View source for Illyrian language

{{Short description|Extinct Indo-European language of Southeast Europe}}
{{pp-move}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Illyrian
| fam2             = (?) [[Albanoid]]
| region           = Region of [[Illyria]], Southeast Europe
| familycolor      = indo-european
| dia1             = (?) [[Albanian language|Albanian]]
| dia2             = (?) [[Messapic language|Messapic]] {{Extinct}}
| iso3             = xil
| glotto           = illy1234
| glottoname       = Illyrian
| states           = Modern [[Albania]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Croatia]], [[Kosovo]], [[Montenegro]], [[North Macedonia]] and [[Serbia]]
| extinct          = 2nd-6th centuries
| ethnicity        = [[Illyrians]]
}}
{{Indo-European topics}}

The '''Illyrian language''' ({{IPAc-en|ᵻ|ˈ|l|ɪr|i|ə|n}}) was an [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language]] or group of languages spoken by the [[Illyrians]] in [[Southeast Europe]] during antiquity. The language is unattested with the exception of personal names and placenames. Just enough information can be drawn from these to allow the conclusion that it belonged to the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] language family.

In ancient sources, the term "[[Illyrians|Illyrian]]" is applied to a wide range of tribes settling in a large area of southeastern Europe, including [[Albanoi]], [[Ardiaei]], [[Autariatae]], [[Dardani]], [[Delmatae]], [[Dassareti]], [[Enchelei]], [[Labeatae]], [[Pannonii]], [[Parthini]], [[Taulantii]] and others (see [[list of ancient tribes in Illyria]]). It is not known to what extent all of these tribes formed a homogeneous linguistic group, but the study of the attested eponyms has led to the identification of a linguistic core area in the south of this zone, roughly around what is now [[Albania]] and [[Montenegro]], where Illyrian proper is believed to have been spoken.

Little is known about the relationships between Illyrian and its neighboring languages. For lack of more information, Illyrian is typically described as occupying its own branch in the Indo-European family tree. A close relationship with [[Messapic language|Messapic]], once spoken in southern Italy, has been suggested but remains unproven. Among modern languages, [[Albanian language|Albanian]] is often conjectured to be a surviving descendant of Illyrian, although this too remains unproven.

In the early modern era and up to the 19th century, the term "Illyrian" was also applied to the modern [[South Slavic languages|South Slavic language]] of [[Dalmatia]], today identified as [[Serbo-Croatian]]. This language is only distantly related to ancient Illyrian, as they share the common ancestor [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]]; the two languages were never in contact as Illyrian had become extinct before the [[Slavic migrations to Southeastern Europe]] with the possible exception of the ancestor of Albanian.

== Era ==
Illyrian proper went extinct between the 2nd and 6th centuries AD,<ref>{{harvnb|Fol|2002|p=225}}: "Romanisation was total and complete by the end of the 4th century A.D. In the case of the Illyrian elements a Romance intermediary is inevitable as long as Illyrian was probably extinct in the 2nd century A.D."</ref><ref name="linguistlist.org">[[linguistlist:xil|Eastern Michigan University Linguist List: The Illyrian Language]] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218071454/http://linguistlist.org/forms/langs/LLDescription.cfm?code=xil|date=2012-02-18}}.</ref> with the possible exception of a branch that may have survived and developed into Albanian.{{sfn|Prendergast|2017|p=80}}

It has also been claimed that Illyrian was preserved and spoken in the countryside, as attested in the 4th-5th century testimonies of [[St. Jerome]].<ref>{{harvnb|Fortson|2004|p=405}}: "Although they were to play an important role in the Roman army and even furnished later Rome with several famous emperors (including Diocletian, Constantine the Great and Justinian I), the Illyrians never became fully assimilated Romans and kept their language."</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wilkes|1995|p=266}}: "Alongside Latin the native Illyrian survived in the country areas, and St Jerome claimed to speak his 'sermo gentilis' (Commentary on Isaiah 7.19)."</ref>

