View source for Iberian Union

{{Short description|Union of Castile, Aragon and Portugal, 1580–1640}}
{{About|the historical period|modern proposals of uniting Iberia|Iberism}}
{{Infobox country
| common_name            = Iberian Union
| native_name            = ''Monarquía de España''
| conventional_long_name = Monarchy of Spain
| year_start             = 1580
| date_start             = 25 August
| life_span              = 1580–1640
| event_start            = [[War of the Portuguese Succession]]
| event_end              = [[Portuguese Restoration War]]
| date_end               = 1 December
| year_end               = 1640
| p1                     = History of Portugal (1415–1578){{!}}Kingdom of Portugal
| flag_p1                = Flag of Portugal (1578).svg
| p2                     = Crown of Castile
| flag_p2                = Royal Banner of the Crown of Castile (Early Style)-Variant.svg
| p3                     = Crown of Aragon
| flag_p3                = Royal Banner of Aragón.svg
| p4                     = Habsburg Spain
| flag_p4                = Flag of Cross of Burgundy.svg
| s1                     = History of Portugal (1640–1777){{!}}Kingdom of Portugal
| flag_s1                = Flag of Portugal (1640).svg
| s2                     = Crown of Castile
| flag_s2                = Royal Banner of the Crown of Castile (Early Style)-Variant.svg
| s3                     = Crown of Aragon
| flag_s3                = Royal Banner of Aragón.svg
| s4                     = Catalan Republic (1640–1641){{!}}Catalan Republic
| flag_s4                = Royal arms of Aragon (Crowned).svg
| s5                     = Habsburg Spain
| flag_s5                = Flag of Cross of Burgundy.svg
| image_flag             = Estandarte Real de Felipe II.svg
| flag_type              = Royal banner
| image_coat             = Royal Coat of Arms of Spain (1580-1668).svg
| image_map              = Philip II's realms in 1598.png
| image_map_caption      = Map of the Spanish–Portuguese Empire in 1598.<div style="text-align:left">
{{legend|#008000|Territories administered by the [[Council of Castile]]}}
{{legend|#f5ab12|Territories administered by the [[Council of Aragon]]}}
{{legend|#0000ff|Territories administered by the [[Council of Portugal]]}}
{{legend|#800000|Territories administered by the [[Council of Italy]]}}
{{legend|#ff0000|Territories administered by the [[Council of the Indies]]}}
{{legend|#d87ada|Territories appointed to the [[Supreme Council of Flanders|Council of Flanders]]}}</div>
| national_anthem        =
| official_languages     = [[Spanish language|Spanish]]{{*}}[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
| capital                =
| religion               = [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]]
| government_type        = [[Composite monarchy]] under [[personal union]]
| leader1                = [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II and l]]
| year_leader1           = 1580–1598
| leader2                = [[Philip III of Spain|Philip III and II]]
| year_leader2           = 1598–1621
| leader3                = [[Philip IV of Spain|Philip IV and III]]
| year_leader3           = 1621–1640
| title_leader           = [[List of Spanish monarchs|King]]
| stat_year1             =
| stat_area1             =
| stat_pop1              =
| currency               = [[Spanish real]] and [[Portuguese real]]
| legislature            = [[Cortes Generales|Cortes of Castile]]<br />[[Cortes of Aragon|Courts of Aragon]]<br />[[Catalan Courts|Courts of Catalonia]]<br />[[Corts Valencianes|Courts of Valencia]]<br />[[Parliament of Navarre|Cortes of Navarre]]<br />[[Portuguese Cortes|Cortes of Portugal]]
| footnotes              =
}}

