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[[File:JewsinBenghazi.jpeg|thumb|Secretary of the community board of Benghazi (left) and members of the rabbinic court]]
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The '''history of the Jews in Libya''' stretches back to the 3rd century BCE, when [[Cyrenaica]] was under Greek rule. The Jewish population of Libya, a part of the [[Sephardic Jews|Sephardi]]-[[Maghrebi Jews|Maghrebi Jewish]] community, continued to populate the area continuously until modern times. During [[World War II]], Libya's Jewish population was subjected to [[Antisemitism|antisemitic]] [[Italian racial laws|laws]] by the [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italian]] regime and deportations by both the Italian and [[Nazi Germany|German armies]]. 

After the war, anti-Jewish violence caused many Jews to leave the country, principally for [[Israel]], though significant numbers moved to Italy and North America. Under Colonel [[Muammar Gaddafi]], who [[History of Libya under Muammar Gaddafi|ruled the country from 1969 to 2011]], the situation deteriorated further, eventually leading to the emigration of the remaining Jewish population. The last Jew in Libya, 80-year-old Rina Debach, left the country in 2003. 

==Ancient history==

=== Ptolematic period ===
The area of Libya was divided in classical times into three distinct geographical regions, [[Tripolitania]], [[Cyrenaica]] and the [[Fezzan]]. Jewish migration was predominantly along the coastlines, and historically the vast majority of the Jewish population was concentrated in the western, Tripolitania province.{{sfn|Roumani|2008|p=1}} Early Jewish settlement in [[Cyrenaica]], a region with significant Greek influence in what is now northeast Libya, likely stemmed from their substantial presence in neighboring [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Ptolemaic Egypt]].{{sfn|Barclay|1996|pp=232–234}}  After [[Ptolemy I Soter]]'s conquest of [[Judea]], many Jews were initially taken as captives but were later freed, while others emigrated to Egypt voluntarily, attracted by economic opportunities and Ptolemy's tolerant policies. In 312 BCE, Ptolemy settled many Jews in [[Cyrenaica]] to strengthen his kingdom.<ref name="Gilbert">Gilbert, Martin: ''In Ishmael's House'', p. 2-3</ref>

The historical record provides only limited information on the development of Jewish communities in Cyrenaica during the Ptolemaic period. One notable figure from this time is [[Jason of Cyrene]], who wrote a historical account of the [[Maccabean Revolt|Maccabean revolt]] during the second century BCE. This account was later summarized in [[2 Maccabees]]. While Jason's work suggests advanced education and an interest in Jewish nationalistic causes, it is unclear whether his perspectives were representative of broader Cyrenaican Jewry. Nonetheless, his writings suggest there may have been some level of interaction between Judea and Cyrenaica during this period. {{sfn|Barclay|1996|p=}}

In 146 BCE inscriptions found at [[Benghazi]] and elsewhere in Libya, give details about wealthy, well established and organised Jewish communities.{{sfn|Roumani|2008|p=}}

=== Roman period ===
During the Roman era, Jewish communities in Cyrenaica became more prominent, with inscriptions revealing their integration into civic life. By the early imperial period, Jews held various positions within the city administrations of Cyrene and other cities. This integration is reflected in inscriptions that document Jews serving in civic roles and acquiring citizenship. {{sfn|Barclay|1996|p=}}

There is evidence of Jews living in [[Benghazi]] from 13 BCE. They were considered citizens, but were ruled by a Jewish [[archon]] unlike the rest of the Jews in that area.<ref name="Virtual library">{{cite web |title=Benghazi, Libya |url=http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0003_0_02464.html |access-date=21 September 2016 |website=The Jewish Virtual Library}}</ref> [[Ein Targhuna]], near [[Massah, Libya|Massah]], is believed to have been a Jewish military settlement during the Roman period. The site features Jewish rock-cut tombs, a menorah carving, possibly belonging to Jewish troops relocated by [[Augustus]].{{sfn|Applebaum|1989|pp=66-69}}<ref>{{Citation |last1=Roth |first1=Jonathan P. |title=Jews and the Roman Army: Perceptions and Realities |date=2007 |work=The Impact of the Roman Army (200 B.C. – A.D. 476) |pages=414 |editor-last=de Blois |editor-first=Lukas |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1163/j.ctv2gjwsqg.28 |access-date=2024-06-18 |series=Economic, Social, Political, Religious and Cultural Aspects |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-16044-6 |last2=Hekster |first2=Olivier |last3=de Kleijn |first3=Gerda |jstor=10.1163/j.ctv2gjwsqg.28 |editor2-last=Lo Cascio |editor2-first=Elio}}</ref>