== Classification and terminology ==
Illyrian was part of the Indo-European language family. Its relation to other Indo-European languages, ancient and modern, is poorly understood because of the paucity of data and because it is still being examined. Today, the main source of authoritative information about Illyrian consists of a handful of Illyrian words cited in classical sources and numerous examples of Illyrian [[anthroponym]]s, [[ethnonym]]s, [[toponym]]s and [[hydronym]]s. The scarcity of the data makes it difficult to identify the sound changes that have taken place in Illyrian; the most widely accepted one is that the Indo-European voiced aspirates {{IPA|/bʰ/}}, {{IPA|/dʰ/}}, {{IPA|/ɡʰ/}} became voiced consonants {{IPA|/b/}}, {{IPA|/d/}}, {{IPA|/ɡ/}}.<ref name="Mallory and Adams 1997">{{harvnb|Mallory|Adams|1997}}.</ref><ref name="Christidis et al. 2007">{{harvnb|Christidis|Arapopoulou|Chritē|2007}}.</ref>

[[Messapic language|Messapic]] was an Iron Age language spoken in [[Apulia]] by the [[Iapygians]] ([[Messapians]], [[Peucetians]], [[Daunians]]), which settled in Italy as part of an Illyrian migration from [[Illyria]] in the transitional period between the Bronze and Iron ages.{{sfn|Wilkes|1995|p=68}} As such, Messapic, as a distinct language, is considered to be part of the same [[Paleo-Balkan languages|Paleo-Balkan]] grouping as Illyrian.<ref>Joazhim Matzinger (2016). Die Altbalkanischen sprachen, p. 19 [https://www.albanologie.uni-muenchen.de/downloads/meldungen/gastvortrag_matzinger_nov_2016/matzinger-mu_nchen30112016.pdf Link]</ref> [[Eric Hamp]] has grouped them under "Messapo-Illyrian" which is further grouped with Albanian under "Adriatic Indo-European".{{sfn|Hamp|Adams|2013|p=8}} Other schemes group the three languages under "General Illyrian" and "Western Paleo-Balkan".{{sfn|Ismajli|2015|p=45}}

In older research under the influence of [[pan-Illyrian theories]], the [[Histri|Histrian]], [[Venetic language|Venetic]] and [[Liburnian language|Liburnian]] languages were considered to be Illyrian dialects. As archaeological research developed and the onomastic data about those languages increased, it became clear that they are not related to Illyrian either as dialects or as part of the same branch.<ref>{{harvnb|Wilkes|1995|p=183}}: "We may begin with the Venetic peoples, Veneti, Carni, Histri and Liburni, whose language set them apart from the rest of the Illyrians."</ref><ref name=Fortson/>

=== Centum versus satem ===
{{Paleo-Balkanic family tree}}

In the absence of sufficient lexical data and texts written in Illyrian, the theories supporting the [[centum]] character of the Illyrian language have been based mainly on the centum character of the Venetic language, which was thought to be related to Illyrian, in particular regarding Illyrian toponyms and names such as ''Vescleves'', ''Acrabanus'', ''Gentius'', ''Clausal'' etc.<ref>{{harvnb|Boardman|1982|loc=Polomé, Edgar C. "Balkan Languages (Illyrian, Thracian and Daco-Moesian), pp. 866-888}}; {{harvnb|Birnbaum|Puhvel|1966|loc=Hamp, Eric P. "The Position of Albanian", pp. 97-121}}.</ref> The relation between Venetic and Illyrian was later discredited and they are no longer considered closely related.<ref>{{harvnb|Andersen|2003|p=22}}.</ref> Scholars supporting the [[satem]] character of Illyrian highlight particular toponyms and personal names such as ''Asamum'', ''Birzinimum'', ''Zanatis'' etc. in which these scholars see satem-type reflexes of Indo-European roots. They also point to other toponyms including ''Osseriates'' derived from ''{{wikt-lang|ine-pro|h₁éǵʰeros}}'' "lake"<ref>{{harvnb|Christidis|Arapopoulou|Chritē|2007|p=746}}.</ref> or ''Birziminium'' from PIE ''{{wikt-lang|ine-pro|bʰergʰ-}}'' "project"<ref name="Woodard 2008">{{harvnb|Woodard|2008}}.</ref> or ''Asamum'' from PIE ''{{wikt-lang|ine-pro|h₂eḱ-}}mo-s'' "sharp".<ref name="Mallory and Adams 1997, p. 288">{{harvnb|Mallory|Adams|1997|p=288}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Christidis|Arapopoulou|Chritē|2007|p=748}}.</ref>

