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{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2018}}
{{Slavery}}

The '''history of slavery''' spans many [[cultures]], [[nationalities]], and [[Slavery and religion|religions]] from [[ancient times]] to the [[present day]]. Likewise, its victims have come from many different ethnicities and religious groups.  The social, [[economic]], and legal positions of slaves have differed vastly in different systems of [[slavery]] in different times and places.<ref>{{cite book|last= Klein|first= Herbert S.|title= African Slavery in Latin America and the Caribbean|year= 2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|location= New York [etc.]|isbn= 978-0195189421|edition= 2nd|author2= III, Ben Vinson}}</ref>
Slavery has been found in some [[hunter-gatherer]] populations, particularly as hereditary slavery,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hunt |first1=Peter |title=Slavery |journal=The Cambridge World History: Volume 4: A World with States, Empires and Networks 1200 BCE–900 CE |date=2015 |volume=4 |pages=76–100 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139059251.006 |isbn=9781139059251 |quote=Somewhat more convincing are statistical surveys of large numbers of societies that show that slavery is rare among hunter-gatherers, is sometimes present in incipient agricultural societies, and then becomes common among societies with more advanced agriculture. Up to this point slavery seems to increase with increasing social and economic complexity.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Eric Alden |last2=Hill |first2=Kim |last3=Marlowe |first3=Frank |last4=Nolin |first4=David |last5=Wiessner |first5=Polly |last6=Gurven |first6=Michael |last7=Bowles |first7=Samuel |last8=Mulder |first8=Monique Borgerhoff |last9=Hertz |first9=Tom |last10=Bell |first10=Adrian |title=Wealth Transmission and Inequality Among Hunter-Gatherers |volume=51 |issue=1 |date=February 2010 |doi=10.1086/648530 |pmid=21151711 |journal=Current Anthropology |pages=19–34|pmc=2999363 | quote = Summary characteristics of hunter-gatherer societies in the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample (SCSS). [...] Social stratification [: ...] Hereditary slavery 24% [...]. | issn = 0011-3204}}</ref> but the conditions of agriculture with increasing social and economic complexity offer greater opportunity for mass [[chattel slavery]].<ref name="Hunt Slavery" /> Slavery was [[institution]]alized by the time the [[first civilization]]s emerged (such as [[Sumer]] in [[Mesopotamia]],<ref name=":1">
{{cite book
 | last1 = Tetlow
 | first1 = Elisabeth Meier
 | chapter = Sumer
 | title = Women, Crime and Punishment in Ancient Law and Society: Volume 1: The Ancient Near East
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ONkJ_Rj1SS8C
 | series = Women, Crime, and Punishment in Ancient Law and Society
 | volume = 1
 | location = New York
 | publisher = A&C Black
 | date = 2004
 | page = 7
 | isbn = 9780826416285
 | access-date = 17 March 2019
 | quote = In Sumer, as in most ancient societies, the institution of slavery existed as an integral part of the social and economic structure. Sumer was not, however, a slavery based economy.
}}
</ref> which dates back as far as 3500 BC). Slavery features in the [[Mesopotamian]] ''[[Code of Hammurabi]]'' (c. 1750 BC), which refers to it as an established institution.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/MESO/CODE.HTM
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514033802/http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/MESO/CODE.HTM
|archive-date=14 May 2011
|title= Mesopotamia: The Code of Hammurabi
|quote=e.g. Prologue, "the shepherd of the oppressed and of the slaves" Code of Laws No. 307, "If any one buy from the son or the slave of another man".
}}
</ref>
Slavery was widespread in the ancient world in Europe, Asia, the Middle East, and Africa.<ref name="Stilwell africa" /><ref name="Perbi Ghana">{{cite book |last1=Perbi |first1=Akosua Adoma |title=A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century |date=2004 |publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers |location=Legon, Accra, Ghana |isbn=9789988550325 |page=15 |quote= It is to the Neolithic period of Ghana's history that one must look for the earliest evidence of slavery. Technological advancement and dependence on agriculture created a need for labor. The available evidence indicates that around the 1st century AD farming was done by individual households consisting of blood relations, pawns, and slaves. The earliest evidence of slavery is, therefore, likely to be found in the field of agriculture." and "The retention of captives taken in battle was a recognized practice among every people before the beginning of written history. The ancient records of the Assyrians, Egyptians, Phoenicians, Hebrews, Persians, Indians and Chinese are all full of references to slaves and types of labor for which they were usually employed. With the Greeks and the Romans, the institution of slavery reached new heights.}}</ref><ref name="Hunt Slavery">{{cite journal |last1=Hunt |first1=Peter |title=Slavery |journal=The Cambridge World History: Volume 4: A World with States, Empires and Networks 1200 BCE–900 CE |date=2015 |volume=4 |pages=76–100 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139059251.006 |isbn=9781139059251 |quote=Slavery was a widespread institution in the ancient world (1200 BCE – 900 CE). Slaves could be found in simpler societies, but more important and better known was the existence of slavery in most advanced states. Indeed, it is hard to find any ancient civilizations in which some slavery did not exist. Slave use was sometimes extensive.}}</ref>  and the Americas.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gallay |first1=Alan |title=The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas |date=2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780198758815 |chapter=Indian Slavery |quote=Slavery existed among the indigenous peoples of the Americas before the European arrival. Its character varied from place to place. In societies that practiced human sacrifice, slaves were captured from enemies for ritualistic purposes. This occurred, for instance, among the Aztecs in Mexico and the Indians of the Pacific Northwest. More commonly, native peoples captured enemies to procure slave laborers for agricultural production and public works projects, particularly in Central and South America. Captivity, however, was not the only rationale for enslavement.}}</ref>

Slavery became less common throughout Europe during the [[Early Middle Ages]] but continued to be practiced in some areas. Both [[Christians]] and [[Muslims]] captured and enslaved each other during centuries of warfare in the Mediterranean and Europe.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Migrants in Chains: On the Enslavement of Muslims in Renaissance and Enlightenment Europe|first=Ariel|last=Salzmann|journal=Religions|year=2013|volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=391–411 |doi=10.3390/rel4030391 |quote=Between the Renaissance and the French Revolution, hundreds of thousands of Muslim men and women from the southern and eastern shores of the Mediterranean were forcibly transported to Western Europe.|doi-access=free }}</ref> [[History of slavery in the Muslim world|Islamic slavery]] encompassed mainly Western and Central Asia, Northern and Eastern Africa, [[India]], and [[Europe]] from the 7th to the 20th century. Islamic law approved of enslavement of non-Muslims, and slaves were trafficked from non-Muslim lands: from the North via the [[Balkan slave trade]] and the [[Crimean slave trade]]; from the East via the [[Bukhara slave trade]]; from the West via [[slavery in Al-Andalus|Andalusian slave trade]]; and from the South via the [[Trans-Saharan slave trade]], the [[Red Sea slave trade]] and the [[Indian Ocean slave trade]].

Beginning in the [[16th century]], European [[merchant]]s, starting mainly with merchants from [[Portugal]], initiated the [[Atlantic slave trade|transatlantic slave trade]]. Few traders ventured far inland, attempting to avoid [[tropical diseases]] and violence. They mostly purchased imprisoned Africans (and exported commodities including [[gold]] and [[ivory]]) from [[West Africa]]n kingdoms, transporting them to [[European colonization of the Americas|Europe's colonies in the Americas]]. The merchants were sources of desired goods including guns, gunpowder, copper [[Manilla (money)|manilla]]s, and cloth, and this demand for imported goods drove local wars and other means to the enslavement of Africans in ever greater numbers.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Hugh |title=The slave trade : the history of the Atlantic slave trade, 1440-1870 |date=2006 |publisher=Phoenix |location=London |isbn=978-0753820568 |edition=New}}</ref> In India and throughout the New World, people were forced into slavery to create the local workforce. The transatlantic slave trade was eventually curtailed after European and American governments passed legislation [[Abolitionism|abolishing]] their nations' involvement in it. Practical efforts to enforce the abolition of slavery included the British [[Preventative Squadron]] and the American [[African Slave Trade Patrol]], the abolition of slavery in the Americas, and the widespread imposition of [[New Imperialism|European political control]] in Africa.

In modern times, [[human trafficking]] remains an international problem. [[Slavery in the 21st century]] continues and generates an estimated $150 billion in annual profits.<ref name="Guardian" /> Populations in regions with [[armed conflict]] are especially vulnerable, and modern transportation has made human trafficking easier.<ref name="globalslaveryindex.org">{{Cite web|url=https://www.globalslaveryindex.org/2018/findings/global-findings/|title=10 countries with the highest prevalence of modern slavery|website=Global Slavery Index|language=en-US|access-date=2020-06-03}}</ref> In 2019, there were an estimated 40.3 million people worldwide subject to some form of slavery, and 25% were children.<ref name="Guardian">{{cite web|first=Kate|last=Hodal|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2019/feb/25/modern-slavery-trafficking-persons-one-in-200|title=One in 200 people is a slave. Why?|date=2016-05-31|work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> 24.9 million are used for [[forced labor]], mostly in the [[private sector]]; 15.4 million live in forced marriages.<ref name="Guardian" /> Forms of slavery include domestic labour, forced labour in manufacturing, fishing, mining and construction, and [[sexual slavery]].<ref name="Guardian" />

{{TOC limit|3}}

==Prehistoric and ancient slavery==
{{Main|Slavery in antiquity}}
Evidence of slavery predates written records; the practice has existed in many cultures<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | url= https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24156 |title= Historical survey: Slave-owning societies |encyclopedia= Encyclopædia Britannica |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070223090720/https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24156 |archive-date= 23 February 2007}}</ref><ref name="Perbi Ghana" /> and can be traced back 11,000 years ago due to the conditions created by the invention of agriculture during the [[Neolithic Revolution]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia= Encyclopædia Britannica|title= Slavery|date= 12 April 2024|url= https://www.britannica.com/topic/slavery-sociology}}</ref><ref name="Perbi Ghana" /><ref name="Stilwell africa">{{Citation|last=Stilwell|first=Sean|title=Slavery in African History|work=Slavery and Slaving in African History|year=2013|page=38|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003|isbn=978-1-139-03499-9|quote=For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.}}</ref>{{dubious|reason=none of these sources confirm the existence of slavery 11000 years ago: see Talk|date=January 2025}} Economic surpluses and high population densities were conditions that made mass slavery viable.<ref>
Compare:
{{cite book
 | last1 = Ericson
 | first1 = David F.
 | chapter = Dew, Fitzhugh, and Proslavery Liberalism
 | title = The Debate Over Slavery: Antislavery and Proslavery Liberalism in Antebellum America
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=zuzKxZ9xXLoC
 | location = New York
 | publisher = New York University Press
 | date = 2000
 | page = 109
 | isbn = 9780814722121
 | access-date = 21 October 2020
 | quote = [...] Fitzhugh compares wives [...], children [...], wards [...], apprentices [...], prisoners [...], soldiers [...], sailors [...], the poor under the English poor laws [...], imported Chinese laborers in the British colonies [...], as well as the remaining serfs of eastern Europe and central Asia [...] with slaves. Thus broadly understood, the status of slaves is very widespread indeed, and every society seems to be a slave society.
}}
</ref><ref name=":2">Compare: {{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia= Encyclopædia Britannica|title= Slavery|date= 12 April 2024|url= https://www.britannica.com/topic/slavery-sociology | quote = [...] for slavery to flourish, social differentiation or stratification was essential. Also essential was an economic surplus, for slaves were often consumption goods who themselves had to be maintained rather than productive assets who generated income for their owner. Surplus was also essential in slave systems where the owners expected economic gain from slave ownership. <br/> Ordinarily there had to be a perceived labour shortage, for otherwise it is unlikely that most people would bother to acquire or to keep slaves. Free land, and more generally, open resources, were often a prerequisite for slavery; in most cases where there were no open resources, non-slaves could be found who would fulfill the same social functions at lower cost. Last, some centralized governmental institutions willing to enforce slave laws had to exist, or else the property aspects of slavery were likely to be chimerical.}}</ref>