[[Augustus]] granted Cyrene's Jewish population certain privileges through [[Flavia (gens)|Flavius]], the governor of the province. At the time, they maintained close contact with the Jews in [[Jerusalem]]. In 73 CE, during the [[First Jewish–Roman War]] in [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judaea]], there was also a revolt by the Jewish community in Cyrene led by Jonathan the Weaver, which was quickly suppressed by the governor [[Catullus]]. Jonathan was denounced to the governor of [[Pentapolis]].<ref name="Libya">Gottheil, Richard; Krauss, Samuel: "[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=385&letter=L&search=libya Libya]" in [[Jewish Encyclopedia]]. Retrieved July 14, 2006.</ref><ref name="Cyrene">[[Richard James Horatio Gottheil|Gottheil, Richard]]; [[Samuel Krauss|Krauss, Samuel]]: "[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=949&letter=C Cyrene]" in [[Jewish Encyclopedia]]. Retrieved July 14, 2006.</ref> In vengeance, the Romans killed him and many wealthy Jews in Cyrene. Several Libyan Jews from around this period are known today, such as [[Jason of Cyrene]], whose work is the source of the [[Second Book of Maccabees]], and [[Simon of Cyrene]], who is believed to have carried the cross of Jesus as he was taken to his [[crucifixion]].<ref name="Cyrene" />
[[File:Roman_milestone,_Great_Revolt.jpg|right|thumb|Replica of a Roman milestone found at [[Shahhat]], with an inscription documenting the repair of a road damaged during the [[Diaspora Revolt]] (115–117 CE)]]
The [[Diaspora Revolt]] of 115–117 CE saw Jewish communities in Cyrenaica, [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]], and [[Roman Cyprus|Cyprus]] rising in rebellion during [[Trajan]]'s reign.<ref name="Zeev-20062">{{Citation |last=Zeev |first=Miriam Pucci Ben |title=The uprisings in the Jewish Diaspora, 116–117 |date=2006-06-22 |work=The Cambridge History of Judaism |pages=93–106 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/CBO9781139055130A007/type/book_part |access-date=2024-09-08 |edition=1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488.005 |isbn=978-1-139-05513-0|url-access=subscription }}</ref> This revolt had a messianic dimension, as one ancient source refers to [[Lukuas]], the leader of the Jewish rebels in Libya, as "king," suggesting that the uprising evolved from an ethnic conflict into a nationalist movement with [[Messiah in Judaism|messianic]] aspirations for political independence.<ref name="Zeev-20062" /> It is possible that the rebels in Libya, whose actions caused widespread destruction and included a raid into Egypt, were attempting to initiate a broader movement aimed at a large-scale return to [[Judea]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Smallwood |first=E. Mary |title=The Jews under Roman Rule from Pompey to Diocletian |publisher=SBL Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-90-04-50204-8 |pages=394–397}}</ref>{{sfn|Barclay|1996|p=241}} Ancient sources depict the revolt as exceptionally brutal, with reports of mutilation and cannibalism; however, contemporary scholars often view these accounts as exaggerated for rhetorical effect.<ref name="Zeev-20062" /> In [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]] and its surroundings, the revolt inflicted extensive damage on civic infrastructure, temples, and roads, necessitating substantial reconstruction by [[Hadrian]] at the beginning of his reign.<ref name=":3" /><ref name="hadriancyrene">{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=S. |date=2002 |title=Hadrian and the Renewal of Cyrene |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/libyan-studies/article/abs/hadrian-and-the-renewal-of-cyrene/79FD713919C7F0CAA562DB2C4DC00F12 |journal=Libyan Studies |volume=33 |pages=45–56 |doi=10.1017/S0263718900005112 |s2cid=164983849|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The revolt's suppression by Roman general [[Marcius Turbo]] resulted in widespread devastation and the near-total expulsion of Jews from Cyrenaica. While there may be some evidence of Jewish farmers in rural [[Marmarica]] by the end of the second century, a significant Jewish presence was not re-established in Cyrenaica until the 4th century.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last1=Kerkeslager |first1=Allen |url=https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521772488.004 |title=The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period |last2=Setzer |first2=Claudia |last3=Trebilco |first3=Paul |last4=Goodblatt |first4=David |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |editor-last=T. Katz |edition=Steven |series=The Cambridge History of Judaism |volume=4 |pages=61–63, 67 |chapter=The Diaspora From 66 to c. 235 CE |doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521772488.004}}</ref> 

According to Jewish tradition, after the [[Bar-Kokhba revolt]] of 132-135 AD, the Romans deported twelve boatloads of Jews from Judea to Cyrenaica. Approximately half a million Jews are thought to have already been living there at the time.{{Dubious|date=September 2024|reason=According to scholarly consensus, the Jewish community in Cyrenaica was largely devastated and diminished after the 115-117 CE revolt; claims of a large population during the Bar Kokhba revolt sound questionable}} Most lived in farming villages while those by the sea were often sailors. Many others were potters, stonemasons, weavers, and merchants.<ref name="Gilbert" />

In the region of [[Tripolitania]], Jewish presence is also traced to antiquity. Chronicler Mordehai HaCohen (1856–1929) recorded a tradition that the community of [[Yafran]] began after [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|Jerusalem's destruction]] in 70 CE, when 30,000 Jewish captives were reportedly sold to Bedouins in Yafran by [[Titus]]'s generals.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Roumani |first=Maurice |url=https://doi.org/10.1163/1878-9781_ejiw_SIM_0022300 |title=Encyclopedia of Jews in the Islamic World Online |publisher=Brill |year=2010}}</ref>

=== Late Antiquity ===
During the fourth and fifth centuries, Jewish communities re-emerged in Cyrenaica, likely composed of immigrants from Palestine and the re-established Jewish community in nearby Egypt.<ref name=":1" />