Even if the above-mentioned Venetic toponyms and personal names are accepted as Illyrian in origin, it is not clear that they originated in a centum language. ''Vescleves'', ''Acrabanus'', ''Gentius'' and ''Clausal'' are explained by proponents of the hypothesis that Illyrian had a centum character, through comparison with IE languages such as Sanskrit or Ancient Greek, or reconstructed PIE. For example, ''{{wikt-lang|la|Vescleves}}'' has been explained as PIE ''{{wikt-lang|ine-pro|h₁wésus|*h₁wesu}}-{{wikt-lang|ine-pro|ḱléwos|ḱléw-}}'' (of good fame).<ref name="Christidis et al. 2007"/><ref>{{harvnb|Blench|1999|p=250}}; {{harvnb|Woodard|2008|p=259}}; {{harvnb|Fortson|2004|p=35}}.</ref> Also, the name ''Acrabanus'' as a compound name has been compared with Ancient Greek {{wikt-lang|grc|ἄκρος|tr=ákros}} with no signs of [[Palatalization (sound change)|palatalization]],<ref name="Mallory and Adams 1997"/> or ''Clausal'' has been related to {{wikt-lang|ine-pro|ḱlewH-|ḱlewH-}} (wash, rinse).<ref>{{harvnb|Boardman|1982|p=874}}: "''Clausal'', river near Scodra, may be derived from an IE theme *''ḱlewH''- 'wash, rinse (: Gk. κλύζω, Lat. ''cluō'', 'purge')."</ref> In all these cases the supporters of the centum character of the Illyrian language consider PIE *''ḱ'' > *''k'' or PIE *''ǵ'' > *''g'' followed by ''l'' or ''r'' to be evidence of a centum character of the Illyrian language. However, it has been shown that even in [[Albanian language|Albanian]] and [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]], which are [[satem]]-like languages (unclear as Albanian is viewed as neither [[Centum and satem languages| centum nor satem]]), the palatovelars have been generally depalatized (PIE *''ḱ'' > *''k'' or PIE *''ǵ'' > *''g'' followed by ''l'' or ''r'' in Albanian) in this phonetical position.<ref>{{harvnb|Kortlandt|2008}}; {{harvnb|Hamp|1960|pp=275–280}}; {{harvnb|Demiraj|1988|p=44}}; {{harvnb|Demiraj|1996|p=190}}.</ref> The name ''Gentius'' or ''Genthius'' does not help either as there are two Illyrian forms for it, ''Genthius'' and ''Zanatis''. If ''Gentius'' or ''Genthius'' derives from {{wikt-lang|ine-pro|ǵenh₁-}} ("to be born"), this is proof of a centum language, but if the name ''Zanatis'' is similarly generated (or from {{wikt-lang|ine-pro|ǵneh₃-}} "know") then Illyrian is a satem language.<ref name="Mallory and Adams 1997, p. 288"/> Another problem related to the name ''Gentius'' is that it cannot be stated whether the initial ''g'' of the sources was a ''palatovelar''<ref>{{harvnb|Krahe|1955|p=50}}</ref> or a ''labiovelar''.<ref>{{harvnb|Mayer|1957|p=50}}.</ref> [[Paul Kretschmer|Kretschmer]] identified both Illyrian and Messapic as satem languages due to the change from IE ''o'' to ''a''. On the other hand, he classified [[Venetic language|Venetic]] as centum due to the preservation of the IE ''o''.{{sfn|Katičić|1976}}{{pn|date=September 2022}}

Taking into account the absence of sufficient data and sometimes the dual nature of their interpretation, the centum/satem character of the Illyrian language is still uncertain and requires more evidence.<ref name="Mallory and Adams 1997"/><ref name="Christidis et al. 2007"/><ref name="Woodard 2008"/>

== Dialects ==

The Greeks were the first literate people to come into frequent contact with Illyrian speakers. Their conception of "Illyrioi", however, differed from what the Romans would later call "Illyricum". The Greek term encompassed only the peoples who lived on the borders of [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonia]] and [[Epirus (ancient state)|Epirus]]. [[Pliny the Elder]], in his work ''Natural History'', still applies a stricter usage of the term Illyrii when speaking of ''Illyrii proprie dicti'' ("Illyrians properly so-called") among the native communities in the south of Roman Dalmatia.

