View source for Inertial fusion power plant

[[File:Electra Laser Generates 90K Shots.webm|thumb|alt=The Electra KrF laser demonstrates 90,000 shots over 10 hours, a repetition rate needed for an IFE power plant.|The Electra KrF laser demonstrates 90,000 shots over 10 hours, a repetition rate needed for an IFE power plant.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Obenschain | first1=Stephen | last2=Lehmberg | first2=Robert | last3=Kehne | first3=David | last4=Hegeler | first4=Frank | last5=Wolford | first5=Matthew | last6=Sethian | first6=John | last7=Weaver | first7=James | last8=Karasik | first8=Max | title=High-energy krypton fluoride lasers for inertial fusion | journal=Applied Optics | volume=54 | issue=31 | date=2015-11-01 | pages=F103-22 | issn=0003-6935 | doi=10.1364/AO.54.00F103 | pmid=26560597 | bibcode=2015ApOpt..54F.103O |display-authors=3}}</ref>]]
'''Inertial Fusion Energy''' is a proposed approach to building a nuclear fusion power plant based on performing [[inertial confinement fusion]] at industrial scale.  This approach to fusion power is still in a research phase.  ICF first developed shortly after the development of the laser in 1960, but was a classified US research program during its earliest years.  In 1972, [[John Nuckolls]] wrote a paper predicting that compressing a target could create conditions where fusion reactions are chained together, a process known as fusion ignition or a burning plasma.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Nuckolls | first1=John | last2=Wood | first2=Lowell | last3=Thiessen | first3=Albert | last4=Zimmerman | first4=George | title=Laser Compression of Matter to Super-High Densities: Thermonuclear (CTR) Applications | journal=Nature | volume=239 | issue=5368 | date=1972 | issn=0028-0836 | doi=10.1038/239139a0 | pages=139–142 |bibcode=1972Natur.239..139N |s2cid= 45684425}}</ref>  On August 8, 2021, the [[National Ignition Facility|NIF]] at Livermore National Laboratory became the first ICF facility in the world to demonstrate this (see plot).<ref>{{cite web | last=Dunning | first=Hayley | title=Major nuclear fusion milestone reached as 'ignition' triggered in a lab | website=Imperial News | date=2021-08-17 | url=https://www.imperial.ac.uk/news/228373/major-nuclear-fusion-milestone-reached-ignition/ }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Kramer | first=David | title=Lawrence Livermore's latest attempts at ignition fall short | journal=Physics Today | volume=2021 | issue=12 | date=2021-12-03 | doi=10.1063/pt.6.2.20211203a  | bibcode=2021PhT..2021b1203. |s2cid= 244935714}}</ref>  This breakthrough drove the US Department of Energy to create an Inertial Fusion Energy program in 2022 with a budget of 3 million dollars in its first year.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://lasers.llnl.gov/news/doe-workshop-examines-inertial-fusion-energy-research-needs | title=DOE Workshop Examines Inertial FusionEnergy Research Needs }}</ref>

[[File:LIFE power plant.jpg|thumb|alt=Conceptual design of the LIFE fusion power plant.|Conceptual design of the LIFE fusion power plant.]]
[[File:NIF output over 11 years without legend.png|thumb|alt=NIF target gain over 11 years shows a ten-fold increase in 2021 due to the achievement of ignition.|NIF target gain over 11 years shows a ten-fold increase in 2021 due to the achievement of ignition.]]

== Design of a IFE power plant ==
This kind of fusion reactor would consist of two parts: 
* '''Targets''' which can be small capsules (<7 millimeter diameter) that contain fusion fuel.  Although many kinds of targets have been tested including: cylinders, shells coated with nanotubes, solid blocks, [[hohlraum]], glass shells filled with fusion fuel, cryogenically frozen targets, plastic shells, foam shells and materials suspended on spider silk.<ref name="y621"/> 
* '''Drivers''' which are used to compress and create a shock wave that squeezes the target.  This compression wave pushes the material down to the temperature and pressure where fusion occurs.  Drivers that have been explored are solid-state [[laser]]s, excimer lasers, high velocity solid objects, X-rays, beams of ions ([[heavy ion fusion]] (HIF)) and beams of electrons.