Slavery occurred in civilizations including [[ancient Egypt]], [[ancient China]], the [[Akkadian Empire]], [[Assyria]], [[Babylonia]], [[Persia]], [[History of ancient Israel and Judah|ancient Israel]],<ref>John Byron, ''Slavery Metaphors in Early Judaism and Pauline Christianity: A Traditio-historical and Exegetical Examination'', Mohr Siebeck, 2003, {{ISBN|3161480791}}, p. 40</ref><ref>Roland De Vaux, John McHugh, ''Ancient Israel: Its Life and Institutions'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1997, {{ISBN|080284278X}}, p. 80</ref><ref name=Roberts>J.M. Roberts, ''The New Penguin History of the World'', pp. 176–77, 223</ref> [[ancient Greece]], [[ancient India]], the [[Roman Empire]], the [[Arab]] Islamic [[Caliphate]]s and [[Sultanate]]s, [[Nubia]], [[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksum]] the [[African empires|pre-colonial empires]] of Sub-Saharan Africa, and the [[List of pre-Columbian cultures|pre-Columbian civilizations]] of the Americas.<ref name=Slavery>"[https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24156 Historical survey > Slave-owning societies]". ''Encyclopædia Britannica.''</ref> Ancient slavery consists of a mixture of [[debt bondage|debt-slavery]], punishment for crime, [[prisoner of war|prisoners of war]], [[child abandonment]], and children born to slaves.<ref>
"Demography, Geography and the Sources of Roman Slaves," by W.V. Harris: ''The Journal of Roman Studies'', 1999.
</ref>

<gallery mode="packed" style="font-size:88%; line-height:130%; border-bottom:1px #aaa solid;" heights="230">
File:Slave treaty tablet.jpg|C. 1480 BC, fugitive-slave treaty between Idrimi of Alakakh (now [[Tell Atchana]]) and Pillia of [[Kizzuwatna]] (now Cilicia).
File:Mummy soles with the images of two foreign captives (332 BCE–395) - Museo Egizio - (cropped).jpg|Ancient Egyptian [[mummy]] soles depicting two captive foreigners, a [[Syria (region)|Syrian]] (left) and a [[Nubia]]n (right),<ref>{{cite web|date=2018-06-02|language=en-CA|title=Ancient Egyptian Footwear at the Bata Shoe Museum|url=https://nilescribes.org/2018/06/02/egyptian-footwear-bata-shoe-museum/|website=Nile Scribes}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> between 332 BC and 395 c.e. ([[Roman Egypt|Ptolemaic or Roman period]]).
File:Roman collared slaves - Ashmolean Museum.jpg|Slaves in chains during the period of [[Roman Empire|Roman rule]] at Smyrna (present-day [[İzmir]]), 200 AD.
</gallery>

==Africa==
{{Main|Slavery in Africa|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade|Atlantic slave trade}}
{{further|Slave Coast of West Africa|Swahili coast|Barbary coast}}
[[File:African slave trade.png|thumb|right|250px|13th-century Africa – Map of the main trade routes and [[Sovereign state|states]], [[Monarchy|kingdoms]] and [[empire]]s.]]
Writing in 1984, French historian [[Fernand Braudel]] noted that slavery had been endemic in Africa and part of the structure of everyday life throughout the 15th to the 18th century. "Slavery came in different guises in different societies: there were court slaves, slaves incorporated into princely armies, domestic and household slaves, slaves working on the land, in industry, as couriers and intermediaries, even as traders".<ref>{{cite book |last=Braudel |first=Fernand |author-link=Fernand Braudel |title=Civilization and Capitalism, 15th-18th Century: The perspective of the world |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n8yMAAAAIAAJ |publisher=[[Harper & Row]] |date=26 September 1984 |page=435 |volume=3 |isbn=978-0060153175}}</ref> During the 16th century, Europe began to outpace the [[Arab world]] in the export traffic, with its trafficking of slaves from Africa to the Americas.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NPS Ethnography: African American Heritage & Ethnography |url=https://www.nps.gov/ethnography/aah/aaheritage/histcontextsd.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100523120301/http://www.nps.gov/ethnography/aah/aaheritage/histContextsD.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=23 May 2010 |access-date=2024-10-05 |website=www.nps.gov}}</ref> The Dutch imported slaves from Asia into their [[Dutch Cape Colony|colony at the Cape of Good Hope]] (now [[Cape Town]]) in the 17th century.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Early Cape Slave Trade {{!}} South African History Online |url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/early-cape-slave-trade |access-date=2024-10-05 |website=www.sahistory.org.za}}</ref> In 1807 Britain (which already held a small coastal territory, intended for the resettlement of former slaves, in [[Freetown]], [[Sierra Leone]]) made the slave trade within its empire illegal with the [[Slave Trade Act 1807]], and worked to extend the prohibition to other territory,<ref name="Grindal 2016">{{cite book |last1=Grindal |first1=Peter |title=Opposing the Slavers. The Royal Navy's Campaign against the Atlantic Slave Trade |date=2016 |publisher=I.B.Tauris & Co. Ltd |location=London |isbn=978-0-85773-938-4 |edition=Kindle}}</ref>{{rp|42}} as did the United States in 1808.<ref>{{citation|title=A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774–1875 Statutes at Large, 9th Congress, 2nd Session|url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=002/llsl002.db&recNum=0463|website=The Library of Congress|access-date=26 January 2017}}</ref>

In [[Senegambia (geography)|Senegambia]], between 1300 and 1900, close to one-third of the population was enslaved. In early Islamic states of the [[Western Sudan]], including [[Ghana Empire|Ghana]] (750–1076), [[Mali Empire|Mali]] (1235–1645), [[Bamana Empire|Segou]] (1712–1861), and [[Songhai Empire|Songhai]] (1275–1591), about a third of the population was enslaved. The earliest [[Akan people|Akan]] state of [[Bono state|Bonoman]] which had third of its population being enslaved in the 17th century. In [[Sierra Leone]] in the 19th century about half of the population consisted of slaves. In the 19th century at least half the population was enslaved among the [[Duala people|Duala]] of the [[Cameroon]], the [[Igbo people|Igbo]] and other peoples of the lower [[Niger river|Niger]], the [[Kingdom of Kongo|Kongo]], and the Kasanje kingdom and [[Chokwe people|Chokwe]] of [[Angola]]. Among the [[Ashanti people|Ashanti]] and [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] a third of the population consisted of slaves as well as [[Bono people|Bono]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2015-03-02|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7|language=en}}</ref> The population of the [[Kanem Empire|Kanem]] was about one third enslaved. It was perhaps 40% in [[Bornu Empire|Bornu]] (1396–1893). Between 1750 and 1900 from one- to two-thirds of the entire population of the [[Fulani jihad]] states consisted of slaves. The population of the [[Sokoto (city)|Sokoto]] caliphate formed by [[Hausa people|Hausas]] in northern [[Nigeria]] and Cameroon was half-slave in the 19th century. It is estimated that up to 90% of the population of [[Arab]]-[[Swahili people|Swahili]] [[Zanzibar]] was enslaved. Roughly half the population of [[Madagascar]] was enslaved.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157 |title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History |encyclopedia=Britannica.com |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref><ref name="LovejoyHogendorn1993">{{cite book|last1=Lovejoy|first1=Paul E.|last2=Hogendorn|first2=Jan S.|title=Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria 1897–1936|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AWrgygRWERsC|date=1 July 1993|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0521447027}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=October 2015}}<ref>{{cite web|author=Digital History, Steven Mintz |url=http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/historyonline/slav_fact.cfm |title=Digital History Slavery Fact Sheets |publisher=Digitalhistory.uh.edu |access-date=4 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209215003/http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/historyonline/slav_fact.cfm |archive-date=9 February 2014  }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://bartelby.com/67/871.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080202190709/http://bartelby.com/67/871.html | archive-date=2 February 2008 |title=18th and Early 19th centuries. The Encyclopedia of World History |publisher=Bartelby.com |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0857229.html |title=Central African Republic: History |publisher=Infoplease.com |date=13 August 1960 |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref>

[[Slavery in Ethiopia]] persisted until 1942. The [[Anti-Slavery International|Anti-Slavery Society]] estimated that there were 2,000,000 slaves in the early 1930s, out of an estimated population of between 8 and 16 million.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf |title=Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery |access-date=4 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf |archive-date=15 May 2011  }}</ref> It was finally abolished by order of emperor [[Haile Selassie]] on 26 August 1942.<ref>{{cite web | first=Hanibal | last=Goitom | title=Abolition of Slavery in Ethiopia | url=https://blogs.loc.gov/law/2012/02/abolition-of-slavery-in-ethiopia/ | work=On Custodia Legis: Law Librarians of Congress | date=14 February 2012 | publisher=Library of Congress | access-date=18 November 2019}}</ref>

When British rule was first imposed on the [[Sokoto Caliphate]] and the surrounding areas in [[northern Nigeria]] at the turn of the 20th century, approximately 2 million to 2.5 million people living there were enslaved.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)], Project MUSE – Journal of World History</ref> Slavery in northern Nigeria was finally outlawed in 1936.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specials/1624_story_of_africa/page56.shtml The end of slavery], BBC World Service | The Story of Africa</ref>

Writing in 1998 about the extent of trade coming through and from Africa, the Congolese journalist Elikia M'bokolo wrote "The African continent was bled of its human resources via all possible routes. Across the [[Sahara]], through the Red Sea, from the Indian Ocean ports and across the Atlantic. At least ten centuries of slavery for the benefit of the [[Muslim world|Muslim countries]] (from the ninth to the nineteenth)." He continues: "Four million slaves exported via the [[Red Sea]], another four million through the [[Swahili coast|Swahili ports of the Indian Ocean]], perhaps as many as nine million along the [[Trans-Saharan trade|trans-Saharan]] caravan route, and eleven to twenty million (depending on the author) across the Atlantic Ocean"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa |title=The impact of the slave trade on Africa |publisher=Mondediplo.com |date=22 March 1998 |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref>

<gallery mode="packed" style="font-size:88%; line-height:130%; border-bottom:1px #aaa solid;" heights="230">
File:Slaves Zadib Yemen 13th century BNF Paris.jpg|13th century [[slavery in Yemen|slave market in Yemen]].<ref>"[http://archive.thedailystar.net/2004/07/27/d40727150297.htm Slaves in Saudi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140405053203/http://archive.thedailystar.net/2004/07/27/d40727150297.htm |date=5 April 2014 }}". Naeem Mohaiemen. [[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|''The Daily Star'']]. July 27, 2004.</ref>
</gallery>