For a couple of centuries before and after the Roman conquest in the late 1st century BC, the concept of Illyricum expanded towards the west and north. Finally it encompassed all native peoples from the Adriatic to the Danube, inhabiting the Roman provinces of [[Dalmatia]], [[Pannonia]] and [[Moesia]], regardless of their ethnic and cultural differences.

An extensive study of Illyrian names and territory was undertaken by [[Hans Krahe]] in the first decades of the twentieth century. He and other scholars argued for a broad distribution of Illyrian peoples considerably beyond the [[Balkans]],<ref>{{harvnb|Krahe|1925}}.</ref> though in his later work, Krahe curbed his view of the extent of Illyrian settlement.<ref name="Krahe 1955">{{harvnb|Krahe|1955}}.</ref>

The further refinements of Illyrian onomastic provinces for that Illyrian area included in the later Roman province were proposed by [[Géza Alföldy]].<ref>{{harvnb|Alföldy|1964|pp=55–104}}.</ref> He identified five principal groups: (1) "real Illyrians" south of the river [[Neretva]] and extending south of the provincial boundary with Macedonia at the river [[Drin River|Drin]] to include the Illyris of north and central Albania; (2) the ''Delmatae'' who occupied the middle Adriatic coast between the "real Illyrians" and the Liburni; (3) the ''Venetic Liburni'' of the northeast Adriatic; (4) the ''Japodes'' who dwelt north of the Delmatae and beyond the Liburni, where names reveal a mixture of Venetic, Celtic and Illyrian; and (5) the ''Pannonian'' people north in Bosnia, Northern Montenegro, and western Serbia.

These identifications were later challenged by [[Radoslav Katičić]]<ref>{{harvnb|Benać|1964|loc=Katičić, Radoslav. "Suvremena istrazivanja o jeziku starosjedilaca ilirskih provincija – Die neuesten Forschungen über die einheimische Sprachschicht in den illyrischen Provinzen", pp. 9-58}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Katičić|1965|pp=53–76}}; {{harvnb|Katičić|1976}}.</ref> who on the basis of personal names which occur commonly in Illyricum distinguished three onomastic areas: (1) ''South-Eastern Illyrian'', extending southwards from the southern part of Montenegro and including most of Albania west of the river Drin, though its demarcation to the south remains uncertain; (2) ''Central Illyrian'' consisting of most of ex-Yugoslavia, north of southern Montenegro to the west of Morava, excepting ancient Liburnia in the northwest, but perhaps extending into Pannonia in the north; (3) ''Liburnian'', whose names resemble those of the Venetic territory to the northeast.

The onomastic differences between the ''South-Eastern'' and ''Central'' areas are not sufficient to show that two clearly differentiated dialects of Illyrian were in use in these areas.<ref name="Woodard 2008"/> However, as Katičić has argued, the core onomastic area of Illyrian proper is to be located in the southeast of that Balkan region, traditionally associated with the Illyrians (centered in modern Albania).<ref>{{harvnb|Katičić|1976|pp=179–180}}.</ref><ref>Suić and Katičić question the existence of a separate people of Illyrii. For them, Illyrii proprie dicti are peoples inhabiting the heartland of the Illyrian kingdom; Suić, M. (1976) "Illyrii proprie dicti" ANUBiH 11 gcbi 11, 179-197. Katičić, R. (1964) "Illyrii proprie dicti" ZAnt 13-14, 87-97 Katičić, R. (1965) "Nochmals Illyrii proprie dicti" ZAnt 16, 241-244. This view is also supported in Papazoglu, F. (1989) "L'organisation politique de l'Illyrie meridionale (A propos du livre de P. Cabanes sur "Les Illyriens de Bardylis a Genthios")" ZAnt. 39, 31-53.</ref>

Traditionally Illyrian has referred to any non-Celtic language in the region. Recent scholarship from the 1960s and on tends to agree that the region inhabited by Illyrian tribes can be divided into three distinct linguistic and cultural areas, of which only one can be properly termed "Illyrian".<ref name=Fortson/> No written texts regarding self-identification exist from the Illyrians<ref>{{cite book |last1=Roisman |first1=Joseph |last2=Worthington |first2=Ian |title=A Companion to Ancient Macedonia |date=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=9781444351637 |page=279 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QsJ183uUDkMC&pg=PA279 |language=en}}</ref> and no inscriptions in Illyrian exist, with the only linguistic remains being some personal and place names, and some glosses.<ref name=Fortson>{{cite book |last1=Fortson |first1=Benjamin W. |title=Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction |date=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=9781444359688 |page=465 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bSxHgej4tKMC&pg=PA465 |language=en}}</ref>

