View source for Indian National Army

{{Short description|Army of Indian POWs taken Japan in WW2 and enlisting civilians}}
{{about|the Indian National Army under Subhash Chandra Bose (known as Free India Legion)|the organisation under [[Mohan Singh (general)|Mohan Singh]] |First Indian National Army|the modern Indian military|Indian Armed Forces|the army of the British Raj|British Indian Army|the regiment raised in Germany|Free India Legion}}
{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2016}}
{{Infobox military unit
| unit_name                     = Indian National Army
| native_name                   = ''Azad Hind Fauj''
| image                         = INA Insignia.svg
| image_size                    = 200px
| caption                       = Insignia of the INA
| dates                         = July 1943&nbsp;– September 1945
| country                       = 
| allegiance                    = [[Empire of Japan]]
| role                          = {{nowrap|[[Guerrilla]], [[infantry]], [[special operations]]}}
| size                          = ~43,000 Soldiers: [[Gandhi Brigade (regiment)|Gandhi Brigade]], [[Nehru Brigade]], [[Azad Brigade]], [[Subhas Brigade]], [[Rani of Jhansi regiment]]
| commander1                    = [[Subhas Chandra Bose]]&nbsp;<small>(1943–1945)</small><br/> [[First Indian National Army]]: [[Mohan Singh (general)|Mohan Singh]]&nbsp;<small>(1942)</small>
| commander1_label              = Commander-in-Chief
| commander2                    = [[Jaganath Rao Bhonsle]]
| commander2_label              = Chief of Staff
| notable_commanders            = [[Prem Sahgal]]<br/>[[Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon]]<br/>[[Shah Nawaz Khan (General)|Shah Nawaz Khan]]
| motto                         = ''Ittefaq, Itmad aur Qurbani''<br/>{{nowrap|([[Hindustani language|Hindustani]]: Concord, Faith and Sacrifice)}}
| march                         = ''[[Qadam Qadam Badhaye Ja]]''
| battles                       = [[World War II]]
*[[Burma Campaign]]
**[[Battle of Ngakyedauk]]
**[[Battle of Imphal]]
**[[Battle of Pokoku]]
**[[Battle of Central Burma]]
<!-- Insignia -->| identification_symbol         = 
| identification_symbol_label   = 
}}
[[File:INA Memorial, Moirang, Manipur (16).jpeg|thumb|328px|The [[INA Martyrs' Memorial Complex]] in [[Moirang]], [[Manipur]], where in April 1944 the Indian National Army opened its first headquarters on Indian soil.<ref name=mcgregor-bose-moirang>{{cite journal|last=McGregor|first=Rafe|title=Enemy of my Enemy: In the quest for India's independence, one fervent nationalist made a pact with the Axis to overthrow the British Raj|journal=Military History|year=2016|volume=33|issue=1|page=69|issn=0889-7328|quote=On Feb. 4, 1944, a Bahadur Group under Captain L.S. Misra infiltrated the British lines and overran the 7th Indian Infantry Division headquarters. The Japanese Twenty-Eighth Army—which included the 1st Battalion of the Subhas—fought its way to the Indian border. In April INA troops took Moirang, and the town became the army’s first headquarters on Indian soil.}}</ref>]]
The '''Indian National Army''' ('''INA''', sometimes '''Second INA''';<ref name=mcgregor-first-second>{{Citation|last=McGregor|first=Rafe|title=Enemy of my Enemy: In the quest for India's independence, one fervent nationalist made a pact with the Axis to overthrow the British Raj|journal=Military History|year=2016|volume=33|issue=1|issn=0889-7328|quote= (the terms First INA and Second INA are sometimes used to distinguish Singh’s administrative unit from Bose’s combat unit).}}</ref> ''Azad Hind Fauj'' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɑː|z|ɑː|ð|_|ˈ|h|i|n|ð|_|ˈ|f|ɔː|dʒ}}; {{Literally}} 'Free Indian Army') was a [[Empire of Japan|Japanese]]-allied and -supported armed force constituted in [[Southeast Asia]] during [[World War II]] and led by Indian [[Nationalism#Anti-colonial|anti-colonial nationalist]] [[Subhas Chandra Bose]].<ref name=mcgregor-japan-allied-supported>{{cite journal|last=McGregor|first=Rafe|title=Enemy of my Enemy: In the quest for India's independence, one fervent nationalist made a pact with the Axis to overthrow the British Raj|journal=Military History|year=2016|volume=33|issue=1|issn=0889-7328|quote= His name was Subhas Chandra Bose, and he was head of the Japanese-allied and supported Indian National Army}}</ref><ref name=cambridge-war-history-allied>{{cite book|last=Mitter|first=Rana|chapter=War and memory since 1945|editor1-last=Chickering|editor1-first=Roger|editor2-last=Showalter|editor2-first=Dennis|editor3-last=van de Ven|editor3-first=Hans|title=The Cambridge History of War: Volume 4, War and the Modern World|isbn=978-0-521-87577-6|year=2012|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=542&ndash;565|quote=(p. 564) The case of India showed how memories of nationalistic struggle and war could combine in unusual ways.  Many Indian troops served on the Allied side during the war, although sentiment in favor of independence also fueled the Quit India Movement in 1942.  A smaller but significant movement backed the Japanese outright.  Subhas Chandra Bose, the former president of the Indian National Congress, formed the Indian National Army, which allied with Tokya in the hope of driving the British out of India by force.}}</ref> It consisted primarily of [[British Indian Army]] [[prisoners of war|POWs]] taken by [[Empire of Japan|Japan]]. Indian civilians in the region were also enlisted, with around 18,000 joining.<ref name=pow-tamils>
*{{cite EBO|title=Subhas Chandra Bose|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Subhas-Chandra-Bose|year=2025|access-date=January 11, 2025|quote=he led an armed force composed of former Indian prisoners of war and volunteers from the Indian expatriate community. ... aligned with the Axis powers and opposed the Allied powers during World War II.}}
#{{cite book |last=Barkawi|first=Tarak|title=Soldiers of the Empire: Indian and British Armies in World War II|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=114|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nk7ODgAAQBAJ&pg=PA114|isbn=978-1-107-16958-6|year=2017|quote=Later, after Bose’s arrival, the INA would eventually number around 45,000, but about 18,000 of these were recruited from Indian civilian communities in Southeast Asia.}}
#{{cite ODNB|last=Gordon|first=Leonard A. |author-link=Leonard A. Gordon|title=Subhas Chandra Bose|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/47756|publisher=Oxford University Press|year = 2013|quote=Bose's army was constituted mainly from Indian soldiers taken prisoner at Singapore, and was supported by the Free India League ... backed by the Indian community of southeast Asia.}}
#{{cite book|last = Bose |first = Sugata|author-link=Sugata Bose|title=His Majesty's Opponent: Subhas Chandra Bose and India's Struggle against Empire|location=Cambridge and London|publisher = Harvard University Pess|year = 2011| page =246 |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=RBwtQ-CYFU0C&pg=PA246 | isbn = 978-0-674-04754-9 | quote= A large majority of Indian expatriates in Southeast Asia responded with great fervour ... At least eighteen thousand civilians, mostly Tamils from southern India, enlisted in the Indian National Army.}}
#{{harvnb|Bayly|Harper|2005|p=323}} "The second INA involved Indian society in Southeast Asia in a way the earlier incarnation had failed to do so. ... Men were recruited locally, and ... special emphasis was placed on the Tamils of Malaya."</ref> The INA aimed to liberate India from [[British Raj|British rule]].<ref name=combined-liberation-army>
#{{cite book|last=Mann|first=Michael|title=South Asia's Modern History: Thematic Perspectives|location=London and New York|publisher=Routledge|page=125|isbn= 978-1-315-75455-0|quote=As a result, Punjabis, Bengalis, and Tamils soon found themselves serving in a national liberation army consisting of 40,000 men who Bose, together with the Japanese units, led against British India in 1943.}}
#{{cite book|last=Banerjee-Dube|first = Ishita|title = A History of Modern India|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|isbn=9781107065475|page=404&ndash;405|quote=(404) After Subhas Bose became INA’s supreme commander, it managed to recruit about 40,000 men. ...  Civilians, ...  swelled its ranks. (It) also had a women’s regiment. (405) The dream of liberating India by means of an armed campaign ended rudely.}}</ref> After winning Japanese assent for its goal,<ref name=mcgregor-bose-tojo>{{cite journal|last=McGregor|first=Rafe|title=Enemy of my Enemy: In the quest for India's independence, one fervent nationalist made a pact with the Axis to overthrow the British Raj|journal=Military History|year=2016|volume=33|issue=1|issn=0889-7328|quote=Soon after his arrival in the Japanese capital Bose met with Prime Minister Flideki Tojo, and they quickly reached an agreement: Japan would recognize Indian independence but maintain a military presence in liberated India until the conclusion of the war. On July 4 Bose took command of the INA, and on October 21 he was sworn in as prime minister of the Provisional Government of Free India.}}</ref> the INA furnished support to the [[Imperial Japanese Army|Japanese Army]].<ref name=combined14> 
#{{cite book|last=Copland|first=Ian|title=India 1885&ndash;1947: The Unmaking of an Empire|series = Seminar Studies in History series|orig-year = 2001|year=2012|publisher=Longman/Pearson Education|isbn=978-0-582-38173-5|page=65|quote=Although the INA did little actual damage in the field, the fact that thousands of Indian soldiers had seen fit to renounce their oath of allegiance to the King-Emperor raised serious doubts about whether the military could continue to be relied on to enforce imperial authority.}}
#{{cite book|last = Ludden| first = David|title=India and South Asia: A Short History | date = November 2013|location=London | publisher = One World Publications. Kindle Edition|page=247|isbn= 978-1-78074-108-6|quote=Meanwhile, a leading Congress figure, Subhas Chandra Bose (1897–1945), formed the Indian National Army (INA) in Japanese-occupied Burma to invade India and fight for liberation.}}
#{{cite book| last = Stockwell | first = A. J. | author-link=Anthony Stockwell|chapter = Imperialism and Nationalism in Southeast Asia|title=The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume IV, The Twentieth Century|editor1-last=Brown|editor1-first=Judith M.|editor2-last=Louis|editor2-first= Wm. Roger|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-820564-3|pages=466&ndash;489|quote=(p. 479) The Japanese also assisted the exiled Indian nationalist Subhas Chandra Bose in the recruitment of overseas Indians to the Indian National Army.  Although it played a role in military operations in Burma, the principal contribution of the INA was to the propaganda aimed at subverting British India.}}
</ref> The Japanese and INA forces [[Operation U-Go|invaded India]] from Rangoon in 1944, and Bose's nominal [[Provisional Government of Azad Hind]] declared war on [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland|Britain]]. Losses inflicted by the British in the [[Battle of Imphal]] in [[Manipur]] caused the invasion to be halted.<ref name=talbot-INA-battlefield-performance>{{cite book|last=Talbot|first=Ian|title=A History of Modern South Asia: Politics, States, Diasporas|location = New Haven and London|publisher=Yale University Press|year = 2016|page=128|quote= Bose's provisional government of Azad Hind (Free India) declared war on Britain.  An invasion of India was launched from Rangoon in 1944.  The Japanese and INA forces were driven back with heavy losses by the British in the Battle of Imphal (March&ndash;July 1944) in the northeastern state of Manipur.}}</ref> A long and exhausting withdrawal, accompanied by a lack of supplies, malnutrition, and death, ensued,<ref name=marston-withdrawal>{{harvnb|Marston|2014|p=124}} "Initially, INA troops in the Arakan stayed loyal to the INA and their IJA masters.  However, as starvation and defeat began to take their toll, loyalties began to waver, and two companies from the Bose Brigade surrendered en masse to British forces in July 1944."</ref> some victorious soldiers in the Indian Army not taking INA battlefield surrender kindly.<ref name=mclynn-battlefield-surrender>{{citation|last=McLynn|first=Frank|title=The Burma Campaign: Disaster Into Triumph, 1942–45|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rNL8i2LU0hMC|year=2011|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|location=New Haven|isbn=978-0-300-17162-4|pages=295&ndash;296|quote=Gracey consoled himself that Bose's Indian National Army had also been in action against his Indians and Gurkhas but had been roughly treated and almost annihilated; when the survivors tried to surrender, they tended to fall foul of the Gurkhas' dreaded kukri.}}</ref> The remaining INA was driven down the Malay Peninsula and surrendered to Allied forces in August 1945. 