===Sub-Saharan Africa===
{{Main|Slavery in Africa|Red Sea slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade|Trans-Saharan slave trade}}
[[File:Arabslavers.jpg|thumb|250px|Arab slave-trading caravan transporting African slaves across the Sahara, 19th-century engraving]]
[[Zanzibar]] was once East Africa's main slave-trading port, during the [[Indian Ocean slave trade]] and under [[Omanis|Omani Arabs]] in the 19th century, with as many as 50,000 slaves passing through the city each year.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html |title=Swahili Coast |publisher=.nationalgeographic.com |date=17 October 2002 |access-date=4 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071206102932/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html |archive-date=6 December 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Prior to the 16th century, the bulk of slaves exported from Africa were shipped from East Africa to the [[Arabian peninsula]]. [[Zanzibar]] became a leading port in this trade.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Vernet|first=Thomas|title=Slave trade and slavery on the Swahili Coast (1500-1700)|publisher=archieves.ouvertes.fr|year=2009|pages=37–76}}</ref> Arab traders of slaves differed from European ones in that they would often conduct raiding expeditions themselves, sometimes penetrating deep into the continent. They also differed in that their market greatly preferred the purchase of enslaved females over males.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Traditional Gender Roles and Slavery {{!}} Colonialism, Slavery, and Race|url=https://blogs.uw.edu/ses9/hstcmp-358-spring-2015/body-for-trade/traditional-gender-roles-and-slavery/|access-date=2021-04-27|language=en-US|archive-date=27 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427121842/https://blogs.uw.edu/ses9/hstcmp-358-spring-2015/body-for-trade/traditional-gender-roles-and-slavery/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The increased presence of European rivals along the East coast led Arab traders to concentrate on the overland slave caravan routes across the [[Sahara]] from the [[Sahel]] to North Africa. The German explorer [[Gustav Nachtigal]] reported seeing slave caravans departing from [[Kukawa]] in [[Bornu Empire|Bornu]] bound for [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]] and [[Egypt]] in 1870. The trade of slaves represented the major source of revenue for the state of Bornu as late as 1898. The eastern regions of the [[Central African Republic]] have never recovered demographically from the impact of 19th-century raids from the [[Sudan]] and still have a population density of less than 1 person/km<sup>2</sup>.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-40699/Central-African-Republic |title=Central African Republic: Early history |encyclopedia=Britannica.com |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref> During the 1870s, European initiatives against the trade of slaves caused an economic crisis in northern Sudan, precipitating the rise of [[Mahdist War|Mahdist]] forces. [[Muhammad Ahmad|Mahdi]]'s victory created an [[Mahdist State|Islamic state]], one that quickly reinstituted slavery.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.american.edu/ted/ice/sudan.htm |title=Civil War in the Sudan: Resources or Religion? |publisher=American.edu |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|jstor=4283940|title=Slave Trade in the Sudan in the Nineteenth Century and Its Suppression in the Years 1877–80|journal=Middle Eastern Studies| volume=34|issue=2|pages=113–28|last1=Moore-Harell|first1=Alice|year=1998|doi=10.1080/00263209808701225}}</ref>

{{citation needed span |text=European involvement in the East African trade of enslaved people began when Portugal established [[Portuguese India|Estado da Índia]] in the early 16th century. From then until the 1830s, <abbr>c.</abbr> 200 enslaved people were exported from [[Portuguese Mozambique]] annually and similar figures has been estimated for enslaved people brought from Asia to the Philippines during the [[Iberian Union]] (1580–1640).<ref name="Allen-2017-overview">{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|loc=Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299}}</ref><ref>Copied content from [[Indian Ocean]]; see that page's history for attribution.</ref>|date=March 2023}}

The [[Middle Passage]], the crossing of the [[Atlantic]] to [[the Americas]], endured by slaves laid out in rows in the holds of ships, was only one element of the well-known [[triangular trade]] engaged in by Portuguese, American, Dutch, Danish-Norwegians,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.norgeshistorie.no/enevelde/religion-og-verdensbilder/1214-nordmennene-har-aldri-vaert-alene-i-verden.html |title=Nordmennene har aldri vært alene i verden (in Norwegian) |publisher=.norgeshistorie.no (published by the University of Oslo) |date=17 October 2002 |access-date=3 May 2019}}</ref> French, British and others. Ships having landed with slaves in [[Caribbean]] ports would take on sugar, indigo, raw cotton, and later coffee, and make for [[Liverpool]], [[Nantes]], Lisbon or [[Amsterdam]]. Ships leaving European ports for West Africa would carry printed cotton textiles, some originally from India, copper utensils and bangles, pewter plates and pots, iron bars more valued than gold, hats, trinkets, gunpowder and firearms and alcohol. Tropical [[shipworm]]s were eliminated in the cold Atlantic waters, and at each unloading, a profit was made.{{citation needed|date=April 2021}}

The [[Atlantic slave trade]] peaked in the late 18th century when the largest number of people were captured and enslaved on raiding expeditions into the interior of West Africa. These expeditions were typically carried out by African states, such as the [[Bono state|Bono State]], [[Oyo empire]] ([[Yoruba people|Yoruba]]), [[Kong Empire]], [[Kingdom of Benin]], [[Imamate of Futa Jallon]], [[Imamate of Futa Toro]], [[Kingdom of Koya]], [[Kingdom of Khasso]], [[Kaabu|Kingdom of Kaabu]], [[Fante Confederacy]], [[Ashanti Confederacy]], [[Aro Confederacy]] and the kingdom of [[Dahomey]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA122|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2015-03-02|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/slav/hd_slav.htm |title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade |publisher=Metmuseum.org |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref> Europeans rarely entered the interior of Africa, due to fear of [[tropical diseases|disease]] and moreover fierce African resistance. The slaves were brought to coastal outposts where they were traded for goods. The people captured on these expeditions were shipped by European traders to the colonies of the [[New World]]. It is estimated that over the centuries, twelve to twenty million slaves were shipped from Africa by European traders, of whom some 15 percent died during the terrible voyage, many during the arduous journey through the [[Middle Passage]]. The great majority were shipped to the Americas, but some also went to Europe and Southern Africa. {{citation needed|date=April 2021}}

[[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|250px|Arab slave traders and their captives along the Ruvuma river (in today's Tanzania and Mozambique), 19th-century drawing by [[David Livingstone]].]]
While talking about the trade of slaves in [[East Africa]] in his journals, [[David Livingstone]] said {{blockquote|To overdraw its evil is a simple impossibility.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/lastjournalsdav03livigoog|quote=To overdraw its evils is a simple impossibility.|title= The Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa, from 1865 to His Death: Continued by a Narrative of His Last Moments and Sufferings, Obtained from His Faithful Servants, Chuma and Susi|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=1875|access-date=25 April 2019|page=[https://archive.org/details/lastjournalsdav03livigoog/page/n376 352]}}</ref>}}

While travelling in the [[African Great Lakes]] Region in 1866, Livingstone described a trail of slaves:
<blockquote>19th June 1866 – We passed a woman tied by the neck to a tree and dead, the people of the country explained that she had been unable to keep up with the other slaves in a gang, and her master had determined that she should not become anyone's property if she recovered.<br/>26th June. – ...We passed a slave woman shot or stabbed through the body and lying on the path: a group of men stood about a hundred yards off on one side, and another of the women on the other side, looking on; they said an Arab who passed early that morning had done it in anger at losing the price he had given for her, because she was unable to walk any longer.<br/>
27th June 1866 – To-day we came upon a man dead from starvation, as he was very thin. One of our men wandered and found many slaves with slave-sticks on, abandoned by their masters from want of food; they were too weak to be able to speak or say where they had come from; some were quite young.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=boicxwpPeAkC&q=We+passed+a+slave+woman+shot+or+stabbed+through+the+body+and+lying+on+the+path&pg=PA62|title= The Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa, from 1865 to His Death: Continued by a Narrative of His Last Moments and Sufferings, Obtained From His Faithful Servants, Chuma and Susi|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=15 September 2011|access-date=25 April 2019|pages=56, 62|isbn= 9781108032612}}</ref></blockquote>

{{blockquote|The strangest disease I have seen in this country seems really to be broken-heartedness, and it attacks free men who have been captured and made slaves... Twenty one were unchained, as now safe; however all ran away at once; but eight with many others still in chains, died in three days after the crossing. They described their only pain in the heart, and placed the hand correctly on the spot, though many think the organ stands high up in the breast-bone.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/lastjournalsdav03livigoog|quote=the strangest disease i have sen in this country is brokenheartedness.|title= The Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa, from 1865 to His Death: Continued by a Narrative of His Last Moments and Sufferings, Obtained From His Faithful Servants, Chuma and Susi|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=1875|access-date=25 April 2019|page=[https://archive.org/details/lastjournalsdav03livigoog/page/n376 352]}}</ref>}}

====African participation in the slave trade====
{{See also|Atlantic slave trade|Sarah Forbes Bonetta}}[[File:Gezo King of Dahomey.jpg|thumb|upright|Gezo, King of Dahomey]]
African states played a key role in the trade of slaves, and slavery was a common practice among [[Sub Saharan Africa]]ns even before the involvement of the [[Arabs]], [[Berbers]] and [[Europeans]]. There were three types: those who were enslaved through conquest, instead of unpaid debts, or those whose parents gave them as property to tribal chiefs. Chieftains would barter their slaves to Arab, Berber, Ottoman or European buyers for rum, spices, cloth or other goods.<ref name=afbis>{{cite web |url=http://www.afbis.com/analysis/slave.htm |title=Slave trade: a root of contemporary African Crisis |author=Tunde Obadina |publisher=Africa Business Information Services |access-date=19 September 2010 |archive-date=2 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120502172215/http://www.afbis.com/analysis/slave.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Selling captives or prisoners was a common practice among Africans, Turks, Berbers and Arabs during that era. However, as the Atlantic trade of slaves increased its demand, local systems which primarily serviced indentured servitude expanded. European trading of slaves, as a result, was the most pivotal change in the social, economic, cultural, spiritual, religious, political dynamics of the concept of trading in slaves. It ultimately undermined local economies and political stability as villages' vital labour forces were shipped overseas as [[slave raid]]s and civil wars became commonplace. Crimes which were previously punishable by some other means became punishable by enslavement.<ref>Graeber, David. 2012. Debt: The First 5,000 Years. Brooklyn, NY: Melville House.</ref>

[[File:The inspection and sale of a slave.jpg|thumb|250px|The inspection and sale of a slave.]]
Slavery already existed in [[Kingdom of Kongo]] prior to the arrival of the [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]]. Because it had been established within his kingdom, [[Afonso I of Kongo]] believed that the slave trade should be subject to Kongo law. When he suspected the Portuguese of receiving illegally slaves to sell, he wrote letters to the King [[João III]] of Portugal in 1526 imploring him to put a stop to the practice.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://run.edu.ng/media/11850929233241.pdf |title=African Political Ethics and the Slave Trade |access-date=14 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117073626/http://run.edu.ng/media/11850929233241.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The kings of [[Dahomey]] sold their [[Prisoner of war|war captives]] into transatlantic slavery, who otherwise may have been killed in a ceremony known as the [[The annual customs of Dahomey|Annual Customs]]. As one of West Africa's principal slave states, Dahomey became extremely unpopular with neighbouring peoples.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.museeouidah.org/Theme-Dahomey.htm |title=Museum Theme: The Kingdom of Dahomey |publisher=Museeouidah.org |access-date=4 December 2011 |archive-date=1 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001202140/http://www.museeouidah.org/Theme-Dahomey.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-149772/Dahomey |title=Dahomey (historical kingdom, Africa) |encyclopedia=Britannica.com |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.finalcall.com/national/slave_trade10-08-2002.htm |title=Benin seeks forgiveness for role in slave trade |publisher=Finalcall.com |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref> Like the [[Bambara Empire]] to the east, the [[Khasso]] kingdoms depended heavily on the [[African slave trade|slave trade]] for their economy. A family's status was indicated by the number of slaves it owned, leading to wars for the sole purpose of taking more captives. This trade led the Khasso into increasing contact with the European settlements of Africa's west coast, particularly the [[France|French]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.histoire-afrique.org/article76.html?artsuite=5 |title=Le Mali précolonial |publisher=Histoire-afrique.org |access-date=4 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111201193105/http://www.histoire-afrique.org/article76.html?artsuite=5 |archive-date=1 December 2011  }}</ref> [[Benin Empire|Benin]] grew increasingly rich during the 16th and 17th centuries on the trade of slaves with Europe; slaves from enemy states of the interior were sold, and carried to the Americas in [[Netherlands|Dutch]] and [[Portugal|Portuguese]] ships. The [[Bight of Benin]]'s shore soon came to be known as the "Slave Coast".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/4chapter7.shtml |title=The Story of Africa |publisher=BBC  |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref>

In the 1840s, King Gezo of [[Dahomey]] said:<ref name = "theAustralian-20867">{{cite web |author=5 Minutes 10 Minutes <!-- // .tier-2 --> |url=http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,20867,20855855-28737,00.html |title=West is master of slave trade guilt |publisher=[[The Australian]] |access-date=4 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613155944/http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,20867,20855855-28737,00.html |archive-date=13 June 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>Ibn Warraq. ''Why the West is Best: A Muslim Apostate's Defense of Liberal Democracy.'' Encounter Books: London. 2011. {{ISBN|978-1594035760}}. p. 114.</ref>