== Vocabulary ==
{{Main|Proposed Illyrian vocabulary}}

Since there are no Illyrian texts, sources for identifying Illyrian words have been identified by Hans Krahe<ref name="Krahe 1955"/> as being of four kinds: inscriptions, glosses of Illyrian words in classical texts, names—including proper names (mostly inscribed on tombstones), toponyms and river names—and Illyrian loanwords in other languages. The last category has proven particularly contentious. The names occur in sources that range over more than a millennium, including [[numismatic]] evidence, as well as posited original forms of placenames.<ref name="Krahe 1955"/> There are no Illyrian inscriptions (Messapian inscriptions are treated separately, and there is no consensus that they are to be reckoned as Illyrian). The spearhead found at [[Kovel]] and thought by some to be Illyrian<ref>Gustav Must, reviewing Krahe 1955 in ''Language'' '''32'''.4 (October 1956), p. 721.</ref> is considered by the majority of runologists to be Eastern Germanic, and most likely Gothic, while a votive inscription on a ring found near [[Shkodër]] which was initially interpreted as Illyrian was shown to actually be [[Byzantine Greek]].<ref>{{harvnb|Ognenova|1959|pp=794–799}}.</ref>

== See also ==
{{commons|Illyria & Illyrians}}
*[[Thraco-Illyrian]]
*[[Thracian language]]
*[[Paeonian language]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
*{{cite journal|last=Alföldy|first=Géza|title=Die Namengebung der Urbevölkerung in der römischen Provinz Dalmatia|journal=Beiträge zur Namenforschung|volume=15|year=1964|pages=55–104}}
*{{cite book|last=Andersen|first=Henning|title=Language Contacts in Prehistory: Studies in Stratigraphy, Volume 2001|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company|year=2003|isbn=1-58811-379-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UuAIyYdrHJQC}}
*{{cite book|last=Benać|first=Alojz|title=Symposium sur la Délimitation Territoriale et Chronologique des Illyriens à l'Epoque Préhistorique|location=Sarajevo|publisher=Naučno društvo SR Bosne i Hercegovine|year=1964|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fFmTAAAAIAAJ}}
*{{cite book|last1=Best|first1=Jan G. P.|last2=de Vries|first2=Nanny M. W.|last3=Henri Frankfort Foundation|title=Interaction and Acculturation in the Mediterranean: Proceedings of the Second International Congress of Mediterranean Pre- and Protohistory, Amsterdam, 19–23 November 1980|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company|year=1982|isbn=90-6032-195-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bIVIVniS15YC}}
*{{cite book|last1=Birnbaum|first=Henrik|last2=Puhvel|first2=Jaan|title=Ancient Indo-European Dialects: Proceedings of the Conference on Indo-European Linguistics held at the University of California, Los Angeles, April 25–27, 1963|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles|publisher=California University Press|year=1966|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mWWyAAAAIAAJ}}
*{{cite book|last=Blench|first=Roger|title=Archaeology and Language II: Archaeological Data and Linguistic Hypotheses|publisher=Psychology Press|year=1999|isbn=0-415-11761-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DWMHhfXxLaIC}}
*{{cite book|last=Boardman|first=John|title=The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 3: The Prehistory of the Balkans and the Middle East and the Aegean World, Tenth to Eighth Centuries B.C.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1982|isbn=0-521-22496-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vXljf8JqmkoC}}
*{{cite book|last=Bunson|first=Matthew|title=A Dictionary of the Roman Empire|publisher=Oxford University Press US|year=1995|isbn=0-19-510233-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HsrGEFpW80UC}}
*{{cite book|last1=Christidis|first1=Anastasios-Phoivos|last2=Arapopoulou|first2=Maria|last3=Chritē|first3=Maria|title=A History of Ancient Greek: From the Beginnings to Late Antiquity|location=Cambridge, United Kingdom|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-521-83307-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WJbd0m6YaFkC}}
*{{cite book|last1=Cicero|first1=Marcus Tullius|last2=Dyck|first2=Andrew Roy|title=Catilinarians|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-521-83286-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nDfViRE8Qy8C}}
*{{cite book|last1=Davison|first1=David|last2=Gaffney|first2=Vincent L.|last3=Wilkes|first3=John J.|last4=Marin|first4=Emilio|title=Dalmatia: Research in the Roman province 1970-2001: Papers in Honour of J.J. Wilkes|publisher=Archaeopress|year=2006|isbn=1-84171-790-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nChmAAAAMAAJ}}
*{{cite book|last=Demiraj|first=Shaban|title=Gjuha shqipe dhe historia e saj|publisher=Shtëpia Botuese e Librit Universitar|year=1988|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CNlzQgAACAAJ}}
*{{cite book|last=Demiraj|first=Shaban|title=Fonologjia historike e gjuhës shqipe|publisher=Akademia e Shkencave e Republikës së Shqipërisë|year=1996|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YYC_SgAACAAJ}}
