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{{Wiktionary}}{{Short description|Material that releases fragrant smoke when burnt}}
{{for|the Chinese film|Incense (film)}}
[[File:Incenselonghua.jpg|thumb|Burning incense at the [[Longhua Temple]]]]
[[File:Smoke Incense AB.jpg|thumb|Smoke from incense stick]]
'''Incense''' is an aromatic [[biotic material]] that releases fragrant smoke when burnt. The term is used for either the material or the aroma.<ref>{{cite web |title=Incense |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/incense |publisher=Merriam-Webster |access-date=December 23, 2019}}</ref> Incense is used for aesthetic reasons, religious [[worship]], [[aromatherapy]], [[meditation]], and ceremonial reasons. It may also be used as a simple deodorant or [[insect repellent]].<ref name=mystery>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1x0sNljp5ioC&q=Incense |title=Incense: Rituals, Mystery, Lore |publisher=Chronicle Books |author1=Gina Hyams |author2=Susie Cushner |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-8118-3993-8}}</ref><ref name=Aromatherapy>{{cite book |author=Maria Lis-Balchin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rGQps9fQX1YC&q=incense%20uses&pg=PA9 |title=Aromatherapy Science: A Guide for Healthcare Professionals |publisher=Pharmaceutical Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-85369-578-3}}</ref>

Incense is composed of aromatic plant materials, often combined with [[essential oil]]s.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7M9_cYNE0X4C&q=Incense+Composition&pg=PA15 |title=Cunningham's Encyclopedia of Magical Herbs |first1=Scott |last1=Cunningham |publisher=Llewellyn Worldwide |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-87542-122-3}}</ref> The forms taken by incense differ with the underlying culture, and have changed with advances in technology and increasing number of uses.<ref name=DO>{{cite web |url=https://www.baieido-usa.com/making-incense-by-david-oller |title=Making Incense |first1=David |last1=Oller |website=Baieido  |access-date=2018-06-16}}</ref>

Incense can generally be separated into two main types: "indirect-burning" and "direct-burning." Indirect-burning incense (or "non-combustible incense") is not capable of burning on its own, and requires a separate heat source. Direct-burning incense (or "combustible incense") is lit directly by a flame and then fanned or blown out, leaving a glowing [[ember]] that smoulders and releases a smoky fragrance. Direct-burning incense is either a paste formed around a bamboo stick, or a paste that is extruded into a stick or cone shape.

==History==
{{Cite check section |date=April 2021}}
The word ''incense'' comes from [[Latin]] {{lang|la|incendere}} pronunciation: /inˈt͡ʃɛn.de.re/ meaning 'to burn'.
[[File:Qustul Incense Burner, Qustal, Nubia, Cemetery L, tomb 24, A-Group, 3200-3000 BC, limestone - Oriental Institute Museum, University of Chicago - DSC08007.JPG|thumb|Qustul Incense Burner, Nubia, Cemetery L, tomb 24, A-Group, 3300-3000 BC, limestone - Oriental Institute Museum, University of Chicago]]
The earliest documented use of incense comes from the ancient Sudanese. Archaeological discoveries at [[Qustul]], a site in Lower [[Nubia]] in [[Sudan]] have revealed one of the earliest known incense burners, dating to the [[A-Group culture]] around 3300-3000 BCE predating early dynastic Egypt.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Qustul Incense Burner {{!}} Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures |url=https://isac.uchicago.edu/museum-exhibits/nubia/qustul-incense-burner |access-date=2025-06-20 |website=isac.uchicago.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Rensberger |first=Boyce |date=1979-03-01 |title=Ancient Nubian Artifacts Yield Evidence of Earliest Monarchy |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1979/03/01/archives/ancient-nubian-artifacts-yield-evidence-of-earliest-monarchy-clues.html |access-date=2025-06-20 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=G. |first1=K. |last2=Williams |first2=Bruce Beyer |title=New Kingdom Remains from Cemeteries R, V, and W at Qustul and Cemetery K at Adindan |url=https://doi.org/10.2307/605213 |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=116 |issue=3 |pages=594 |doi=10.2307/605213 |jstor=605213 |issn=0003-0279 |via=|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The Qustul incense burner, made of ceramic and adorned with iconography such as processions and what some scholars interpret as royal emblems, suggests that incense and its ritual use were already well-developed in Nubian spiritual and political life.<ref>{{Citation |last=Trigger |first=B. G. |title=The rise of Egyptian civilization |date=1983-09-22 |work=Ancient Egypt |pages=1–70 |url=https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511607868.002 |access-date=2025-05-31 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511607868.002 |isbn=978-0-521-28427-1|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Trigger |first1=Bruce G. |last2=Welsby |first2=Derek A. |date=2000 |title=The Kingdom of Kush: The Napatan and Meroitic Empires |url=https://doi.org/10.2307/220314 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=212 |doi=10.2307/220314 |jstor=220314 |issn=0361-7882|url-access=subscription }}</ref> 

[[File:Egyptian - Egyptian Incense Burner - Walters 54498 - Side.jpg|thumb|Egyptian incense burner, 7th century BCE]]
In [[Ancient Egypt]], combustible bouquets were used and employed incense in both pragmatic and mystical capacities. Incense was burnt to counteract or obscure malodorous products of human habitation, but was widely perceived to also deter malevolent demons and appease the [[Egyptian pantheon|gods]] with its pleasant aroma.<ref name=Aromatherapy/> Resin balls were found in many [[prehistoric Egypt]]ian tombs in El Mahasna, giving evidence for the prominence of incense and related compounds in Egyptian antiquity.<ref name="Nielsen 3">{{cite book |last=Nielsen |first=Kjeld |title=Incense in Ancient Israel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PEIkR5_R3wEC&q=history+of+incense&pg=PA3 |page=3 |isbn=978-9004077027 |year=1986|publisher=BRILL }}</ref> One of the oldest extant incense burners originates from the [[Fifth dynasty of Egypt|5th dynasty]].<ref name="Nielsen 3"/> The Temple of Deir-el-Bahari in Egypt contains a series of carvings that depict an expedition for incense.<ref>{{cite book |last=Stoddart |first=D. Michael |title=The Scented Ape: The Biology and Culture of Human Odour |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NYBux6MdmbIC |year=1990 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-37511-5 |page=171}}</ref>