<blockquote>"The slave trade is the ruling principle of my people. It is the source and the glory of their wealth...the mother lulls the child to sleep with notes of triumph over an enemy reduced to slavery."</blockquote>

[[File:2007£2.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.67|200th anniversary of the British act of parliament abolishing slave trading, commemorated on a [[British two pound coin]].]]
In 1807 the [[United Kingdom]] made the international trade of slaves illegal with the [[Slave Trade Act 1807|Slave Trade Act]]. The [[Royal Navy]] was deployed to prevent slavers from the [[United States]], [[France]], [[Spain]], [[Portugal]], [[Holland]], [[West Africa]] and [[Arabia]]. The King of Bonny (now in [[Nigeria]]) allegedly became dissatisfied of the British intervention in stopping the trade of slaves:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/9chapter2.shtml |title=African Slave Owners |publisher=BBC  |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref>

<blockquote>"We think this trade must go on. That is the verdict of our oracle and the priests. They say that your country, however great, can never stop a trade ordained by God himself."</blockquote>

Joseph Miller states that African buyers would prefer males, but in reality, women and children would be more easily captured as men fled. Those captured would be sold for various reasons such as food, debts, or servitude. Once captured, the journey to the coast killed many and weakened others. Disease engulfed many, and insufficient food damaged those who made it to the coasts. [[Scurvy]] was common, and was often referred to as ''mal de Luanda'' ("Luanda sickness," after the port in Angola).<ref name="Miller, Joseph 1988. p 380-387">Miller, Joseph. "West Central Africa." The Way of Death. University of Wisconsin. 1988. pp. 380–87, 389–91, 398–405, 440–41.</ref> The assumption for those who died on the journey died from [[malnutrition]]. As food was limited, water may have been just as bad. [[Dysentery]] was widespread and poor sanitary conditions at ports did not help. Since supplies were poor, slaves were not equipped with the best clothing, meaning they were even more exposed to diseases.<ref name="Miller, Joseph 1988. p 380-387"/>

On top of the fear of disease, people were afraid of why they were being captured. The popular assumption was that Europeans were [[Human cannibalism|cannibals]]. Stories and rumours spread that whites captured Africans to eat them.<ref name="Miller, Joseph 1988. p 380-387"/> [[Olaudah Equiano]] accounts his experience about the sorrow slaves encountered at the ports. He talks about his first moment on a [[slave ship]] and asked if he was going to be eaten.<ref>Equiano, Olaudah. The Life of Olaudah Equiano or Gustavus Vassa: The African. Publisher Isaac Knapp. Boston. 1837. Chapter 2.</ref> Yet, the worst for slaves has only begun, and the journey on the water proved to be more harrowing. For every 100 Africans captured, only 64 would reach the coast, and only about 50 would reach the New World.<ref name="Miller, Joseph 1988. p 380-387"/>

Others believe that slavers had a vested interest in capturing rather than killing, and in keeping their captives alive; and that this coupled with the disproportionate removal of males and the introduction of new crops from the Americas ([[cassava]], maize) would have limited general [[population decline]] to particular regions of western Africa around 1760–1810, and in [[Mozambique]] and neighbouring areas half a century later. There has also been speculation that within Africa, females were most often [[Bride kidnapping|captured as brides]], with their male protectors being a "bycatch" who would have been killed if there had not been an export market for them.

British explorer [[Mungo Park (explorer)|Mungo Park]] encountered a group of slaves when traveling through [[Mandinka people|Mandinka]] country:

{{Blockquote|They were all very inquisitive, but they viewed me at first with looks of horror, and repeatedly asked if my countrymen were cannibals. They were very desirous to know what became of the slaves after they had crossed the salt water. I told them that they were employed in cultivation the land; but they would not believe me ... A deeply-rooted idea that the whites purchase negroes for the purpose of devouring them, or of selling them to others that they may be devoured hereafter, naturally makes the slaves contemplate a journey towards the coast with great terror, insomuch that the slatees are forced to keep them constantly in irons, and watch them very closely, to prevent their escape.<ref>Mungo Park, ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20080727200546/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/p/park/mungo/travels/chapter24.html Travels in the Interior Districts of Africa, 1795–7] ''</ref>}}

During the period from the late 19th century and early 20th century, demand for the labour-intensive harvesting of rubber drove frontier expansion and [[forced labour]]. The personal monarchy of Belgian [[King Leopold II]] in the [[Congo Free State]] saw mass killings and slavery to extract rubber.<ref>[[Adam Hochschild]], ''[[King Leopold's Ghost]]''</ref>

===Africans on ships===
{{See also|Atlantic slave trade|}}
[[File:Barconegrero.jpg|thumb|Illustration of [[slave ship]] used to transport [[Slavery|slaves]] to Europe and the [[Slavery in the United States|Americas]]]]

Surviving the voyage was the main struggle. Close quarters meant everyone was infected by any diseases that spread, including the crew. Death was so common that ships were called ''tumbeiros,'' or floating tombs.<ref name="Smallwood, Stephanie E 2008">Smallwood, Stephanie E. ''Saltwater Slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to American Diaspora''. 1st Harvard University Press pbk. ed. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2008.</ref> What shocked Africans the most was how death was handled in the ships. Smallwood says the traditions for an African death were delicate and community-based. On ships, bodies would be thrown into the sea. Because the sea represented bad omens, bodies in the sea represented a form of purgatory and the ship a form of hell. Any Africans who made the journey would have survived extreme disease and malnutrition, as well as trauma from being on the open ocean and the death of their friends.<ref name="Smallwood, Stephanie E 2008"/>

===North Africa===
{{main|Barbary slave trade|Slavery in Morocco|Slavery in Algeria|Slavery in Tunisia|Slavery in Libya}}
[[File:Debarquement et maltraitement de prisonniers a alger.JPG|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Slavery in the Ottoman Empire|Christian slaves]] in Algiers, 1706]]
In [[Algiers]] during the time of the [[Regency of Algiers]] in North Africa in the 19th century, up to 1.5 million [[Christians]] and [[Europe]]ans were captured and forced into slavery.<ref>{{Cite book|title=White Gold: The Extraordinary Story of Thomas Pellow and Islam's One Million White Slaves|last=Milton|first=Giles|date=8 June 2005|publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux|isbn=978-0374289355|edition=1st American|language=en|url=https://archive.org/details/whitegoldextraor00milt}}</ref> This eventually led to the [[Bombardment of Algiers (1816)|Bombardment of Algiers]] in 1816 by the [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[Netherlands|Dutch]], forcing the [[Dey of Algiers]] to free many slaves.<ref>Baepler, B. "White Slaves, African Masters 1st Edition." White Slaves, African Masters 1st Edition by Baepler. University of Chicago Press, n.d. Web. 7 January 2013.
p. 5</ref>

===Modern times===
{{See also|Slavery in the 21st century|Slavery in contemporary Africa|Slavery in 21st-century jihadism}}

The trading of children has been reported in modern [[Nigeria]] and [[Benin]]. In parts of [[Ghana]], a family may be punished for an offense by having to turn over a virgin female to serve as a [[sexual slavery|sex slave]] within the offended family. In this instance, the woman does not gain the title or status of "wife". In parts of Ghana, [[Togo]], and [[Benin]], shrine slavery persists, despite being illegal in Ghana since 1998. In this system of [[ritual servitude]], sometimes called ''trokosi'' (in Ghana) or ''voodoosi'' in Togo and Benin, young virgin girls are given as slaves to traditional shrines and are used sexually by the priests in addition to providing free labor for the shrine.{{citation needed|reason=whole graf is salacious, but unsupported|date=July 2018}}

An article in the ''[[Middle East Quarterly]]'' in 1999 reported that slavery is endemic in [[Sudan]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=My Career Redeeming Slaves |url=http://www.meforum.org/article/449|publisher=MEQ |date= December 1999|access-date=31 July 2008}}</ref> Estimates of abductions during the [[Second Sudanese Civil War]] range from 14,000 to 200,000 people.<ref>{{cite web|title=Slavery, Abduction and Forced Servitude in Sudan|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/p/af/rls/rpt/2002/10445.htm|publisher=U.S. Department of State|access-date=20 March 2014|date=22 May 2002}}</ref>

During the [[Second Sudanese Civil War]] people were taken into slavery; estimates of abductions range from 14,000 to 200,000. Abduction of [[Dinka people|Dinka]] women and children was common.<ref name="US Department of State">{{cite web |date=22 May 2002 |title=Slavery, Abduction and Forced Servitude in Sudan |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/p/af/rls/rpt/2002/10445.htm |access-date=20 March 2014 |publisher=US Department of State}}</ref> In [[Mauritania]] it is estimated that up to 600,000 men, women and children, or 20% of the population, are currently enslaved, many of them used as [[bonded labor]].<ref name="bbc.co.uk">{{cite web|url= http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specials/1458_abolition/page4.shtml |title= The Abolition season on BBC World Service |publisher=BBC  |access-date= 4 December 2011}}</ref> [[Slavery in modern Africa|Slavery in Mauritania]] was criminalized in August 2007.<ref name="Mauritanian MPs pass slavery law">{{cite news|url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6938032.stm |title= Mauritanian MPs pass slavery law |work=BBC News|date= 9 August 2007 |access-date= 4 December 2011}}</ref>

During the [[Darfur conflict]] that began in 2003, many people were kidnapped by [[Janjaweed]] and sold into slavery as agricultural labor, domestic servants and sex slaves.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/sudan/3795607/Darfur-civilians-seized-as-slaves-by-Sudan-military.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/sudan/3795607/Darfur-civilians-seized-as-slaves-by-Sudan-military.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Darfur civilians 'seized as slaves by Sudan military'|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|date=16 December 2008|via=www.telegraph.co.uk}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://slaverytoday.org/darfur-abductions-sexual-slavery-forced-labour/|title=Darfur Abductions: Sexual Slavery and Forced Labour|access-date=29 May 2017|archive-date=15 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190115024705/http://slaverytoday.org/darfur-abductions-sexual-slavery-forced-labour/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7786612.stm|title='Thousands made slaves' in Darfur|date=17 December 2008|via=news.bbc.co.uk}}</ref>

In [[Slavery in Niger|Niger]], slavery is also a current phenomenon. A Nigerien study has found that more than 800,000 people are enslaved, almost 8% of the population.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/Story?id=813618&page=1 |title=The Shackles of Slavery in Niger |publisher=ABC News|date=3 June 2005 |access-date=29 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Andersson |first=Hilary |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/4250709.stm |title=Born to be a slave in Niger |work=BBC News |date=11 February 2005 |access-date=29 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specials/1357_slavery_today/page3.shtml |title=Slavery Today |work=BBC News|access-date=29 August 2010}}</ref> Niger installed an anti-slavery provision in 2003.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13943662|title=Niger Profile|work=BBC News|year=2012|access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref><ref>[http://www.irinnews.org/report/53497/niger-slavery-an-unbroken-chain "Niger: Slavery – an unbroken chain,"] ''[[The New Humanitarian|IRIN]]'', March 2005 (accessed 28 November 2014)</ref> In a landmark ruling in 2008, the [[ECOWAS Court|ECOWAS Community Court of Justice]] declared that the Republic of Niger failed to protect Hadijatou Mani Koraou from slavery, and awarded Mani [[West African CFA franc|CFA]] 10,000,000 (approximately {{US$|20,000}}) in reparations.<ref name=Duffy>{{cite journal|last=Duffy|first=Helen|title=HadijatouMani Koroua v Niger: Slavery Unveiled by the ECOWAS Court|journal=Human Rights Law Review|year=2008|pages=1–20|url=http://www.interights.org/files/28/HelenDuffyHRLR.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150604021132/http://www.interights.org/files/28/HelenDuffyHRLR.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 June 2015}}</ref>