== Middle Ages ==
The Spaniards, who [[Spanish conquest of Tripoli (1510)|conquered Libya]] in 1510 and held it for a brief period, drove some of the Jews to the mountain areas of [[Gharian]] and [[Tajura]]. Others were taken as prisoners and tortured under the laws of the inquisition, whilst others were taken to Naples and sold as slaves.
{{sfn|Roumani|2008|p=}}  

==Modern times==
===Ottoman rule===
Despite the dramatic conditions suffered during the brief [[Almohad Caliphate|Almohadic interim]],  generally from medieval times down to the early modern period, both personal and intercommunal relations between Libyan Jews, who had become highly Arabized{{Citation needed|date=May 2025}}, and Muslims had been quite amenable, Jews enjoying greater security than was the case with their confreres in Christian countries, in line with the religious and traditional applications of the [[Pact of Umar]]. The result was a kind of symbiotic complementarity.{{Citation needed|date=May 2025}} 

The sense of mistrust, resentment and hostility towards a minority, reflecting also economic and religious differences remained latent, aside from occasional explosions of violence. The practice of usury was the main cause of animosity. The standard interest rate for pledged monies was 60% per annum, which could reach as high as 90% for smaller amounts of the kind Arab hinterland borrowers depended on.{{sfn|De Felice|1985|pp=16-18}} General discontent spread during the [[Karamanli dynasty| final years of the Karamanli dynasty]] coinciding with a notable economic downturn, in what long remained a mere subsistence economy.

The return of Ottoman rule to Tripoli in 1835 brought about an improvement in both the legal and economic conditions for Jews in the area.{{sfn|De Felice|1985|p=}} In the wake of the [[Tanzimat|Ottoman Tanzimat reforms]], the Jewish community was courted, and with the appointment of Eliyahu Bekhor ben Raphael Joseph Ḥazzan as their [[Hakham Bashi]]  (1872-1886), provided with lavish funding.{{sfn|Roumani|2008|p=4}}  The Jewish population witnessed a sharp rise in growth so that by 1911, well over a century after the  ravages of the 1785 plague which decimated both communities, Jews, exclusive of those who were considered foreign immigrants (the wealthier Dutch,  Italian, Austrian and Spanish Jewish traders),  constituted 14,283 of the 523,716 natives of the Tripolitanian region. The growth of markets led to a trend towards urbanization and the growth of new settlements in both communities. The central Ottoman authorities were favourably disposed to the Jews,{{sfn|Roumani|2008|p=4}} and earlier guarantees to the Jewish community were strengthened by an Imperial Decree in 1865 that accorded them an autonomy, and   endowed local rabbis with the right to independently represent their community. 

Established along the main trade routes, Libyan Jews assumed an important role in credit by loans and deferral of incumbent payments, and were so trusted that Arab women would allow Jewish commercial agents access to their homes, something denied to other Muslims.  The small scattered hinterland Jewish communities were not beneficiaries of these general improvements. There, custom allowed the harassment of Jews, who had to dismount until a passing Arab  was out of sight, and each household was subject to the suzerainty  of an Arab ''[[Sahib|saheb]]''{{sfn|De Felice|1985||p=}}

Some structural vexations nonetheless remained, to create difficulties for these flourishing communities in the later 19th century: namely, a laxness in the application of Islamic law, often arbitrary, and the venality of local officials. A further issue was the expanding wealth gap opening up between resident foreign Jews and the poorer  indigenous Jews. After 1861, pressure from European powers, duly informed of abuses by the [[Alliance Israélite Universelle]] (AIU), mitigated the impact of some abuses, and the growth of charities and schooling alleviated stress, though conducive to a certain fatalistic passiveness,  which was considered to have traditionally marked these communities, whose ‘vegetative’ superstitiousness,  and lifestyle in highly cramped and disease-ridden ghetto (''hara'') hovels, together with ignorance, was complained of by several AIU reports.{{sfn|De Felice|1985|p=}}

Overall, by the end of the 19th century, while economic conditions did improve both for the hinterland and richer Tripoli communities of Jews, conditions for the urban masses of Jews worsened, exacerbated by both a high birth-rate and the influx of Jews from the outlying territory, which also led to a deterioration of relations with Muslims. Complaints about usury by the latter were often associated with a perception that wealthy foreign Jews had undue influence over the government. As modernizing changes increased their pace, many Jews assumed a mediating role between the crumbling order institutional world and the emerging new society, and bore the brunt for the upheavals of change.{{sfn|De Felice|1985|pp=18-19}} 

Sectors of the Muslim community itself, exposed to emergent trends in Europe, began to develop their own rudimentary form of nationalism, taking on board the anti-Semitism which tainted the latter. The government, though it did impose a special tax on those who did not do military service, opposed this drift in order to balance the pressure of European expansion, by recognizing the importance of developing the local economy where wealthy Jews played a significant role. A number of international incidents also  contributed to local outbursts of xenophobia, like the [[French protectorate of Tunisia|French occupation of Tunisia]] and the  [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)]] The resulting bigotry occasioned riotous outbreaks which targeted Jews, who were increasingly viewed as allied to  European interests,{{sfn|De Felice|1985|p=}}