The '''Iberian Union''' is a historiographical term used to describe the period in which the [[Habsburg Spain|Monarchy of Spain under Habsburg dynasty]], until then the [[personal union]] of the crowns of [[Crown of Castile|Castile]] and [[Crown of Aragon|Aragon]], incorporated the [[Kingdom of Portugal]] under the same terms, that existed between 1580 and 1640 and brought the entire [[Iberian Peninsula]] except [[Andorra]], as well as [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] and [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] overseas possessions, under the Spanish Habsburg monarchs [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]], [[Philip III of Spain|Philip III]], and [[Philip IV of Spain|Philip IV]]. The union began after the [[Portuguese succession crisis of 1580]] and the ensuing [[War of the Portuguese Succession]],<ref>António Henrique R. de Oliveira Marques, ''History of Portugal''. 1972, p. 322. Boris Fausto, ''A Concise History of Brazil'', p. 40.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://servidormanes.uned.es/mciud/documentos/documentos_trabajo/INDICACIONES_SOBRE_IDENTIDAD_CIUDADANIA_Y_CULTURA_POLITICA_1978-2006_%5B1%5D.pdf |title=Indicaciones sobre la investigacion "Ciudadanía, identidades complejas y cultura política en los manuales escolares españoles". Centro de Investigación MANES|quote=there is consensus among professional historians that the most adequate term is Hispanic monarchy |access-date=2012-08-09 |archive-date=2016-03-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304041622/http://servidormanes.uned.es/mciud/documentos/documentos_trabajo/INDICACIONES_SOBRE_IDENTIDAD_CIUDADANIA_Y_CULTURA_POLITICA_1978-2006_&#91;1&#93;.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> and lasted until the [[Portuguese Restoration War]], during which the [[House of Braganza]] was established as Portugal's new ruling dynasty with the acclamation of [[John IV of Portugal|John IV]] as the new [[king of Portugal]].<ref name="Torgal 1981">{{cite book |last=Torgal |first=Luís Reis |year=1981 |chapter=A Restauração – Sua Dinâmica Sócio-política |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WIKrsgWG91gC&pg=PA69 |title=Ideologia Política e Teoria do Estado na Restauração |location=[[Coimbra]] |publisher=[[University of Coimbra General Library|Biblioteca Geral da Universidade de Coimbra]] |language=pt |volume=I |pages=69–85 |hdl=10316/665 |isbn=9789726160823}}</ref>

As a personal union, the Kingdom of Portugal, the Crown of Castile and the states of the Crown of Aragon remained independent states, sharing only a single monarch. The kings from the Spanish branch of the [[House of Habsburg]] were the only element that connected the multiple kingdoms and territories, ruled by the six separate government councils of [[Council of Castile|Castile]], [[Council of Aragon|Aragon]], [[Council of Portugal|Portugal]], [[Council of Italy|Italy]], [[Supreme Council of Flanders|Flanders-Burgundy]], and [[Council of the Indies|the Indies]]. For periods, Portugal maintained a viceroy, appointed by the king, although the turnover was often rapid; in the 60 years of the Union, the country had 13 viceroys and four regency councils (see [[List of viceroys of Portugal]]). Similar viceroys were appointed in [[List of viceroys of Aragon|Aragon]], [[List of viceroys of Catalonia|Catalonia]], [[List of viceroys of Valencia|Valencia]] and other kingdoms of the Union. The governments, institutions, and legal traditions of each kingdom remained independent of one another.<ref>[http://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/models-and-stereotypes/the-spanish-century The "Spanish Century"]{{unreliable source?|date=December 2015}}</ref> [[Alien (law)|Alien laws]] (''Leyes de extranjería'') determined that a national of one kingdom was a foreigner in all other kingdoms.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SyCHFtzIrnEC&q=historia+las+leyes+de+extranjeria&pg=PA151|title=La extranjería en la historia del derecho español|last=Valdés|first=Manuel Alvarez-Valdés y|date=1991|publisher=Universidad de Oviedo|isbn=9788474687378|language=es}}</ref><ref>[http://www.juridicas.unam.mx/publica/librev/rev/hisder/cont/4/est/est18.pdf La Condición Jurídica de "Español" Como Producto del Derecho Indiano]</ref>

Possessing territories in all known continents of the time, the Iberian Union was the most wide-spread empire of the early modern era. The Union led to Portugal's involvement in the [[Dutch Revolt]] against Spain. The [[Dutch Republic]] in turn saw the union as a justification to [[Dutch-Portuguese War|start targeting Portuguese colonies]] and would weaken Portugal's overseas empire in the Orient.