Sexual slavery and [[forced labor]] are common in the Democratic Republic of Congo.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2016/jan/19/children-as-young-as-seven-mining-cobalt-for-use-in-smartphones-says-amnesty|title=Children as young as seven mining cobalt used in smartphones, says Amnesty|first=Annie|last=Kelly|date=19 January 2016|via=www.theguardian.com|newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2014/jul/23/sexual-slavery-democratic-republic-congo-msf|title=Sexual slavery rife in Democratic Republic of the Congo, says MSF|first=Annie|last=Kelly|date=23 July 2014|via=www.theguardian.com|newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/countries/2015/243418.htm|title=Congo, Democratic Republic of the|website=U.S. Department of State}}</ref>

Many [[pygmies]] in the [[Republic of Congo]] and [[Democratic Republic of Congo]] belong from birth to [[Bantu peoples|Bantus]] in a system of slavery.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.newsobserver.com/110/story/552528.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090228160138/http://newsobserver.com/110/story/552528.html |archive-date=28 February 2009 |title=Congo's Pygmies live as slaves |work=The News & Observer |first=Katie |last=Thomas |date=12 March 2007}}</ref><ref>[https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9900EFDB103FF935A25755C0A961958260 As the World Intrudes, Pygmies Feel Endangered], New York Times</ref>

Evidence emerged in the late 1990s of systematic slavery in [[cacao plantation]]s in West Africa; see the [[chocolate and slavery]] article.<ref name = "theAustralian-20867"/>

According to the [[United States Department of State|U.S. State Department]], more than 109,000 children were working on [[cocoa bean|cocoa]] farms alone in [[Ivory Coast]] in "the worst forms of [[child labour]]" in 2002.<ref>[https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2005/61565.htm U.S. Department of State Country Reports on Human Rights Practices], 2005 [[Human rights|Human Rights]] Report on Côte d'Ivoire</ref>

On the night of 14–15 April 2014, a [[Chibok schoolgirls kidnapping|group of militants attacked the Government Girls Secondary School]] in [[Chibok]], Nigeria. They broke into the school, pretending to be guards,<ref name=GuardApr19>{{cite news |url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/apr/19/88-nigerian-schoolgirls-abducted-by-islamic-extremists-still-missing | title=88 Nigerian schoolgirls abducted by Islamic extremists still missing|agency= Associated Press|work = [[The Guardian]]|date=19 April 2014|access-date=23 April 2014}}</ref> telling the girls to get out and come with them.<ref name=TheTimes/> A large number of students were taken away in trucks, possibly into the [[Konduga]] area of the [[Sambisa Forest]] where [[Boko Haram]] were known to have fortified camps.<ref name = TheTimes>Maclean, Ruth (17 April 2014) [https://www.thetimes.com/uk/defence/article/nigerian-schoolgirls-still-missing-after-military-fabricated-rescue-pmbl90ls2hj Nigerian schoolgirls still missing after military 'fabricated' rescue] The Times, (may need a subscription to view online), Retrieved 10 May 2014</ref> Houses in Chibok were also burned down in the incident.<ref name=GuardApr23>{{cite news |url= https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/apr/23/200-girls-missing-nigeria-care-sewol-tragedy |title= 200 girls are missing in Nigeria – so why doesn't anybody care?| first =Anne | last = Perkins|work=[[The Guardian]]|date= 23 April 2014 | access-date = 23 April 2014}}</ref> According to police, approximately 276 children were taken in the attack, of whom 53 had escaped as of 2 May.<ref name=AA52>{{cite news|title=Nigerian Police Begin Documentation of Kidnapped Girls|work= Premium Times |publisher=All Africa|date=2 May 2014|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201405021865.html|access-date=2 May 2014}}</ref> Other reports said that 329 girls were kidnapped, 53 had escaped and 276 were still missing.<ref name=VOA52>{{cite news| place =Nigeria| title = Authorities – 276 Kidnapped Girls Still Missing in Nigeria | work =VOA | publisher = All Africa|date= 2 May 2014| url= http://allafrica.com/stories/201405021859.html | access-date =2 May 2014}}</ref><ref>Maclean, Ruth (3 May 2014) [https://www.thetimes.com/article/nigerian-school-says-329-girl-pupils-missing-ssl6jkmcclw Nigerian school says 329 girl pupils missing] The Times, (may need a subscription), Retrieved 10 May 2014</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=United States Sending Manned Flights Over Nigeria to Look for Girls|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/missing-nigeria-schoolgirls/united-states-sending-manned-flights-over-nigeria-look-girls-n103701|work=ABC news|access-date=21 October 2014}}</ref> The students have been forced to [[Conversion to Islam|convert to Islam]]<ref name="csmonitor1">{{cite news|author=Howard LaFranchi |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Foreign-Policy/2014/0505/What-role-for-US-in-efforts-to-rescue-Nigeria-s-kidnapped-girls-video |title=What role for US in efforts to rescue Nigeria's kidnapped girls? (+video) |publisher=CSMonitor |date=5 May 2014 |access-date=9 May 2014}}</ref> and into marriage with members of Boko Haram, with a reputed "[[bride price]]" of [[Nigerian naira|₦]]2,000 each ([[United States dollar|$]]12.50/[[Pound sterling|£]]7.50).<ref>{{cite news|url=http://therainbow.com.ng/boko-haram-kidnapped-the-230-school-girls-as-wives-for-its-insurgents/|title=Boko Haram kidnapped the 230 school girls as wives for its insurgents|date=29 April 2014|work=The Rainbow|access-date=4 July 2016}}</ref><ref name=TelegApr30>{{cite news |url= https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/nigeria/10797454/Nigeria-kidnapped-schoolgirls-sold-as-wives-to-Islamist-fighters.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/nigeria/10797454/Nigeria-kidnapped-schoolgirls-sold-as-wives-to-Islamist-fighters.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Nigeria: kidnapped schoolgirls 'sold as wives to Islamist fighters'| first =Laura | last = Heaton |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|date=30 April 2014|access-date=2 May 2014}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Many of the students were taken to the neighbouring countries of [[Chad]] and [[Cameroon]], with sightings reported of the students crossing borders with the militants, and sightings of the students by villagers living in the [[Sambisa Forest]], which is considered a refuge for Boko Haram.<ref name = TelegApr30 /><ref>{{cite news | first1 = Turaki A | last1 = Hassan | first2 = Ibrahim Kabiru | last2 = Sule | first3 = Ronald | last3 = Mutum | url = http://dailytrust.info/index.php/top-stories/22791-abducted-girls-moved-abroad | title = Abducted girls moved abroad | work = Daily Trust | date = 29 April 2014 | access-date = 6 May 2014 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140506232533/http://www.dailytrust.info/index.php/top-stories/22791-abducted-girls-moved-abroad | archive-date = 6 May 2014 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

On 5 May 2014 a video in which [[Boko Haram]] leader [[Abubakar Shekau]] claimed responsibility for the kidnappings emerged. Shekau claimed that "Allah instructed me to sell them...I will carry out his instructions"<ref name =BBC>{{cite web | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-27283383|title=Boko Haram admits abducting Nigeria girls from Chibok | work=BBC News | date=5 May 2014 |access-date=5 May 2014}}</ref> and "[[Islamic views on slavery|[s]lavery is allowed in my religion]], and I shall capture people and make them [[Ma malakat aymanukum|slaves]]."<ref name=CNNEssenceTerror>{{cite news| url=http://www.cnn.com/2014/05/06/world/africa/nigeria-boko-haram-analysis/ |publisher=CNN |title=Boko Haram: The essence of terror |last=Lister |first=Tim |date=6 May 2014 |access-date=13 May 2014}}</ref> He said the girls should not have been in school and instead should have been married since girls as young as nine are suitable for marriage.<ref name=BBC /><ref name=CNNEssenceTerror/>

=== Libyan slave trade ===
{{main|Slavery in Libya#Slavery in the post-Gaddafi era}}
During the [[Second Libyan Civil War]] Libyans started [[Slavery in Libya|capturing]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://shoebat.com/2017/04/12/muslims-are-taking-countless-africans-as-slaves-starving-them-to-death-selling-them-and-taking-the-women-to-rape-them/|title=Muslims Are Taking Countless Africans As Slaves, Starving Them To Death, Selling Them And Taking The Women To Rape Them|date=13 April 2017}}</ref> some of the [[Sub-Saharan]] African migrants trying to get to Europe through Libya and selling them on slave markets.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5Oo21chusE| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211030/j5Oo21chusE| archive-date=2021-10-30|title=Libya Slave Trade: Rights group says migrants sold off in markets|last=TRT World|date=12 April 2017|via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N2mKWRjASmo| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211030/N2mKWRjASmo| archive-date=2021-10-30|title=Profiting off the misery of others: Libya's migrant 'slave trade'|last=TRT World|date=26 April 2017|via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Slaves are often ransomed to their families and in the meantime until [[ransom]] can be paid, they may be tortured, forced to work, sometimes worked to death, and eventually they may be executed or left to starve if the payment has not been made after a period of time. Women are often raped and used as [[sex slave]]s and sold to [[brothel]]s.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-39567632|title=African migrants 'sold in slave markets'|date=11 April 2017|work=BBC News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/apr/10/libya-public-slave-auctions-un-migration|title=Migrants from west Africa being 'sold in Libyan slave markets'|first=Emma|last=Graham-Harrison|date=10 April 2017|via=www.theguardian.com|newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nation.co.ke/news/africa/African-migrants-sold-as-slaves-in-Libya-/1066-3886812-5hy4xoz/index.html|title=African migrants sold as 'slaves' in Libya|date=3 July 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://boingboing.net/2017/04/11/international-organization-for.html|title=West African migrants are kidnapped and sold in Libyan slave markets / Boing Boing|website=boingboing.net|date=11 April 2017}}</ref>

Many child migrants also suffer from abuse and [[child rape]] in Libya.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-39109585|title=Libya exposed as child migrant abuse hub|first=Paul|last=Adams|date=28 February 2017|work=BBC News}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://alwaght.com/en/News/89562/Immigrant-Women,-Children-Raped,-Starved-in-Libya%E2%80%99s-Hellholes-Unicef|title=Immigrant Women, Children Raped, Starved in Libya's Hellholes: Unicef|date=28 February 2017|access-date=11 June 2017|archive-date=10 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170910085159/http://alwaght.com/en/News/89562/Immigrant-Women,-Children-Raped,-Starved-in-Libya%E2%80%99s-Hellholes-Unicef|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Americas==
{{see also|European colonization of the Americas#Slavery}}
[[File:João Ferreira Villela com a Ama-de-Leite Mônica, 1860.jpg|thumb|upright|A young boy with an enslaved woman, [[Brazil]], 1860.]]

To participate in the slave trade in [[Spanish America]], bankers and trading companies had to pay the Spanish king for the license, called the [[Asiento de Negros]], but an unknown amount of the trade was illegal. After 1670 when the [[Spanish Empire]] declined substantially they outsourced part of the slave trade to the Dutch (1685–1687), the Portuguese, the French (1698–1713) and the English (1713–1750), also providing organized depots in the Caribbean islands to the [[Dutch America|Dutch]], [[British America|British]] and [[French America]]. As a result of the [[War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701–1714), the British government obtained the monopoly (''[[asiento de negros]]'') of selling African slaves in [[Spanish America]], which was granted to the [[South Sea Company]]. Meanwhile, slave trading became a core business for [[private enterprise|privately owned enterprises]] in the Americas.