The aggravated conditions in the late Ottoman period in Libya led to a marked rise in intolerance and contempt as anti-Jewish sentiments, formerly unknown, set down roots. Incidents of arson, murder, robbery and looting increased, with local authorities and rulers failingd to apply the laws protecting Jews laid out by the central ottoman government.{{sfn|Roumani|2008|p=4}} Illustrative examples of such attitudes were the sacking of synagogues in [[Misrata]] in 1864 and 1897; an arson attack on that in [[Zliten]]  in 1867, for which damages were later paid. In 1880 the synagogue at [[Zawiya, Libya|Az-Zāwiyah]] was plundered.  Due to the negligence of the authorities such as the resident  [[Wali (Islamic legal guardian)|walis]] in punishing the culprits, frequent attacks on Jewish families and theft of their property led to cases of murders in reports for 1880 and 1897. In 1870, a Jewish notable, [[Jacob Rakkah|Saul Raccah]] was murdered. His killer was sentenced to 15 years imprisonment but later amnestied. A Jewish moneylender was murdered in 1880.{{sfn|De Felice|1985|pp=18-23}} Exceptions to such abuses are known. An incident of plundering at Amruss in 1901 lead to full redress and a return of stolen property thanks to the intervention of the local wali.{{sfn|De Felice|1985|pp=23-24}}

During the [[Ottoman period]], Jewish families from [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]] were attracted to Benghazi. This period gave new life and impetus to the Libyan Jewish community. {{sfn|Roumani|2008|p=}}  

In 1745 epidemics and poverty drove out the inhabitants, but around 1,750 members of the previous Jewish community returned and reconstructed the community, which began to flourish with the arrival of Jewish families from Italy.<ref name="Virtual library"/>

In the 18th and 19th centuries Benghazi had 400 Jewish families divided into two groups, those of the town and the surrounding region and those who were born in Tripoli and Italy, they both recognised the authority of one rabbi, but each had its own synagogue.<ref name="Virtual library"/>

The [[Senusiyya|Muslim brotherhood of the Sanusiya]] was well-disposed toward the Jews of Benghazi, appreciating their economic-mercantile contributions and their peaceful attitude. The community enjoyed a complete freedom, and were not forced to live in a special quarter. Because of their commercial activity the town became an important trading centre for Europe and Africa.<ref name="Virtual library"/>

[[File:- צלאת בושאיף.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Slat Abn Shaif Synagogue]] in [[Zliten]] before World War II]]

===Italian rule===
[[File:פגישת הרב יצחק חי בוקובזה עם מלך איטליה בביקורו בלוב Vittorio Emanuele III.JPG|thumb|Visit of the King of Italy [[Vittorio Emanuele III]] to Dar Bishi Synagogue<ref>{{Cite web|url= http://archive.diarna.org/site/detail/public/256/ |title = Dar Bishi Synagogue at Tripoli, Libya}}</ref> in Tripoli in 1928]]
[[File:Tripoli, Quartiere ebraico "Hara".jpg|thumb|Jewish Quarter (''Hara'') of [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]] circa 1930]]
[[File:Benghazi Synagogue Classroom before WWII.jpg|thumb|A Libyan Jewish classroom in Benghazi Synagogue before World War II]]
{{main|The Jews of Libya during the Holocaust}}

In 1903, the records of the [[Alliance Israelite Universelle]] show 14,000 Jews living in Tripoli and 2,000 in Benghazi. A further 4,480 dwelt in the surrounding towns. {{sfn|Roumani|2008|p=1}}In comparison to Zionist activities in other Arab countries, [[Zionism]] started early in Libya and was extensive, it was followed by many activities such as exchanging letters concerning Zionism matters between Benghazi and Tripoli during the period 1900–1904. An organization had been set up for the dissemination of the Hebrew in Tripoli and young people from the Benghazi community came to study there. The meeting between the young Jews of Benghazi and the Tripolitanian Zionists bore fruit in the form of a “Talmud Torah” which was an evening school in Tripoli.{{sfn|Roumani|2008|p=}}   

In 1911, Libya was colonised by [[Kingdom of Italy|Italy]]. By 1931, there were 21,000 Jews living in the country (4% of the total population of 550,000), mostly in [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]]. The situation for the Jews was generally good. But, in late 1939, the [[Italian fascism|Fascist Italian]] regime began passing [[anti-Semitic]] laws. As a result of these laws, Jews were fired from government jobs, some were dismissed from government schools, and their citizenship papers were stamped with the words "Jewish race."<ref name="berkeley">"[http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/JewsofLibya/LibyanJews/thejews.html History of the Jewish Community in Libya] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060718035942/http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/JewsofLibya/LibyanJews/thejews.html|date=2006-07-18}}". Retrieved July 1, 2006</ref>

In the 1920s a few incidents linked to the [[1920 Nebi Musa riots|Arab-Jewish conflict in Palestine]] were reported. The incidents that occurred in Tripoli and Benghazi, those which occurred in Tripoli were not so serious compared to the ones in Benghazi. According to Gustavo Calo, the chief rabbi of Benghazi, there was actually an attempted pogrom but according to the opinion of Elia Fargion the president of the community, this assessment was exaggerated. {{sfn|De Felice|1985|p=}}

Data from 1931 indicates that spoken Italian was relatively widespread across the Jewish population. In Benghazi, 67.1 percent of Jewish men and 40.8 percent of Jewish women spoke Italian, compared to 34.5 percent of Arab men and 1.6 percent of Arab women. {{sfn|De Felice|1985|p=}}