[[File:Inertial confinement fusion.svg|thumb|alt=The basic mechanism for Inertial Confinement Fusion using a simple direct drive is a 4 step process.|The basic mechanism for Inertial Confinement Fusion using a simple direct drive.]]

Net energy in ICF comes from getting fusion reactions to chain together in a process known as ignition.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Yamanaka | first=C | title=Inertial confinement fusion: The quest for ignition and energy gain using indirect drive | journal=Nuclear Fusion | volume=39 | issue=6 | date=1999 | issn=0029-5515 | doi=10.1088/0029-5515/39/6/702 | pages=825–827}}</ref>  To get there we need to squeeze material to hot and dense conditions for long enough.  But a key problem is that after a plasma becomes hot - it becomes hard to compress. The goal then is to avoid getting material hot until after it is compressed.  In literature, this is known as the low adiabatic approach to compression.  These steps are outlined below:
#Keeping the plasma very cold, squeeze it together.
#Heat the plasma only after it is squeezed; ideally inside a "hot spot".
#Fusion happens, and the resulting products deposit their energy creating more fusion.
Several compression approaches attempt to do this including: Central Hot Spot Ignition, Fast Ignition, Shock Ignition and Magneto-inertial-fusion.

== ICF Research Institutions ==
[[Image:Nif hohlraum.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Mockup of a golden hohlraum used in laser inertial confinement.]]
This program was originally established as a way to develop [[Nuclear weapon]]s, because ICF mimics the compression physics of a fission-fusion bomb. These facilities have been built around the world, below are some examples. 
* [[Laser Mégajoule]] in France was developed in 2002 and upgraded in 2014.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/aug/13/laser-megajoule-france-power | title=Super-lasers blaze knowledge trail | website=[[TheGuardian.com]] | date=13 August 2013 }}</ref>
* '''[[Laboratory for Laser Energetics|Omega Laser]]''' was first built in 1992 at the University of Rochester.
* '''[[Laboratory for Laser Energetics|Omega-EP]]''' was first built in 2008 at the University of Rochester as second more powerful laser beam.
* '''[[GEKKO XII|Gecko Laser]]''' was first built at Osaka University in Japan in 1983 but has since been upgraded nearly a dozen times. 
* '''[[National Ignition Facility|NIF]]''' was first operational in 2009 at the Livermore National Laboratory.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://lasers.llnl.gov/education/faqs | title=FAQs }}</ref> 
* '''[[Nike laser|NIKE Laser]]''' was built at the Naval Research Laboratory to study excimer (gas-based) lasers.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nrl.navy.mil/Media/News/Article/2563247/nrl-nike-laser-focuses-on-nuclear-fusion/ | title=NRL Nike Laser Focuses on Nuclear Fusion }}</ref> 
* '''Electra Laser''' was built at the Naval Research Laboratory to study excimer (gas-based) lasers.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nrl.navy.mil/Portals/38/PDF%20Files/6-21FS-R_Electra_Lab_FacilityFS.pdf?ver=qXDAe01BqHdmjZjTlAScoQ%3D%3D |format=PDF |title=Electra Lab Facility |website=U.S. Naval Research Laboratory}}</ref>
* '''PALS''' laser facility in the Czech Republic was established to research ICF laser implosions.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.laserlab-europe.eu/about-us/partners/pals | title=PALS (Prague, Czech Republic) — LASERLAB-EUROPE }}</ref>  
* '''Machine 3''' was developed by [[First Light Fusion]] to accelerate blocks of material to create a shockwave on the target.