The Babylonians used incense while offering prayers to divine<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-09-15 |title=Catholic Incense, Rituals, and Using Incense In Your Own Home! |url=http://incensecandlesadvice.blogspot.com/2016/09/catholic-incense-rituals-and-using.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510134328/http://incensecandlesadvice.blogspot.com/2016/09/catholic-incense-rituals-and-using.html |archive-date=May 10, 2017 |website=Natural Incense and Candles DIY Tips! |publisher=Blogger}}</ref> [[oracle]]s.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-PsUAAAAIAAJ&q=Babylonians+used+incense&pg=PA16 |title=Foreign Trade in the Old Babylonian Period: As Revealed by Texts from Southern Mesopotamia |first1=W. F. |last1=Leemans  |publisher=Brill Archive |year=1960}}</ref> Incense spread from there to Greece and Rome.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-12-02 |title=Incense {{!}} Aromatherapy, Meditation & Rituals |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/incense |access-date=2025-01-30 |website=Britannica  |language=en}}</ref> Incense burners have been found in the [[Indus Civilization]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tpc7FjVk0BMC&q=ancient+India+%27incense+sellers%27&pg=PA69 |title=Mohenjo Daro And The Indus Civilization 3 Vols |author=John Marshall |publisher=Asian Educational Services |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-206-1179-5}}</ref> Evidence suggests oils were used mainly for their aroma. This was the first usage of subterranean plant parts in incense.<ref name="stodda169" />

At around 2000&nbsp;BCE, [[Ancient China]] began the use of incense in the religious sense, namely for worship.<ref>Herrera, Matthew D. (2012). ''[http://www.smellsbells.com/incense.pdf Holy Smoke: The Use of Incense in the Catholic Church] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120912022346/http://www.smellsbells.com/incense.pdf |date=2012-09-12 }}'' (2nd ed.). San Luis Obispo: Tixlini Scriptorium. Page 1.</ref> Incense was used by Chinese cultures from Neolithic times and became more widespread in the [[Xia dynasty|Xia]], [[Shang dynasty|Shang]], and [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou]] dynasties.<ref>{{cite web |trans-title=Shang Xiang Si tak |url=http://www.incenseart.org.tw |title=官方網站 |language=zh |publisher=中華東方香學研究會 [Chinese Incense Art Association] |website=Incenseart.org.tw |access-date=2016-07-20 |archive-date=2020-08-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818112630/http://www.incenseart.org.tw/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The ancient Chinese employed incense composed of herbs and plant products (such as [[senna obtusifolia|cassia]], [[cinnamon]], [[styrax]], and [[sandalwood]]) as a component of numerous formalized ceremonial rites.<ref name=stodda169>{{cite book |last=Stoddart |first=D. Michael |title=The scented ape: The biology and culture of human odour |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NYBux6MdmbIC&pg=PA169 |year=1990 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-37511-5 |page=169}}</ref>

In India, the oldest sources on incense is the Vedic-tribal oral religious scriptures called [[Vedas]], specifically the [[Atharvaveda]] and the [[Rigveda]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=López-Sampson |first1=Arlene |last2=Page |first2=Tony |date=2018-03-01 |title=History of Use and Trade of Agarwood |journal=Economic Botany |language=en |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=107–129 |doi=10.1007/s12231-018-9408-4 |bibcode=2018EcBot..72..107L |s2cid=255560778 |issn=1874-9364|doi-access=free }}</ref> Incense-burning was used to create pleasing aromas as well as a medicinal tool. Its use in medicine is considered the first phase of [[Ayurveda]], which uses incense as an approach to healing.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |last1=Jennifer |first1=Rhind |title=Fragrance and Wellbeing; Plant Aromatics and Their Influence on the Psyche |date=21 October 2013 |publisher=Jessica Kingsley Publishers |isbn=9780857010735 |page=167|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LamNAQAAQBAJ |access-date=21 October 2013}}</ref> The practice of incense as a healing tool was assimilated into the religious practices of the time. Some incense, depending on the contents, may also act as organic insect repellent.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kwon |first1=Young-Suk |last2=Lee |first2=Kyung-Hee |date=2006 |title=A Review on Ancient Literatures of Anti-insect Incense |url=https://www.koreascience.or.kr/article/JAKO200618317233951.page |journal=The Research Journal of the Costume Culture |volume=14 |issue=5 |pages=802–812 |issn=1226-0401}}</ref>

Incense usage reached its peak during the [[Song dynasty]], with numerous buildings erected specifically for incense ceremonies. Brought to Japan in the 6th century by Korean [[Bhikkhu|Buddhist monks]], who used the mystical aromas in their purification rites, the delicate scents of Koh (high-quality Japanese incense) became a source of amusement and entertainment for nobles in the Imperial Court during the [[Heian period|Heian Era]] 200 years later. During the 14th-century [[Ashikaga shogunate]], a [[samurai]] warrior might perfume his helmet and armor with incense to achieve an aura of invincibility (as well as to make a noble gesture to whoever might take his head in battle). It was not until the [[Muromachi period]] during the 15th and 16th century that incense appreciation ({{lang|ja-Latn|[[Japanese incense#Kōdō|kōdō]]}}, {{lang|ja|{{Ruby line|香: こう||道: どう}}}}) spread to the upper and middle classes of Japanese society.

==Composition==
[[File:IncenseWikiVers.jpg|thumb|Some commonly used raw incense and incense-making materials (from left to right, top down): Makko powder (''[[Machilus thunbergii]]''), [[Borneol]] [[camphor]] (''[[Dryobalanops aromatica]]''), [[Sumatra]] [[Benzoin resin|Benzoin]] (''[[Styrax benzoin]]''), [[Oman]]i [[frankincense]] (''[[Boswellia sacra]]''), Guggul (''[[Commiphora wightii]]''), Golden Frankincense (''[[Boswellia papyrifera]]''), the new world [[Tolu balsam]] (''[[Myroxylon toluifera]]'') from South America, [[Somalia|Somali]] [[myrrh]] (''[[Commiphora myrrha]]''), [[Labdanum]] (''[[Cistus villosus]]''), [[Perfumery's opopanax|Opoponax]] (''[[Commiphora opoponax]]''), and white Indian [[sandalwood]] powder (''[[Santalum album]]'')]]

A variety of materials have been used in making incense. Historically there has been a preference for using locally available ingredients. For example, sage and cedar were used by the indigenous peoples of North America.<ref name=SS>{{cite web |url=http://www.asunam.com/smudge_ceremony.html |title=The Smudging Ceremony |author1=Adrienne Borden |author2=Steve Coyote|access-date=2007-12-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111204050814/http://www.asunam.com/smudge_ceremony.html|archive-date=2011-12-04|url-status=dead}}</ref> Trading in incense materials comprised a major part of commerce along the [[Silk Road]] and other trade routes, one notably called the [[Incense Route]].<ref>Herrera, Matthew D. ''Holy Smoke: The Use of Incense in the Catholic Church.'' San Luis Obispo:  Tixlini Scriptorium, 2011. www.SmellsBells.com</ref>

Local knowledge and tools were extremely influential on the style, but methods were also influenced by migrations of foreigners, such as clergy and physicians.<ref name=DO />

===Combustible base===
[[File:Räucherkerzchen.jpg|thumb|upright|A {{lang|de|[[Räucherkerzchen]]}} – A charcoal-based incense cone]]