In 1934, a chapter of Ben-Yehuda was established in Benghazi, first as a soccer team and later with cultural activities, such as the commemoration of Jewish holidays and Zionist Festivities. {{sfn|Roumani|2008|p=}}  

In the late 1930s, Fascist anti-Jewish laws were gradually enforced, and Jews were subject to terrible repression.<ref name="The last jews">{{cite web|title=History of the Jewish Community in Libya|url=http://jewsoflibya.com/LibyanJews/thejews.html|website=Jews Of Libya|access-date=26 September 2016}}</ref>

Until 1936 life under Italian rule proceeded peacefully for the Jews. In 1936, however, the Italians began to enforce [[Italian Fascism|fascist]] legislation, aimed at modernising social and economic structures, based on conditions current in Italy. With the implementation of anti-Jewish racial legislation in late 1938, Jews were removed from municipal councils, public offices, and state schools and their papers were stamped with the words "Jewish race."<ref name="Virtual library"/>

[[Nazi Germany|German]] influence in Libya had been felt since 1938. However, Germany's direct involvement in the colonial authorities’ affairs and management did not completely materialise until 1941. It was only when Italy entered the war in 1940 that Libya became subjected to direct [[Fascist]]-[[Nazi]] collaboration and “Nazi-Style” deportations.{{sfn|Roumani|2008|p=}}  

Despite this repression, 25% of the population of Tripoli was still Jewish in 1941 and 44 synagogues were maintained in the city.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dbs.bh.org.il/place/tripoli-libya|title=The Jewish Community go Tripoli|website=Beit Hatfutsot Open Databases Project, The Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot}}</ref> In 1942, German troops fighting the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] in North Africa occupied the [[The Jewish Community of Benghazi|Jewish quarter of Benghazi]], plundering shops and deporting more than 2,000 Jews across the desert. Sent to work in [[labor camp]]s, more than one-fifth of this group of Jews perished. Jews were concentrated in the cities of Tripoli and [[Benghazi]], with small communities in [[Bayda, Libya|Bayda]] and [[Misrata]].<ref name=berkeley/>

The worst experience for Libyan Jews in the war was the internment of Cyrenaican Jews in [[Giado concentration camp|Giado]], a concentration camp located 235 kilometres from Tripoli. In January 1942, the Italian authorities began to apply [[Mussolini]]’s “Sfollamento” (evacuation) order to Libyan Jews. Mussolini ordered the Jews of Benghazi, Derna, Tobruk, Barce, Susa and other towns in the region to be sent to a concentration camp in Gharian in retaliation.{{sfn|Roumani|2008|p=}}  An eyewitness described these horrifying moments: “In the [[synagogue]] they started hanging up lists every day of 20-30 families that had to leave...They took Jews from Benghazi and from the vicinity: Derna, Brace, Tobruk...The journey took five days. We travelled about 2,000 km. from Benghazi to Giado. They took us like animals to the slaughter house. Forty people in each truck and each truck had two Italian policemen. They took only Jews. According to the rumour it was the Germans who gave the order”.{{sfn|Roumani|2008|p=}}  

In June 1942, the execution of Mussolini's orders was completed and all Cyrenaican Jews were transferred to Giado.{{sfn|Roumani|2008|p=}}  

The living conditions in the camp were deplorable, bringing about infection and illness and, consequently, plagues that killed numerous people in the camp. They were buried on a valley nearby that used to be a burial place of Jews hundreds of years ago.{{sfn|Roumani|2008|p=}}  

In addition to the camp's poor conditions, the behaviour of the Italian officers did not spare any type of humiliation, oppression and abuse, especially on Friday nights when the Maresciallo patrolled the buildings and saw the special food of the Sabbath, he used to kick it and spill it on the floor or urinate on it and thus a few families remained without food for the whole Sabbath. (4)

===Allied control and after World War II===
{{further|Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries#Libya}}
{{Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries}}
On January 24, 1943, the British liberated the camp and immediately undertook emergency measures to control the plague of typhus and lice that already killed 562 of its inhabitants. The [[British Armed Forces|British military]] decided to evacuate Giado between the spring and summer of 1943. The Jews were first evacuated from the camp to better housing in the vicinity, to receive medical care and be properly fed. Then gradually each week, a number of families was selected to be put on trucks and sent back to their homes. The expenses for transport of these Jews back to Cyrenaica and the initial assistance were financed by the [[American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee]].{{sfn|Roumani|2008|p=}}  

Upon the establishment of British rule on January 23, 1943, the Jewish community was in a deplorable economic, social and psychological state. The demeaning effects of the Italian racial laws, war and concentration camps took a heavy toll on the Jewish community.{{sfn|Roumani|2008|p=}}  

The British also boosted the spirits of the Jews with promises to repatriate them to their homes in Benghazi, and giving them the chance to rehabilitate their lives. After full repatriation of Benghazi Jews it was reported that there were 3,400 Jews in Benghazi (before the war, in June 1939 the Jewish community of Benghazi numbered 3,653).{{sfn|Roumani|2008|p=}}  Yet many of the Jews who returned to Benghazi were unemployed, while those with jobs were unable to support themselves on what they earned. The Benghazi Jewish community suffered more than any other Jewish community in Libya since it was hit harder by the perils of war.{{sfn|Roumani|2008|p=}}  