There have also been multiple ICF facilities built, tested and decommissioned in the past.  For example, Sandia National Laboratory pursued a series (<10 machines) of ion-beam and electron-beam driven ICF research program through the 1970s and into the middle 1980s.<ref>{{cite book | last=Yonas | first=Gerold | title=Death Rays and Delusions | date=2017-09-06 | publisher=Peter | isbn=978-0-692-91955-2}}</ref>  Alternatively, Los Alamos built a large, excimer laser facility called Aurora in the late 1980s.<ref>{{cite report| last1=Turner | first1=T.P. | last2=Jones | first2=J.E. | last3=Czuchlewski | first3=S.J. | last4=Watt | first4=R.G. | last5=Thomas | first5=S.J. | last6=Kang | first6=M. | last7=Tallman | first7=C.R. | last8=Mack | first8=J.M. | last9=Figueira | first9=J.F. | title=Recent laser experiments on the Aurora KrF/ICF laser system | date=1990 | url=https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/6037285 |display-authors=3}}</ref> Livermore National Laboratory built a succession of laser facilities including Nova, Cyclops, 4-PI, SHIVA and other devices.  As part of the run up to the [[National Ignition Facility|NIF]] opening and achieving ignition, Livermore National Laboratory funded a body of research around the [[Laser Inertial Fusion Energy]] program.  Under this program, a reactor design was developed, costing, reactor chambers and energy capture programs were explored.

== IFE Research Programs ==
[[File:Glass Shell Targets.png|thumb|alt=Glass Shell Targets|Glass Shell Targets]]
[[File:PMDA Coating of ICF Targets.png|thumb|alt=Coating round ICF targets is hard - above is a model of PDMA overcoating in a chamber|Coating round ICF targets is hard - above is a model of PDMA overcoating in a chamber]]
IFE development has come in waves within the United States.  Below are some government programs that have been funded over the years to push this technology forward: 
* '''HAPL''' The high average laser program was administered by the [[Naval Research Laboratory]] from 1999 to 2008.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://qedfusion.org/HAPL/MEETINGS/ | title=High Average Power Laser Program - Meeting Archives }}</ref>  This program doled out grants to target, laser and driver teams across the United States and organized 19 meetings between member organizations.
* '''LIFE'''  The Laser Inertial Fusion Energy program was administered by [[Livermore National Laboratory]] from 2008 to 2016.  This program was funded to develop an IFE fusion power plant based around the National Ignition Facility. 
* '''SDI''' The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) inadvertently supported many of the IFE laser technologies seen today.