== Background ==
The unification of the peninsula had long been a goal of the region's monarchs with the intent of restoring the [[Visigothic Spain|Visigothic monarchy]].<ref>[http://www.almendron.com/historia/entrevistas_historiadores.pdf Debate Sobre la Identidad de España. El Mundo]</ref> [[Sancho III of Navarre]] and [[Alfonso VII of León and Castile]] had both taken the title ''[[Imperator totius Hispaniae]]'', meaning "Emperor of All [[Hispania]]".<ref>Notice that, before the emergence of the modern country of Spain (beginning with the dynastic union of [[Crown of Castile|Castile]] and [[Crown of Aragon|Aragon]] in 1479, followed by political unification in 1516), the [[Latin]] word ''Hispania'', in any of the [[Iberian Romance languages]], either in singular or plural forms (also rendered in [[English language|English]] as ''Spain'' or ''Spains''), was used to refer to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula, and not, as in modern usage, for a country of [[Spain]] to the exclusion of [[Portugal]].</ref> There were many attempts to unite the different kingdoms after Alfonso VII's death in 1109, especially through a policy of intermarriage. Some of the most famous attempts are those of [[Miguel da Paz, Prince of Portugal|Miguel da Paz]], who would inherit the crowns of [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portugal]], [[Kingdom of León|Leon]], [[Crown of Castile|Castile]], and [[Kingdom of Aragon|Aragon]], but who died at a young age; and those of [[Afonso, Prince of Portugal]], who was to marry the eldest daughter of the [[Catholic Monarchs]], if not for his untimely death by an accident in which he fell off his horse.

== Establishment ==
{{Main|Portuguese succession crisis of 1580}}
[[File:MAPA DE ESPAÑA EN 1570.jpg|thumb|left|Political map of the Iberian Peninsula in 1570]]
The [[Battle of Alcácer Quibir]] in 1578 saw the death of the young king [[Sebastian of Portugal|Sebastian]]. Sebastian's granduncle and successor, [[cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]] [[Henry, King of Portugal|Henry]], was 66 years old at the time. Henry's death was followed by a succession crisis, with three grandchildren of [[Manuel I of Portugal|Manuel I]] claiming the throne: [[Infanta Catarina, Duchess of Braganza]] (married to [[John, 6th Duke of Braganza]]), [[António, Prior of Crato]], and King [[Philip II of Spain]]. António had been acclaimed [[king of Portugal]] by the people of [[Santarém, Portugal|Santarém]] on 24 July 1580, and then in many cities and towns throughout the country. Some members of the Council of Governors of Portugal who had supported Philip escaped to Spain and declared him to be the legal successor of Henry. Philip marched into Portugal and defeated the troops loyal to the Prior of Crato in the [[Battle of Alcântara (1580)|Battle of Alcântara]]. The troops occupying the countryside ([[Tercio]]s) commanded by [[Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba]] arrived in Lisbon.<ref>Geoffrey Parker ''The army of Flanders and the Spanish road'', London, 1972 {{ISBN|0-521-08462-8}}, p. 35</ref> The Duke of Alba imposed on the Portuguese provinces a subjection of Philip before entering Lisbon, where he seized an immense treasure; meanwhile, he allowed his soldiers to sack the vicinity of the capital.<ref>[[Henry Kamen]], ''The duke of Alba'' (New Haven–London: Yale University Press, 2004), Pp. x + 204.</ref> Philip was recognized as king by the Cortes of [[Tomar]] in 1581, beginning the reign of the [[House of Habsburg]] over Portugal. When Philip left in 1583 to Madrid, he made his nephew [[Albert VII, Archduke of Austria|Albert of Austria]] his viceroy in Lisbon. In Madrid he established a [[Council of Portugal]] to advise him on Portuguese affairs.

António exploited the opportunity that the [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)|war between Elizabeth and Philip]] presented in order to convince the [[Kingdom of England|English]] to back an amphibious assault on Portugal in April 1589. Led by [[Francis Drake]] and [[John Norris (soldier)|John Norris]], the [[English Armada|expedition]] of 120 ships and 19,000 men failed due to poor planning.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bindoff|first=S T|title=Tudor England|year=1950|publisher=Penguin|page=280}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Van Meteren|first=Emanuel|title=A True Discourse Historical of the Succeeding Governors in the Netherlands|year=1602|publisher=De Capo|location=Amsterdam|page=118}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Wingfield|first=Anthony|title=Discourse Written by a Gentleman|year=1589|publisher=Da Capo|location=Amsterdam|page=1}}</ref>

Portugal's status was maintained under the first two kings under the Union, Philip II and [[Philip III of Spain|Philip III]]. Both monarchs gave excellent positions to Portuguese nobles in the Spanish [[court (royal)|courts]], and Portugal maintained an independent law, currency, and government. It was even proposed to move the royal capital to Lisbon.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

== Continuity in the administrative system ==
{{more citations needed|section|date=November 2016}}
The [[history of Portugal]] from the [[1580 Portuguese succession crisis|dynastic crisis in 1578]] to the first [[House of Braganza|Braganza dynasty]] monarchs was a period of transition. The [[Portuguese Empire]]'s [[spice trade]] was peaking at the start of this period following the great [[Portuguese maritime exploration|age of exploration]]. It continued to enjoy widespread influence and dominated global trade routes.