{{anchor|ExodusLink}}
====1945 anti-Jewish Tripolitania pogrom ====
{{main|1945 Tripolitania pogrom|1948 Tripoli pogrom}}
Some of the worst anti-Jewish violence occurred in the years following the liberation of North Africa by Allied troops. From 5 to 7 November 1945, more than 140 Jews were killed and many more injured in a [[1945 Tripolitania pogrom|pogrom in Tripolitania]]. The rioters looted nearly all of the city's synagogues and destroyed five of them, along with hundreds of homes and businesses.<ref name=Shields>Shields, Jacqueline."[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/jewref.html Jewish Refugees from Arab Countries]" in [[Jewish Virtual Library]].</ref> In June 1948, anti-Jewish rioters killed another 12 Jews and destroyed 280 Jewish homes.<ref name=Shields/> This time, however, the Libyan Jewish community had prepared to defend itself. Jewish self-defence units fought back against the rioters, preventing more deaths.

Both in November 1945 and June 1948 the Jews of Benghazi did not suffer anti-Jewish pogroms at the hands of Arabs similar to the Jews of Tripoli, though small-scale incidents did occur. Thus, several Jews were beaten up in mid-June 1948, a shop was looted, and a fire broke out in a synagogue, but the local police introduced order and there was no need for the British Army to intervene.<ref name="Virtual library"/>

Once emigration to Israel was permitted in early 1949, the majority of the community of 2,500 Jews in Benghazi emigrated to Israel through the end of 1951.<ref name="Virtual library"/>

The general environment during the years after the emigration to Israel, was generally positive, no special events, riots or pogrom occurred during this period between 1949 and 1967 and it estimated that 200 Jews Lived in Benghazi during that time.<ref name="Virtual library"/><ref name="Sepharadic">{{cite web|title=Growing up Jewish in Benghazi, Libya: Interview with Samuele Zarrugh By Jacques Roumani|url=http://sephardichorizons.org/Volume2/Issue4/benghazi.html|website=Sephardic Horizons|publisher=Jacques Roumani|access-date=26 September 2016}}</ref>

In the late 1940s, some 40,000 Jews lived in Libya. The Libyan Jewish community suffered great insecurity during this period. The [[Israeli Declaration of Independence|founding]] of [[Israel]] in 1948, as well as Libya's independence from Italy in 1951 and subsequent admission into the [[Arab League]], led many Jews to emigrate. From 1948 to 1951, and especially after emigration became legal in 1949, 30,972 Jews moved to Israel.<ref name=berkeley/>

===Kingdom of Libya===

On 31 December 1958, the Jewish Community Council was dissolved by law. In 1961, a new law was passed requiring a special permit to prove true Libyan citizenship, which was, however, denied to all but six Jewish inhabitants of the country.<ref name=Shields/> Additional laws were enacted allowing the seizure of property and assets of Libyan Jews who had immigrated to Israel.

In 1964, letters to US Senator [[Jacob Javits]] from Jewish [[United States Air Force]] personnel serving on [[Wheelus Air Base]], a US Air Force facility in Libya, revealed the extent of antisemitic sentiment in the country. The letters revealed that children and dependents of Jewish personnel living off-base had to conceal their Jewish identities, fear for the physical safety of children caused the cancelation of a Jewish Sunday school program, and that the US Air Force was pressuring Jewish personnel to hide their Jewish identities and censored all material that referenced Jews, Judaism, or Israel to avoid offending most of the local population.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jta.org/1964/10/12/archive/jewish-airmen-on-libyan-base-say-they-must-conceal-religion|title = Jewish Airmen on Libyan Base Say They Must Conceal Religion|date = 12 October 1964}}</ref>

====1967 Tripoli anti-Jewish pogrom====
{{see|1967 Tripoli pogrom}}
By 1967, the Jewish population of Libya had decreased to 7,000. After the [[Six-Day War]] between [[Israel]] and its Arab neighbors, Libyan Jews were once again the target of anti-Jewish riots. During [[1967 Tripoli pogrom|these attacks]], rioters killed 18 people and more were injured.<ref name=Shields/>

Leaders of the Jewish community then asked [[Idris I of Libya|King Idris I]] to allow the entire Jewish population to "temporarily" leave the country; he consented, even urging them to leave. Through an airlift and the aid of several ships, the [[Italian Navy]] helped evacuate more than 6,000 Jews to [[Rome]] in one month.<ref name=Gruber>Gruber, Ruth Ellen:"[http://www.jta.org/page_view_story.asp?strwebhead=Libyan+immigrants+a+force+in+Italian+Jewry&intcategoryid=2 Unknown immigration from Libya has swelled ranks of Italian Jewry] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051219172107/http://www.jta.org/page_view_story.asp?strwebhead=Libyan+immigrants+a+force+in+Italian+Jewry&intcategoryid=2 |date=2005-12-19 }}" in [[Jewish Telegraphic Agency|JTA]] October 11, 2004. Retrieved July 1, 2006.</ref> A few scores of Jews remained in Libya.