*{{cite book|last=Demiraj|first=Shaban|title=Prejardhja e shqiptarëve në dritën e dëshmive të gjuhës shqipe|location=Tiranë|publisher=Shtëpia Botuese "Shkenca"|year=1999|isbn=99927-654-7-X|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hHnPAAAACAAJ}}
*{{cite book|last=Fol|first=Aleksandŭr|title=Thrace and the Aegean: Proceedings of the Eighth International Congress of Thracology, Sofia – Yambol, 25–29 September 2000|publisher=International Foundation Europa Antiqua|year=2002|isbn=954-90714-5-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dpQiAQAAIAAJ}}
*{{cite book|last=Fortson|first=Benjamin W.|title=Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2004|isbn=1-4051-0316-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5hOtPBF6XWwC}}
*{{cite journal|last=Hamp|first=Eric Pratt|title=Palatal before resonant in Albanian|journal=Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung|volume=76|year=1960|pages=275–280}}
*{{cite book|last1=Hamp|first1=Eric Pratt|last2=Ismajli|first2=Rexhep|title=Comparative Studies on Albanian|publisher=Akademia e Shkencave dhe e Arteve e Kosovës|year=2007|isbn=978-9951-413-62-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sAFHNwAACAAJ}}{{qn|date=January 2022}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Hamp |first1=Eric |last2=Adams |first2=Douglas |title=The Expansion of the Indo-European Languages: An Indo-Europeanist's Evolving View |journal=Sino-Platonic Papers |date=2013 |volume=239 |url=https://toosfoundation.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/spp239_indo_european_languages.pdf}}
*{{cite book|last1=Hornblower|first1=Simón|last2=Spawforth|first2=Antony|title=The Oxford Classical Dictionary|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003|isbn=0-19-860641-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R_d4QgAACAAJ}}
*{{cite book|last=Ismajli|first=Rexhep|title=Studime për historinë e shqipes në kontekst ballkanik|trans-title=Studies on the History of Albanian in the Balkan context |editor=Eqrem Basha|publisher=Kosova Academy of Sciences and Arts, special editions CLII, Section of Linguistics and Literature|number=55|year=2015 |place=Prishtinë|language=sq |url=http://www.ashak.org/repository/docs/RISMAJLI_397704.pdf}}
*{{cite journal|last=Katičić|first=Radoslav|title=Zur Frage der keltischen und pannonischen Namengebiete im römischen Dalmatien|journal=Godisnjak (Annuaire)|volume=3|location=Sarajevo|publisher=Centar za balkanoloske studije|year=1965|pages=53–76}}
*{{cite book|last=Katičić|first=Radoslav|title=Ancient Languages of the Balkans, Part One|location=Paris|publisher=Mouton|year=1976|isbn=0-902993-30-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kSkjAAAAQBAJ}}
*{{cite book|last=Kortlandt|first=Frederik|title=Balto-Slavic Phonological Developments|publisher=Leiden University|year=2008|url=http://www.kortlandt.nl/publications/art253e.pdf}}
*{{cite book|last=Krahe|first=Hans|title=Die alten balkanillyrischen geographischen namen auf grund von autoren und inschriften|publisher=C. Winter|year=1925|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JG8TAQAAMAAJ}}
*{{cite book|last=Krahe|first=Hans|title=Die Sprache der Illyrier. Erster Teil: Die Quellen|location=Wiesbaden|year=1955|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NXHWSAAACAAJ}}
*{{cite journal|last=Krahe|first=Hans|title=Die Struktur der alteuropäischen Hydronomie|journal=Abhandlungen der Geistes- und Sozialwissenschaftlichen Klasse|year=1962|volume=5|pages=285–341|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TvAgNAAACAAJ}}
*{{cite book|last=Krahe|first=Hans|title=Unsere ältesten Flussnamen|publisher=O. Harrassowitz|year=1964|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wlYsAAAAMAAJ}}
*{{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=D. M.|last2=Boardman|first2=John|title=The Cambridge Ancient History (Volume 6): The Fourth Century B.C.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1994|isbn=0-521-23348-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vx251bK988gC}}
*{{cite book|last1=Mallory|first1=James P.|last2=Adams|first2=Douglas Q.|title=Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture|location=London|publisher=Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers|year=1997|isbn=1-884964-98-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzU3RIV2BWIC}}
*{{cite book|last=Mayani|first=Zĕchariă|year=1962|title=The Etruscans begin to speak|publisher=Souvenir Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MMMkAAAAMAAJ}}
*{{cite book|last=Mayer|first=Anton|title=Die Sprache der alten Illyrier, Volume 1|publisher=In Kommission bei R. M. Rohrer|year=1957|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C_FOAAAAYAAJ}}
*{{cite book|last=Ó hÓgáin|first=Dáithí|title=The Celts: A History|location=Woodbridge|publisher=Boydell Press|year=2003|isbn=0-85115-923-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-yd1huHoXJwC}}