Due to the complexity in the management of government, the Spanish monarch needed some auxiliary bodies, as the [[Polysynodial System|Councils]] (''Consejos''), dedicated to the advice and resolution of problems, and submitted to the monarch's knowledge and dictum. This complexity needed a permanent seat, and Philip II of Spain established in 1562 the permanent capital in [[Madrid]], seat of the Royal Court and of the administrative staff,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j_e4Iz1k10IC&pg=PA48 |title=Madrid |via=Google Libros |isbn=9781740598590 |year=2006 |last1=Ham |first1=Anthony }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VV2Nn8f3OKgC&pg=PA196 |title=The Spanish seaborne empire|publisher= University of California Press |access-date=2010-08-22|isbn=9780520071407 |year=1990 |last1=Parry |first1=J. H. }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6qchh2SrClcC&pg=PA38 |title=Stephen J. Lee, ''Aspects of European history, 1494–1789'', Routledge |isbn=9780415027847 |year=1984 |last1=Lee |first1=Stephen J. }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZYn_f1jxNDoC&pg=PA138 |title=Torbjørn L. Knutsen, ''The rise and fall of world orders'', Manchester University Press (1999) |access-date=2010-08-22|isbn=9780719040580 |year=1999 |last1=Knutsen |first1=Torbjørn L. }}</ref> although transferred to [[Valladolid]], with the whole administrative staff, during a brief period (1601–1606).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WR2psdzlljYC&q=valladolid+councils+1601&pg=PA103 |title=Alastair Boyd, ''The Companion guide to Madrid and central Spain'', Companion Guides (2002) |access-date=2010-08-22|isbn=9781900639378 |year=2002 |last1=Boyd |first1=Alastair |last2=Oliver |first2=Richard }}</ref>

The government functioned as follows; the administrative correspondence came to the different Councils in Madrid, then the [[Secretary of State (Ancient Regime in Spain)|secretary of every Council]] arranged the material for the attention of the king, and later the king assembled with the secretaries requesting the opinion of the council. After that, the Council held a session to deal with the issue and to formally agree to consult the monarch. The secretary raised the issue to the king, and his reply was returned to the council with the decision to be executed. The meetings of the Councils took place in the royal palace, and they did not count on the presence of the king habitually. In this poly-synodical system,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6qchh2SrClcC&q=Castile+Portugal&pg=PA40 |title=Stephen J. Lee, 'Aspects of European history, 1494–1789'|publisher=Routledge  |year=1984 |via=Google.es |isbn=9780415027847 |access-date=2010-08-22}}</ref> "Consejo de Estado" (Council of State) stood out for its importance. The ''Consejo de Estado'' in Madrid, entrusted to declare on the major decisions that concerned the organization and the defense of the ensemble of the Hispanic monarchy, and it had frequently that to get into Portuguese matters. Even, the Council of War (''Consejo de Guerra'') exercised its jurisdiction on the troops placed in the Castilian strongholds established on the Portuguese littoral.

And also, there were Councils of territorial character, which functions specialized in a concrete territorial space, the [[Council of Castile]], [[Council of Aragon]], [[Council of Navarre]], [[Council of Italy]], [[Council of the Indies]], [[Supreme Council of Flanders|Council of Flanders]], and the [[Council of Portugal]]. The Council of Portugal, established in 1582, was integrated with a president and six (later four) counselors, and it was abolished at the end of the war in 1668, when [[Charles II of Spain]] gave up his title as king of Portugal. The function of the Council consisted in representing the Cortes of the Crown of Portugal for matters of justice and the economy. Any decision of the king concerning his kingdom had to be consulted with the council before being transmitted to the chancellery of Lisbon and to the concerned courts. The Council of Portugal was briefly replaced twice: in 1619, with the presence of the king in Lisbon, and between 1639 and 1658, when it was replaced by the Junta of Portugal. From the Restoration, the Council continued existing, since [[Philip IV of Spain|Philip IV]] had not recognized the independence of Portugal, and continued administering those Portuguese faithful to the Spanish monarch, and the government of [[Ceuta]].<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=109835 |title=Santiago de Luxán Meléndez, ''La pervivencia del Consejo de Portugal durante la Restauración: 1640–1668'', Norba. Revista de historia |issn=0213-375X|date=1987–1988 |journal=Norba: Revista de Historia  |issue=8 |pages=61–86 |publisher=Dialnet.unirioja.es |access-date=2010-08-22|last1=Meléndez |first1=Santiago de Luxán }}</ref>