The evacuees were forced to leave their homes, their businesses and most of their possessions behind. Of those evacuated to Italy, about 1,300 immigrated to Israel, 2,200 stayed in Italy, and most of the rest went to the [[United States]]. The Libyan Jews who remained in Italy primarily stayed in Rome, becoming an influential part of the local Jewish community.<ref name="Gruber"/>

===Gaddafi's rule===
By the time Colonel [[Muammar Gaddafi]] came to power in 1969, roughly 100 Jews remained in Libya. Under his rule, all Jewish property was confiscated, and all [[debts]] to Jews were cancelled. In 1970, the Libyan government declared the [[Day of Revenge]], which celebrated the expulsion of Jews and Italians from Libya, a national holiday. Despite emigration being prohibited, most of the remaining Jews succeeded in escaping the country and by 1974, only 20 Jews remained in Libya.<ref name=Shields/>{{Unreliable source?|sure=y|reason=JVL is generally unreliable as per WP:RS. The content is also counterfactual to more reliable specialist sources. 
Specialist sources include:
* [Jewish Political Studies Review](https://www.jstor.org/stable/25834752)
* [University of Texas Press](https://www.foreignaffairs.com/reviews/capsule-review/1985-09-01/jews-arab-land-libya-1835-1970)
|date=September 2024}}

In 2002, the last known Jew in Libya, Esmeralda Meghnagi, died. In the same year, however, it was discovered that Rina Debach, a then 80-year-old Jewish woman who was born and raised in Tripoli but thought to be dead by her family in [[Rome]], was still living in a [[nursing home]] in the country. With her ensuing departure for Rome, there were no more Jews in the country.<ref name=Gruber/><ref>[http://www.theforgottenrefugees.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=65&Itemid=38 Timeline about Jews in Libya] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070504163749/http://www.theforgottenrefugees.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=65&Itemid=38 |date=2007-05-04 }}</ref>

In 2004, Gaddafi indicated  that the Libyan government would compensate Jews who were forced to leave the country and stripped of their possessions. In October of that year he met with representatives of Jewish organizations to discuss compensation. He did, however, insist that Jews who moved to [[Israel]] would not be compensated.<ref>Shuman, Ellis."[http://web.israelinsider.com/Articles/Diplomacy/4062.htm Gadhafi ready to compensate Jews who fled Libya] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927005458/http://web.israelinsider.com/Articles/Diplomacy/4062.htm|date=2007-09-27}}" in [[israelinsider]] September 1, 2004. Retrieved July 1, 2006.</ref> Some suspected these moves were motivated by his son [[Saif al-Islam Gaddafi]], who was considered to be the likely successor of his father. In the same year, Saif had invited Libyan Jews living in Israel back to Libya, saying that they are Libyans, and that they should "leave the land they took from the Palestinians."<ref>Pommerance, Rachel."[http://www.jta.org/page_view_story.asp?intarticleid=14598&intcategoryid=2 As part of his ‘charm offensive,’ Gadhafi courts former Libyan Jews?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041128125631/http://www.jta.org/page_view_story.asp?intarticleid=14598&intcategoryid=2 |date=2004-11-28 }}" in [[Jewish Telegraphic Agency|JTA]] October 11, 2004. Retrieved July 1, 2006.</ref>

On 9 December, Gaddafi also extended an invitation to [[Moshe Kahlon]], the Deputy Speaker of the [[Knesset]] and son of Libyan immigrants, to Tripoli, purportedly to discuss Jewish property in Libya.{{sfn|Schwartz|2004}} On this occasion, he said:<ref>{{Cite news |last=Roffe-Ofir |first=Sharon |date=2010-04-25 |title=Gaddafi to Arab MKs: I've nothing against Jews |url=https://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3880679,00.html |access-date=2024-01-24 |work=Ynetnews |language=en}}</ref>

{{Quote|text=We are not against Jews, but we have a problem with Zionism and Zionist leaders who oppress the Palestinians, and also you, Arabs of '48. We didn't massacre Jews, it was the west that did that. We gave them refuge. Occupation will bring disaster upon the Israeli entity, adding to his guests, We invited you because your voices are not being heard, and I want the world to hear you.|author=[[Muammar Gaddafi]]}}

In 2010, it was claimed that Gaddafi had Jewish ancestry.<ref>[http://www.economist.com/node/21528675?fsrc=scn/tw/te/ar/comeandbeanisraeli Come and be an Israeli!], [[The Economist]]</ref> Two Israeli women of Libyan-Jewish origin, a grandmother and granddaughter, came forward claiming to be relatives of Gaddafi. The grandmother claimed to be Gaddafi's second cousin. According to her, her grandmother had a sister who was married to a Jewish man, but ran away after he mistreated her, then converted to Islam and married Gaddafi's grandfather, a Muslim [[sheikh]]. The daughter of this marriage was Gaddafi's mother.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.israeltoday.co.il/NewsItem/tabid/178/nid/22668/Default.aspx |title=Libya's Gaddafi could find refuge in Israel |author=Ryan Jones |date=21 February 2011 |work=[[Israel Today]] |access-date=26 February 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/142593|title='Qaddafi is Jewish and I'm His Cousin'|author=Elad Benari and Yoni Kempinski|date=1 March 2011|publisher=[[Arutz Sheva]]|access-date=6 September 2011}}</ref> 