An earlier incarnation of the INA, the [[First Indian National Army]], had been founded in 1942 by [[Iwaichi Fujiwara]] and [[Mohan Singh (military officer)|Mohan Singh]].<ref name=jlebra-p216>{{harvnb|Lebra|2008|p=216}} "Mohan Singh, co-founder with Fujiwara of the INA, was a revolutionary of a different order.  Before Fujiwara's eyes Mohan Singh became transformed into a revolutionary, unwilling to compromise with the Japanese when other Indians advised caution and moderation."</ref> However, Mohan Singh refused to align with the Japanese, leading to his arrest and the First INA's disbandment.<ref name=grint-japanese-aligned>{{cite book|last=Grint|first=Keith|title=Mutiny and Leadership|publisher = Oxford University Press| location = Oxford and New York|year = 2021|isbn=978-0-19-289334-5|page=298|quote=In 1941 Subhas Chandra Bose had escaped house arrest and began building an army aligned to the Axis powers, specifically Japan, in order to overthrow British rule in India.  Indian POWs held by the Japanese were then released into the INA and they fought against the British in Burma (Singh, 2006) In fact, this was the second incarnation of the INA: the first had been led by Mohan Singh who refused to align with the Japanese and was eventually arrested by them.}}</ref> After [[Subhas Chandra Bose]] arrived in Southeast Asia from [[Nazi Germany]] in May 1943, he refounded the INA with significant recruitment from Indian civilian communities in Malaya and Singapore.<ref name=indian-civilians-INA>
*{{cite EBO|title=Subhas Chandra Bose|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Subhas-Chandra-Bose|year=2025|access-date=January 11, 2025|quote=he led an armed force composed of former Indian prisoners of war and volunteers from the Indian expatriate community. ... aligned with the Axis powers and opposed the Allied powers during World War II.}}
#{{cite book|last1=Metcalf |first1 = Barbara D.|author1-link=Barbara D. Metcalf|last2=Metcalf|first2=Thomas R.|author2-link=Thomas R. Metcalf|title=A Concise History of Modern India|series=Cambridge Concise Histories|edition=3rd|publisher = Cambridge University Press|pages=244&ndash;245|isbn= 978-1-107-02649-0|year=2012|quote=The force that he (Bose) put together included not only prisoners of war, but other Indian residents of the area, including a novel women's detachment}}
#{{cite book |last=Barkawi|first=Tarak|title=Soldiers of the Empire: Indian and British Armies in World War II|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=114|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nk7ODgAAQBAJ&pg=PA114|isbn=978-1-107-16958-6|year=2017|quote=Later, after Bose’s arrival, the INA would eventually number around 45,000, but about 18,000 of these were recruited from Indian civilian communities in Southeast Asia.}}</ref><ref name=talbot-history-SAsia>{{cite book|last=Talbot|first=Ian|title=A History of Modern South Asia: Politics, States, Diasporas|location = New Haven and London|publisher=Yale University Press|year = 2016|page=128|quote=After an epic submarine journey, Bose arrived in Japanese-dominated Southeast Asia.  He assumed leadership of the Indian Independence League and the Indian National Army.  His reinvigoration of the latter organization from among not only Japanese prisoners of war but Indians settled in Malaya called into question the notion of a narrow territorially bound nationalism.}}</ref>

Subhas Bose had both drive and charisma—promoting Indian slogans, such as "[[Jai Hind]]," which became highly popular—and the INA under Bose was a model of diversity by region, ethnicity, religion, and gender.<ref name=maria-misra>{{cite book|last = Misra |first=Maria|title=Vishu's Crowded Temple: India Since the Great Rebellion|location=New Haven and London|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-300-13721-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjxiMSd0YwoC&pg=PA477|quote=Bose, ..., determined to resurrect the INA and, with Japanese aid, liberate India by force of arms.  To the main force of prisoners of war he added Indian plantation workers from Malaya, and traders and shopkeepers from Thailand ... the INA was an admirable multi-ethnic force.}}</ref><ref name=metcalf-metcalf>{{cite book|last1=Metcalf |first1 = Barbara D.|author1-link=Barbara D. Metcalf|last2=Metcalf|first2=Thomas R.|author2-link=Thomas R. Metcalf|title=A Concise History of Modern India|series=Cambridge Concise Histories|edition=3rd|publisher = Cambridge University Press|pages=244&ndash;245|isbn= 978-1-107-02649-0|year=2012|quote=The force that he (Bose) put together included not only prisoners of war, but other Indian residents of the area, including a novel women's detachment}}</ref> Bose's impassioned speeches may have been a factor in the POWs and civilians joining the INA.<ref name=kovner-motivation-bose>{{cite book|last=Kovner|first=Sarah| title=Prisoners of the Empire: Inside Japanese POW Camps|location=Cambridge MA |publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-73761-7|page=61|quote=(p. 63) In July 1943, S. C. Bose's arrival in Singapore energized the remaining Indian POWs.  A "fiery orator," Bose was known for his speaking skill.  As one observer recalled, "When Subhas Chandra Bose spoke, women would throw their jewelry at his feet."  It is difficult to know what exactly motivated the men who followed him.  M. Singh believed they were inspired by the idea of freeing India from British rule.  Most Indians were not believers in or loyal to the ideas of Pan-Asianism or its policy incarnation, the Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere.  According to Pitt Kuan Wah, "those who did it did it for self-gain."  But "The average Indian, yes, has a negative attitude toward the Japanese."}}</ref>  Bitterness at their discriminatory treatment by the British,<ref name=marston-bitter-treatment>{{harvnb|Marston|2014|p=34}} "There were officers who had become bitter through mistreatment at the hand of some British officers and civilians and relegation to second-class status as soldiers.  This mistreatment was a major reason for some Indian officers' decision to break their oaths of allegiance and join the Japanese-sponsored Indian National Army (INA) after the defeats in Malay and Burma in 1942."</ref> and a sense of abandonment by the British after the [[Fall of Singapore]] may have been factors.<ref name=comb-jeffery-fisher>
#{{cite book| last = Jeffery| first = Keith| author-link=Keith Jeffery|chapter = The Second World War|title=The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume IV, The Twentieth Century|editor1-last=Brown|editor1-first=Judith M.|editor2-last=Louis|editor2-first= Wm. Roger|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-820564-3|pages=306&ndash;328|quote=(p. 324) Canvassing for recruits among demoralized Indian prisoners-of-war captured in Malaya and Singapore, the nationalists secured quite a good response. Many men felt, in the words of one later INA brigade commander, that they had been 'handed over like cattle by the British to the Japs'.}}
#{{cite book|last = Fisher | first = Michael|title = An Environmental History of India: From the Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century|series = New Approaches to Asian History series|publisher = Cambridge University Press|year = 2018|isbn= 9781107111622|page=161|quote=In this war, some 2.5 million Indians served in British imperial armies. Many of those abandoned by their British officers when Singapore fell or in other British defeats joined the Indian National Army led by S.C. Bose that allied with the Germans and Japanese}}</ref> The thousands Indian POWs and civilians who did not join being shipped to distant Japanese labour camps may have been another factor. Around 12,000 POWs and 100,000 Indian civilians were used as forced labourers by the Japanese.<ref name=markovitz>{{citation|last=Markovits|first=Claude|title=India and the World: A History of Connections, c.1750–2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, UK and New York, NY|pages=79, 113, 114|isbn=978-1-107-18675-0|lccn=2021000609|doi=10.1017/9781316899847|year=2021|s2cid=233601747|quote=(p. 79) This was owing to Japan’s own ambivalent attitude towards Indians: on the one hand, the Japanese saw them as potential allies in the fight against Britain, and they made an alliance with the dissident nationalist leader Subhas Chandra Bose; on the other hand, they despised them as a ‘subject race’ enslaved by the British. Thanks to this alliance, however, the Indians escaped some of the harshest measures that the Japanese took against the Chinese population in the region. That said, 100,000 Indian coolies, mostly Tamilian plantation workers, were conscripted as forced labour and put to work on various infrastructure projects for the Japanese Imperial Army. Some were sent from Malaya to Thailand to work on the infamous Thailand–Burma railway project, resulting in 30,000 deaths of fever and exhaustion (Nakahara 2005). Thousands of war prisoners who had refused to join the Indian National Army (INA) of Subhas Bose were sent to faraway New Guinea, where Australian troops discovered them hiding in 1945.}}</ref><ref name=kovner-motivation-for-joining>{{cite book|last=Kovner|first=Sarah| title=Prisoners of the Empire: Inside Japanese POW Camps|location=Cambridge MA |publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-73761-7|page=61|quote=The Japanese continue to try to win over Indian POWs. They found it better to separate Indian and British troops to achieve this end.  They did so with the help of Indian civilians.  The biggest movements of all were of the Indian prisoners. Between December 1942 and September 1943 about 12,000 Indian POWs were shipped from Singapore to various islands in the Southwest Pacific, the Andaman Islands, and French Indochina. The largest convoy left Malaya in May, including not just men who had held out against collaboration but also men who had at one time been volunteers in Singapore and in building the Thai-Burma Railway. The POWs were proving useful as a labor pool not just in Singapore but at many points of Japan's far-flung empire.}}</ref> The INA followed Japanese military strategy but had its own military law and police.<ref name=fay-INA-army-act-military-police>{{cite book|last = Fay| first = Peter Ward|title = The Forgotten Army: India's Armed Struggle for Independence, 1942&ndash;1945|location = Ann Arbor | publisher = University if Michigan Press|year=1995|orig-year=1993|isbn=0-472-08342-2|quote= (p. 260) [[Masakazu Kawabe|Kawabe]] was not so easily shifted in the matter of military law.  All the local armies allied with Nippon, he pointed out, the Nanking Army, the Thai army, the Burma National Army, accepted Japanese military law. But Bose found the prospect intolerable.  It meant surrendering uniformed Indians to the tender mercies of the ''Kempeitai''. The INA had its own Army Act and its own military police. These must suffice. And in the end Kawabe gave way. He even agreed that when Japanese and Indian officers of equal rank met, neither would wait, they would salute together.}}</ref> Although the INA has been described as a collaborationist force,<ref name=marston-collaborationist>{{harvnb|Marston|2014|p=4}} "The Indian Army's experience in the Second World War also involved grappling with the military and cultural implications of a Japanese-sponsored collaborationist force, the Indian National Army"</ref> its battlefield performance was poor, and its formation did not constitute a legitimate mutiny.<ref name=marston-not-mutiny>{{harvnb|Marston|2014|pp=117–118}} "(p. 117) Reports of its creation in 1942/3 caused consternation among the political and military leadership (p. 118) of the GOI, but in the end its formation did not constitute a legitimate mutiny, and its presence had a negligible impact on the Indian Army."</ref> The INA did not oppose [[Fascism in Asia#Japan|Japanese Fascism]], nor protest [[Japanese war crimes]], such as [[Comfort women|sexual slavery]], that occurred amongst its midst.<ref name=weinberg-global-ww2>{{cite book|last=Weinberg|first=Gerhard L.|title=A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II|publisher=Cambridge University Press, 2nd Edition|isbn=978-0-521-61826-7|location=Cambridge and New York|year=2011|page=xx|quote=None of the works that deal with ... Subhas Chandra Bose, or his Indian National Army has engaged ... the reaction of the soldiers in his army to the sex slaves kidnapped in Japanese-occupied lands and held in enclosures attached to the camps in which they were being trained to follow their Japanese comrades in the occupation of India}}</ref>

After the INA's initial formation in 1942, there was concern in the British Indian Army that further Indian troops would defect. This led to a reporting ban and a propaganda campaign called "[[Jiffs]]" to preserve the loyalty of the [[Sepoy]].<ref name=Fayp423>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=423}}</ref>  The [[British Raj]], never seriously threatened by the INA, charged 300 INA officers with treason in the [[INA trials]], but eventually backtracked in the face of opposition by the [[Indian National Congress]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Moreman|first=Tim|title=The Jungle, Japanese and the British Commonwealth Armies at War, 1941–45: Fighting Methods, Doctrine and Training for Jungle Warfare|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bsoy_-Ep_0EC|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-76456-2}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Marston2014|pp=130–132}}: "Many Indian Army POWs were perplexed by Congress's sudden support for the INA"</ref> These trials became a galvanising point in the Indian Independence movement for the Congress.{{sfn|Singh|2003|p=98}}<ref name=Sarkar420>{{Harvnb|Sarkar|1983|p=420}}</ref> A number of people associated with the INA during the war later went on to hold important roles in public life in India as well as in other countries in Southeast Asia, most notably [[Lakshmi Sehgal]] in India, and [[John Thivy]] and [[Janaki Athinahappan]] in Malaya.<ref name=Lebra2008p219/>

== First INA ==

=== Free India Legion ===
{{Main|First Indian National Army|Bidadary resolutions}}