The combustible base of a direct burning incense mixture not only binds the fragrant material together but also allows the produced incense to burn with a self-sustained ember, which propagates slowly and evenly through an entire piece of incense with such regularity that it can be used to mark time.{{Citation needed|date=July 2017}} The base is chosen such that it does not produce a perceptible smell. Commercially, two types of incense base predominate:
*'''[[Fuel]] and [[oxidizer]] mixtures''': [[Charcoal]] or [[wood]] powder provides the fuel for combustion while an oxidizer such as [[sodium nitrate]] or [[potassium nitrate]] sustains the burning of the incense. Fragrant materials are added to the base prior to shaping, as in the case of powdered incense materials, or after, as in the case of essential oils. The formula for charcoal-based incense is superficially similar to [[black powder]], though it lacks the [[sulfur]].
*'''Natural plant-based binders''': Gums such as [[gum arabic]] or [[Tragacanth|gum tragacanth]] are used to bind the mixture together. Mucilaginous material, which can be derived from many botanical sources, is mixed with fragrant materials and water. The [[mucilage]] from the wet binding powder holds the fragrant material together while the [[cellulose]] in the powder combusts to form a stable ember when lit. The dry binding powder usually comprises about 10% of the dry weight in the finished incense. These include:
**''Makko'' (incense powder) made from the [[bark (botany)|bark]] of various trees in the genus ''[[Persea]]'' (such as ''[[Machilus thunbergii|Persea thunbergii]]'')
**''Xiangnan pi'' (made from the bark of trees of genus ''[[Phoebe (plant)|Phoebe]]'' such as ''[[Phoebe nanmu]]'' or ''[[Persea zuihoensis]]''.
**''Jigit'': a resin based binder used in India
**''Laha'' or ''Dar'': bark based powders used in Nepal, Tibet, and other East Asian countries.

Typical compositions burn at a temperature between {{convert|220|and(-)|260|°C}}.

==Types==
Incense is available in various forms and degrees of processing. They can generally be separated into "direct-burning" and "indirect-burning" types. Preference for one form over another varies with culture, tradition, and personal taste. The two differ in their composition due to the former's requirement for even, stable, and sustained burning.

===Indirect-burning===

Indirect-burning incense, also called "non-combustible incense",<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Rs9DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA79 |page=79 |title=Springer Handbook of Odor |author=Andrea Büttner |publisher=Springer |date=28 Feb 2017 |isbn=9783319269320}}</ref> is an aromatic material or combination of materials, such as resins, that does not contain combustible material and so requires a separate heat source. Finer forms tend to burn more rapidly, while coarsely ground or whole chunks may be consumed very gradually, having less surface area. Heat is traditionally provided by [[charcoal]] or glowing embers. In the West, the best known incense materials of this type are the resins [[frankincense]] and [[myrrh]],{{citation needed|date=June 2018}} likely due to their numerous mentions in the [[Bible]].{{Original research inline|date=June 2018}} Frankincense means "pure incense",<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/frankincense |work=etymonline.com |title=Frankincense}}</ref> though in common usage, it refers specifically to the resin of the [[boswellia]] tree.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/frankincense |work=merriam-webster.com |title=Frankincense|date=15 January 2024 }}</ref>

*Whole: The incense material is burned directly in raw form on top of coal embers.
*Powdered or granulated: Incense broken into smaller pieces burns quickly and provides brief but intense odor.
*Paste: Powdered or granulated incense material is mixed with a sticky incombustible binder, such as dried [[fruit]], [[honey]], or a soft [[resin]] and then formed to balls or small [[pastilles]]. These may then be allowed to mature in a controlled environment where the fragrances can commingle and unite. Much [[Arab]]ian incense, also called "Bukhoor" or "Bakhoor", is of this type, and Japan has a history of kneaded incense, called nerikō or awasekō, made using this method.<ref name=Tashi>{{cite web |url=http://www.ancientworlds.net/aw/Post/317468|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614055141/http://www.ancientworlds.net/aw/Post/317468|archive-date=June 14, 2011 |title=Incense blending contents |date=April 28, 2004 |website=ancientworlds.net}}</ref> Within the [[Eastern Orthodox]] Christian tradition, raw frankincense is ground into a fine powder and then mixed with various sweet-smelling essential oils.

===Direct-burning===
[[File:Incense coils.jpg|upright|thumb| Incense coils hanging from the ceiling of an East Asian temple]]

Direct-burning incense, also called "combustible incense",{{cn|date=November 2022}} is lit directly by a flame. The glowing ember on the incense will continue to smoulder and burn the rest of the incense without further application of external heat or flame. Direct-burning incense is either [[Extrusion|extruded]], pressed into forms, or coated onto a supporting material. This class of incense is made from a moldable substrate of fragrant finely ground (or liquid) incense materials and odourless binder.<ref name="DO"/> The composition must be adjusted to provide fragrance in the proper concentration and to ensure even burning. The following types are commonly encountered, though direct-burning incense can take nearly any form, whether for expedience or whimsy.
[[File:Incense stick.JPG|thumb|upright|Burning incense stick and its smoke]]
*Coil: Extruded and shaped into a coil without a core, coil incense can burn for an extended period, from hours to days, and is commonly produced and used in Chinese cultures.
{{anchor|Incense cone}}
*Cone: Incense in this form burns relatively quickly. Incense cones were invented in Japan in the 1800s.
*Cored stick: A supporting core of bamboo is coated with a thick layer of incense material that burns away with the core. Higher-quality variations have fragrant [[sandalwood]] cores.  This type of incense is commonly produced in India and China. When used in [[Chinese folk religion]], these are sometimes known as "joss sticks".
*Dhoop or solid stick: With no bamboo core, dhoop incense is easily broken for portion control. This is the most commonly produced form of incense in Japan and [[Tibet]].
*Powder: The loose incense powder used for making indirect burning incense is sometimes burned without further processing. Powder incense is typically packed into long trails on top of wood ash using a stencil and burned in special censers or [[incense clocks]].
*Paper: Paper infused with resin or oils extracted from fragrant material, folded accordion style, is lit and blown out. Examples include [[Carta d'Armenia]] and [[Papier d'Arménie]].
*Rope: The incense powder is rolled into paper sheets, which are then rolled into ropes, twisted tightly, then doubled over and twisted again, yielding a two-strand rope. The larger end is the [[bight (knot)|bight]], and may be stood vertically, in a shallow dish of sand or pebbles. The smaller (pointed) end is lit. This type of incense is easily transported and stays fresh for extremely long periods. It has been used for centuries in [[Tibet]] and [[Nepal]].

Moxa tablets, which are disks of powdered mugwort used in [[Traditional Chinese medicine]] for [[moxibustion]], are not incenses; the treatment is by heat rather than fragrance.