===Among indigenous peoples===
{{Main|Slavery in the Aztec Empire|Slavery in Pre-Columbian America}}
In [[Pre-Columbian Mexico|Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica]] the most common forms of slavery were those of [[prisoners of war]] and debtors. People unable to pay back debts could be sentenced to work as slaves to the people owed until the debts were worked off, as a form of [[indentured servitude]]. Warfare was important to [[Maya society]], because raids on surrounding areas provided the victims required for human [[sacrifice]], as well as slaves for the construction of temples.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.library.umaine.edu/hudson/palmer/Maya/society.asp |title=Maya Society |publisher=Library.umaine.edu |access-date=4 December 2011 |archive-date=1 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200601202507/https://library.umaine.edu/hudson/palmer/Maya/society.asp |url-status=dead }}</ref> Most victims of [[Human sacrifice#Pre-Columbian Americas|human sacrifice]] were prisoners of war or slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9367541 |title=human sacrifice – Britannica Concise Encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Britannica.com |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref> Slavery was not usually hereditary; children of slaves were born free. In the [[Inca Empire]], workers were subject to a ''[[Mita (Inca)|mita]]'' instead of taxes which they paid by working for the government. Each ''[[ayllu]]'', or extended family, would decide which family member to send to do the work. It is unclear if this labor draft or [[corvée]] counts as slavery. The [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] adopted this system, particularly for their silver mines in Bolivia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/bolivia/29.htm |title=Bolivia – Ethnic Groups |publisher=Countrystudies.us |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref>

Other slave-owning societies and tribes of the New World were, for example, the [[Tehuelche people|Tehuelche]] of Patagonia, the [[Comanche]] of Texas, the [[Island Caribs|Caribs]] of Dominica, the [[Tupinambá people|Tupinambá]] of Brazil, the fishing societies, such as the [[Yurok people|Yurok]], that lived along the [[West Coast of North America|west coast of North America]] from what is now Alaska to California, the [[Pawnee people|Pawnee]] and [[Klamath people|Klamath]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24156 |title=Slavery in the New World |encyclopedia=Britannica.com |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref> Many of the [[indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast]], such as the [[Haida people|Haida]] and [[Tlingit people|Tlingit]], were traditionally known as fierce warriors and slave-traders, raiding as far as California. Slavery was hereditary, the slaves being [[prisoners of war]].{{clarify|reason = This is a self-contradictory sentence. Probably this means that slaves were EITHER prisoners of war OR DESCENDANTS of prisoners of war.|date=November 2022}} Among some [[Pacific Northwest]] tribes, about a quarter of the population was enslaved.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070715143811/http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/black_voices/voices_display.cfm?id=2|url-status=dead|title=UH - Digital History|archive-date=15 July 2007|website=www.digitalhistory.uh.edu}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.civilization.ca/aborig/haida/havwa01e.html|title=Warfare|website=www.civilization.ca|publisher=[[Canadian Museum of History]]|access-date=14 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080923232313/http://www.civilization.ca/aborig/haida/havwa01e.html|archive-date=23 September 2008|location=[[Gatineau]]|date=30 November 1998}}</ref> One [[slave narrative]] was composed by an Englishman, [[John R. Jewitt]], who had been taken alive when his ship was captured in 1802; his memoir provides a detailed look at life as a slave, and asserts that a large number were held.

===Brazil===
{{Main|Slavery in Brazil}}
{{see also|Bandeirantes}}
[[File:Johann Moritz Rugendas in Brazil 2.jpg|thumb|[[History of slavery in Brazil|Slavery in Brazil]], [[Johann Moritz Rugendas]].]]
[[File:Indian Soldiers from the Coritiba Province Escorting Native Prisoners.jpg|thumb|A [[Guarani people|Guaraní]] family captured by [[Indigenous peoples of Brazil|Indian]] slave hunters. By [[Jean Baptiste Debret]]]]
Slavery was a mainstay of the [[Economic history of Brazil|Brazilian colonial economy]], especially in [[Mining in Brazil|mining]] and [[sugarcane]] production.<ref>Herbert S. Klein and Francisco Vidal Luna, ''Slavery in Brazil'' (Cambridge University Press, 2010)</ref> 35.3% of all slaves from the Atlantic Slave trade went to [[Colonial Brazil]]. 4 million slaves were obtained by Brazil, 1.5 million more than any other country.<ref>"The West: Encounters and Transformations"</ref> Starting around 1550, the Portuguese began to trade enslaved Africans to work the sugar plantations, once the native [[Tupi people]] deteriorated. Although [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] Prime Minister [[Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal|Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo]], [[Marquês de Pombal|1st Marquis of Pombal]] prohibited the importation of slaves into [[Continental Portugal]] on 12 February 1761, slavery continued in her overseas colonies. Slavery was practiced among all classes. Slaves were owned by upper and middle classes, by the poor, and even by other slaves.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://isc.temple.edu/evanson/brazilhistory/Bahia.htm |title=Rebellions in Bahia, 1798–1838. Culture of slavery |publisher=Isc.temple.edu |access-date=4 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111121024219/http://isc.temple.edu/evanson/brazilhistory/Bahia.htm |archive-date=21 November 2011  }}</ref>

From [[São Paulo]], the [[Bandeirantes]], adventurers mostly of mixed [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] and native ancestry, penetrated steadily westward in their search for Indians to enslave. Along the [[Amazon River]] and its major tributaries, repeated slaving raids and punitive attacks left their mark. One French traveler in the 1740s described ''hundreds of miles of river banks with no sign of human life and once-thriving villages that were devastated and empty.'' In some areas of the [[Amazon Basin]], and particularly among the [[Guarani people|Guarani]] of [[South Region, Brazil|southern Brazil]] and [[Paraguay]], the [[Jesuits]] had organized their [[Jesuit Reductions]] along military lines to fight the slavers. In the mid-to-late 19th century, many [[Amerindian]]s were enslaved to work on rubber plantations.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9012127/bandeira |title=Bandeira |encyclopedia=Britannica.com |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9356505/bandeira |title=Bandeira – Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=Concise.britannica.com |access-date=4 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061128222917/http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9356505/bandeira |archive-date=28 November 2006  }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.v-brazil.com/information/history/bandeirantes.html |title=Bandeirantes |publisher=V-brazil.com |access-date=4 December 2011 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016125905/http://www.v-brazil.com/information/history/bandeirantes.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

====Resistance and abolition====
Slaves that escaped formed [[Maroon (people)|Maroon]] communities which played an important role in the histories of [[History of Brazil|Brazil]] and other countries such as [[History of Suriname|Suriname]], [[History of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico]], [[History of Cuba|Cuba]], and [[History of Jamaica|Jamaica]]. In Brazil, the Maroon villages were called [[Palenque (village)|palenques]] or [[quilombo]]s. Maroons survived by growing vegetables and hunting. They also raided [[Sugar plantations in the Caribbean|plantations]]. At these attacks, the maroons would burn crops, steal livestock and tools, kill slavemasters, and invite other slaves to join their communities.<ref>Richard Price, ''Maroon societies: Rebel slave communities in the Americas'' (JHU Press, 1996)</ref>

[[Jean-Baptiste Debret]], a French painter who was active in Brazil in the first decades of the 19th century, started out with painting portraits of members of the Brazilian Imperial family, but soon became concerned with the slavery of both blacks and indigenous inhabitants. His paintings on the subject (two appear on this page) helped bring attention to the subject in both Europe and Brazil itself.

The [[Clapham Sect]], a group of [[Evangelism|evangelical]] reformers, campaigned during much of the 19th century for Britain to use its influence and power to stop the traffic of slaves to Brazil. Besides moral qualms, the low cost of slave-produced Brazilian sugar meant that the [[British West Indies]] were unable to match the market prices of Brazilian sugar, and each Briton was consuming 16&nbsp;pounds (7&nbsp;kg) of sugar a year by the 19th century. This combination led to intensive pressure from the British government for Brazil to end this practice, which it did by steps over several decades.<ref>Leslie Bethell, ''The Abolition of the Brazilian Slave Trade: Britain, Brazil and the Slave Trade Question'' (Cambridge University Press, 2009)</ref>

First, foreign trade of slaves was banned in 1850. Then, in 1871, the sons of the slaves were freed. In 1885, slaves aged over 60 years were freed. The [[Paraguayan War]] contributed to ending slavery as many slaves enlisted in exchange for freedom. In Colonial Brazil, slavery was more a social than a racial condition.<ref name=":1" /> Some of the greatest figures of the time, like the writer [[Machado de Assis]] and the engineer [[André Rebouças]] had black ancestry.

Brazil's 1877–78 [[Grande Seca]] (Great Drought) in the cotton-growing northeast led to major turmoil, starvation, poverty and internal migration. As wealthy plantation holders rushed to sell their slaves south, popular resistance and resentment grew, inspiring numerous emancipation societies. They succeeded in banning slavery altogether in the province of Ceará by 1884.<ref>Mike Davis, ''Late Victorian Holocausts'', 88–90</ref> Slavery was legally ended nationwide on 13 May by the ''[[Lei Áurea]]'' ("Golden Law") of 1888. It was an institution in decadence at these times, as since the 1880s the country had begun to use European immigrant labor instead. Brazil was the last nation in the Western Hemisphere to abolish slavery.<ref>Robert Toplin, ''The abolition of slavery in Brazil'' (1972).</ref>

===British and French Caribbean===
{{Main|Slavery in the British and French Caribbean}}
[[File:Slaves cutting the sugar cane - Ten Views in the Island of Antigua (1823), plate IV - BL.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Slaves cutting the [[sugar cane]], British colony of [[Antigua]], 1823]]
Slavery was commonly used in the parts of the [[Caribbean]] controlled by France and the [[British Empire]]. The [[Lesser Antilles]] islands of [[History of Barbados|Barbados]], [[History of Saint Kitts and Nevis|St. Kitts]], [[History of Antigua and Barbuda|Antigua]], [[History of Martinique|Martinique]] and [[History of Guadeloupe|Guadeloupe]], which were the first important societies of slaves in the [[History of the Caribbean|Caribbean]], began the widespread use of enslaved Africans by the end of the 17th century, as their economies converted from sugar production.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CEEDC103EF934A1575BC0A963958260 |title=Involuntary Immigrants |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=27 August 1995 |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref>

England had multiple [[English overseas possessions|sugar colonies]] in the Caribbean, especially Jamaica, Barbados, Nevis, and Antigua, which provided a steady flow of sugar sales; forced labor of slaves produced the sugar.<ref>{{cite book|author=Richard B. Sheridan|title=Sugar and Slavery: An Economic History of the British West Indies, 1623–1775|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QUV98bwrqscC&pg=PA415|year=1974|publisher=Canoe Press|pages=415–26|isbn=978-9768125132}}</ref> By the 1700s, there were more slaves in Barbados than in all the English colonies on the mainland combined. Since Barbados did not have many mountains, English planters were able to clear land for sugarcane. Indentured servants were initially sent to Barbados to work in the sugar fields. These indentured servants were treated so poorly that future indentured servants stopped going to Barbados, and there were not enough people to work the fields. This is when the British started bringing in enslaved Africans. For the English planters in Barbados, reliance on enslaved labor was necessary for them to be able to profit from production of cane-origin sugar for the growing market for sugar in Europe and other markets.<ref name=":2" />

In the [[Peace of Utrecht|Treaty of Utrecht]], which ended the [[War of the Spanish Succession]] (1702–1714), the various European powers negotiating the terms of the treaty also discussed colonial issues as well.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Waddel | first1 = David A.G. | year = 1960 | title = Queen Anne's Government and the Slave Trade | journal = Caribbean Quarterly | volume = 6 | issue = 1| pages = 7–10 | doi=10.1080/00086495.1960.11829793}}</ref> Of special importance in the negotiations at Utrecht was the successful negotiation between the British and French delegations for Britain to obtain a thirty-year monopoly on the right to sell slaves in Spanish America, called the ''[[Asiento de Negros]].'' [[Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] also allowed her [[British North America|North American colonies]] like Virginia to make laws that promoted the importation of slaves. Anne had secretly negotiated with France to get its approval regarding the ''Asiento.''<ref>Edward Gregg. ''Queen Anne'' (2001), pp. 341, 361.</ref> In 1712, she delivered a speech which included a public announcement of her success in taking the ''Asiento'' away from France; many London merchants celebrated her economic coup.<ref>{{cite book|author=Hugh Thomas|title=The Slave Trade: The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade: 1440–1870|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lmPFnzXU7o0C&pg=PA236|year=1997|page=236|publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-0684835655}}</ref> Most of the trade of slaves involved sales to Spanish colonies in the Caribbean, and to Mexico, as well as sales to European colonies in the Caribbean and in North America.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Sheridan | first1 = Richard B. | year = 1972 | title = Africa and the Caribbean in the Atlantic slave trade | journal = American Historical Review | volume = 77 | issue = 1| pages = 15–35 | doi=10.2307/1856592| jstor = 1856592 }}</ref> Historian Vinita Ricks says the agreement allotted Queen Anne "22.5% (and [[Philip V of Spain|King Philip V, of Spain]] 28%) of all profits collected for the ''Asiento'' monopoly. Ricks concludes that the Queen's "connection to slave trade revenue meant that she was no longer a neutral observer. She had a vested interest in what happened on slave ships."<ref>{{cite book|author=Vinita Moch Ricks|title=Through the Lens of the Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HKtZDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT77|isbn=978-1483513645|page=77|date=1 August 2013|publisher=BookBaby}}{{Dead link|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