{{See also|Mohan Singh|I Fujiwara|Rash Behari Bose|Indian Independence League|Thirty Comrades|Selarang Barracks incident|Fall of Singapore#Subsequent_events}}
[[File:Fujiwara Kikan.jpg|right|299x299px|thumb|Major [[Iwaichi Fujiwara]] greets [[Mohan Singh (general)|Mohan Singh]]. ''Circa'' April 1942.]]
Before the start of World War II, Japan and South-East Asia were major refuges for exiled Indian nationalists. Meanwhile, Japan had [[F Kikan|sent intelligence missions]], notably under [[Major (rank)|Maj.]] [[Iwaichi Fujiwara]], into South Asia to gather support from the Malayan sultans, overseas Chinese, the Burmese resistance and the [[Indian independence movement]]. The Minami Kikan successfully recruited [[Thirty Comrades|Burmese nationalists]], while the F Kikan was successful in establishing contacts with Indian nationalists in exile in [[Thailand]] and [[British Malaya|Malaya]].<ref name="Lebra 1977 23">{{Harvnb|Lebra|1977|p=23}}</ref><ref name="Lebra 1977 24"/> Fujiwara, later self-described as "Lawrence of the Indian National Army" (after [[Lawrence of Arabia]]) is said to have been a man committed to the values which his office was supposed to convey to the expatriate nationalist leaders, and found acceptance among them.<ref name="Lebra 1977 24">{{Harvnb|Lebra|1977|p=24}}</ref><ref name="Fay 1993 75">{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=75}}</ref> His initial contact was with [[Giani Pritam Singh]] and the [[Thai-Bharat Cultural Lodge]].<ref name="Lebra 1977 24"/>
At the outbreak of World War II [[South-East Asian theatre of World War II|in South-East Asia]], 70,000 Indian troops (mostly [[Sikhs]]) were stationed in Malaya. In Japan's spectacular [[Malayan Campaign]] many Indian prisoners-of-war were captured, including nearly 45,000 after the [[Battle of Singapore|fall of Singapore]] alone.<ref name=Toye2007p4>{{Harvnb|Toye|2007|p=4}}</ref> The conditions of service within the British-Indian Army and the social conditions in Malaya had led to dissension among these troops.<ref name=Faye56and224and226>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|pp=56, 224, 226}}</ref><ref name=Toye30>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=30}}</ref> From these prisoners, the [[First Indian National Army]] was formed under [[Mohan Singh (general)|Mohan Singh]]. Singh was an officer in the British-Indian Army who was captured early in the Malayan campaign. His nationalist sympathies found an ally in Fujiwara and he received considerable Japanese aid and support.<ref name=Toye7and8>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=7,8}}</ref> Ethnic Indians in Southeast Asia also supported the cause of Indian independence and had formed local leagues in Malaya before the war. These came together with encouragement from Japan after the occupation, forming the [[Indian Independence League]] (IIL).<ref name=Fay91and108>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|pp=91, 108}}</ref>

Although there were a number of prominent local Indians working in the IIL, the overall leadership came to rest with [[Rash Behari Bose]], an Indian revolutionary who had lived in self-exile in Japan since World War I.<ref name=Faye108>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=108}}</ref> The League and INA leadership decided that the INA was to be subordinate to the IIL. A working council&nbsp;– composed of prominent members of the League and the INA leaders&nbsp;– was to decide on decisions to send the INA to war.<ref name=Lebra2008p77>{{Harvnb|Lebra|2008|p=77}}</ref> The Indian leaders feared that they would appear to be Japanese puppets, so a decision was taken that the INA would go to battle only when the [[Indian National Congress]] called it to do so.<ref name=Fay94>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=94}}</ref><ref name=Fay111>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=111}}</ref> Assurances of non-interference— later termed the [[Bidadary resolutions]]— were demanded of Japan; these would have amounted to a treaty with an independent government.<ref name=Toye2007p4/> In this time, F. Kikan had been replaced by the [[Iwakuro Kikan]] (or I Kikan) headed by [[Hideo Iwakuro]]. Iwakuro's working relationship with the league was more tenuous. Japan did not immediately agree to the demands arising from the Bidadary resolutions. Differences also existed between Rash Behari and the League, not least because Rash Behari had lived in Japan for the considerable time and had a Japanese wife and a son in the Imperial Japanese Army.<ref name=Lebra2008p49>{{Harvnb|Lebra|2008|p=49}}</ref> On the other hand, Mohan Singh expected military strategy and decisions to be autonomous decisions for the INA, independent of the league.<ref name=Fay150>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=150}}</ref>

In November and December 1942, concern about Japan's intentions towards the INA led to disagreement between the INA and the League on the one hand and the Japanese on the other.<ref name=Lebra2008p99>{{Harvnb|Lebra|2008|p=99}}</ref> The INA leadership resigned along with that of the League (except Rash Behari). The unit was dissolved by Mohan Singh in December 1942, and he ordered the troops of the INA to return to PoW camps.<ref name=Toye45>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=45}}</ref><ref name=Fay149>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=149}}</ref> Mohan Singh was expected to be shot.<ref name=Toye45/>

Between December 1942 and February 1943, Rash Behari struggled to hold the INA together.<ref name=Fay151>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=151}}</ref> On 15 February 1943, the army itself was put under the command of [[Lieutenant Colonel|Lt. Col.]] [[M.Z. Kiani]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://wn.com/Lt_Col_M_Z_Kiani | title=MZ Kiani | publisher=World News | access-date=2011-08-12}}</ref> A policy forming body was formed with [[J.R. Bhonsle|Lt. Col J.R. Bhonsle]] (Director of the Military Bureau) in charge and clearly placed under the authority of the IIL. Under Bhonsle served [[Shah Nawaz Khan (general)|Lt. Col. Shah Nawaz Khan]] as Chief of General Staff, [[P.K. Sahgal|Major P.K. Sahgal]] as Military Secretary, [[Raja Habib ur Rahman Khan|Major Habib ur Rahman]] as commandant of the Officers' Training School and Lt. Col. A.C. Chatterji  (later Major A.D. Jahangir) as head of enlightenment and culture.<ref name="Fay151"/><ref name=Lebra2008p98>{{Harvnb|Lebra|2008|p=98}}</ref>

==Second INA==

===Subhas Chandra Bose===
Subhas Chandra Bose was the ideal person to lead a rebel army into India came from the very beginning of F Kikan's work with captured Indian soldiers. Mohan Singh himself, soon after his first meeting with Fujiwara, had suggested that Bose was the right leader of a nationalist Indian army.<ref name=Toye2007p2>{{Harvnb|Toye|2007|p=2}}</ref> A number of the officers and troops&nbsp;– including some who now returned to prisoner-of-war camps and some who had not volunteered in the first place&nbsp;– made it known that they would be willing to join the INA only if it was led by Subhas Bose.<ref name="Lebra197727">{{Harvnb|Lebra|1977|p=27}}</ref> Bose was a nationalist. He had joined the Gandhian movement after resigning from a prestigious post in the [[Indian Civil Service]] in 1922, quickly rising in the Congress and being incarcerated repeatedly by the Raj.<ref name=Toye1959p80>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=80}}</ref> By late 1920s he and [[Jawaharlal Nehru|Nehru]] were considered the future leaders of the Congress.<ref name=Toye2007prebelleader>{{Harvnb|Toye|2007|loc=The Rebel President}}</ref> In the late 1920s, he was amongst the first Congress leaders to call for complete independence from Britain (''Purna Swaraj''), rather than the previous Congress objective of India becoming a [[British dominion]].<ref name=Toye2007prebelleader/> In Bengal, he was repeatedly accused by Raj officials of working with the [[Revolutionary movement for Indian independence|revolutionary movement]]. Under his leadership, the Congress youth group in Bengal was organised into a quasi-military organisation called the [[Bengal Volunteers]].<ref name=Sengupta23and24>{{Harvnb|Sengupta|2012|pp=23–24}}</ref> Bose deplored [[Gandhi]]'s pacifism; Gandhi disagreed with Bose's confrontations with the Raj.<ref name=Toye2007prebelleader/> The Congress's working committee, including Nehru, was predominantly loyal to Gandhi.<ref name=Toye2007prebelleader/> While openly disagreeing with Gandhi, Bose won the presidency of Indian National Congress twice in the 1930s. His second victory came despite opposition from Gandhi. He defeated Gandhi's favoured candidate, [[Bhogaraju Pattabhi Sitaramayya]], in the popular vote, but the entire working committee resigned and refused to work with Bose.<ref name="Toye1959p100">{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=88}}</ref> Bose resigned from the Congress presidency and founded his own faction within the Congress, the [[All India Forward Bloc]].<ref name=Fayp197>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=197}}</ref>

[[File:Subhas Chandra Bose meeting Adolf Hitler.jpg|thumb|Bose meeting with [[Adolf Hitler]] in East Prussia, May 1942|295x295px]]

At the start of World War II, Bose was placed under house arrest by the Raj.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.revolutionarydemocracy.org/rdv7n1/Bose.htm | title=Subhas Chandra Bose in Nazi Germany | publisher=South Asia Forum Quarterly | work=Sisir K. Majumdar | year=1997 | access-date=2011-08-12 | pages=10–14}}</ref> He escaped in disguise and made his way through Afghanistan and Central -Asia. He came first to the Soviet Union and then to Germany, reaching Berlin on 2 April 1941.<ref name="Lebra2008p219">{{Harvnb|Lebra|2008|p=107}}</ref><ref name="Toye1959p100"/> There he sought to raise an army of Indian soldiers from prisoners of war captured by Germany,<ref name=Syonan>{{Harvnb|Tojo|1943|p=}}</ref> forming the [[Free India Legion]] and the [[Azad Hind Radio|''Azad Hind'' Radio]].<ref name=Toye1959p117to119>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|pp=117–119}}</ref> The Japanese ambassador, [[Oshima Hiroshi]], kept Tokyo informed of these developments.<ref name=Lebra2008p231>{{Harvnb|Lebra|2008|p=231}}</ref> From the very start of the war, the Japanese intelligence services noted from speaking to captured Indian soldiers that Bose was held in extremely high regard as a nationalist and was considered by Indian soldiers to be the right person to be leading a rebel army.<ref name=Toye2007p2/>

In a series of meetings between the INA leaders and the Japanese in 1943, it was decided to cede the leadership of the IIL and the INA to Bose. In January 1943, the Japanese invited Bose to lead the Indian nationalist movement in East Asia.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.s1942.org.sg/s1942/indian_national_army/subhas.htm | title=Total Mobilisation | publisher=National Archives of Singapore | access-date=2011-08-12 | archive-date=29 August 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110829100457/http://www.s1942.org.sg/s1942/indian_national_army/subhas.htm | url-status=dead }}</ref> He accepted and left Germany on 8 February. After a three-month journey by submarine and a short stop in Singapore, he reached Tokyo on 11 May 1943. In Tokyo, he met [[Hideki Tojo]], the Japanese prime minister, and the Japanese High Command. He then arrived in Singapore in July 1943, where he made a number of radio broadcasts to Indians in Southeast Asia exhorting them to join in the fight for India's independence.<ref name=Fayp223>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=223}}</ref>

===Revival===
On 4 July 1943 two days after reaching Singapore, Bose assumed the leadership of the IIL and the Indian National Army in a ceremony at Cathay Building. Bose's influence was notable. His appeal re-invigorated the INA, which had previously consisted mainly of prisoners of war: it also attracted Indian expatriates in South Asia. He famously proclaimed that ''Give me blood! I will give you freedom''

"Local civilians joined the INA, doubling its strength. They included barristers, traders and plantation workers, as well as  Khudabadi Sindhi Swarankars who were working as shop keepers; many had no military experience."<ref name=Belle199>{{Harvnb|Belle|2014|p=199}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| publisher = National Archives of Singapore| url = http://www.s1942.org.sg/s1942/indian_national_army/revival.htm| title = Historical Journey of the Indian National Army| access-date = 2007-07-07| archive-date = 16 May 2007| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070516104856/http://www.s1942.org.sg/s1942/indian_national_army/revival.htm| url-status = dead}}</ref> Carl Vadivella Belle estimates under Bose's dynamic appeal, membership of the IIL peaked at 350,000, while almost 100,000 local Indians in South-east Asia volunteered to join the INA, with the army ultimately reaching a force of 50,000.<ref name="Belle199"/> [[Hugh Toye]]— a British Intelligence officer and author of a 1959 history of the army called ''[[The Springing Tiger]]''— and American historian [[Peter W. Fay]] (author of a 1993 history called ''The Forgotten Army'')  have reached similar estimates of troop strength. The first INA is considered to have comprised about 40,000 troops, of whom about 4,000 withdrew when it was disbanded in December 1942. The Second INA started with 12,000 troops.<ref name=Toye1959p286>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=286}}</ref> Further recruitment of former Indian Army personnel added about 8,000–10,000. About 18,000 Indian civilians also enlisted during this time.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}} Belle estimates almost 20,000 were local Malayan Indians, while another 20,000 were ex-British-Indian Army members who volunteered for the INA.<ref name="Belle199"/> 
[[File:Gandhi and Subhas Bose.jpg|thumb|right| [[Subhas Bose]] with [[Mohandas Gandhi]] at a Congress meeting, c 1938]]
The exact organisation of the INA and its precise troop strength is not known, since its records were destroyed by the withdrawing ''Azad Hind'' Government before Rangoon  [[Burma Campaign#Race for Rangoon|was recaptured]] by Commonwealth forces in 1945.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=556}}</ref> The order of battle described by Fay (constructed from discussions with INA-veterans), nonetheless, is similar to that described of the first INA by Toye in ''The Springing Tiger''. The 1st Division, under M.Z. Kiani, drew many ex-Indian army prisoners of war who had joined Mohan Singh's first INA. It also drew prisoners of war who had not joined in 1942. It consisted of the 2nd Guerrilla Regiment (the [[Gandhi Brigade (regiment)|Gandhi Brigade]]) consisting of two battalions under Col. Inayat Kiani; the 3rd Guerrilla Regiment (the [[Azad Brigade]]) with three battalions under Col. Gulzara Singh; and the 4th Guerrilla Regiment (or [[Nehru Brigade]]) commanded by the end of the war by Lt. Col [[Gurubaksh Singh Dhillon]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=263}}</ref> The 1st Guerrilla Regiment&nbsp;– the [[Subhas Brigade]]&nbsp;– under Col. Shah Nawaz Khan was an independent unit, consisting of three infantry battalions. A special operations group was also to be set up called the ''[[Bahadur group]]'' (Valiant), to operate behind enemy lines.<ref name=Toye1959138>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=138}}</ref>