{{anchor|Incense stick|Joss stick|Stick incense}}

[[Image:Hanoi_Temple_of_Literature_incense.jpg|thumb|upright|Joss sticks in the [[Temple of Literature, Hanoi]] in Hanoi, Vietnam]]

Incense sticks may be termed joss sticks, especially in parts of [[East Asia]], [[South Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jul/30/health |work=theguardian.com |title=Burning joss sticks 'as deadly as traffic fumes or cigarette smoke' |author=Ian MacKinnon |date=30 July 2008}}</ref> Among ethnic Chinese and Chinese-influenced communities these are traditionally burned at temples, before the threshold of a home or business, before an image of a religious divinity or local spirit, or in shrines, large and small, found at the main entrance of every village. Here the earth god is propitiated in the hope of bringing wealth and health to the village. They can also be burned in front of a door or open window as an offering to [[tian|heaven]], or the [[Deva (Buddhism)|devas]]. The word "joss" is derived from the Latin {{Lang|la|deus}} (god) via the Portuguese {{Lang|pt|deus}} through the Javanese {{Lang|jv|dejos}}, through Chinese pidgin English.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/joss?r=75 |title=Joss &#124; Define Joss at Dictionary.com |website=Dictionary.reference.com |access-date=2016-07-20}}</ref><ref>{{OEtymD|joss}}</ref>

==Production==
{{Refimprove section|date=December 2010}}
[[File:Incense in Vietnam.jpg|thumb|Incense production in [[Hanoi]], Vietnam]]
[[File:IncenseTraVinh.jpg|thumb|upright|Drying cored stick incense, [[Vietnam]]]]

The raw materials are powdered and then mixed together with a binder to form a paste, which, for direct burning incense, is then cut and dried into pellets.

[[File:Raw Charcoal Incense Sticks.jpg|thumb|Raw charcoal incense sticks]]
Certain proportions are necessary for direct-burning incense:
*Oil content: an excess of oils may prevent incense from smoldering effectively.{{Citation needed|date=December 2010}} Resinous materials such as [[myrrh]] and [[frankincense]] are typically balanced with "dry" materials such as wood, bark and leaf powders.
*Oxidizer quantity: Too little oxidizer in gum-bound incense may prevent the incense from igniting, while too much will cause the incense to burn too quickly, without producing fragrant smoke.{{Citation needed|date=December 2010}}
*Binder: Water-soluble binders such as "makko" ensure that the incense mixture does not crumble when dry, dilute the mixture.<ref name="DO" />
*Mixture density: Incense mixtures made with natural binders must not be combined with too much water in mixing, or over-compressed while being formed, which would result in either uneven air distribution or undesirable density in the mixture, causing the incense to burn unevenly, too slowly, or too quickly.{{Citation needed|date=December 2010}}
*Particulate size: The incense mixture has to be well pulverized with similarly sized particulates. Uneven and large particulates result in uneven burning and inconsistent aroma production when burned.{{Citation needed|date=December 2010}}

[[File:Smouldering incense sticks.jpg|thumb|upright|Some incense sticks are uneven in thickness.|alt=]]

"Dipped" or "hand-dipped" direct-burning incense is created by dipping "incense blanks" made of unscented combustible dust into any suitable kind of essential or fragrance oil. These are often sold in the United States by [[flea markets|flea-market]] and sidewalk vendors who have developed their own styles. This form of incense requires the least skill and equipment to manufacture, since the blanks are pre-formed in China or South East Asia.

Incense mixtures can be extruded or pressed into shapes. Small quantities of water are combined with the fragrance and incense base mixture and kneaded into a hard [[dough]]. The incense dough is then pressed into shaped forms to create ''cone'' and smaller ''coiled'' incense, or forced through a [[hydraulic]] press for ''solid stick'' incense. The formed incense is then trimmed and slowly dried. Incense produced in this fashion has a tendency to warp or become misshapen when improperly dried, and as such must be placed in climate-controlled rooms and rotated several times through the drying process.

Traditionally, the bamboo core of cored stick incense is prepared by hand from ''Phyllostachys heterocycla cv. pubescens'' since this species produces thick wood and easily burns to ashes in the incense stick.<ref name="cky">{{citation |first=Ka-Yan(家恩) |last=Chen(陳) |title=Joss Stick Manufacturing: A Study of a Traditional Industry in Hong Kong |publisher=sunzi1.lib.hku.hk |url=http://sunzi1.lib.hku.hk/hkjo/view/44/4401661.pdf |access-date=2022-12-31 |archive-date=2011-06-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110612124204/http://sunzi1.lib.hku.hk/hkjo/view/44/4401661.pdf |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> In a process known as "splitting the foot of the incense stick", the bamboo is trimmed to length, soaked, peeled, and split in halves until the thin sticks of bamboo have square cross sections of less than 3mm.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N0yGfRLQVp0 | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211107/N0yGfRLQVp0| archive-date=2021-11-07 | url-status=live|title=雲霄古道／溫蕉厝的剖香腳 | date=12 June 2013|publisher=[[YouTube]] |access-date=2016-07-20}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="cyj">{{citation |last=陳 |first=永順 |title=失落百年 「剖香腳」技藝重現 |journal=聯合報 |date=2010-03-07}}</ref> This process has been largely replaced by machines in modern incense production.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cAyuOSgB0AM | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729113550/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cAyuOSgB0AM| archive-date=2013-07-29 | url-status=dead|title=YouTube |publisher=[[YouTube]] |access-date=2016-07-20}}</ref>

In the case of cored incensed sticks, several methods are employed to coat the sticks cores with incense mixture:
*''Paste rolling'': A wet, malleable paste of incense mixture is first rolled into a long, thin coil, using a paddle. Then, a thin stick is put next to the coil and the stick and paste are rolled together until the stick is centered in the mixture and the desired thickness is achieved. The stick is then cut to the desired length and dried.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QqI-i1E6Sxc | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211107/QqI-i1E6Sxc| archive-date=2021-11-07 | url-status=live|title=Making Incense |publisher=[[YouTube]] |date=2006-12-18 |access-date=2016-07-20}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
*''Powder-coating'': Powder-coating is used mainly to produce cored incense of either larger ''coil'' (up to {{convert|1|m}} in diameter) or ''cored stick'' forms. A bundle of the supporting material (typically thin bamboo or sandalwood slivers) is soaked in water or a thin water/glue mixture for a short time. The thin sticks are evenly separated, then dipped into a tray of incense powder consisting of fragrance materials and occasionally a plant-based binder. The dry incense powder is then tossed and piled over the sticks while they are spread apart. The sticks are then gently rolled and packed to maintain roundness while more incense powder is repeatedly tossed onto the sticks. Three to four layers of powder are coated onto the sticks, forming a {{convert|2|mm}} thick layer of incense material on the stick. The coated incense is then allowed to dry in open air. Additional coatings of incense mixture can be applied after each period of successive drying. [[Incense stick]]s produced in this fashion and burned in [[temple]]s of [[Chinese folk religion]] can have a thickness between 2 and 4 millimeters.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l-hlV3A-08U |title=台灣宏觀電視TMACTV 代代相傳 新港香 |publisher=[[YouTube]] |access-date=2016-07-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=peSYFWMl7s8 | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211107/peSYFWMl7s8| archive-date=2021-11-07 | url-status=live|title=製香過程 |publisher=[[YouTube]] |date=2009-07-20 |access-date=2016-07-20}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
*''Compression'': A damp powder is mechanically formed around a cored stick by compression, similar to the way uncored sticks are formed. This form is becoming more common due to the higher labor cost of producing powder-coated or paste-rolled sticks.