== Driver Development ==
It is still unclear which driver would work best for an IFE power plant, with supporters of different drivers pushing their favorite approach. Lasers have thus far proven to be the most well researched.  Below is a summary of the laser drivers that have been studied.  The challenge with implementing laser systems does not just come from the beam, but also the optics, mirrors, amplifiers and gratings that are also needed to put this system in place. 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Comparing Driver Technology
|-
! Driver
! Wavelength
! Cost
! Electric-to-light Efficiency 
! Repetition Rate
! Advantages
! Disadvantages
|-
| ArF laser (gas-based)
| 193&nbsp;nm
| cheaper
| 9-16%
| ?
| Shorter wavelength improves compression.  Gas does not retain heat, allowing for high rep rate shots. 
| Full scale laser module not demonstrated. Optical components are not well developed. Moderate separation foil stability. 
|-
| KrF laser (gas-based)
| 248&nbsp;nm
| cheaper
| 7-10%
| 90,000 shots over 10 hours.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Wolford | first1=Matthew F. | last2=Sethian | first2=John D. | last3=Myers | first3=Matthew C. | last4=Hegeler | first4=Frank | last5=Giuliani | first5=John L. | last6=Obenschain | first6=Stephen P. | title=Krypton Fluoride (KrF) Laser Driver for Inertial Fusion Energy | journal=Fusion Science and Technology | volume=64 | issue=2 | date=2013 | issn=1536-1055 | doi=10.13182/FST12-502 | pages=179–186 | bibcode=2013FuST...64..179W |display-authors=3}}</ref> 
| Shorter wavelength improves compression.  Gas does not retain heat, allowing for high rep rate shots. 
| Full scale laser module not yet demonstrated. Optical components are not well developed. Moderate separation foil stability. 
|-
| Nd-Doped Laser (Solid Laser)
| 1053&nbsp;nm and/or 351&nbsp;nm when tripled in frequency
| expensive
| 1 (Flash lamp pump) to <30% (diode pumped) at 1053 nm.
| 45 minutes per shot (at minimum) on Omega, 1 shot per day on NIF.
| Laser glass, coatings, optics and crystals have all been built or demonstrated on large flash lamp pumped systems.
| Full scale diode pumped laser module not yet demonstrated. Lower repetition rates due to glass heating up.  
|-
| High Velocity Projectile
| N/A
| Cheap
| ?
| Depends on driver used.  Railguns have been fundamentally limited in velocities.  Gas guns have been shown to produce thermonuclear fusion.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://firstlightfusion.com/media/ukaea-confirms-viability-of-concept-at-heart-of-fusion-energy-reactor-design | title=UKAEA confirms viability of concept at heart of fusion energy reactor design &#124; First Light Fusion }}</ref>  Solid liners that rip apart under high currents have performed the best.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://fire.pppl.gov/fpa05_olson.pdf |title=Z-Pinch Inertial Fusion Energy |website=Sandia National Laboratories}}</ref> 
| Simpler technology
| Thus far solid objects have not performed as a well as laser systems.  Both the Z-Machine and [[First Light Fusion]] have developed experiments.
|-
| [[Heavy ion fusion|Beams of ions]]
| N/A
| Cheap
| ?
| Beams of ions can be generated more readily than lasers or projectiles.  But this driver generates plasma that dissipates into the chamber. 
| High repetition shots are possible. 
| A beam of ions are difficult to focus in on the target; the beam is ripped apart by the (+ to +) repulsive forces due to [[coulomb's Law|repulsion]].  Hence, it takes hardware, energy and effort to keep the beam coherent. 
|}

=== Related Driver Technologies ===
Depending on the driver that is being used there are key related technologies that need to be matured; below are some of these: 
* '''Glass''' that can handle the laser energy (Joules) crossing through the glass cross section (meters^2) and not melt or get damaged.  The glass is then used to make mirrors, lenses, gratings or windows inside the power plant. 
* '''[[Optical amplifier|Amplifiers]]''' that can be used to increase the power of the laser beam. 
* '''Compressors''' that can compress the laser beam or ion beam in space and time to increase the overall on-target power. 
* '''Pulsed Power''' systems that can deliver the megajoules needed to either a laser, ion-beam or solid object driver.  The workhorse of pulsed power (the [[Marx Generator]]) has limitations for an ICF plant and research has gone into [[Linear transformer driver]] as an alternative power source.
* '''Laser Diodes''' are used as the first step in transferring electrical energy into light energy to initiate the laser beam.  Such systems can be expensive and are not needed for excimer lasers. 
*  '''Phase-Plate Smoothing''' is a technique to smooth out laser beams in solid-state laser systems.