By 1778, the French were importing approximately 13,000 Africans for enslavement yearly to the French West Indies.<ref name=Kitchin1/>

To regularise slavery, in 1685 [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]] had enacted the ''[[Code Noir]]'', a [[slave code]] accorded certain [[human rights]] to slaves and responsibilities to the master, who was obliged to feed, clothe and provide for the general well-being of his human property. [[Free people of color]] owned one-third of the [[Sugar plantations in the Caribbean|plantation property]] and one-quarter of the slaves in Saint Domingue (later [[Haiti]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/chap8a.html |title=Slavery and the Haitian Revolution |publisher=Chnm.gmu.edu |access-date=4 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111105214459/http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/chap8a.html |archive-date=5 November 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Slavery in the [[First French Republic|First Republic]] was abolished on 4 February 1794. When it became clear that [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] intended to re-establish [[slavery in Haiti|slavery in Saint-Domingue]] (Haiti), [[Jean-Jacques Dessalines]] and [[Alexandre Pétion]] switched sides, in October 1802. On 1 January 1804, Dessalines, the new leader under the dictatorial 1801 constitution, declared [[Haiti]] a free republic.<ref name=Haiti/> Thus Haiti became the second independent nation in the Western Hemisphere, after the United States, as a result of the only successful [[slave rebellion]] in world history.<ref name=Revolution>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fsmitha.com/h3/h34-np2.html|title=Haiti, 1789 to 1806|website=www.fsmitha.com}}</ref>
[[File:KMS376 Dirk Valkenburg - Ritual Slave Party on a Sugar Plantation in Surinam.jpg|thumb|18th-century painting of [[Dirk Valkenburg]] showing plantation slaves during a Ceremonial dance.]]

[[Whitehall]] in England announced in 1833 that slaves in British colonies would be completely freed by 1838. In the meantime, the government told slaves they had to remain on their plantations and would have the status of "apprentices" for the next six years.

In [[Port-of-Spain]], [[Trinidad]], on 1 August 1834, an unarmed group of mainly elderly Negroes being addressed by the Governor at Government House about the new laws, began chanting: "Pas de six ans. Point de six ans" ("Not six years. No six years"), drowning out the voice of the Governor. Peaceful protests continued until a resolution to abolish [[apprenticeship]] was passed and ''de facto'' freedom was achieved. Full [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|emancipation]] for all was legally granted ahead of schedule on 1 August 1838, making Trinidad the first British colony with slaves to completely abolish slavery.<ref>Dryden, John. 1992 "Pas de Six Ans!" In: ''Seven Slaves & Slavery: Trinidad 1777–1838'', by Anthony de Verteuil, Port of Spain, pp. 371–79.</ref>

After Great Britain abolished slavery, it began to [[Blockade of Africa|pressure other nations]] to do the same. France, too, abolished slavery. By then Saint-Domingue had already won its independence and formed the independent [[Republic of Haiti (1820–1849)|Republic of Haiti]], though France still controlled [[Guadeloupe]], [[Martinique]] and a few smaller islands.

===Canada===
{{main|Slavery in Canada}}
{{see also|Slavery in New France}}
Slavery in Canada was practised by [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]] and continued during the [[European colonization of the Americas|European colonization]] of Canada.<ref name="LawsonLawson2019">{{cite book|author1=Russell M. Lawson|author2=Benjamin A. Lawson|title=Race and Ethnicity in America: From Pre-contact to the Present &#91;4 volumes&#93;|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ou6yDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16|date=11 October 2019|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-4408-5097-4|pages=16–}}</ref> It is estimated that there were 
4,200 slaves in the [[Canada (New France)|French colony of Canada]] and later [[British North America]] between 1671 and 1831.<ref name=Marcel>
{{cite book|author1=Marcel Trudel|author2=Micheline d' Allaire|title=Canada's Forgotten Slaves: Two Centuries of Bondage|year=2013|publisher=Independent Publishing Group|isbn=978-1-55065-327-4|page=Intro}}</ref> Two-thirds of these were of indigenous ancestry 
(typically called ''[[Panis (slaves of First Nation descent)|panis]]'')<ref>{{cite web|title=Slavery|url=https://www.historymuseum.ca/virtual-museum-of-new-france/population/slavery/|website=Virtual Museum of New France|publisher=Canadian Museum of History|access-date=15 May 2018}}</ref> whereas the other third were of African descent.<ref name=Marcel/> They were house servants and farm workers.<ref name="AppiahGates2005">{{cite book|author1=Anthony Appiah|author2=Henry Louis Gates|title=Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TMZMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA722|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-517055-9|page=722}}</ref>  The number of slaves of color increased during [[History of Canada (1763–1867)|British rule]], especially with the arrival of [[United Empire Loyalists]] after 1783.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/black-enslavement|title=Black Enslavement in Canada &#124; The Canadian Encyclopedia|website=www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca}}</ref> A small portion of [[Black Canadians]] today are descended from these slaves.<ref name="Marsh1999">{{cite book|author=James H. Marsh|title=The Canadian Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wR_-aSFyvuYC&pg=PA259|year=1999|publisher=The Canadian Encyclopedia|isbn=978-0-7710-2099-5|page=259}}</ref>

The practice of slavery in [[the Canadas]] ended through case law; having died out in the early 19th century through judicial actions litigated on behalf of slaves seeking [[manumission]].<ref name="Shadd2016">{{cite book|author=Mary Ann Shadd|title=A Plea for Emigration; or Notes of Canada West: A Broadview Anthology of British Literature Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ob1aDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA11|year=2016|publisher=Broadview Press|isbn=978-1-55481-321-6|page=11}}</ref> The courts, to varying degrees, rendered slavery unenforceable in both [[Lower Canada]] and [[Nova Scotia]]. In Lower Canada, for example, after court decisions in the late 1790s, the "slave could not be compelled to serve longer than he would, and ... might leave his master at will."<ref name="archive.org">{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/stream/slaveincanada00ridd/slaveincanada00ridd_djvu.txt|title=Full text of "The slave in Canada"|website=archive.org|year=1920}}</ref> [[Upper Canada]] passed the  ''[[Act Against Slavery]]'' in 1793, one of the earliest anti-slavery acts in the world.<ref name="OnufGould2005">{{cite book|author1=Peter S. Onuf|author2=Eliga H. Gould|title=Empire and Nation: The American Revolution in the Atlantic World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YZw-CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA298|year=2005|publisher=JHU Press|isbn=978-1-4214-1842-1|page=298}}</ref> The institution was formally banned throughout most of the British Empire, including the Canadas in 1834, after the passage of the ''[[Slavery Abolition Act 1833]]'' in the British parliament. These measures resulted in a number of Black people (free and slaves) from the United States moving to Canada after the [[American Revolution]], known as the [[Black Loyalists]]; and again after the [[War of 1812]], with a number of [[Black Refugees (War of 1812)|Black Refugees]] settling in Canada. During the mid-19th century, British North America served as a terminus for the [[Underground Railroad]], a network of routes used by [[Fugitive slaves in the United States|enslaved African-Americans]] to escape a [[Slave states and free states|slave state]].

===Latin America===
{{further|Repartimiento|Slavery in the Spanish New World colonies}}
[[File:Tropenmuseum Royal Tropical Institute Objectnumber 3444-7 Begrafenis bij plantageslaven2.jpg|thumb|Funeral at slave plantation during Dutch colonial rule, [[Suriname]]. Colored lithograph printed circa 1840–1850, digitally restored.]]
During the period from the late 19th century and early 20th century, demand for the labor-intensive harvesting of rubber drove frontier expansion and slavery in Latin America and elsewhere. Indigenous peoples were enslaved as part of the [[rubber boom]] in Ecuador, [[Peru]], Colombia, and [[Brazil]].<ref>Michael Edward Stanfield, ''Red Rubber, Bleeding Trees: Violence, Slavery, and Empire in Northwest Amazonia, 1850–1933''</ref> In Central America, rubber tappers participated in the enslavement of the indigenous [[Maleku people|Guatuso-Maleku people]] for domestic service.<ref>Mark Edelman, "A Central American Genocide: Rubber, Slavery, Nationalism, and the Destruction of the Guatusos-Malekus," Comparative Studies in Society and History (1998), 40: 356–390.</ref>

===United States===
{{Main|Slavery in the United States|Slave trade in the United States|Slavery in the colonial history of the United States}}
{{see also|Cherokee Freedmen Controversy#Slavery among the Cherokee|l1=Slavery among the Cherokee}}

====Early events====
In late August 1619, the frigate ''[[White Lion (ship)|White Lion]]'', a [[privateer]] ship owned by [[Robert Rich, 2nd Earl of Warwick]], but flying a Dutch flag arrived at Point Comfort, Virginia (several miles downstream from the colony of [[Jamestown, Virginia]]) with the first recorded slaves from Africa to Virginia. The approximately 20 Africans were from the present-day [[Angola]]. They had been removed by the ''White Lion''{{'}}s crew from a Portuguese cargo ship, the ''São João Bautista''.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20190813174448/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/archaeology-and-history/magazine/2019/07-08/virginia-first-africans-transatlantic-slave-trade/] 400 years ago, enslaved Africans first arrived in Virginia</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |date=2019-08-20 |title=Where the Landing of the First Africans in English North America Really Fits in the History of Slavery |url=https://time.com/5653369/august-1619-jamestown-history/ |access-date=2023-08-11 |magazine=Time |language=en}}</ref>

Historians are undecided if the legal practice of slavery began in the colony because at least some of them had the status of [[Indentured servitude in British America|indentured servant]]. Alden T. Vaughn says most agree that both black slaves and indentured servants existed by 1640.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=The Origins Debate: Slavery and Racism in Seventeenth-Century Virginia |journal=The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography |first=Alden T. |last=Vaughan |date=1989 |jstor=4249092 |volume=97 |issue=3 |pages=311–54}}</ref>

Only a small fraction of the enslaved Africans brought to the [[New World]] came to [[British North America]], perhaps as little as 5% of the total. The vast majority of slaves were sent to the [[Caribbean]] sugar colonies, Brazil, or [[Spanish America]].

By the 1680s, with the consolidation of England's [[Royal African Company]], enslaved Africans were arriving in English colonies in larger numbers, and the institution continued to be protected by the British government. Colonists now began purchasing slaves in larger numbers.