===Orthodox Christian===
Incense of the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox Christian]] monastic tradition on [[Mount Athos]] is made by powdering frankincense or [[fir]] resin, mixing it with essential oils. Floral fragrances are the most common, but citrus such as lemon is not uncommon. The incense mixture is then rolled out into a slab approximately {{convert|1|cm}} thick and left until the slab has firmed. It is then cut into small cubes, coated with clay powder to prevent adhesion, and allowed to fully harden and dry.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://orthodoxincense.com/domesticincense.html |title=Incense - United States |publisher=Orthodox Incense |date=2013-08-12 |access-date=2016-07-20}}</ref> In Greece this rolled incense resin is called 'Moskolibano', and generally comes in either a pink or green colour denoting the fragrance, with pink being rose and green being jasmine.

==Burning incense==
Indirect-burning incense is burned directly on top of a heat source or on a hot metal plate in a [[censer]] or [[thurible]].<ref name=CI>{{cite web |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07716a.htm |title=Catholic Encyclopedia |author=P. Morrisroe. Transcribed by Kevin Cawley.}}</ref>

In Japan and China, a similar censer called a {{Nihongo||柄香炉|''egōro''}} in Japanese, or a ''shǒulú'' (手爐) in Chinese, is used by several Buddhist traditions. The {{lang|ja-Latn|egōro}}/''shǒulú'' is usually made of brass, with a long handle and no chain. Instead of charcoal, {{lang|ja-Latn|makkō}} powder is poured into a depression made in a bed of ash. The {{lang|ja-Latn|makkō}} is lit and the incense mixture is burned on top. This method in Japan is known as {{lang|ja-Latn|sonae-kō}} (religious burning).<ref name=JI>{{cite web |url=https://naturalscents.net/incense/buddhist-incense-in-japan-50 |title=Sonae-ko: Buddhist Incense In Japan |author=naturalscents|date=2 November 2021 }}</ref> For direct-burning incense, the tip or end of the incense is ignited with a heat source such as a flame until the incense begins to turn into ash at the burning end. The flame is then fanned or blown out, leaving the incense to smolder.

==Cultural variations==
===Arabian===
In most [[Arab]] countries, incense is burned in the form of scented chips or blocks called {{lang|ar-Latn|bakhoor}} ({{langx|ar|بَخُورٌ}} {{IPA|ar|baˈxuːɾ|}}). Incense is used on special occasions like [[wedding]]s or on Fridays or generally to perfume the house. The {{lang|ar-Latn|bakhoor}} is usually burned in a {{lang|ar-Latn|[[mabkhara]]}} ({{langx|ar|مبخر}} or {{lang|ar|مبخرة}}), a traditional incense burner ([[censer]]) similar to the Somali {{lang|so|[[dabqaad]]}}. It is customary in many Arab countries to pass {{lang|ar-Latn|bakhoor}} among the guests in the {{lang|ar-Latn|[[majlis]]}} ({{lang|ar|مَجْلِسٌ‎}}, 'congregation'). This is done as a gesture of [[hospitality]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://viennaimports.com/blog/articles/incense-around-world |title=Incense Around The World |date=2 February 2018 |publisher=Vienna Imports}}</ref>

===Chinese===
[[File:Wierook branden in de Lama Tempel Beijing China augustus 2007.JPG|thumb|Incense at [[Yonghe Temple]] in [[Beijing, China]]]]
{{Main|Incense in China}}

For over two thousand years, the Chinese have used incense in religious ceremonies, [[ancestor veneration in China|ancestor veneration]], [[traditional Chinese medicine]], and daily life. [[Agarwood]] ({{lang-zh |c=沉香 |p=chénxiāng |labels=no }}) and [[sandalwood]] ({{lang-zh |c=檀香 |p=tánxiāng |labels=no}}) are the two most important ingredients in Chinese incense.

Along with the introduction of [[Buddhism in China]] came calibrated incense sticks and [[incense clock]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bedini |first=Silvio A. |year=1963 |title=The Scent of Time. A Study of the Use of Fire and Incense for Time Measurement in Oriental Countries |journal=Transactions of the American Philosophical Society |volume=53 |issue=5 |doi=10.2307/1005923 |pages=1–51 |jstor=1005923 |hdl=2027/mdp.39076006361401 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> The first known record is by poet Yu Jianwu (487–551): "By burning incense we know the o'clock of the night, With graduated candles we confirm the tally of the watches."<ref>Schafer, Edward H. (1963). [https://books.google.com/books?id=QerLX9x8pIkC ''The Golden Peaches of Samarkand, a Study of T'ang Exotics'']. [[University of California Press]]. p. 155.</ref> The use of these incense timekeeping devices spread from Buddhist monasteries into Chinese secular society.

[[Image:JossSticks003.jpg|thumb|Big Dragon incense sticks]]

Incense-stick burning is an everyday practice in traditional [[Chinese folk religion|Chinese religion]]. There are many different types of sticks used for different purposes or on different festive days. Many of them are long and thin. Sticks are mostly coloured yellow, red, or more rarely, black.<ref>{{Cite web |title=INCENSE AND INCENSE STICKS: TYPES, COMPONENTS, ORIGIN AND THEIR RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND IMPORTANCE AMONG DIFFERENT RELIGIONS |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/345055234|access-date=2021-05-28 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> Thick sticks are used for special ceremonies, such as funerals.{{citation needed|date=August 2017}} Spiral incense, with exceedingly long burn times, is often hung from temple ceilings. In some states, such as Taiwan, Singapore, or Malaysia, where they celebrate the [[Ghost Festival]], large, pillar-like dragon incense sticks are sometimes used. These generate so much smoke and heat that they are only burned outside.