Relating to the particular government of the Kingdom of Portugal itself. During the union of the Kingdom of Portugal to the Spanish monarchy, the Spanish Hasburgs on the whole respected the pledges made at Thomar in 1581 to allow considerable Portuguese autonomy and to respect the territories of its empire. Public offices were reserved for Portuguese subjects at home and overseas. The king was represented at Lisbon sometimes by a governor and sometimes by a viceroy. So, Spain left the administration of Portugal and its empire largely to the Portuguese themselves, under general supervision from Madrid channeled through the viceroy in Lisbon. Important matters, however, were referred to Madrid, where they came before the Council of Portugal. In the Kingdom of Portugal, the polysynodial system was reinforced:
* The ''Conselho de Estado'' (Council of State) of Lisbon was the king of Portugal's private Council, entrusted of debating major issues related to the Crown, especially for foreign policy. The counselors could send their remarks to the king, and the king consulted them through his viceroy. Although the ''Conselho de Estado'' of Lisbon, worked as the advisory body to the viceroy, this Council of State was without clearly defined administrative powers and did not perform any relevant role of coordination. The Spanish kings maintained the system of two [[Secretary of State (Ancient Regime in Spain)|secretaries of state]], one for the kingdom and the other for "India", that is to say, for the colonies, despite several conflicts over jurisdiction, until the creation of the ''Conselho da Índia'' in 1604.
* In the same way, Spanish kings retained the ''Mesa da Consciência e Ordens'', which was both tribunal and council for religious affairs and was responsible for administering ecclesiastical appointments and for the property of the military orders in the colonies as well as in the home country.
* [[Portuguese Inquisition]] remained independent from the ''Mesa da Consciência e Ordens''. There were three major courts in Lisbon, Coimbra and Évora.
[[File:IberianUnionandCouncils.png|thumb|543x543px|The Iberian Peninsula with the Councils of the Iberian Union]]
* Also preserved was the ''Desembargo do Paço'' (Royal Board of Justice) is Lisbon. This board, the highest law court in the kingdom of Portugal, controlled the appointment of all magistrates and judges and oversaw the ''Casa da Suplicação'' (Court of Appeals) in Lisbon, as well as the high courts in the Portuguese overseas territories. The first function of the ''Desembargo do Paço'' was to control the recruitment of the magistrates (''leitura de bacharéis'') and to monitor them in the exercise of their charge, its control spread to the whole of the juridical professions. The ''Desembargo do Paço'' had to arbitrate conflicts between other courts of the kingdom. This court granted dispensations, acts of legitimization and another relevant issues about the justice and the grace, and which on occasion advised the king on political and economic as well as judicial matters. Moreover, a commission of jurists set up to reform the legal system produced a new code for Portugal, the ''Ordenações Filipinas'', promulgated in 1603.
* The ''Casa da Suplicação'' and the ''Casa do Cível'' were royal courts of appeal for civil cases as criminal cases. The ''Casa do Cível'' exercised jurisdiction over the northern part of the kingdom, and the ''Casa da Suplicação'' over the rest on the realm including the islands and overseas.
* In 1591, the four ''Vedores da Fazenda'' (overseers of the Treasury) were replaced by a ''Conselho da Fazenda'' composed of one ''Vedor da Fazenda'' presiding over four councillors (two of them lawyers) and four secretaries. The ''Conselho da Fazenda'' exercised a control over the officials of finance, administered the king's property and exercised its jurisdiction over the customs and the arsenals, the court of accounts and the administration of the monopolistic trade with overseas.
* From 1604, the newly created ''Conselho da Índia'' was invested with powers for all overseas affairs, apart from matters concerning Madeira, the Azores and the strongholds of Morocco, and colonial officials were appointed and their dispatches handled by it. However, it was the ''Conselho da Fazenda'' which dealt with naval expeditions, the buying and selling of pepper and the collection of the royal revenues, in fact with all economic business. The ''Conselho da Índia'', therefore, exercised only limited powers. As a creation of the Spanish king, it was regarded with disfavour by the Portuguese and because of the jealousy of the ''Mesa da Consciência e Ordens'' disappeared in 1614.