== Target Development ==
There are many kinds of targets that have been developed for ICF research - but a power plant would require thousands if not millions of identical targets to be fired repeatedly.  This will be exceedingly challenging.  At present, the Department of Energy contracts with [[General Atomics]] to produce ICF targets for the national laboratories.  These targets are partially built at GA and then shipped across the country to the ICF facility for a shot day.  The Laboratories maintain hardware and staff onsite to complete the last steps to prepare the targets for a shot.<ref name="f367">{{cite journal | last1=Sangster | first1=T. C. | last2=Betti | first2=R. | last3=Craxton | first3=R. S. | last4=Delettrez | first4=J. A. | last5=Edgell | first5=D. H. | last6=Elasky | first6=L. M. | last7=Glebov | first7=V. Yu. | last8=Goncharov | first8=V. N. | last9=Harding | first9=D. R. | last10=Jacobs-Perkins | first10=D. | last11=Janezic | first11=R. | last12=Keck | first12=R. L. | last13=Knauer | first13=J. P. | last14=Loucks | first14=S. J. | last15=Lund | first15=L. D. | last16=Marshall | first16=F. J. | last17=McCrory | first17=R. L. | last18=McKenty | first18=P. W. | last19=Meyerhofer | first19=D. D. | last20=Radha | first20=P. B. | last21=Regan | first21=S. P. | last22=Seka | first22=W. | last23=Shmayda | first23=W. T. | last24=Skupsky | first24=S. | last25=Smalyuk | first25=V. A. | last26=Soures | first26=J. M. | last27=Stoeckl | first27=C. | last28=Yaakobi | first28=B. | last29=Frenje | first29=J. A. | last30=Li | first30=C. K. | last31=Petrasso | first31=R. D. | last32=Séguin | first32=F. H. | last33=Moody | first33=J. D. | last34=Atherton | first34=J. A. | last35=MacGowan | first35=B. D. | last36=Kilkenny | first36=J. D. | last37=Bernat | first37=T. P. | last38=Montgomery | first38=D. S. |url=https://www.lle.rochester.edu/media/publications/presentations/documents/APS06/Sangster_APS06.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240910030656/https://www.lle.rochester.edu/media/publications/presentations/documents/APS06/Sangster_APS06.pdf |archive-date=2024-09-10 |title=Cryogenic DT and D<sub>2</sub> Targets for Inertial Confinement Fusion | journal=Physics of Plasmas | publisher=AIP Publishing | volume=14 | issue=5 | date=2007-04-26 | issn=1070-664X | doi=10.1063/1.2671844 | bibcode=2007PhPl...14e8101S |display-authors=3}}</ref>

=== Target Example ===
* '''Glass Shell''' targets were spheres of glass on stalks and filled with DT gas; these were some of the earliest targets.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Belanger | first1=Raymond P. | last2=Miller | first2=Wayne J. | title=Glass shell preparation | journal=Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A: Vacuum, Surfaces, and Films | publisher=American Vacuum Society | volume=3 | issue=3 | date=1985-05-01 | issn=0734-2101 | doi=10.1116/1.573082 | pages=1270–1273| bibcode=1985JVSTA...3.1270B }}</ref> 
* '''Overcoated''' targets involve growing chemical materials over a shell target.  This can be done using directed [[Chemical Vapor Deposition]] of plastics or layers of gold or silvers.<ref name="y621">{{cite thesis| last=Knight | first=Andrea K. | title=Analysis of the discrete stages of the formation of polyimide films by vapor deposition and their effects on the film's properties | degree=Ph.D. | date=2007 | bibcode=2007PhDT........59K |url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=0747d0f87d68b0f31e75bf9641b0fd2ef5188fa5}}</ref>
* '''Hohlraum''' targets are pellets of DT fusion fuel that are surrounded by tubes of gold foil.  The laser strikes the foil and creates x-rays that compresses the targets; simulates nuclear weapons. 
* '''Silk Mounted''' Targets have been mounted on strands of spider silk; this material is the strongest material per cross-section known and maintains good characteristics down to cryogenic temperatures. 
* '''Cryogenic''' targets are those that must be kept below ≈34 Kelvin to condense the hydrogen gas into liquid or ≈14 kelvin to condense to a solid. 
* '''Foam Wetted''' targets are made using a variety of carbon-hydrogen foams and filled with liquid DT material cooled to below ≈34 Kelvin. 
* '''Ice''' targets are made using a variety of carbon-hydrogen foams and filled with liquid DT material cooled to below ≈14 Kelvin.