A training school for INA officers, led by Habib ur Rahman, and the ''Azad'' School for the civilian volunteers were set up to provide training to the recruits. A youth wing of the INA, composed of 45 young Indians personally chosen by Bose and known as the [[Tokyo Boys]], was also sent to Japan's Imperial Military Academy, where its members trained as fighter pilots. A separate all-female unit was also created under [[Lakshmi Sahgal]]. This unit was intended to have combat-commitments.<ref name=Gordonp496>{{Harvnb|Gordon|1990|p=496}}</ref> Named [[Rani of Jhansi Regiment|''Jhansi ki Rani'' ("Jhansi Queens") Regiment]] (after the legendary rebel Queen [[Lakshmibai]] of the [[1857 rebellion]]), it drew female civilian volunteers from Malaya and Burma. The 1st Division was lightly armed. Each battalion was composed of five companies of infantry. The individual companies were armed with six [[antitank rifle]]s, six [[Bren gun]]s and six [[Vickers machine gun]]s. Some NCOs carried [[hand grenade]]s, while senior officers of the ''Bahadur'' groups attached to each unit issued hand grenades (of captured British stock) to men going forward on duty.<ref name=Fay297>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=297}}</ref>

The 2nd Division was organised under Colonel Abdul Aziz Tajik<ref name=Fay317>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=317}}</ref> It was formed largely after the [[U Go offensive|Imphal offensive]] had started and drew large remnants of what remained of the [[Hindustan Field Force]] of the First INA. The 2nd Division consisted of the 1st Infantry Regiment, which later merged with the 5th Guerrilla Regiment to form the INA's 2nd Infantry Regiment under Col [[Prem Sahgal]]. The 1st Infantry Regiment drew many civilian volunteers from Burma and Malaya and was equipped with the largest share of the heavy armament that the INA possessed.<ref name=Fay318>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=318}}</ref> An additional 3rd Division of the INA was composed chiefly of local volunteers in Malaya and Singapore. This unit disbanded before Japan surrendered. A motor transport division was also created, but it was severely limited by lack of resources. In 1945, at the end of the INA, it consisted of about 40,000 soldiers.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|pp=525–526}}</ref>
Unlike Mohan Singh, whose assumption of the rank of [[general]] had generated opposition, Bose refused to take a rank.<ref name=Bayly&Harper2005p322>{{Harvnb|Bayly|Harper|2005|p=322}}</ref> Both the soldiers of the INA and civilians addressed Bose as ''Netaji'' ("Dear leader"), a term first used in Berlin by members of the Free India Legion.<ref name=Fay236>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=236}}</ref> In October 1943, Bose proclaimed the formation of the ''[[Arzi Hukumat-e-Azad Hind]]'', or the Provisional Government of Free India (also known as ''Azad Hind'' or Free India). The INA was declared to be the army of ''Azad Hind''.<ref name=Toye1959p80&90to93>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|loc=80,90-93}}</ref>

==Operations==
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:INA Parade.jpg|thumb|right|Military parade of the INA at the Padang
on 5 July 1943]]  --><!-- FAIR USE of INA_Parade.jpg: see image description page at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:INA_Parade.jpgfor rationale --> 
{{Main|Battles and operations of the Indian National Army}}
{{See also|India in World War II}}
On 23 October 1943, ''Azad Hind'' declared war against Britain and the United States.<ref name=Singh16>{{Harvnb|Singh|2003|p=16}}</ref> Its first formal commitment came with the opening of the Japanese offensive towards [[Manipur]], code-named ''[[Operation U-Go|U-Go]]''. In the initial plans for invasion of India, [[Hisaichi Terauchi|Field Marshal Terauchi]] had been reluctant to confer any responsibilities to the INA beyond espionage and propaganda.<ref name=Toye1959p86>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=86}}</ref> Bose rejected this as the role of [[Fifth-column]]ists,<ref name=Toye1959p86/> and insisted that INA should contribute substantially in troops to form a distinct identity of an Indian-liberation army. He secured from Japanese army Chief of Staff, General Sugiyama, the agreement that INA would rank as an allied army in the offensive.<ref name=Toye1959p149>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=149}}</ref> The advanced headquarters of ''Azad Hind'' was moved to Rangoon in anticipation of success. The INA's own strategy was to avoid set-piece battles, for which it lacked armament as well as manpower.<ref name=Fay292and298>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|pp=292, 298}}</ref> Initially it sought to obtain arms and increase its ranks by inducing British-Indian soldiers to defect. The latter were expected to defect in large numbers. Col Prem Sahgal, once military secretary to Subhas Bose and later tried in the first [[Red Fort trials]], explained the INA strategy to Peter Fay<ref name=Fay139>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=139}}</ref>&nbsp;– although the war itself hung in balance and nobody was sure if the Japanese would win, initiating a popular revolution with grass-roots support within India would ensure that even if Japan ultimately lost the war, Britain would not be in a position to re-assert its colonial authority. It was planned that, once Japanese forces had broken through British defences at [[Imphal]], the INA would cross the hills of [[North-East India]] into the [[Gangetic plain]], where it would work as a guerrilla army.<ref name=Fay268>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=268}}</ref> This army was expected to live off the land, with captured British supplies, support, and personnel from the local population.<ref name=Fay262>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=262}}</ref>

===1944===
{{See also|Battle of the Admin Box|U Go Offensive|Battle of Imphal|Battle of Kohima}}
[[File:Indian National Army Possessed Transmitter - 1944 CE - Kolkata 2017-02-05 5116.JPG|thumb|Radio transmitting set seized from INA agents in Calcutta, 1944. Four agents had been landed by submarine on the Indian coast, tasked with setting up a wireless post.]]
The plans chosen by Bose and [[Masakazu Kawabe]], chief of the Burma area army, envisaged the INA being assigned an independent sector in the ''U-Go'' offensive. No INA units were to operate at less than battalion strength.<ref name=Toye1959p161>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=161}}</ref> For operational purposes, the Subhas Brigade was placed under the command of the Japanese General Headquarters in Burma. Advance parties of the ''Bahadur'' Group also went forward with advanced Japanese units.<ref name=Toye159>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=159}}</ref> As the offensive opened, the INA's 1st Division, consisting of four guerrilla regiments, was divided between ''U Go'' and the diversionary ''[[Second Arakan Offensive|Ha-Go]]'' offensive in [[Rakhine State|Arakan]].<ref name=Toye1959p161/><ref name=Toye162>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=162}}</ref> One battalion reached as far as Mowdok in [[Chittagong]] after breaking through the [[British West African Division]].<ref name=Sareen1996p184>{{Harvnb|Sareen|1996|p=184}}</ref><ref name=Bijil112>{{Harvnb|van Der Bijil|2013|p=112}}</ref> A Bahadur Group unit, led by  Col. [[Shaukat Malik]], took the border enclave of [[Moirang]] in early April.<ref name=Toye1959p198&215>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|pp=198, 215}}</ref> The main body of the 1st Division was however committed to the ''U-Go'', directed towards Manipur. Led by Shah Nawaz Khan, it successfully protected the Japanese flanks against Chin and Kashin guerrillas as [[Renya Mutaguchi]]'s three divisions crossed the [[Chindwin river]] and the [[Naga Hills]], and participated in the main offensive through [[Tamu, Myanmar|Tamu]] in the direction of Imphal and [[Kohima]].<ref name=Fayp283and284>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|pp=283–284}}</ref><ref name=Toyep189to191>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|pp=189–191}}</ref> The 2nd Division, under M.Z. Kiani, was placed to the right flank of the 33rd Division attacking Kohima. However, by the time Khan's forces left Tamu, the offensive had been held, and Khan's troops were redirected to Kohima. After reaching Ukhrul, near Kohima, they found Japanese forces had begun their withdrawal from the area. The INA's forces suffered the same fate as Mutaguchi's army when the siege of Imphal was broken. With little or nothing in the way of supplies, and with additional difficulties caused by the monsoon, Allied air dominance, and Burmese irregular forces, the 1st and 2nd divisions began withdrawing alongside the 15th Army and [[Burma Area Army]]. During the withdrawal through Manipur, a weakened Gandhi regiment held its position against the advancing [[Maratha Light Infantry]] on the Burma–India road while the general withdrawal was prepared.<ref name=Fay289>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|pp=289–292}}</ref><ref name=Toye138and162>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|pp=138, 162, 203, 210}}</ref> The 2nd and 3rd INA regiments protected the flanks of the Yamamoto force successfully at the most critical time during this withdrawal,<ref name="Toye1959207">{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=207}}</ref> but wounded and diseased men succumbed to starvation along the route. Commonwealth troops following the Japanese forces found INA dead along with Japanese troops who had died of starvation.<ref name=Toye180>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=180}}</ref> The INA lost a substantial number of men and amount of materiel in this retreat. A number of units were disbanded or used to feed into new divisions.{{sfn|Fay|1993|p=417}}

===1945===
{{See also|Battle of Pokoku|Battle of Meiktila and Mandalay}}
As the Allied [[Burma campaign]] began the following year, the INA remained committed to the defence of Burma and was a part of the Japanese defensive deployments. The Second Division was tasked with the defence of [[Irrawaddy Delta|Irrawaddy]] and the adjoining areas around Nangyu, and offered opposition to [[Frank Messervy|Messervy]]'s 7th Indian Division when it attempted to cross the river at Pagan and Nyangyu during [[Battle of Pokoku and Irrawaddy River operations|Irrawaddy operations]].<ref name=Fayp330>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=330}}</ref><ref name=Fay539>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=539}}</ref> Later, during the [[Battle of Meiktila and Mandalay|Battles of Meiktila and Mandalay]], the forces under Prem Sahgal were tasked with defending the area around [[Mount Popa]] from the British 17th Division, which would have exposed the flank of [[Heitarō Kimura]]'s forces attempting to retake Meiktila and Nyangyu. The division was obliterated, at times fighting tanks with hand grenades and bottles of petrol.<ref name=Fay358>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=358}}</ref><ref name=Toye1959p229>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=229}}</ref> Many INA soldiers realised that they were in a hopeless position. Many surrendered to pursuing Commonwealth forces. Isolated, losing men to exhaustion and to desertion, low on ammunition and food, and pursued by Commonwealth forces, the surviving units of the second division began an attempt to withdraw towards Rangoon. They broke through encircling Commonwealth lines a number of times before finally surrendering at various places in early April 1945.<ref name=Fay539/><ref name=Singh32and33>{{Harvnb|Singh|2003|pp=32–33}}</ref> As the Japanese situation became precarious, the ''Azad Hind'' government withdrew from Rangoon to Singapore, along with the remnants of the 1st Division and the Rani of Jhansi Regiment. Nearly 6,000 troops of the surviving units of the INA remained in Rangoon under [[A. D. Loganathan]]. They surrendered as Rangoon fell and helped keep order until the Allied forces entered the city.<ref name=Toye261>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=261}}</ref>