Chinese incense sticks used in popular religion are generally odorless or only use the slightest trace of jasmine or rose, since it is the smoke, not the scent, which is important in conveying the prayers of the faithful to heaven.{{citation needed|date=August 2017}} They are composed of the dried powdered bark of a non-scented species of [[cinnamon]] native to Cambodia, ''[[Cinnamomum cambodianum]]''.{{citation needed|date=November 2016}} Inexpensive packs of 300 are often found for sale in Chinese supermarkets. Though they contain no sandalwood, they often include the Chinese character for sandalwood on the label, as a generic term for incense.{{citation needed|date=August 2017}}

Highly scented Chinese incense sticks are used by some Buddhists.{{citation needed|date=August 2017}} These are often quite expensive due to the use of large amounts of sandalwood, [[agarwood]], or floral scents. The [[sandalwood]] used in Chinese incenses does not come from India, its native home, but rather from groves planted within Chinese territory. Sites belonging to [[Tzu Chi]], [[Chung Tai Shan]], [[Dharma Drum Mountain]],<ref>{{cite web |author=TOP |url=http://www.cna.com.tw/news/aedu/201408240278-1.aspx |title=不燒香 法鼓山行之有年 &#124; 生活 &#124; 中央社即時新聞 CNA NEWS |website=Cna.com.tw |access-date=2016-07-20}}</ref> [[Xingtian Temple]], or [[City of Ten Thousand Buddhas]] do not use incense.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.appledaily.com.tw/realtimenews/article/new/20140901/461840/ |title=我們都誤會行天宮了 &#124; 即時新聞 &#124; 20140901 &#124; 蘋果日報 |website=Appledaily.com.tw |access-date=2016-07-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=作者：廣興 |url=http://hk.plm.org.cn/dispKw.asp?id=1024 |title=香港宝莲禅寺佛教文化传播网 |website=Hk.plm.org.cn |access-date=2016-07-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408125236/http://hk.plm.org.cn/dispKw.asp?id=1024 |archive-date=2016-04-08 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://ycwb.com/gb/content/2005-11/14/content_1018915.htm |title=全球买家•缅甸 缅甸：谈生意莫选星期二 |website=Ycwb.com |date=2005-11-14 |access-date=2016-07-20 |archive-date=2016-04-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408125311/http://www.ycwb.com/gb/content/2005-11/14/content_1018915.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Christian===
[[File:Incense_at_Roman_Catholic_Mass.jpg|thumb|The use of incense occurs during [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]], with a thurible, in the Catholic and Lutheran traditions]]
The use of incense in Christianity is inspired by passages in the [[Bible]]; its use in prayer and worship carries with it a [[Christian symbolism]].<ref name="ELCA2013">{{cite web |title=Why and how do we use incense in worship? |url=https://download.elca.org/ELCA%20Resource%20Repository/Why_and_how_do_we_use_incense_in_worship.pdf |publisher=[[Evangelical Lutheran Church of America]] |access-date=29 January 2025 |date=2013}}</ref> Incense is used in  Christian churches, including the [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]], [[Eastern Orthodox]], [[Assyrian Church of the East]], [[Oriental Orthodox]], [[Lutheran]] and [[Old Catholic]] denominations, as well as in some [[Methodism|Methodist]], [[Continental Reformed churches|Continental Reformed]], [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]], and [[Anglican Communion|Anglican]] churches. A [[thurible]] is used to hold the burning incense. Each thurible consists of a censer section, chains to hold and swing it, a perforated lid, and a [[crucible]] in which burning charcoal is placed. The incense is placed directly upon the charcoal, where it melts to produce a sweet smelling smoke. This may be done several times during the religious service as the incense burns quite quickly. The thurible is swung by its chains to fan the charcoal, to produce copious smoke, and to distribute the smoke.<ref name="Herrera">[https://www.scribd.com/doc/170397802 Herrera, Matthew D. ''Holy Smoke: The Use of Incense in the Catholic Church.'' San Luis Obispo:  Tixlini Scriptorium, 2011.]</ref>

===Indian===
{{main|Incense in India}}
[[File:Incense in India.jpg|thumb|Incense in India]]
Incense sticks, also known as {{lang|hi-Latn|agarbattī}} ({{langx|hi|अगरबत्ती}}) and joss sticks, in which an incense paste is rolled or moulded around a bamboo stick, are the main forms of incense in India. The bamboo method originated in India and is distinct from the Nepali, Tibetan, and Japanese methods of stick making without bamboo cores.

The basic ingredients are the bamboo stick, the paste (generally made of charcoal dust and joss/jiggit/gum/tabu powder – an adhesive made from the bark of [[litsea glutinosa]] and other trees),<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eu8_q_7rBD4C&pg=PA50 |title=Markets and Rural Poverty: Upgrading in Value Chains |page=50 |author1=Jonathan Mitchell |author2=Christopher Coles |publisher=IDRC |year=2011 |access-date=5 August 2013 |isbn=9781849713139}}</ref> and the perfume ingredients - which would be a masala ([[spice mix]]) powder of ground ingredients into which the stick would be rolled, or a perfume liquid sometimes consisting of synthetic ingredients into which the stick would be dipped. Perfume is sometimes sprayed on the coated sticks. Stick machines are sometimes used, which coat the stick with paste and perfume, though the bulk of production is done by hand rolling at home. There are about 5,000 incense companies in India that take raw unperfumed sticks hand-rolled by approximately 200,000 women working part-time at home, and then apply their own brand of perfume, and package the sticks for sale.<ref name=Harper2>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VODZCM5qblYC&pg=PA249 |title=Inclusive Value Chains: A Pathway Out of Poverty |author=Malcolm Harper |page=249 |publisher=World Scientific |year=2010  |access-date=4 August 2013 |isbn=9789814295000}}</ref> An experienced home-worker can produce 4,000 raw sticks a day.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bVIuvRibcegC&pg=PA16 |title=South Indian Factory Workers: Their Life and Their World |author=Mark Holmström |page=16 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=3 Dec 2007 |access-date=5 August 2013 |isbn=9780521048125}}</ref> There are about 50 large companies that together account for up to 30% of the market, and around 500 of the companies, including a significant number of the main ones, including Moksh Agarbatti, [[PremaNature]], and [[Cycle Pure]], are based in Mysore.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EymP-cYw2KsC&pg=PA84 |title=Urban Energy Systems |author=B. Sudhakara Reddy |page=84 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |date=1 Jan 1998 |access-date=5 August 2013 |isbn=9788170226819}}</ref>

=== Jewish Temple in Jerusalem ===<!--This section is linked from [[Incense offering in rabbinic literature]] and [[Ketoret]] ([[MOS:HEAD]])-->
{{main|Incense offering in rabbinic literature}}

[[Ketoret]] ({{langx|he|קְטֹרֶת‎}}) was the incense offered in the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] and is stated in the [[Book of Exodus]] to be a mixture of [[stacte]], [[onycha]], [[galbanum]] and [[frankincense]].<ref name="smellsbells.com">{{cite web |last=Herrera |first=Matthew D. |title=Holy Smoke: The Use of Incense in the Catholic Church |publisher=San Luis Obispo: Tixlini Scriptorium |date=2011 |url=http://www.smellsbells.com/incense.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120912022346/http://www.smellsbells.com/incense.pdf |archive-date=2012-09-12}}</ref>

===Japanese===
{{Main|Japanese incense}}

[[File:IncenseStack0203.jpg|thumb|Stacks of incense at a temple in Japan]]

In Japan incense appreciation [[folklore]] includes art, culture, history, and ceremony. Incense burning may occasionally take place within the [[tea ceremony]], just like [[calligraphy]], [[ikebana]], and [[kakemono|scroll]] arrangement. {{nihongo||香道|Kōdō}}, the art of incense appreciation, is generally practiced as a separate art form from the tea ceremony, and usually within a tea room of traditional Zen design.