=== Cryogenic Targets ===
[[File:ICF Target Delivery System.png|right|Keeping Cryogenic targets frozen while delivering them to target center is hard. At the LLE the target is held inside a cryogenic chamber and raised up to target chamber center on an elevator.  Once the shroud is dropped from around the target it is exposed to air and starts melting.  A laser pulse is then immediately required to compress it.]]
There are several ways to get tritium and deuterium into an already-made capsule.  High pressure fills work by putting the shells in a chamber with 1 to 100 Atm of gas pressure and having the gas diffuse into the shell.<ref>{{cite web |title=The LLE Cryogenics Facility Manual |website=The Laboratory for Laser Energetics |url=https://www.lle.rochester.edu/index.php/omega-laser-facility-2/omega-laser-facility-documentation/cryo-and-tritium-facility/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211117150622/https://www.lle.rochester.edu/index.php/omega-laser-facility-2/omega-laser-facility-documentation/cryo-and-tritium-facility/ |archive-date=2021-11-17}}</ref>  Cryogenic foam shells work can work by wicking in the liquid DT fluid into the foam.  This involves getting the delicate shell down in temperature and pressure without damaging it.  This is a stepwise process that can take hours to days in time and requires multiple containment chambers and various kinds of pumps.  At cryogenic temperatures, the DT gas forms into a fluid which can be wicked into the foam shell.  Once filled, operators slowly lower the temperature further to form the ice crystal.  Ice can start formation around the equator of the target and then grow into a complete crystal.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Marshall | first1=F. J. | last2=Craxton | first2=R. S. | last3=Delettrez | first3=J. A. | last4=Edgell | first4=D. H. | last5=Elasky | first5=L. M. | last6=Epstein | first6=R. | last7=Glebov | first7=V. Yu. | last8=Goncharov | first8=V. N. | last9=Harding | first9=D. R. | last10=Janezic | first10=R. | last11=Keck | first11=R. L. | last12=Kilkenny | first12=J. D. | last13=Knauer | first13=J. P. | last14=Loucks | first14=S. J. | last15=Lund | first15=L. D. | last16=McCrory | first16=R. L. | last17=McKenty | first17=P. W. | last18=Meyerhofer | first18=D. D. | last19=Radha | first19=P. B. | last20=Regan | first20=S. P. | last21=Sangster | first21=T. C. | last22=Seka | first22=W. | last23=Smalyuk | first23=V. A. | last24=Soures | first24=J. M. | last25=Stoeckl | first25=C. | last26=Skupsky | first26=S. | last27=Frenje | first27=J. A. | last28=Li | first28=C. K. | last29=Petrasso | first29=R. D. | last30=Séguin | first30=F. H. | title=Direct-drive, cryogenic target implosions on OMEGA | journal=Physics of Plasmas | publisher=AIP Publishing | volume=12 | issue=5 | date=2005-04-07 | issn=1070-664X | doi=10.1063/1.1873832 | bibcode=2005PhPl...12e6302M |display-authors=3}}</ref>  The ice is embedded with the foam shell structure.  Engineers have had problems with ice cracking during this formation process – all of which impacts the performance of the shot.  Monitoring of all of this is done using shadow grams, 360 X-ray diagnostics, visual inspection, and other tools; information is all run through software that gets a complete picture of the target during filling.<ref name="f367"/>

=== Moving Cryogenic Targets ===
Keeping an ICF frozen at cryogenic temperatures while delivering it to the chamber for a shot is challenging.  For example, at the [[Laboratory for Laser Energetics]] the frozen target is held inside a custom-built, mobile cryogenic cart that can be moved into position under the target chamber.  The cart has a coolant system and vacuum pump to keep the material cold.  This cart holds the frozen target at the end of a "cold finger" which is then raised on an elevator and positioned at the center of the chamber.<ref name="f367"/>  When the metal shroud is removed, the cryogenic target is exposed to room temperatures and starts to [[Sublimation (phase transition)|sublimate]] immediately into gas.  This means that laser pulses must coordinate directly with the exposure of the target and everything has to happen quickly to keep the target from melting.