As the Japanese withdrawal from Burma progressed, other remnants of the INA began a long march overland and on foot towards Bangkok. In what has been called an "epic retreat to safety",<ref name=Belle204>{{Harvnb|Belle|2014|p=204}}</ref> Bose walked with his troops, refusing to leave them despite Japanese soldiers finding him transport.<ref name=Toye1959p248/> The withdrawing forces regularly suffered casualties from Allied planes strafing them and in clashes with [[Aung San]]'s Burmese resistance, as well as from Chinese guerrillas who harassed the Japanese troops.<ref name=Toye1959p248>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=248}}</ref> Bose returned to Singapore in August to what remained of the INA and ''Azad Hind''. He wished to stay with his government in Singapore to surrender to the British, reasoning that a trial in India and possible execution would ignite the country, serving the independence movement. He was convinced not to do so by the ''Azad Hind'' cabinet.<ref name=BoseHMOp>{{Harvnb|Bose|2013|p=undefined}}</ref> At the time of Japan's surrender in September 1945, Bose left for [[Dalian]] near the Soviet border in [[Manchukuo|Japanese-occupied China]] to attempt to contact the advancing Soviet troops, and was [[Death of Subhash Chandra Bose|reported to have died]] in an air crash near Taiwan.<ref name=Fay372>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|pp=372–373}}</ref><ref name=Fay384>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=384}}</ref> The remaining INA troops surrendered under the command of M.Z. Kiani to British-Indian forces at Singapore.<ref name=Bose2006p143>{{Harvnb|Bose|2006|p=143}}</ref>

==End of the INA==

===Repatriation to India===
{{See also|CSDIC(I)}}
[[File:Surrendered Indian National Army troops at Mount Popa.jpg|thumb|250px|Troops of the Indian National Army who surrendered at [[Mount Popa]]. ''Circa'' April 1945.]]
Even before the end of the war in South Asia, the INA prisoners who were falling into Allied hands were being evaluated by forwarding intelligence units for potential trials.<ref name=Fay436>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=436}}</ref> Almost fifteen hundred had been captured in the battles of Imphal and Kohima and the subsequent withdrawal,<ref name=Lebra2008p200>{{Harvnb|Lebra|2008|p=200}}</ref> while larger numbers surrendered or were captured during the 14th Army's Burma Campaign. A total of 16,000 of the INA's 43,000 recruits were captured, of whom around 11,000 were interrogated by the [[CSDIC(I)|Combined Services Directorate of Investigation Corps]] (CSDIC).<ref name=Fay459>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=459}}</ref> The number of prisoners necessitated this selective policy which anticipated trials of those with the strongest commitment to Bose's ideologies. Those with lesser commitment or other extenuating circumstances would be dealt with more leniently, with the punishment proportional to their commitment or war crimes.<ref name=Singh38/> For this purpose, the field intelligence units designated the captured troops as ''Blacks'' with the strongest commitment to ''Azad Hind''; ''Greys'' with varying commitment but also with enticing circumstances that led them to join the INA; and ''Whites'', those who were pressured into joining the INA under the circumstances but with no commitment to ''Azad Hind'', INA, or Bose.<ref name=Singh39>{{Harvnb|Singh|2003|p=39}}</ref>

By July 1945, a large number had been shipped back to India. At the time of the fall of Japan, the remaining captured troops were transported to India via Rangoon. Large numbers of local Malay and Burmese volunteers, including the recruits to the Rani of Jhansi regiment, returned to civilian life and were not identified.<ref name=Singh38>{{Harvnb|Singh|2003|p=38}}</ref> Those repatriated passed through transit camps in Chittagong and [[Calcutta]] to be held at detention camps all over India including Jhingergacha and Nilganj near Calcutta, Kirkee outside Pune, [[Attock]], [[Multan]] and at Bahadurgarh near Delhi. Bahadurgarh also held prisoners of the Free India Legion.<ref name=Fay436/> By November, around 12,000 INA prisoners were held in these camps; they were released according to the "colours".<ref name=Fay436/> By December, around 600 ''Whites'' were released per week. The process to select those to face trial started.<ref name=Fay436/>

The British-Indian Army intended to implement appropriate internal disciplinary action against its soldiers who had joined the INA, whilst putting to trial a selected group in order to preserve discipline in the Indian Army and to award punishment for criminal acts where these had occurred.<ref name="Singh44and45">{{Harvnb|Singh|2003|p=44,45}}</ref> As news of the army spread within India, it began to draw widespread sympathy support and admiration from Indians.  Newspaper reports around November 1945 reported executions of INA troops,<ref>{{cite web
 |work   = Hindustan Times
 |url         = http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/specials/Netaji/images/nov_2_45.gif
 |title       = Many INA already executed.
 |access-date  = 2007-09-02
 |url-status=dead
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20070809180542/http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/specials/Netaji/images/nov_2_45.gif
 |archive-date = 9 August 2007
 |df          = dmy-all
}}</ref> which worsened the already volatile situation. Increasingly violent confrontations broke out between the police and protesters at the mass rallies being held all over India, culminating in public riotings in support of the INA men.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chaudhuri|1953|p=351}}</ref><ref name=Sarkar419>{{Harvnb|Sarkar|1983|p=419}}</ref><ref name=Fay499>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=499}}</ref> This public outcry defied traditional communal barriers of the subcontinent, representing a departure from the divisions between Hindus and Muslims seen elsewhere in the independence movement and [[Pakistan independence movement|campaign for Pakistan]].<ref name=Singh39and40>{{harvnb|Singh|2003|pp=39–40}}</ref>

===Red Fort trials===
{{Main|Indian National Army trials}}
Between November 1945 and May 1946, approximately ten courts-martial were held in public at the [[Red Fort]] in Delhi. [[Claude Auchinleck]], the [[Commander-in-Chief, India|Commander-in-Chief]] of the British-Indian army, hoped that by holding public trials in the Red Fort, public opinion would turn against the INA if the media reported stories of torture and collaborationism, helping him settle a political as well as military question.<ref name=Singh42-43>{{harvnb|Singh|2003|pp=42–43}}</ref> Those to stand trials were accused variously of murder, torture and "waging war against the King-Emperor". However, the first and most celebrated joint courts-martial&nbsp;– those of Prem Sahgal, Gurubaksh Singh Dhillon and Shah Nawaz Khan&nbsp;– were not the story of torture and murder Auchinleck had hoped to tell the Indian press and people. The accusations against them included the alleged murder of their comrades-in-arms in the INA whilst in Burma. Peter Fay highlights in his book ''The Forgotten Army'' that the murders alleged were, in fact, courts-martial of captured deserters the defendants had presided over. If it was accepted that the three were part of a genuine combatant army (as the legal defence team later argued), they had followed due process of written INA law and of the normal process of conduct of war in execution of the sentences.<ref name=Toyexix>{{harvnb|Toye|1959|loc=Mason, in foreword p. xix}}</ref> Indians rapidly came to view the soldiers who enlisted as patriots and not enemy-collaborators. [[Philip Mason]], then-Secretary of the War Department, later wrote that "in a matter of weeks&nbsp;... in a wave of nationalist emotion, the INA were acclaimed heroes who fought for the freedom of India."<ref name=Toyexviii>{{harvnb|Toye|1959|loc=Mason, in foreword, p. xviii}}</ref> The three accused were from the three major religions of India: Hinduism, Islam, and Sikhism. Indians felt the INA represented a true, secular, national army when judged against the British-Indian Army, where caste and religious differences were preserved amongst ranks.<ref name="Singh39and40"/><ref name=Singh74>{{harvnb|Singh|2003|p=74}}</ref> The opening of the first trial saw violence and a series of riots in a scale later described as "sensational".<ref name=Chaudhuri1953/> The Indian National Congress and the [[All-India Muslim League|Muslim League]] both made the release of the INA prisoners an important political issue during the campaign for independence in 1945–1946.<ref name=Chaudhury1953p1>{{harvnb|Chaudhuri|1953|p=1}}</ref> Lahore in Diwali 1946 remained dark as the traditional earthen lamps lit on Diwali were not lit by families in support of prisoners.<ref name=Singh79>{{harvnb|Singh|2003|p=79}}</ref> In addition to civilian campaigns of non-cooperation and non-violent protest, protest spread to include mutinies within the British-Indian Army and sympathy within the British-Indian forces. Support for the INA crossed communal barriers to the extent that it was the last major campaign in which the Congress and the Muslim League aligned together; the Congress [[Flag of India|tricolour]] and the green flag of the League were flown together at protests.<ref name=Sengupta77>{{harvnb|Sengupta|2012|p=77}}</ref>

The Congress quickly came forward to defend soldiers of the INA who were to be court-martialled.<ref name=Singh44>{{harvnb|Singh|2003|p=44}}</ref> The [[INA Defence Committee]] was formed by the Indian Congress and included prominent Indian legal figures, among whom were [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], [[Bhulabhai Desai]], [[Kailashnath Katju]] and [[Asaf Ali]].<ref name=Sengupta77/> The trials covered arguments based on military law, constitutional law, international law, and politics. Mithi Mukherjee call the trials a "key moment in the elaboration of an anticolonial critique of international law in India."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mukherjee|first=Mithi|year=2019|title=The "Right to Wage War" against Empire: Anticolonialism and the Challenge to International Law in the Indian National Army Trial of 1945|journal=Law and Social Inquiry|volume=44|issue=2|pages=420–443|doi=10.1017/lsi.2019.12|s2cid=191697854|doi-access=free}}</ref> Much of the initial defence was based on the argument that they should be treated as prisoners of war as they were not paid mercenaries but ''bona fide'' soldiers of a legal government&nbsp;– Bose's ''Arzi Hukumat-e-Azad Hind''.<ref name=Fay80>{{harvnb|Fay|1993|pp=79–80}}</ref> [[Nehru]] argued that "however misinformed or otherwise they had been in their notion of patriotic duty towards their country", they recognized the free Indian state as their sovereign and not the British sovereign.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cohen|1963|pp=411–429}}</ref> Peter Fay points out that at least one INA prisoner&nbsp;– [[Burhan-ud-Din of Chitral|Burhan-ud-Din]]&nbsp; a brother of the ruler of [[Chitral (princely state)|Chitral]] – may have deserved to be accused of torture, but his trial had been deferred on administrative grounds.<ref name=Singh41>{{harvnb|Singh|2003|p=41}}</ref> Those charged after the first celebrated courts-martial only faced trial for torture and murder or abetment of murder. Charges of treason were dropped for fear of inflaming public opinion.<ref name=Fayp497>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=497}}</ref> 

In spite of aggressive and widespread opposition to the continuation of the court-martial, it was completed. All three defendants were found guilty in many of the charges and sentenced to deportation for life. The sentence, however, was never carried out. Immense public pressure, demonstrations, and riots forced Claude Auchinleck to release all three defendants. Within three months, 11,000 soldiers of the INA were released after cashiering and forfeiture of pay and allowance.<ref name=Chaudhuri1953/><ref name=Childs>{{Harvnb|Childs|2000|p=28}}</ref> On the recommendation of [[Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma|Lord Mountbatten]] and with the agreement of Jawaharlal Nehru, former soldiers of the INA were not allowed to join the new [[Indian Armed Forces]] as a condition for independence.<ref name=Ganguly>{{cite web
| author = Ganguly, Sumit
| publisher = Columbia University Press
| url=http://www.ciaonet.org/book/anderson/anderson10.html#note29
| title= Explaining India's Transition to Democracy.
| access-date=2007-09-03
}}</ref> 

Some mutinies in the [[Royal Indian Navy]] in 1946 are thought to have been caused by the nationalist feelings inspired by the opposition to INA trials.<ref name="Fay 1993 p=496,498,499">{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|pp=496, 498–499}}</ref> Historians like [[Sumit Sarkar]], Peter Cohen, Fay and others suggest that these events played a crucial role in hastening the end of British rule.<ref name=Chaudhuri1953>{{Harvnb|Chaudhuri|1953|p=349}}</ref><ref name=Sarkar411>{{Harvnb|Sarkar|1983|p=411}}</ref> 

==Post 1947==
Within India, the INA continues to be an emotive and celebrated subject of discussion.<ref name=LebraROJR107>{{Harvnb|Lebra|2008b|p=107}}</ref> It continued to have a stronghold over the public psyche and the sentiments of the armed forces until as late as 1947.<ref name=Green68>{{Harvnb|Green|1948|p=68}}</ref> It has been suggested that Shah Nawaz Khan was tasked with organising INA troops to train Congress volunteers at Jawaharlal Nehru's request in late 1946 and early 1947. After 1947, several members of the INA who were closely associated with Subhas Bose and with the INA trials were prominent in public life.<ref name="Lebra2008p219"/> A number of them held important positions in independent India, serving as ambassadors immediately after independence: [[Abid Hasan (diplomat)|Abid Hasan]] in Egypt and Denmark, [[A. C. N. Nambiar]] in the [[Federal Republic of Germany]], [[Mehboob Hasan]] in Canada, [[Cyril John Stracey]] in the Netherlands, and [[N. Raghavan]] in Switzerland.<ref name=Gordon369>{{Harvnb|Gordon|1990|p=369}}</ref> Mohan Singh was elected to the [[Rajya Sabha]], the upper house of the Indian Parliament. He worked for the recognition of the members of Indian National Army as "freedom fighters" in the cause of the nation's independence in and out of Parliament.<ref name=Lebra1971p243>{{Harvnb|Lebra|1971|p=243}}</ref> Shah Nawaz Khan served as Minister of State for [[Indian Railways|Rail]] in the [[First Nehru ministry|first Indian cabinet]].<ref name=Ram2010p197>{{Harvnb|Ram|2010|p=197}}</ref> Lakshmi Sahgal, Minister for Women's Affairs in the ''Azad Hind'' government, was a well known and widely respected public figure in India.<ref name=LebraROJpxii>{{Harvnb|Lebra|2008b|p=xii}}</ref> In 1971, she joined the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]] and was later elected the leader of the [[All India Democratic Women's Association]].<ref name=Forbes1999p276>{{Harvnb|Forbes|1999|p=276}}</ref> [[Joyce Lebra]], an American historian, wrote that the rejuvenation of the [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]], then a fledgling [[Tamils|Tamil]] political party in southern India, would not have been possible without participation of INA members.<ref name=LebraROJ111>{{Harvnb|Lebra|2008b|p=111}}</ref>