For urgent matters, a system of meetings was introduced, such as the Junta for the reform of the Council of Portugal (1606–1607, 1610), the Junta for the classification of the debts to the treasury (since 1627) or the Juntas for the organization of the navies of succor of Brazil (since 1637).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=djij2Ec03c4C&pg=PA70 |title=Julio Valdeón Baruque, 'Revueltas y revoluciones en la historia'|publisher= Universidad de Salamanca  |access-date=2010-08-22|isbn=9788474815863 |year=1990 }}</ref>

== Portuguese Empire challenged ==
{{Main|Dutch–Portuguese War}}
[[File:Planta da Restituição da BAHIA, por João Teixeira Albernaz.jpg|thumb|"Map of the Portuguese liberation of the city of Salvador in Brazil in 1625", João Teixeira Albernaz, o velho, 1631]]
[[File:33475.jpg|thumb|1630: Dutch siege of Olinda, located in the Brazilian captaincy of Pernambuco, the largest and richest sugar-producing area in the world.<ref name="Sugar">{{cite web|url=http://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/102005410|title=Recife – A City Made by Sugar|publisher=Awake!|access-date=21 September 2016}}</ref>]]

Throughout the 17th century, the increasing raids on Portuguese merchant shipping by [[Dutch Republic|Dutch]], [[Kingdom of England|English]] and [[Kingdom of France|French]] [[privateer]]s and their establishment of trading posts in Africa, Asia and the Americas undermined Portugal's monopoly on the lucrative [[spice trade]]. This sent the Portuguese spice trade into a long decline. The diversion of wealth from Portugal by the Habsburg monarchy to support the Catholic side of the [[Thirty Years' War]] also created strains within the union, although Portugal did also benefit from Spanish military power in helping to retain [[Colonial Brazil|Brazil]] and in disrupting Dutch trade. These events, and those that occurred at the end of [[House of Aviz|Aviz dynasty]] and the Iberian Union, led Portugal to a state of economic dependency on its colonies, first [[Portuguese India|India]] and then Brazil.

The joining of the two crowns deprived Portugal of a separate foreign policy, and Spain's enemies became Portugal's. England had been an ally of Portugal since the [[Treaty of Windsor (1386)|Treaty of Windsor]] in 1386. War between Spain and England led to a deterioration of the relations with Portugal's oldest ally, and the loss of [[Ormus|Hormuz]]. War with the Dutch led to invasions of many countries in [[Asia]], including [[Portuguese Ceylon]] (today's [[Sri Lanka]]), and commercial interests in [[Japan]], [[Africa]] ([[History of Gabon|Mina]]), and [[South America]]. Even though the Portuguese were unable to capture the entire island of Ceylon, they were able to keep the coastal regions of Ceylon under their control for a considerable time. Brazil was partially conquered by both [[France Antarctique|France]] and the [[Dutch Brazil|Dutch]].

In the 17th century, taking advantage of this period of Portuguese weakness, many Portuguese territories in Brazil were occupied by the Dutch, who gained access to the [[sugarcane]] [[plantation]]s. The whole Brazilian northeast was occupied, but the Dutch conquest was short-lived. The [[Recapture of Bahia]] by a Spanish-Portuguese fleet in 1625 was followed by a rapid recovery of the lost territories. The Dutch returned in 1630 and captured [[Recife]] and [[Olinda]] in the captaincy of [[Pernambuco]], the largest and richest sugar-producing area in the world. [[John Maurice, Prince of Nassau-Siegen]], was appointed as the governor of the Dutch possessions in Brazil in 1637 by the [[Dutch West India Company]]. He landed at Recife, the port of Pernambuco, in January 1637. By a series of successful expeditions, he gradually extended the Dutch possessions from [[Sergipe]] in the south to [[São Luís, Maranhão]] in the north. He likewise conquered the Portuguese possessions of [[Elmina Castle]], [[São Tomé Island]], and [[Luanda]], Angola, on the west coast of Africa.  This began a war over Brazil, which would see the Dutch establish a colony called [[Dutch Brazil|New Holland]]. However, the [[Second Battle of Guararapes]], the second and decisive battle in a conflict called Pernambucana Insurrection, ended the Dutch occupation of the Portuguese colony of Brazil.{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}