== See also ==
{{portal|Energy|Physics|Nuclear technology}}
* [[Nuclear fusion]]
* [[Fusion power]]
* [[Inertial electrostatic confinement]]
* [[Inertial confinement fusion]]
* [[Laser inertial confinement]]
* [[Megajoule laser]]
* [[National Ignition Facility]]
* [[Z-pinch|Z-pinch inertial confinement]]
* [[Z Pulsed Power Facility]]
* [[Project PACER]]

== Notes and references ==
<references/>

==Further reading==
* {{cite web  |url= http://www.ilp.u-bordeaux1.fr/images/upload/dossiers_thematiques/fusion_inertielle_v2.pdf  |title= La fusion thermonucléaire par confinement inertiel : de la recherche fondamentale à la production d'énergie  |url-status= dead  |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20061125102750/http://www.ilp.u-bordeaux1.fr/images/upload/dossiers_thematiques/fusion_inertielle_v2.pdf  |archive-date= 2006-11-25  }}&nbsp;{{small|(1.28&nbsp;[[Mebibyte|MiB]])}} ([[Université Bordeaux I]], November 2005) {{in lang|fr}}{{dead link|date=November 2014}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060616162156/http://hif.lbl.gov/tutorial/tutorial.html Tutorial on Heavy-Ion Fusion Energy](Virtual National Laboratory for Heavy-Ion Fusion)
* {{cite web |url= http://aries.ucsd.edu/LIB/MEETINGS/0310-IAEA-IFE-CRP/Report.pdf |title= Summary Report of the 2nd Research Coordination Meeting on the Element of Inertial Fusion Energy Power Plants |access-date= 2006-07-09 |archive-date= 2007-07-10 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070710105641/http://aries.ucsd.edu/LIB/MEETINGS/0310-IAEA-IFE-CRP/Report.pdf |url-status= dead }}&nbsp;{{small|(4.82&nbsp;[[Mebibyte|MiB]])}} (November 2003){{dead link|date=November 2014}}
* {{cite web |url= http://www.ofes.fusion.doe.gov/More_HTML/FESAC/IFEPanelReport.pdf |title= Review of the Inertial Fusion Energy Program |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060923193846/http://www.ofes.fusion.doe.gov/More_HTML/FESAC/IFEPanelReport.pdf |archive-date= 2006-09-23 }}&nbsp;{{small|(4.14&nbsp;[[Mebibyte|MiB]])}} (Fusion Energy Sciences Advisory Committee, March 2004){{dead link|date=November 2014}}
* {{cite web |url= http://www.fusion.ucla.edu/neil/Publications/OverviewOfFusionNuclear.pdf |title= Overview of fusion nuclear technology in the US |access-date= 2006-07-09 |archive-date= 2007-04-18 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070418030735/http://www.fusion.ucla.edu/neil/Publications/OverviewOfFusionNuclear.pdf |url-status= dead }}&nbsp;{{small|(513&nbsp;[[Kibibyte|KiB]])}} (June 2005)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060113153849/http://www-ferp.ucsd.edu/LIB/REPORT/CONF/ANS04/0409-TOFE-ElGuebaly-IFE-Activation.pdf Views on neutronics and activation issues facing liquid-protected IFE chambers]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061001232953/http://www.ieeeusa.org/policy/positions/fusion.asp IEEE-USA Position :  Fusion Energy Research & Development](June 2006)

{{Nuclear Technology}}

[[Category:Inertial confinement fusion]]
[[Category:Energy development]]
[[Category:Nuclear technology]]
[[Category:Nuclear power stations]]
[[Category:Osaka University research]]