[[File:Lakshmi Sahgal.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Ex-INA member [[Lakshmi Sahgal]] in later life, at a political meeting in India]]
Some accounts suggest that the INA veterans were involved in training civilian resistance forces against the [[Nizam of Hyderabad|Nizam]]'s [[Razakars (Hyderabad)|Razakars]] prior to the execution of [[Operation Polo]] and annexation of Hyderabad.<ref>{{cite web
| author =Menon, P
| work=The Hindu
| url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2007/20070510/1857/main12.htm
|title=The States
| access-date=2007-09-03
}}</ref>
It has been also documented that some INA veterans led Pakistani irregulars during the [[First Kashmir war]]. [[Mohammed Zaman Kiani]] served as Pakistan's political agent to [[Gilgit]] in the late 1950s.<ref name=Gordon369/><ref>{{cite web
| publisher = Provisional Assembly of Punjab (Lahore-Pakistan). Govt of Pakistan
| url=http://pap.gov.pk/legislators/last/dist2.htm
|title= Taj Muhammad Khanzada. Legislators from Attock.
| access-date=2007-09-19
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071101134400/http://pap.gov.pk/legislators/last/dist2.htm <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 2007-11-01}}</ref>  Of the very few ex-INA members who joined the Indian Armed Forces after 1947 [[R. S. Benegal]], a member of the Tokyo Boys, joined the [[Indian Air Force]] in 1952 and later rose to be an [[air commodore]].<ref name=BenegalForeword>{{Harvnb|Benegal|2013|loc=Foreword}}</ref> Benegal saw action in both [[1965 War|1965]] and [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]], earning a [[Maha Vir Chakra]], India's second-highest award for valour.<ref name=BharatRakshak>{{cite web
| work=Bharat Rakshak
| url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/Database/Record/view.php?srnum=4220
| title=Air Commodore Ramesh Sakharam Benegal
| access-date=2015-09-18
| archive-date=23 September 2015
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923184636/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/Database/Record/view.php?srnum=4220
| url-status=dead
}}</ref>

Among other prominent members of the INA, [[Ram Singh Thakur]], composer of a number of songs including the INA's regimental march [[Qadam Qadam Badhaye Ja]], has been credited by some for the modern tune of the [[Indian national anthem]].<ref name=Rediff>{{cite web
| work= Rediff on the net
| url=http://www.rediff.com/news/feb/22anthem.htm
|title=Who composed the score for Jana Gana Mana? Gurudev or the Gorkha?
| access-date=2015-09-18
}}</ref>

Gurubaksh Singh Dhillon and Lakshmi Sahgal were later awarded the Indian civilian honours of [[Padma Bhushan]] and [[Padma Vibhushan]] respectively by the Indian Government in the 1990s.<ref name=Raman2009p176>{{Harvnb|Raman|2009|p=176}}</ref><ref name=GopalGandhi2007p392>{{Harvnb|Gandhi|2007|p=392}}</ref> Lakshmi Sahgal was nominated for the [[President of India|Indian presidential election]] by communist parties in 2002. She was the sole opponent of [[A. P. J. Abdul Kalam]], who emerged victorious.<ref name=KochanekandHardgravep74>{{Harvnb|Kochanek|Hardgrave|2007|p=74}}</ref> Subhas Bose himself was posthumously awarded [[Bharat Ratna]] in 1992, but this was later withdrawn over the controversy over the [[Death of Subhas Chandra Bose|circumstances of his death]].<ref name=TOI>{{cite news
| work= Times of India
| url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/sunday-times/Why-was-the-Bharat-Ratna-Award-given-to-Netaji-Subhash-Chandra-Bose-withdrawn-by-the-Supreme-Court-in-1992/articleshow/1353901.cms
|title=Why was the Bharat Ratna Award given to Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose withdrawn by the Supreme Court in 1992?
| date=31 December 2005
| access-date=2015-09-18
}}</ref>

Former INA recruits in diasporic Singapore, however, faced a different situation. In Singapore, Indians – particularly those who were associated with the INA – were treated with disdain as they were "stigmatized as fascists and Japanese collaborators".<ref name="Sengupta149">{{Harvnb|Sengupta|2012|p=149}}</ref><ref name="Stenson106">{{Harvnb|Stenson|2011|p=106}}</ref> Some within this diaspora later emerged as notable political and social leaders. The consolidation of trade unions in the form of [[National Union of Plantation Workers]] was led by ex-INA leaders.<ref name=LebraROJ111/> In Malaya, notable members of the INA were involved in founding the [[Malaysian Indian Congress]] (MIC) in 1946; [[John Thivy]] was the founding president.<ref name=Ooip136>{{Harvnb|Ooi|2004|p=136}}</ref> [[Janaky Athi Nahappan]], second-in-command of the Rani of Jhansi Regiment, was also a founding member of the MIC and later became a noted welfare activist and a distinguished senator in the [[Dewan Negara]] of the [[Malaysian Parliament]].  [[Rasammah Bhupalan]], also of the Rani of Jhansi Regiment, later became a well-known welfare-activist and a widely respected champion for [[women's rights]] in [[Malaysia]].<ref name=LebraROJp103>{{Harvnb|Lebra|2008b|p=103}}</ref>

==Relations==
{{See also|India in World War II}}

===Japanese Army===
The INA was known as the puppet army of the Japanese empire.<ref name="Seaman">{{cite book | last=Seaman | first=Harry | title=The Battle At Sangshak: Prelude to Kohima | publisher=L. Cooper | year=1989 | isbn=978-0-85052-720-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S8yXAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA23 | page=23}}</ref><ref name="Tanaka">{{cite book | author=[[Yuki Tanaka (historian)|Yuki Tanaka]]  | title=Hidden Horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War II | publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers | series=Asian Voices | year=2017 | isbn=978-1-5381-0270-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CCkzDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA215 | page=215}}</ref> In early days, the officers in the INA distrusted the Japanese. Leaders of the first INA sought formal assurances from [[empire of Japan|Japan]] before committing to war. When these did not arrive, Mohan Singh resigned after ordering his army to disband; he expected to be sentenced to death. After Bose established ''Azad Hind'', he tried to establish his political independence from the regime that supported him. Indeed, he had led protests against the [[Mukden Incident|Japanese expansion into China]], and supported [[Chiang Kai-shek]] during the 1930s. Azad ''Hind'' depended on Japan for arms and material but sought to be as financially independent as possible, levying taxes and raising donations from Indians in Southeast Asia".<ref name=Belle200>{{Harvnb|Belle|2014|p=200}}</ref> On the Japanese side, members of the high command had been personally impressed by Bose and were willing to grant him some latitude; more importantly, the Japanese were interested in maintaining the support of a man who had been able to mobilise large numbers of Indian expatriates&nbsp;– including, most importantly, 40,000 of the 45,000 Indians captured by the Japanese at Singapore.<ref>{{cite press release | url=http://www.history.co.uk/explore-history/ww2/burma.html | title=Capture of INA | access-date=2011-08-12 | archive-date=28 August 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110828070537/http://www.history.co.uk/explore-history/ww2/burma.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> However, Faye notes that interactions between soldiers in the field was different. Attempts to use Shah Nawaz's troops in road building and as porters angered the troops, forcing Bose to intervene with Mutaguchi. After the withdrawal from Imphal, the relations between both junior non-commissioned officers and between senior officers had deteriorated. INA officers accused the Japanese Army high command of trying to deceive INA troops into fighting for Japan. Conversely, Japanese soldiers often expressed disdain for INA soldiers for having changed their oath of loyalty. This mutual dislike was especially strong after the withdrawal from Imphal began; Japanese soldiers, suspicious that INA defectors had been responsible for their defeat, addressed INA soldiers as "shameless one" instead of "comrade" as previously had been the case.<ref name=Toye203>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=203}}</ref> ''Azad Hind'' officials in Burma reported difficulties with the Japanese military administration in arranging supply for troops and transport for wounded men as the armies withdrew. Toye notes that local IIL members and ''[[Azad Hind Dal]]'' (local ''Azad Hind'' administrative teams) organised relief supplies from Indians in Burma at this time. As the situation in Burma became hopeless for the Japanese, Bose refused requests to use INA troops against Aung San's [[Burma National Army]], which had turned against Japan and was now allied with Commonwealth forces.<ref name=Toye1959p231>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=231}}</ref>
<!-- FAIR USE of Destruction_of_INA_Memorial_1945.jpg: see image description page at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Destruction_of_INA_Memorial_1945.jpg for rationale -->

===British-Indian Army===
{{See also|Jiffs}}
The first interaction of the INA with the British-Indian forces was during the months during the [[First Arakan offensive]], between December 1942 and March 1943. The morale of ''Sepoys'' during this time was low and knowledge about the INA was minimal. The INA's special services agents led a successful operation during this time in encouraging the Indian troops to defect to the INA. By the end of March 1945, however, the ''Sepoys'' in the British-Indian Army were reinvigorated and perceived the men of the INA to be savage turncoats and cowards. Senior British officers in the Indian Army considered them "rabble".<ref name=Toyexix/> Historians [[Christopher Bayly]] and Tim Harper mention that sepoys in field units shot captured or wounded INA men, relieving their British officers of the complex task of formulating a formal plan for captured men.<ref name=Marston2014p118>{{Harvnb|Marston|2014|p=118}}</ref> After Singapore was retaken, Mountbatten ordered the INA's war memorial to its fallen soldiers to be blown up.<ref name=Fayp523>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=523}}</ref>

As the story of the INA unfolded in post-war India, the view of Indian soldiers on the INA&nbsp;– and on their own position during the war&nbsp;– also changed.<ref name=Edwards93>{{Harvnb|Edwards|1963|p=93}}</ref> The Raj observed with increasing disquiet and unease the spread of pro-INA sympathies within the troops of the British-Indian forces.<ref name=Sarkar419/> In February 1946, while the trials were still going on, a general strike by ratings of the Royal Indian Navy rapidly [[Bombay Mutiny|deteriorated into a mutiny]] incorporating ships and shore establishments of the RIN throughout India. The mutineers raised slogans invoking Subhas Bose and the INA, demanding an end to the trials. The mutiny received widespread public support.<ref name=James598/> In some places in the British-Indian Army, non-commissioned Officers started ignoring orders from British superiors. In [[Madras]] and [[Pune]] British garrisons faced revolts from within the ranks of the British-Indian Army. These were suppressed by force.<ref name=James598>{{Harvnb|James|2000|p=598}}</ref><ref name=James596>{{Harvnb|James|2000|p=596}}</ref> At the conclusion of the first trial, when the sentences of deportation were commuted, Fay records Claude Auchinleck as having sent a "personal and secret" letter to all senior British officers, explaining:<ref name=Fay517>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=517}}</ref> {{blockquote|...&nbsp;practically all are sure that any attempt to enforce the sentence would have led to chaos in the country at large, and probably to mutiny and dissension in the Army, culminating in its dissolution.}}

==Influence==

===World War II===
Sidney Bradshaw Fay concludes that the INA was not significant enough to beat the British-Indian Army by military strength. He also writes that the INA was aware of this and formulated its own strategy of avoiding set-piece battles, gathering local and popular support within India and instigating revolt within the British-Indian Army to overthrow the Raj.<ref name=Fay138>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=138}}</ref> Moreover, the [[Forward Bloc]] underground movement within India had been crushed well before the offensives opened in the Burma–Manipur theatre, depriving the army of any organised internal support.<ref name=Sarkar411/> However, despite its small numerical strength and lack of heavy weapons, its special services group played a significant part in halting the [[First Arakan Offensive]] while still under Mohan Singh's command.<ref name=Baylyl&Harperforgottenarmiesp273>{{Harvnb|Bayly|Harper|2005|p=273}}</ref> The propaganda threat of the INA and lack of concrete intelligence on the unit early after the fall of Singapore made it a threat to Allied war plans in Southeast Asia, since it threatened to destroy the ''Sepoys''' loyalty to a British-Indian Army that was demoralised from continuing defeats.<ref name=Fay410>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=410}}</ref> There were reports of INA operatives successfully infiltrating Commonwealth lines during the Offensive. This caused British intelligence to begin the "[[Jiffs]]" propaganda campaign and to create "''Josh''" groups to improve the morale and preserve the loyalty of the sepoys as consolidation began to prepare for the defence of Manipur.<ref name=Aldrich163>{{Harvnb|Aldrich|2000|p=163}}</ref><ref name=Aldrich159>{{Harvnb|Aldrich|2000|p=159}}</ref> These measures included imposing a complete news ban on Bose and the INA that was not lifted until four days after the fall of Rangoon two years later.<ref name=Fay218>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=218}}</ref><ref name=Sareen1996p40>{{Harvnb|Sareen|1996|p=40}}</ref>