[[National Transitional Council]] Chairman [[Mustafa Abdul Jalil]] invited Libyan Jewish representative David Gerbi to meet with him after the World Organization of Libyan Jews designated him the group's official delegate to the governing body. Gerbi was reportedly warmly received by [[Berbers|Berber]] rebels in the [[Nafusa Mountains]] in August 2011, and an Amazigh NTC official was quoted as saying, "We want to create closer relations between Muslims and Jews. Without Jews we will never be a strong country."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.jpost.com/MiddleEast/Article.aspx?id=236572|agency=Jerusalem Post|date=4 September 2011|access-date=6 September 2011|first=Lisa|last=Palmieri-Billig|title=Amazigh rebels embrace representative of Libyan Jews}}</ref>

On 1 October 2011, Gerbi returned to [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]] after 44 years of exile.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-libya-jew-idUSTRE7900PI20111001 | work=Reuters | title=Libyan Jew returns home after 44-year exile | date=1 October 2011}}</ref> With the help of a [[United States|U.S.]] security contractor and the permission of NTC fighters and three local sheikhs, Gerbi hammered down a brick wall erected to block the entrance to the city's historic Dar Bishi Synagogue. He declared it a "historic day" for Libya and told the crowd gathered there, "This is for all those who suffered under Gaddafi." However, some residents remained wary of Gerbi's intentions and were quoted by a [[CNN]] reporter as expressing distrust for Jews.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.blogs.cnn.com/2011/10/02/libyan-jew-returns-from-exile-to-restore-synagogue/|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120714200215/http://news.blogs.cnn.com/2011/10/02/libyan-jew-returns-from-exile-to-restore-synagogue/|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 14, 2012|work=CNN|date=2 October 2011|access-date=2 October 2011|title=Libyan Jew returns from exile to restore synagogue|first=Mohamed Fadel|last=Fahmy}}</ref> Gerbi's work on the synagogue ended abruptly after two days when the terms of permission fell into dispute.<ref>{{cite news|last=Garcia-Navarro|first=Lourdes|title=Hostile Crowd Forces Libyan Jew Out Of Synagogue|url=https://www.npr.org/2011/10/03/141014576/hostile-crowd-forces-libyan-jew-out-of-synagogue|access-date=4 October 2011|work=National Public Radio|date=4 October 2011}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Judaism|Libya}}
* [[Maghrebi Jews]]
* [[History of the Jews in Carthage]]
* [[Cave-dwelling Jews]]
* [[Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

===Citations===
{{Reflist|20em}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin|30em}}
*{{Cite journal|title=ʿEin Targhuna 
 | last=Applebaum | first=Shimon
 | journal=Judaea in Hellenistic and Roman Times 
 | date=1989 |pages=66–69 
 | url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004666641/B9789004666641_s009.xml 
 | access-date=2024-06-18 
 | doi=10.1163/9789004666641_009
| isbn=978-90-04-66664-1 | url-access=subscription}}
*{{Cite book| title =  Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora: From Alexander to Trajan (323 BCE 117 CE) 
 | last =   Barclay | first =  John M. G.   
 | author-link =John M. G. Barclay
 | publisher = [[University of California Press]]
 | year = 1996 
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=TXlcEfkeAVEC&q=Libya
 | isbn =  978-0-520-21843-7
 }}
*{{Cite book| title = Jews in an Arab Land: Libya, 1835–1970
 | last =De Felice  | first =Renzo
 | author-link =  Renzo De Felice
 | publisher = [[University of California Press]]
 | year =1985
 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=84d5CwAAQBAJ&dq=tripolitania++%221897%22+jewish&pg=PA22
 | isbn = 978-1-477-30409-9
 }}
*{{Cite book| chapter = The notion of «Libyan Jewry» and its cultural-historical complexity
 | last = Goldberg  | first = Harvey E.
 | title = La bienvenue et l'adieu: Ruptures et recompositions
 | editor1-last = Abecassis |editor1-first = Frédéric.
 | editor2-last =  Slimani-Direche|editor2-first =. Karina
 | editor3-last =  Aouad  |editor3-first =. Rita
 | publisher = [[Jacques Berque|Centre Jacques-Berque pour le développement des sciences humaines et sociales au Maroc ]]
 | year =2012
 | volume =2
 | pages =121–134
 | url = https://books.openedition.org/cjb/194?lang=en 
 | isbn = 978-9-954-10365-4
 }}
*{{Cite book| title = The Jews of Libya: Coexistence, Persecution, Resettlement
 | last = Roumani  | first = Maurice M.   
 | publisher = [[Liverpool University Press]]
 | year = 2008
 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=kVyVEAAAQBAJ&q=Jews+of+Benghazi
 | isbn = 978-1-802-07141-2
 }}
*{{Cite news| title = Is Libya Contagious?
 | last =  Schwartz| first = Stephen
 | author-link = Lulu Schwartz
 | publisher= [[Washington Examiner]]
 | date =13 December 2004
 | url = https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/news/2256295/is-libya-contagious
 }}

{{refend}}

==External links==
* [https://www.yadvashem.org/articles/interviews/doron.html Experiences of survivor Benjamin Doron, born in Benghazi, Libya], in Yad Vashem website.
* [https://www.yadvashem.org/articles/general/the-jews-of-libya.html The Jews of Libya], in Yad Vashem website.

{{Jews and Judaism in Libya}}
{{Africa in topic|History of the Jews in}}
{{Maghrebi Jews topics}}

[[Category:History of the Jews in Africa|Libya]]
[[Category:Jewish Libyan history| ]]
[[Category:Sephardi Jews topics|Libya]]