On the other hand, the Iberian Union opened to both countries a worldwide span of control, as Portugal dominated the African and Asian coasts that surrounded the Indian Ocean, and Spain the Pacific Ocean and both sides of Central and South America, while both shared the Atlantic Ocean space.{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}

== Decline of the Union and revolt of Portugal ==
[[File:Joao IV proclaimed king-modificated.jpg|thumb|left|''Acclamation of [[John IV of Portugal|John IV]] as [[king of Portugal]]'' (1908), painting by [[Veloso Salgado]] in the Military Museum, [[Lisbon]].]]

When Philip II of Portugal (and III of Spain) died, he was succeeded by [[Philip IV of Spain|Philip III]] (and IV of Spain), who had a different approach on Portuguese issues. Taxes raised affected mainly the Portuguese merchants (Carmo Reis 1587). The Portuguese nobility began to lose its importance at the Spanish [[Cortes Generales|''Cortes'']], and government posts in Portugal were occupied by Spaniards. Ultimately, Philip III tried to make Portugal a royal province, and Portuguese nobles lost all of their power.

Several other problems also damaged Portuguese support of their union with Spain. One of these was certainly the pressure from the center, especially from [[Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares]], towards uniformity and sharing the financial and military burden of Castile's wars in Europe. However, the Portuguese were hardly inclined to help with that, as Spain had failed to prevent the [[Dutch West India Company]]'s occupation of several of Portugal's colonial holdings, despite the fact that both the Portuguese and the Spanish were nominally under the same crown.<ref>{{cite book|last=Elliot|first=J.H.|title=Imperial Spain: 1469–1716|year=2002|publisher=Penguin Books|location=New York|isbn=0-14-100703-6|pages=337–338}}</ref>

This situation culminated in a revolution by the nobility and high ''[[bourgeoisie]]'' on 1 December 1640, 60 years after the crowning of Philip I.<ref name="Torgal 1981"/> This revolution, while foreseeable, was most immediately sparked by a popular and institutional [[Reapers' War|revolt]] in the [[Principality of Catalonia]] against the Crown. The plot was planned by [[Antão de Almada, 7th Count of Avranches]], Miguel de Almeida and João Pinto Ribeiro. They, together with several associates, known as the [[Forty Conspirators]], took advantage of the fact that the Castilian troops were occupied in the other side of the Iberian Peninsula. The rebels killed [[Secretary of State (Ancient Regime in Spain)|Secretary of State]] [[Miguel de Vasconcelos]] and imprisoned the king's cousin, [[Margaret of Savoy, Vicereine of Portugal]], who had governed Portugal in his name. The moment was well chosen, as Philip's troops were at the time fighting the [[Thirty Years' War]] in addition to the previously mentioned revolution in Catalonia.<ref>{{cite book|last=Elliot|first=J.H.|title=Imperial Spain: 1469–1716|year=2002|publisher=Penguin Books|location=New York|isbn=0-14-100703-6 |pages=346–348}}</ref>

The support of the people became apparent almost immediately and soon [[John IV of Portugal|John, 8th Duke of Braganza]], was acclaimed [[king of Portugal]] throughout the country as John IV.<ref name="Torgal 1981"/> By 2 December 1640, John had already sent a letter to the Municipal Chamber of [[Évora]] as sovereign of the country.

== Restoration War and the end of the Union ==
The subsequent [[Portuguese Restoration War]] against Philip III ({{langx|pt|Guerra da Restauração}}) consisted mainly of small skirmishes near the border. The most significant battles were the [[Battle of the Lines of Elvas]] (1659), the [[Battle of Ameixial]] (1663), the [[Battle of Castelo Rodrigo]] (1664), and the [[Battle of Montes Claros]] (1665); the Portuguese were victorious in all of these battles. However, the Spaniards won the [[Battle of Vilanova]] (1658) and the [[Battle of the Berlengas (1666)]]. The [[Battle of Montijo]] (1644) was indecisive, starting out with great Spanish success and ending with Portuguese success; the number of casualties were nearly equal.