During the Japanese ''U-Go'' offensive towards Manipur in 1944, the INA played a crucial (and successful) role in diversionary attacks in Arakan and in the Manipur Basin itself, where it fought alongside Mutaguchi's 15th Army.<ref name=Faye289>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=289}}</ref> INA forces protected the flanks of the assaulting Yamamoto force at a critical time as the latter attempted to take Imphal.<ref name="Toye1959207"/><ref name=Toye1959210>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|p=210}}</ref>  During the Commonwealth Burma Campaign, the INA troops fought in the battles [[Battle of Irrawaddy|of Irrawaddy]] [[Battle of Meiktilla|and Meiktilla]],<ref name=Fay316>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|pp=316–317}}</ref> supporting the Japanese offensive and tying down Commonwealth troops.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|pp=332–333}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Slim|1961|p=425}}</ref>

===Indian independence===
{{See also|Bombay Mutiny}}
The first INA trial, which was held in public, became a rallying point for the independence movement from the autumn of 1945.<ref name=Sarkar420/><ref name=Sarkar411/><ref name="Fay 1993 p=496,498,499"/> The release of INA prisoners and the suspension of the trials came to be the dominant political campaign, superseding the campaign for independence.<ref name=BoseandJalal134>{{Harvnb|Bose|Jalal|2004|p=134}}</ref> Christopher Bayly notes that the "INA was to become a much more powerful enemy of the British empire in defeat than it had been during its ill-fated triumphal march on Delhi."<ref name="Marston2014p118"/> The Viceroy's journal describes the autumn and winter of 1945–1946 as "The Edge of a Volcano".<ref name=Sarkar411/> The setting of the trial at Red Fort was taken by Indian public as a deliberate taunt by the British Raj over the vanquished INA, recalling the INA's battle cries of unfurling the Indian tricolour over the Red Fort.<ref name=Toyexix/> Many compared the trials to that of [[Bahadur Shah Zafar]], the last Mughal emperor tried in the same place after the failed [[1857 uprising]].<ref name=Fay472>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=472}}</ref> Support for the INA grew rapidly and their continued detention and news of impending trials was seen an affront to the movement for independence and to Indian identity itself.<ref name=Singh99>{{Harvnb|Singh|2003|p=99}}</ref> It was further feared that the Congress would exploit the INA to gain mass support against the Raj and possibly start an armed struggle with weapons smuggled from Burma.<ref name=Singh41/><ref name=Marston129>{{Harvnb|Marston|2014|p=129}}</ref> Nehru was suspected of using INA men to train Congress volunteers.<ref name=Singh41/> The political effects of the INA trials were enormous and were felt around India as late as 1948, much to the chagrin of the Congress government in independent India,<ref name="Green68"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Green|1948|p=54}}</ref> which feared that pro-INA sympathies could help alternative sources of power.<ref name=Jamesp596to598>{{Harvnb|James|2000|pp=596–598}}</ref>

Historians such as [[Sumit Sarkar]], [[Sugata Bose]], and [[Ayesha Jalal]] conclude that the INA trials and its after-effects brought a decisive shift in British policy towards independence Indian.<ref name=BoseandJalal134/><ref name=Sarkar412/> Particularly disturbing was the overt and public support for the INA by the soldiers of the Indian Army and the mutinies.<ref name=BoseandJalal134/><ref name=Sarkar412>{{Harvnb|Sarkar|1983|p=412}}</ref> The Congress's rhetoric preceding the 1946 elections gave the Raj reasons to fear a revival of the [[Quit India Movement]] of 1942.<ref name=Sarkar412/> Gandhi noted:<ref name=BoseandJalal134/>
{{blockquote|...&nbsp;the whole country has been roused ... even the regular forces have been stirred into a new political consciousness and have begun to think in terms of independence&nbsp;...}}

===British colonies===
{{See also|Royal Air Force mutiny}}
After the war ended, the story of the INA and the Indian Legion was seen as so inflammatory that, fearing mass revolts and uprisings across its empire, the British Government forbade the [[BBC]] from broadcasting their story.<ref name=ThomsonBBC>{{cite news
| author = Thomson M
| publisher = BBC
| url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3684288.stm
| title= Hitler's secret Indian Army
| access-date=2007-09-02
| date=2004-09-23}}</ref> The use of Indian troops for the restoration of Dutch and French rule in [[Vietnam]] and [[Indonesia]] fed into the already growing resentment within the forces.<ref name=McMillan155>{{Harvnb|McMillan|2006|p=155}}</ref> Indian troops sent to suppress [[Sukarno]]'s agitations in Indonesia in 1946 rapidly identified with the nationalist sentiments in the previous Dutch colony.<ref name=Sengupta84>{{Harvnb|Sengupta|2012|p=84}}</ref> The [[South East Asia Command]] reported growing sympathy for the INA and dislike of the Dutch.<ref name=Sengupta83and84>{{Harvnb|Sengupta|2012|pp=83–84}}</ref> There were similar pro-nationalist sentiments among Indian troops sent to Vietnam, Thailand and Burma. This led to the realisation by 1946 that the British-Indian Army, the bulwark of the policing force in the British colonies, could not be used as an instrument of British power.<ref name=Sengupta85>{{Harvnb|Sengupta|2012|p=85}}</ref> INA-inspired strikes emerged throughout Britain's colonies in Southeast Asia. In January 1946, [[Royal Air Force Mutiny|protests]] started at [[Royal Air Force]] bases in Karachi and spread rapidly to Singapore. This was followed by a full-scale mutiny by a British Army unit in Singapore. In British Malaya, men of the Parachute Regiment refused to obey orders from their officers.<ref name=Sengupta82>{{Harvnb|Sengupta|2012|p=82}}</ref> Authors like [[Nilanjana Sengupta]] attribute these to a combination of dissatisfaction over pay and work conditions and conflicts of comradeship over the INA trials.<ref name=Sengupta83>{{Harvnb|Sengupta|2012|p=83}}</ref> Former INA members in Malaya identified closely with the left-wing organisations in opposing British colonial authority. The majority of prominent left-wing union leaders in Malaya after the war were members of the INA.  The activities of the trade unions in the newly established Tamil schools were particularly influential, leading to the establishment of an inspector system by the British to supervise the curriculum and teaching in these schools.<ref name=LebraROJ111/> Joyce Lebra notes that the INA had a particularly strong unifying influence over ethnic Indians residing in Malaya. Lebra concludes that the experience of the INA was useful in challenging British authority in the post-war period in Malaya, and in improving the socio-economic conditions of the Indian community.<ref name=LebraROJ111/>

==Controversies==
British and Commonwealth troops viewed the recruits as traitors and [[Collaboration with Imperial Japan|Axis collaborators]].{{sfn|Fay|1993|p=5, 417, 547}} Almost 40,000 Indian soldiers in Malaya did not join the army and remained as PoWs. Many were sent to work in the [[Death Railway]], suffered hardships and nearly 11,000 died under Japanese internment.<ref name=Menon1997p225>{{Harvnb|Menon|1997|p=225}}</ref> Many of them cited the oath of allegiance they had taken to the King among reasons not to join a Japanese-supported organisation, and regarded the recruits of the INA as traitors for having forsaken their oath. Commanders in the British-Indian Army like Wavell later highlighted the hardships this group of soldiers suffered, contrasting them with the troops of the INA.<ref name=Menon1997p225/> Many British soldiers held the same opinion.<ref name=Toye1959pxiv>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|loc=Mason, in Foreword, p. xiv}}</ref> Hugh Toye and Peter Fay point out that the First INA consisted of a mix of recruits joining for various reasons, such as nationalistic leanings, Mohan Singh's appeals, personal ambition or to protect men under their own command from harm.<ref name=Fay207>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=207}}</ref> Fay notes some officers like Shah Nawaz Khan were opposed to Mohan Singh's ideas and tried to hinder what they considered a collaborationist organisation.<ref name=Fay87to100>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|pp=87–100}}</ref>  However, both historians note that Indian civilians and former INA soldiers all cite the tremendous influence of Subhas Bose&nbsp;and his appeal to patriotism in rejuvenating the INA. Fay discusses the topic of loyalty of the INA soldiers, and highlights that in Shah Nawaz Khan's trial it was noted that officers of the INA warned their men the possibility of having to fight the Japanese after having fought the British, to prevent Japan exploiting post-war India.<ref name=Aldrich163/><ref name=Fay461to463>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|pp=461–463}}</ref> Carl Vadivella Belle suggested in 2014 that among the local Indians and ex-British-Indian Army volunteers in Malaya, there was a proportion who joined due to the threat of conscription as Japanese labour troops. Recruitment also offered local Indian labourers security from continual semi-starvation of the estates and served as a barrier against Japanese tyranny.<ref name=Belle199/>

INA troops were alleged to engage in or be complicit in torture of Allied and Indian prisoners of war.<ref name=Fay423to424>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|pp=423–424,453}}</ref> Fay in his 1993 history analyses war-time press releases and field counter-intelligence directed at ''Sepoys''. He concludes that the ''Jiffs'' campaign promoted the view that INA recruits were weak-willed and traitorous Axis collaborators, motivated by selfish interests of greed and personal gain.  He concludes that the allegations of torture were largely products of the ''Jiffs'' campaign.{{sfn|Fay|1993|p=417}}<ref name=Fay426>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=426}}</ref><ref name=Fay290>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|pp=290–292}}</ref> He supports his conclusion by noting that isolated cases of torture had occurred, but allegations of widespread practice of torture were not substantiated in the charges against defendants in the Red Fort trials.<ref name=Fay427>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=427}}</ref><ref name=Fay461>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=461}}</ref> Published memoirs of several veterans, including that of [[William Slim]], portray the INA troops as incapable fighters and as untrustworthy.<ref name=Fay293>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|pp=293}}</ref> Toye noted in 1959 that individual desertions occurred in the withdrawal from Imphal.<ref name=Toyep203>{{Harvnb|Toye|1959|pp=203}}</ref> Fay concluded that stories of INA desertions during the battle and the initial retreat into Burma were largely exaggerated.<ref name=Fay290to293>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|pp=290–293}}</ref> The majority of desertions occurred much later, according to Fay, around the battles at Irrawaddy and later around Popa. Fay specifically discusses Slim's portrayal of the INA, pointing out what he concludes to be inconsistencies in Slim's accounts.<ref name=Fay289to291>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|pp=289–291}}</ref> Fay also discusses memoirs of Shah Nawaz, where Khan claims INA troops were never defeated in battle. Fay criticises this too as exaggerated. He concludes the opinions held by Commonwealth war veterans such as Slim were an inaccurate portrayal of the unit, as were those of INA soldiers themselves.<ref name="Fay290"/> Harkirat Singh notes that British officers' personal dislike for Subhas Chandra Bose may have prejudiced their judgement of the INA itself.<ref name=Singh41/>

==Commemorations==
{{See also|INA Martyr's Memorial|Former Indian National Army Monument}}
[[File:Former Indian National Army Monument.JPG|thumb|right|200px|The [[Commemorative plaque|plaque]] erected by the National Heritage Board at [[Esplanade Park]], marking the INA Monument site in [[Singapore]]]]
[[File:Azad Hind stamps released by Indian National Army in display at Netaji Birth Place Museum, Cuttack, Odisha, India.jpg|thumb|Postage stamps released by Indian National Army in display at Netaji Birth Place Museum, [[Cuttack]]]]
The INA is memorialised in the ''Swatantrata Sainani Smarak'', which is located at the [[Salimgarh Fort]] in [[Delhi]], adjacent to the Red Fort.<ref name=Mehta2006p272>{{Harvnb|Mehta|2006|p=272}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.roseindia.net/travel/india/delhi/salimgarh-fort-delhi.shtml | title=On I-Day eve, India forgets INA memorial | work=Rose India | access-date=2011-08-12}}</ref> Its exhibits include the Indian National Army uniform worn by Colonel Prem Sahgal, riding boots and coat buttons of Colonel Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon and photographs of Subhas Chandra Bose. A separate gallery holds material and photographs from excavations carried out by the [[Archaeological Survey of India]] inside the fort in 1995. The [[INA Martyr's Memorial|Indian National Army Memorial]] at Moirang, Manipur, commemorates the place where the flag of ''Azad Hind'' was raised by Col. Shaukat Hayat Malik. Moirang was the first Indian territory captured by the INA.<ref name=Toye1959p198&215/><ref>{{cite web
| publisher = National Heritage Board of Singapore| url=http://www.museum.org.sg/PE/sites_trails/civic_district_trail.html| title=Heritage Sites and Trails in Singapore| access-date=2007-07-07
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070928221937/http://www.museum.org.sg/PE/sites_trails/civic_district_trail.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 2007-09-28}}</ref>