*{{cite journal|last=Ognenova|first=Ljuba|title=Nouvelle Interprétation de l'Inscription " Illyrienne " d'Albanie|journal=Bulletin de correspondance hellénique|volume=83|year=1959|issue=2|pages=794–799|doi=10.3406/bch.1959.5041|url=http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/bch_0007-4217_1959_num_83_2_5041}}
*{{cite book|last1=Pomeroy|first1=Sarah B.|author-link=Sarah B. Pomeroy |last2=Burstein|first2=Stanley M.|last3=Donlan|first3=Walter|last4=Roberts|first4=Jennifer Tolbert|title=A Brief History of Ancient Greece: Politics, Society, and Culture|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-19-537235-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6NMrAQAAIAAJ}}
*{{cite thesis|last=Prendergast|first=Eric|date=2017|title=The Origin and Spread of Locative Determiner Omission in the Balkan Linguistic Area|type=Ph.D|publisher=UC Berkeley|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7nk454x6}}
*{{cite book|last=Wilkes|first=John J.|title=The Illyrians|year=1995|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|location=Oxford|isbn=0-631-19807-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4Nv6SPRKqs8C}}
*{{cite book|last=Williams|first=Craig Arthur|title=Epigrams: Martial|publisher=Oxford University Press US|year=2004|isbn=0-19-515531-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WC38cQPn17QC}}
*{{cite book|last=Woodard|first=Roger D.|title=The Ancient Languages of Europe|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-521-68495-8|url=https://archive.org/details/ancientlanguages00roge|url-access=registration}}
{{ref end}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
*{{cite journal|last=Harmatta|first=János|title=Zum Illyrischen|journal=Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae|volume=15|year=1967|pages=231–234}}
*{{cite book|last=Krahe|first=Hans|title=Lexikon altillyrischen Personennamen|location=Heidelberg|year=1929}}
*{{cite journal|last=Krahe|first=Hans|title=Das Venetische: seine Stellung im Kreise der verwandten Sprachen|journal=Sitzungsberichte der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philosophisch-Historische Klasse|volume=3|year=1950|pages=1–37|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xn-sNQAACAAJ}}
*{{cite book|last=Tovar|first=Antonio|title=Krahes alteuropäische Hydronymie und die westindogermanischen Sprache|publisher=Winter|year=1977|isbn=3-533-02586-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n0PvRQAACAAJ}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.wordgumbo.com/ie/cmp/illy.htm Short Illyrian Glossary]

{{Illyrians}}
{{Paleo-Balkan languages}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Illyrian Languages}}
[[Category:Illyrian languages| ]]
[[Category:Paleo-Balkan languages]]
[[Category:Unclassified Indo-European languages]]
[[Category:Extinct languages of Europe]]