contact-march-2002/hlc-video-of-the-iss-contact |date=17 October 2023 }}
* [https://issinrealtime.org/ ISS in Real Time], an interactive portal presenting 25 years of communications, photos, and videos from the ISS

{{International Space Station}}
{{People currently in space}}
{{ISS expeditions}}
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[[Category:International Space Station| ]]
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