The INA War Memorial at Singapore commemorating the "Unknown Warrior" of the INA was unveiled by Bose in July 1945. Situated at the [[Esplanade Park]], it was destroyed on Mountbatten's orders when Allied troops reoccupied the city. In 1995, the National Heritage Board of Singapore, with financial donations from the Indian community in Singapore, erected the  [[Former Indian National Army Monument]] at the site where the old memorial stood. The site is now officially one of the historical sites of Singapore.<ref>{{cite web| publisher=Indian National Army (I.N.A.) Martyrs' Memorial Complex| url=http://www.inamoirang.com/l| title=Indian National Army Martyrs' Memorial Complex| access-date=2017-08-15| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181130222312/http://www.inamoirang.com/l| archive-date=30 November 2018| url-status=dead}}</ref>

The INA's [[battle cry]], ''[[Jai Hind]]'', was declared the "national greeting" of India by Nehru and remains a popular nationalist greeting.<ref name=Desai2011>{{Harvnb|Desai|2011|p=}}</ref> Today it is used by all Indian prime ministers to conclude their [[Independence Day (India)|Independence Day]] speeches.<ref name=Desai2011/> The cry became independent India's [[Jai Hind Post-mark|first commemorative post mark]] on 15 August 1947.<ref name=Bayanwala/> The first [[Postage stamps and postal history of India|postage stamps]] issued by Independent India are called the ''Jai Hind'' series of stamps, showing the [[Indian flag]] with the letters ''Jai Hind'' in the top right hand corner.<ref name=Bayanwala>{{cite web
 |author      = Ashok Kumar Bayanwala
 |publisher   = Stamps of india
 |url         = http://stampsofindia.com/readroom/b002.htm
 |title       = Art in miniature
 |access-date  = 2011-08-11
 |url-status=dead
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20110928064322/http://stampsofindia.com/readroom/b002.htm
 |archive-date = 28 September 2011
 |df          = dmy-all
}}</ref> These were a part of the series issued on 15 August 1947.<ref name=Footprint>{{cite news
| author =  Bhaskaran, S.T.
| url=http://www.hindu.com/2000/12/16/stories/13161109.htm
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020327172800/http://www.hindu.com/2000/12/16/stories/13161109.htm
| url-status=dead
| archive-date=2002-03-27
| title= Footprints of history
| access-date=2007-10-16
| location=Chennai, India
| work =  [[The Hindu]]
| date=2000-12-16
}}</ref> Commemorative postage stamps were also issued by the Indian government in 1968 and 1993 respectively to commemorate the 25th and the 50th anniversaries of the establishment of ''Azad Hind'' at Singapore.<ref>{{cite news
| author =  Healey, Beth
| work = [[The New York Times]]
|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=950DE1D8173FF930A35751C1A96F948260
| title= Pastimes; Stamps
| access-date=2007-10-16
| date=1989-12-03
}}</ref> The [[India Posts|Department of Posts]] also includes the six unused [[Azad Hind stamps|''Azad Hind'' stamps]] in its commemorative book ''India's Freedom Struggle through India Postage Stamps''.<ref name=Footprint/> The ''Azad Hind Fauj Marg'' (Azad Hind Fauj Road) in [[New Delhi]] is named after the INA and houses the [[Netaji Subhas Institute of Technology]].<ref name=DHNSIT>{{cite web
| author = Mayank Verma
| work = Deccan Herald
| url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/458948/sulahkul-vihar-residents-await-development.html
| title= Sulahkul Vihar residents await development
| access-date=2011-08-11
}}</ref>

==In popular culture==
{{Main|Indian National Army in popular culture}}
The Indian National Army remains a significant topic of discussion in the popular history of India; it is an emotive topic which has been the subject of numerous works of literature, art, and visual media within India and outside. Some of the earliest works in print media were created at the time of the INA trials. These include works of fiction like ''Jai Hind: The Diary of a Rebel Daughter of India'' published in 1945 by Amritlal Seth. The book, a work of fiction narrating the story of a recruit of the Rani of Jhansi Regiment, is believed to be loosely based on the story of Lakshmi Sahgal.<ref name=Forbes214>{{Harvnb|Forbes|1999|p=214}}</ref> In later decades works by authors like [[Amitav Ghosh]], such as his book ''[[The Glass Palace]]'', have used the backdrop of the ''Azad Hind'' and the Japanese occupation of Burma for the narrative of the story.<ref name="east">{{cite news |last=Urquhart|first=James |date=2000-08-07 |newspaper=The Independent |title=Monday Book: A 'Doctor Zhivago' for the Far East&nbsp;— Review of The Glass Palace}}</ref> ''[[The Day of the Scorpion]]'' and ''[[The Towers of Silence]]'', the second and third books in [[Paul Mark Scott|Paul Scott]]'s ''[[Raj Quartet]]'', mention ''Jiffs'' in the political and social context in which the term found use in the [[Fourteenth Army (United Kingdom)|Eastern Army]] during the war.  The 1984 British TV series ''[[The Jewel in the Crown (TV series)|The Jewel in the Crown]]'', based on Scott's quartet, also includes the role of the INA as part of the political backdrop of the story.<ref name=Fayp4>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=4}}</ref>

In visual media, the INA has been the subject of a number of documentaries. ''The War of The Springing Tiger'' made by [[Granada Television]] for [[Channel 4]] in 1984 examined the role of the Indian National Army in the Second World War, the motivation of its soldiers and explored its role in the independence movement.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=ix}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| publisher = British Film Institute| url=http://ftvdb.bfi.org.uk/sift/title/391314?view=synopsis| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080416012741/http://ftvdb.bfi.org.uk/sift/title/391314?view=synopsis| url-status=dead| archive-date=2008-04-16|
title=Synopses The War of The Springing Tiger
| access-date=2007-07-09
}}</ref>
In 1999 Film India released a documentary, ''The Forgotten Army''. Directed by [[Kabir Khan (director)|Kabir Khan]] and produced by Akhil Bakshi, it followed what was called the ''Azad Hind Expedition'' between 1994 and 1995, retracing the route taken by the INA from Singapore to Imphal, before ending at Red Fort. Amongst the members of the expedition team were Gurubaksh Singh Dhillon, Lakshmi Sahgal and Captain S.S. Yadava, an INA veteran and once the general secretary of the All India INA Committee. The documentary went on to win the Grand Jury Prize at the Film South Asia festival in 1999.<ref>{{cite web
 |author      = Dutt, Nirupama
 |work   = Indian Express
 |url         = http://www.indianexpress.com/res/web/pIe/ie/daily/19980622/17351114.html
 |title       = A forgotten army marches again
 |access-date  = 2007-07-07
 |url-status=dead
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20070926213952/http://www.indianexpress.com/res/web/pIe/ie/daily/19980622/17351114.html
 |archive-date = 26 September 2007
 |df          = dmy-all
}}</ref>
The [[National Archives of Singapore]] digitised its available resources in 2007 as ''Historical Journey of the Indian National Army''.<ref>{{cite web| publisher = National Archives of Singapore| url = http://www.s1942.org.sg/s1942/indian_national_army/index.htm| title = Historical Journey of the Indian National Army| access-date = 2007-07-07| archive-date = 11 July 2007| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070711014104/http://www.s1942.org.sg/s1942/indian_national_army/index.htm| url-status = dead}}</ref> In 2004, the [[Indian Legion]] in Europe was the subject of a BBC magazine article authored by Mike Thomson, but it did not attempt to distinguish the differences between the Legion and the INA.<ref name=ThomsonBBC/> The ''[[Hindustan Times]]'', a large broadsheet in India, dedicates a part of its website to INA resources as ''Indian National Army in East Asia.''<ref>{{cite web
 |author      = Das Sitanshu
 |work   = Hindustan Times
 |url         = http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/specials/Netaji/indiannationalarmy.htm
 |title       = Indian National Army in East Asia
 |access-date  = 2007-07-07
 |url-status=dead
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20070702000512/http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/specials/Netaji/indiannationalarmy.htm
 |archive-date = 2 July 2007
 |df          = dmy-all
}}</ref>

[[Indian cinema]] has also seen a number of films in many different [[Languages of India|Indian languages]], where the INA is a significant part of the narrative. These include ''Pahla Admi'' by [[Bimal Roy]] and ''Samadhi'' by Ramesh Saigal, both produced in 1950 based on fictional INA veterans.<ref name=Bose146>{{Harvnb|Bose|2006|p=146}}</ref><ref name=Dhawan>{{cite web
| author =Dhawan, M.L.
| work = The Tribune|
url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2007/20070510/1857/main12.htm|
title=Freedom struggle through Hindi films
| access-date=2007-07-09
}}</ref> More recently, ''[[Indian (1996 film)|Indian]]'', a 1996 [[Tamil language|Tamil]] film directed by [[S. Shankar]], incorporates a lead character (played by [[Kamal Haasan|Kamal Hassan]]) in its story who is a veteran of the INA. [[Shyam Benegal]] produced ''[[Netaji: The Forgotten Hero]]'' in 2004, which traces the last five years of Subhas Chandra Bose. Benegal describes the story of the INA in small details in his film whilst focusing on its leader.<ref name=Dhawan/> The film was also widely noted for [[A. R. Rahman]]'s music.  The INA's marching song, ''Qadam Qadam Badhaye Ja'', has since become a famous patriotic song in India. Today it is in use as the regimental quick march of the [[Parachute Regiment (India)|Indian Parachute regiment]].{{citation needed|date=October 2020}}
More recently, a 2017 Hindi movie Rangoon, starring Kangna Ranaut, Saif Ali Khan, Shahid Kapoor is based against the backdrop of the INA presence in Rangoon, with the movie centred around the protagonists trying to get across a jewelled sword to the INA. In 2020 [[Amazon Prime Video]] released a five-part series called [[The Forgotten Army - Azaadi Ke Liye]]! Which tells the story of the INA through the eyes of one of its Captains and the woman he loves. In 2017 only, a show was released namely, Bose: Dead/Alive, it showed Netaji's mysterious disappearance in 1945. In this show too Azad Hind Fauj was shown.

==See also==
* [[Battaglione Azad Hindoustan]]
* [[Ekla Chalo Re]], a poem by [[Rabindranath Tagore]], publicized by Subhas Chandra Bose
* [[Indian Legion]]
* [[Rani of Jhansi Regiment]]
* [[Arzi Hukumat-e-Azad Hind]]
* [[Burma National Army]]
* [[All India Forward Bloc]]
* [[Collaboration with Imperial Japan]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

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{{refend}}

==Further reading==
*''The Springing Tiger: A Study of a Revolutionary'' by Hugh Toye (1959).
* ''History of the Indian National Army'' by  Kalyan Kumar Ghosh (1966).
* ''Jungle Alliance, Japan and the Indian National Army'' by Joyce C. Lebra (1971).
* ''Brothers Against the Raj — A Biography of Indian Nationalists Sarat and Subhas Chandra Bose'' by Leonard A. Gordon (1990), Princeton University Press, 1990.
*''The Forgotten Army: India's Armed Struggle for Independence, 1942–1945'' by Peter Fay (1995).
*''Women Against the Raj: The Rani of Jhansi Regiment'' by Joyce C Lebra (2008).

==External links==
* [http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Indian_National_Army From Banglapedia]
* [http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/itihas/bose.htm Article on Bose]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070902213838/http://www.yorozubp.com/netaji/ Speeches of Netaji]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070629001048/http://www.s-asian.cam.ac.uk/govt.html Centre of South Asian Studies, University of Cambridge]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140902125303/http://dblife.cs.wisc.edu/person/S._C._Bose Centre of South Asian Studies, University of Wisconsin]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120220043836/http://www.hindustantimes.com/ Mystery behind Netaji's Disappearance – 2]
* [https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3684288.stm BBC Report: Hitler's secret Indian army]
* {{YouTube|XZ-Cjv1rnTM|Qadam Qadam Badhaye Ja – The INA song}}

{{Azad Hind Fauj}}
{{Subhas Chandra Bose}}
{{Indian independence movement}}
{{World War 2}}
{{Collaboration with Axis Powers}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Azad Hind]]
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[[Category:Military history of India during World War II]]
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