Several decisions made by John IV to strengthen his forces made these victories possible. On 11 December 1640, the Council of War was created to organize all the operations.<ref>(Mattoso Vol. VIII 1993)</ref> Next, the king created the Junta of the Frontiers, to take care of the fortresses near the border, the hypothetical defense of [[Lisbon]], and the garrisons and sea ports. In December 1641, a tenancy was created to assure upgrades on all [[fortress]]es that would be paid with regional taxes. John IV also organized the army, established the Military Laws of King Sebastian, and developed intense diplomatic activity focused on restoring good relations with England. Meanwhile, the best Spanish forces were pre-occupied with their battles against the [[Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)|French in Catalonia]], along the Pyrenees, Italy and the Low Countries. The Spanish forces in Portugal never received adequate support. Nevertheless, Philip IV felt he could not give up what he regarded as his rightful inheritance. By the time the war with France ended in 1659, the Portuguese military were well established and ready to confront the last major attempt of a worn out Spanish regime to reclaim control.

English soldiers were sent to Portugal and helped the Portuguese rout [[John of Austria the Younger|Don John]]'s army at Ameixial near [[Estremoz]] on June 8, 1663. The Spaniards lost 8,000 men and all their artillery while the Portuguese had only 2,000 casualties. On 7 July 1664 about 3,000 Portuguese met 7,000 Spaniards near Figueira de Castelo Rodrigo and killed 2,000 and took 500 prisoners. Many Spanish communities lost population and blamed their decline on the war against Portugal. Louis XIV sent French troops to Lisbon, and on 17 June 1665 the German General [[Frederick Schomberg, 1st Duke of Schomberg|Frederick Schomberg]] led about 20,000 Portuguese forces to victory at Montes Claros near [[Vila Viçosa]] with only 700 killed and 2,000 wounded. The Spanish army of 22,600 men was devastated with 4,000 dead and 6,000 captured. Protests erupted in Madrid as Spain had wasted 25 million [[ducat]]s on the disastrous Portuguese war. The Spanish tried to carry on the war for two more years of increasingly fitful warfare. Spain recognized Portugal's sovereignty and made peace on 13 February 1668.

== Legacy ==
In the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Autonomous Community]] of Spain, the [[Valdegovía]] adopted the royal coat of arms during the Iberian Union period with the [[Coat of arms of Navarre|Navarre arms]] and the [[Coat of arms of Portugal|Portuguese arms]] added on the honor point.

The Spanish city of [[Ceuta]] was a part of the Portuguese Empire until the end of the Iberian Union in 1640, after which it decided to remain with Spain. Thus the coat of arms of the city is nearly identical to that of the Kingdom of Portugal, showing the seven castles over the red bordure and the five escutcheons with silver roundels, and the gyronny field of its flag is identical to that of the flag of [[Lisbon]], to commemorate the fact of that flag having been the first raised in Ceuta by the Portuguese when they [[Portuguese conquest of Ceuta|conquered the city in 1415]].

== See also ==
{{Portal|Portugal|Spain}}
* [[History of Portugal]]
* [[History of Spain]]
* [[Iberian Peninsula]]
* [[Union of the Crowns]]
* [[Black Legend (Spain)]]

== References ==

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

=== Sources ===
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=_w0kAPYQ5xMC&pg=PA443 Leslie Bethell, ''The Cambridge history of Latin America'', Cambridge University Press (1984)]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=ylbW1HcUTfsC&pg=PA18 Jean-Frédéric Schaub, ''Le Portugal Au Temps Du Conde-duc D'olivares'', Casa de Velázquez (2001)]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=CyOz7z36GQgC&pg=RA1-PA348 Luis Suárez Fernández, José Andrés Gallego, ''La Crisis de la hegemonía española, siglo XVII'', Ediciones Rialp (1986)]

{{Portuguese Monarchy Topics}}
{{Empires}}
{{Authority control}}

{{Coord missing|Europe}}

[[Category:Iberian Union| ]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1580]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1640]]
[[Category:1580 establishments in Europe]]
[[Category:1640 disestablishments in Europe]]
[[Category:16th century in Spain]]
[[Category:16th century in Portugal]]
[[Category:17th century in Spain]]
[[Category:17th century in Portugal]]
[[Category:Personal unions]]
[[Category:Former monarchies]]
[[Category:Spanish Empire in Europe]]