{{nihongo|Agarwood|沈香|jinkō}} and {{nihongo|sandalwood|白檀|byakudan}} are the two most important ingredients in Japanese incense. The characters in agarwood mean "incense that sinks in water" due to the weight of the resin in the wood. Sandalwood is used in the [[Japanese tea ceremony]]. The most valued sandalwood comes from [[Mysore]] in the state of [[Karnataka]] in India.{{cn|date=August 2019}}

Japanese incense companies divide agarwood into six categories depending on its properties and the region from which it is obtained.{{cn|date=August 2019}} {{Nihongo||伽羅|Kyara}}, a type of agarwood, is currently worth more than its weight in gold.{{cn|date=August 2019}}{{when|date=August 2019}}

==Usage==
===Practical===
[[File:Santiago de Compostela (40305048451).jpg|thumb|The giant [[Botafumeiro]] thurible swinging from the ceiling of the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela]]
[[File:Katorisenkou.jpg|thumb| [[Mosquito repellent]] is often manufactured in coil/spiral form and burned in a similar manner as incense.]]
[[File:Papier d'Armenie 1523.jpg|thumb|{{lang|fr|[[Papier d'Armenie]]}} was used to disinfect.]]

==== Odorizant ====
Incense fragrances can be of such great strength that they obscure less desirable odours. This utility led to the use of incense in funerary ceremonies because the incense could smother the scent of decay. An example, as well as of religious use, is the giant [[Botafumeiro]] thurible that swings from the ceiling of the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela. It is used in part to mask the scent of the many tired, unwashed pilgrims huddled together in the [[Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela]].<ref name="smellsbells.com"/>

A similar utilitarian use of incense can be found in the post-[[English Reformation|Reformation]] [[Church of England]]. Although the ceremonial use of incense was abandoned until the [[Oxford Movement]], it was common to have incense (typically [[frankincense]]) burned before grand occasions, when the church would be crowded. The frankincense was carried by a member of the [[vestry]] before the service in a vessel called a 'perfuming pan'. In iconography of the day, this vessel is shown to be elongated and flat, with a single long handle on one side. The perfuming pan was used instead of the [[thurible]], as the latter would have likely offended the Protestant sensibilities of the 17th and 18th centuries.

Incense is also often used by people who smoke indoors and do not want the smell to linger.

[[Papier d'Arménie]] was originally sold as a disinfectant as well as for the fragrance.

==== Time-keeper ====

The regular burning of direct-burning incense has been used for chronological measurement in [[incense clock]]s. These devices can range from a simple trail of incense material calibrated to burn in a specific time period, to elaborate and ornate instruments with bells or gongs, designed to involve multiple senses.<ref name="SB">{{cite web |url=https://naturalscents.net/incense/time-measurement-with-incense-in-japan-51 |title=Time Measurement With Incense in Japan |author=Silvio A. Bedini|date=2 November 2021 }}</ref>

Incense clocks are used to time social, medical and religious practices in parts of eastern Asia. They are primarily used in Buddhism as a timer of meditation and prayer. Different types of incense burn at different rates; therefore, different incense are used for different practices. The duration of burning ranges from minutes to months.{{citation needed|date=February 2019}}

==== Insect repellent ====
Incense made from materials such as [[Cymbopogon|citronella]] can repel mosquitoes and other irritating, distracting, or pestilential insects. This use has been deployed in concert with religious uses by [[Zen|Zen Buddhists]], who claim that the incense that is part of their meditative practice is designed to keep bothersome insects from distracting the practitioner.

===Aesthetic===
Many people burn incense primarily to appreciate its smell. An example is the {{Nihongo||香道|[[Japanese incense#Kōdō|kōdō]]}}, where raw incense materials such as agarwood are appreciated in a formal setting.

===Religious===
{{main|Religious use of incense}}
[[File:Chinese temple incence burner.jpg|thumb|upright|Incense burning at a temple in [[Taipei]], [[Taiwan]]]]
Religious use of incense is prevalent in many cultures and may have roots in the practical and aesthetic uses, considering that many of these religions have little else in common.{{cn|date=April 2023}} One common motif is incense as a form of sacrificial offering to a [[deity]]. Such use was common in Judaic worship<ref name="smellsbells.com"/> and remains in use for example in the Catholic, Orthodox, and Anglican churches, Taoist and Buddhist Chinese {{lang|zh-Latn|[[jingxiang|jìngxiāng]]}} ({{lang|zh|敬香}}, 'offer incense [to ancestors/gods]'), etc. Different cultures have associated rising sweet-smelling smoke with [[prayer]] - communication directed towards a deity on high.<ref>
{{cite book
 |author1              = Holly Crawford Pickett
 |editor1              = Jane Hwang Degenhardt
 |editor-last2         = Williamson
 |editor-first2        = Elizabeth
 |date                 = 8 April 2016
 |orig-date            = 2011
 |chapter              = The Idolatrous Nose: Incense on the Early Modern Stage
 |title                = Religion and Drama in Early Modern England: The Performance of Religion on the Renaissance Stage
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=JY_tCwAAQBAJ
 |publication-place    = London
 |publisher            = Routledge
 |page                 = 37
 |isbn                 = 9781317068112
 |access-date          = 16 April 2023
 |quote                = [...] the metaphor most often associated with incense in the Bible and early modern sermons is prayer, an invisible, sometimes private, and often silent communication with the divine.
}} 
</ref>

===Aphrodisiac===
Incense has been used as an aphrodisiac in some cultures. Both ancient Greek and ancient Egyptian mythology suggest the usage of incense by goddesses and nymphs. Incense is thought to heighten sexual desires and sexual attraction.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://taodewan.com/benefits-of-burning-incense/ |title=10 Physical and Psychological Benefits Of Burning Incense |website=Tao de Wan |last=Sanchez |first=David M. |date=17 November 2017 |access-date=2019-02-12}}</ref> {{unreliable source?|date=December 2022}}

==Health risks from incense smoke==
Incense smoke contains various contaminants including gaseous pollutants, such as [[carbon monoxide]] (CO), [[nitrogen oxide]]s ({{Chem|NO|x}}), [[sulfur oxide]]s ({{Chem|SO|x}}), [[volatile organic compounds]] (VOCs), and adsorbed toxic pollutants ([[polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons]] and [[toxic metal]]s). The solid particles range between around {{convert|10| and(-)|500|nm|sigfig=1|abbr=off}}. In a comparison, Indian sandalwood was found to have the highest emission rate, followed by Japanese [[agarwood|aloeswood]], then Taiwanese [[aloeswood]], while Chinese smokeless sandalwood had the least.<ref name="siao">{{cite journal |author=Siao Wei See |title=Physical characteristics of nanoparticles emitted from incense smoke |journal=Science and Technology of Advanced Materials |volume=8 |issue=1–2 |year=2007 |pages=25–32 |doi=10.1016/j.stam.2006.11.016 |author2=Rajasekhar Balasubramanian |author3=Umid Man Joshi |bibcode=2007STAdM...8...25S|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Research carried out in [[Taiwan]] in 2001 linked the burning of incense sticks to the slow accumulation of potential [[carcinogen]]s in a poorly ventilated environment by measuring the levels of [[polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon]]s (including [[benzopyrene]]) within Buddhist temples. The study found gaseous [[aliphatic compound|aliphatic]] [[aldehyde]]s, which are carcinogenic and mutagenic, in incense smoke.<ref>{{Cite journal |volume=53 |issue=3 |pages=374–381 |vauthors=Lin JM, Wang LH |title=Gaseous aliphatic aldehydes in Chinese incense smoke |journal=Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology |date=September 1994 |pmid=7919714 |doi=10.1007/bf00197229 |bibcode=1994BuECT..53..374L |s2cid=33588092 |url=http://ntur.lib.ntu.edu.tw/bitstream/246246/160931/1/11.pdf |access-date=2022-03-03 |archive-date=2023-03-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324014433/http://ntur.lib.ntu.edu.tw/bitstream/246246/160931/1/11.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> 

In 1995, epidemiologists at the Hong Kong Anti-Cancer Society, Aichi Cancer Center in Nagoya, and several other centers wrote: "No association was found between exposure to incense burning and respiratory symptoms like chronic cough, chronic sputum, chronic bronchitis, runny nose, wheezing, asthma, allergic rhinitis, or pneumonia among the three populations studied: i.e. primary school children, their non-smoking mothers, or a group of older non-smoking female controls. Incense burning did not affect lung cancer risk among non-smokers, but it significantly reduced risk among smokers, even after adjusting for lifetime smoking amount." However, the researchers qualified their findings by noting that incense burning in the studied population was associated with certain low-cancer-risk dietary habits, and concluded that "diet can be a significant confounder of epidemiological studies on air pollution and respiratory health."<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Koo, Linda C. |author2=Ho, J.H-C. |author3=Tominaga, Suketami |author4=Matsushita, Hidetsuru |author5=Matsuki, Hideaki |author6=Shimizu, Hiroyuki |author7=Mori, Toru |date=1995-11-01 |title=Is Chinese Incense Smoke Hazardous to Respiratory Health?: Epidemiological Results from Hong Kong |journal=Indoor and Built Environment |volume=4 |issue=6 |pages=334–343 |doi=10.1177/1420326X9500400604 |s2cid=73146243}}</ref>

Although several studies have not shown a link between incense and [[lung cancer]],{{Citation needed|date=November 2025}} other types of cancer have been directly linked to burning incense. A study published in 2008 in the medical journal ''[[Cancer (journal)|Cancer]]'' found that incense use is associated with a statistically significant higher risk of cancers of the [[upper respiratory tract]], with the exception of [[nasopharyngeal cancer]]. Those who used incense heavily also were 80% more likely to develop [[squamous-cell carcinoma]]s. The link between incense use and increased cancer risk held when the researchers weighed other factors, including cigarette smoking, diet and drinking habits. The research team noted that "This association is consistent with a large number of studies identifying carcinogens in incense smoke, and given the widespread and sometimes involuntary exposure to smoke from burning incense, these findings carry significant public health implications."<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-incense-cancers-idUSPAT56944620080825 |title=Burning incense linked to respiratory cancers |work=Reuters |date=2008-08-25 |access-date=2016-07-20}}</ref>

In 2015, the South China University of Technology found toxicity of incense to Chinese hamsters' ovarian cells to be even higher than cigarettes.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s10311-015-0521-7 |volume=13 |issue=4 |title=Higher cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of burning incense than cigarette |journal=Environmental Chemistry Letters |pages=465–471 |year=2015 |last1=Zhou |first1=R. |last2=An |first2=Q. |last3=Pan |first3=X. W. |last4=Yang |first4=B. |last5=Hu |first5=J. |last6=Wang |first6=Y. H. |bibcode=2015EnvCL..13..465Z |s2cid=93495393}}</ref> Incensole acetate, a component of [[frankincense]], has been shown to have anxiolytic-like and antidepressive-like effects in mice, mediated by activation of poorly-understood [[TRPV3]] ion channels in the brain.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Moussaieff A, Rimmerman N, Bregman T|display-authors=etal |title=Incensole acetate, an incense component, elicits psychoactivity by activating TRPV3 channels in the brain |journal=FASEB J. |volume=22 |issue=8 |pages=3024–34 |date=August 2008 |pmid=18492727 |pmc=2493463 |doi=10.1096/fj.07-101865|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==See also==
{{div col}}
*[[Incense trade route]]
*[[Kyphi]]
*''[[Kōbako]]''
*[[Japanese incense#Kōdō|Kōdō]], incense arts
*[[Silk Road]]
*[[Smudging]]
*[[Votive candle]]
*[[Bursera graveolens|Palo santo]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*[[Silvio Bedini|Silvio A. Bedini]]. (1994). "The Trail of Time: Time Measurement with Incense in East Asia". ''[[Cambridge University Press]]''. {{ISBN|0-521-37482-0}}

==External links==
{{Commonscatinline}}
* "[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mzL_kgSFgKU Joss Stick-Making Demonstration]" – [[George Town World Heritage Incorporated]], Penang, Malaysia
*"[https://www.roots.gov.sg/en/ich-landing/ich/making-of-joss-sticks Making of Joss Sticks]". ''Roots''. [[National Heritage Board (Singapore)|National Heritage Board of Singapore]]
*[https://oudgo.com/product-category/agarwood-chips/ Agarwood Chips]
*[https://www.buddhafiguren.de/Movies/incense-production_Movie.html Movie about making Tibetan Incense in Nepal]

{{Transient receptor potential channel modulators}}
{{Lutheran Divine Service}}

[[Category:Incense| ]]