====Slavery in American colonial law====
[[File:Virginia one hundred years ago.jpg|thumb|Well-dressed plantation owner and family visiting the slave quarters.]]
* 1640: [[Colony of Virginia|Virginia]] courts sentence [[John Punch (slave)|John Punch]] to lifetime slavery, marking the earliest legal sanctioning of slavery in English colonies.<ref name="Donoghue 2010">{{Cite book |title=Out of the Land of Bondage": The English Revolution and the Atlantic Origins of Abolition |first=John |last=Donoghue |work=The American Historical Review|year=2010 |url=http://ahr.oxfordjournals.org/content/115/4/943.full.pdf+html?sid=dc069c4e-7758-487c-a4d7-4d23f203e0df|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904020937/http://ahr.oxfordjournals.org/content/115/4/943.full.pdf+html?sid=dc069c4e-7758-487c-a4d7-4d23f203e0df|url-status=dead|archive-date=2015-09-04}}</ref>
* 1641: [[Massachusetts Bay Colony|Massachusetts]] legalizes [[Slavery in Massachusetts|slavery]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Junius P. Rodriguez|title=Slavery in the United States: A Social, Political, and Historical Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4X44KbDBl9gC&pg=PA3|year=2007|publisher=ABC-CLIO|page=3|isbn=978-1851095445}}</ref>
* 1650: [[Connecticut Colony|Connecticut]] legalizes [[History of slavery in Connecticut|slavery]].
* 1652: [[Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations|Rhode Island]] bans the enslavement or forced servitude of any white or negro for more than ten years or beyond the age of 24.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.brown.edu/Facilities/John_Carter_Brown_Library/exhibitions/jcbexhibit/Pages/exhibSlavery.html#anchor |title=Rhode Island bans slavery: 18 May 1652|date=18 May 1652}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U2YFAAAAQAAJ&q=Whereas%2C+it+is+a+common+course+practiced+amongst+English+men+to+buy+negers%2C+to+that+end+they+have+them+for+service+or+slave+forever%3A+let+it+be+ordered%2C+no+blacke&pg=PA262|title=History of the Negro Race in America from 1619 to 1880, Vol. 1|date=1882|last1=Williams|first1=George Washington|publisher=G.P. Putnam's Sons |isbn=9780722297803}}</ref>
* 1654: Virginia sanctions "the right of Negros to own slaves of their own race" after African [[Anthony Johnson (colonist)|Anthony Johnson]], former indentured servant, sued to have fellow African [[John Casor]] declared not an indentured servant but "slave for life."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/stream/jstor-3035621/3035621#page/n3/mode/2up/search/Johnson |title=Records of the County Court of Northampton, Virginia, Orders Deeds and Wills, 1651–1654| page=10|publisher=The Journal of Negro History|date=June 1916}}</ref>
* 1661: Virginia officially recognizes [[History of slavery in Virginia|slavery]] by statute.
* 1662: A Virginia statute declares that children born would have the same status as their mother.
* 1663: [[Province of Maryland|Maryland]] legalizes [[History of slavery in Maryland|slavery]].
* 1664: Slavery is legalized in [[Province of New York|New York]] and [[Province of New Jersey|New Jersey]].<ref>McElrath, Jessica, [http://afroamhistory.about.com/od/slavery/a/timeline_slave.htm ''Timeline of Slavery in America-African American History''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060813193544/http://afroamhistory.about.com/od/slavery/a/timeline_slave.htm |date=13 August 2006 }}, ''About.com''. Retrieved 6 December 2006.</ref>
* 1670: [[Province of Carolina|Carolina]] (later, [[Province of South Carolina|South Carolina]] and [[Province of North Carolina|North Carolina]]) is founded mainly by planters from the overpopulated British sugar island colony of [[Barbados]], who brought relatively large numbers of African slaves from that island.<ref>Wood, ''Origins of American Slavery'' (1997), pp. 64–65.</ref>
* 1676: Rhode Island bans the enslavement of Native Americans.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://time.com/4782885/rhode-island-antislavery/ |title=America's First Anti-Slavery Statute Was Passed in 1652. Here's Why It Was Ignored|date=18 May 2017}}</ref>

====Development of slavery====
The shift from indentured servants to enslaved African was prompted by a dwindling class of former servants who had worked through the terms of their indentures and thus became competitors to their former masters. These newly freed servants were rarely able to support themselves comfortably, and the tobacco industry was increasingly dominated by large planters. This caused domestic unrest culminating in [[Bacon's Rebellion]]. Eventually, chattel slavery became the norm in regions dominated by [[Plantation complexes in the Southern United States|plantations]].

The [[Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina]] established a model in which a rigid social hierarchy placed slaves under the absolute authority of their master. With the rise of a [[plantation economy]] in the [[Carolina Lowcountry]] based on rice cultivation, a society of slaves was created that later became the model for the [[King Cotton]] economy across the [[Deep South]]. The model created by South Carolina was driven by the emergence of a majority enslaved population that required repressive and often brutal force to control. Justification for such an enslaved society developed into a conceptual framework of white supremacy in the American colonies.<ref>Wilson, Thomas D. ''The Ashley Cooper Plan: The Founding of Carolina and the Origins of Southern Political Culture''. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2016. Chapter 3.</ref>

Several local [[slave rebellion]]s took place during the 17th and 18th centuries: Gloucester County, Virginia Revolt (1663);<ref>Joseph Cephas Carroll, ''Slave Insurrections in the United States, 1800–1865'', p. 13</ref> [[New York Slave Revolt of 1712]]; [[Stono Rebellion]] (1739); and [[New York Slave Insurrection of 1741]].<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 2784871|title = Enslaved African Rebellions in Virginia|journal = Journal of Black Studies|volume = 27|issue = 5|pages = 598–614|last1 = Tang|first1 = Joyce|year = 1997|doi = 10.1177/002193479702700502|s2cid = 140979420}}</ref>

====Early United States law====
[[File:James Hopkinsons Plantation Slaves Going to Field.jpg|thumb|[[Cassina Point|James Hopkinson's plantation]], South Carolina ca. 1862.]]
Within the [[British Empire]], the [[Judiciary of Massachusetts|Massachusetts courts]] began to follow England when, in 1772, England became the first country in the world to outlaw the slave trade within its borders (see ''[[Somerset v Stewart]]'') followed by the ''[[Joseph Knight (slave)|Knight v. Wedderburn]]'' decision in Scotland in 1778. Between 1764 and 1774, seventeen slaves appeared in Massachusetts courts to sue their owners for freedom.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8e-wBAAAQBAJ|title=Tyrannicide: Forging an American Law of Slavery in Revolutionary South Carolina and Massachusetts|first=Emily|last=Blanck|date=6 March 2014|publisher=University of Georgia Press|isbn=9780820338644 |via=Google Books}}</ref> In 1766, [[John Adams]]' colleague [[Benjamin Kent]] won the first trial in the present-day United States to free a slave (''Slew vs. Whipple'').<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/05-02-02-0004-0002-0002|title=Founders Online: Adams' Minutes of the Argument: Essex Superior Court, Salem, N …|website=founders.archives.gov}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://kentakepage.com/jenny-slew-the-first-enslaved-person-to-win-her-freedom-via-jury-trial/ | title=Jenny Slew: The first enslaved person to win her freedom via jury trial | author=Meserette | publisher=Kentake Page | date=29 January 2016 | access-date=24 July 2019 }}</ref><ref>[http://pragmaticobotsunite2018.com/thursday-open-thread-little-known-slave-court-cases/ Thursday Open Thread: Little Known Slave Court Cases NOVEMBER 9, 2017 BY MIRANDA]</ref><ref>[http://www.masshist.org/publications/adams-papers/view?&id=LJA02dg7 Legal Papers of John Adams, volume 2]</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dlSpAgAAQBAJ&dq=%22benjamin+kent%22+lawyer+boston+woman&pg=PA130|title=Love of Freedom: Black Women in Colonial and Revolutionary New England|first1=Catherine|last1=Adams|first2=Elizabeth H.|last2=Pleck|date=1 February 2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-974178-6 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cambridgehistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Proceedings-Volume-40-1964-1966.pdf|title=The Proceedings of the Cambridge Historical Society, Volume 40, 1964-1966}}</ref>

The [[Republic of Vermont]] allowed the enslavement of children in its [[Constitution of Vermont (1777)|constitution of 1777]] suggesting that people "ought not" enslave adults, but there was no enforcement of this suggestion. Vermont entered the United States in 1791 with the same constitutional provisions.<ref>{{cite web |last=Whitefield |first=Harvey Amani |date=2014 |title=The Problem of Slavery in Early Vermont |url=https://vermonthistory.org/problem-of-slavery#:~:text=%E2%80%9CThe%20Problem%20of%20Slavery%20in,of%20History%2C%20University%20of%20Kentucky. |access-date=14 October 2015 |website=Vermont History |publisher=Vermont Historical Society}}</ref> Through the [[Northwest Ordinance]] of 1787 under the [[Congress of the Confederation]], slavery was prohibited in the territories north west of the [[Ohio River]]. In 1794, Congress [[Slave Trade Act of 1794|banned American vessels from being used]] in the slave trade, and also banned the export of slaves from America to other countries.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://abolition.nypl.org/essays/us_constitution/4/ | title=REGULATING THE TRADE | publisher=New York Public Library | access-date=24 June 2014}}</ref> However, little effort was made to enforce this legislation. The [[slave ship]] owners of Rhode Island were able to continue in trade, and the USA's slaving fleet in 1806 was estimated to be nearly 75% as large as that of Britain, with dominance of the transportation of slaves into Cuba.{{r|Grindal 2016|p=63}} By 1804, abolitionists succeeded in passing legislation that ended legal slavery in every [[Northern United States|northern state]] (with slaves above a certain age legally transformed to indentured servants).<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=idktzKdgb7YC&q=page+471&pg=PA471 Dictionary of Afro-American slavery] By Randall M. Miller, John David Smith. Greenwood Publishing Group, 1997. p. 471.</ref> Congress passed an [[Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves]] as of 1 January 1808; but not the [[Slavery in the United States#Internal slave trade|internal slave trade]].<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/30/opinion/30foner.html Foner, Eric. "Forgotten step towards freedom,"] ''New York Times.'' 30 December 2007.</ref>

Despite the actions of abolitionists, free blacks were subject to [[Racial segregation in the United States#Issues in the North|racial segregation]] in the Northern states.<ref name="AIA4">[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4narr3.html "Africans in America"] – PBS Series – Part 4 (2007)</ref> While the United Kingdom did not ban slavery throughout most of the empire, including [[British North America]] till 1833, free blacks found refuge in [[the Canadas]] after the [[American Revolutionary War]] and again after the [[War of 1812]]. Refugees from slavery fled the South across the Ohio River to the North via the [[Underground Railroad]]. Midwestern state governments asserted [[States Rights]] arguments to refuse federal jurisdiction over fugitives. Some juries exercised their right of [[Jury nullification in the United States|jury nullification]] and refused to convict those indicted under the [[Fugitive Slave Act of 1850]].

After the passage of the [[Kansas–Nebraska Act]] in 1854, armed conflict broke out in [[Kansas Territory]], where the question of whether it would be admitted to the Union as a slave state or a free state had been left to the inhabitants. The radical abolitionist [[John Brown (abolitionist)|John Brown]] was active in the mayhem and killing in "[[Bleeding Kansas]]." The true turning point in public opinion is better fixed at the [[Lecompton Constitution]] fraud. Pro-slavery elements in [[Kansas]] had arrived first from [[Missouri]] and quickly organized a territorial government that excluded abolitionists. Through the machinery of the territory and violence, the pro-slavery faction attempted to force the unpopular pro-slavery [[Lecompton Constitution]] through the state. This infuriated [[Northern Democratic Party|Northern Democrats]], who supported [[Popular sovereignty in the United States|popular sovereignty]], and was exacerbated by the [[James Buchanan|Buchanan]] administration reneging on a promise to submit the constitution to a referendum—which would surely fail. Anti-slavery legislators took office under the banner of the newly formed [[History of the Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]]. The [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] in the [[Dred Scott v. Sandford|''Dred Scott'' decision]] of 1857 asserted that one could take one's property anywhere, even if one's property was [[Chattel slavery|chattel]] and one crossed into a free territory. It also asserted that African Americans could not be [[Citizenship of the United States|federal citizens]]. Outraged critics across the North denounced these episodes as the latest of the [[Slave Power]] (the politically organized slave owners) taking more control of the nation.<ref>Leonard L. Richards, ''The Slave Power: The Free North and Southern Domination, 1780–1860'' (2000)</ref>

====American Civil War====
{{Further|American Civil War|Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War|Confederate States of America|Abolition of slavery in the United States|Reconstruction era}}

The enslaved population in the United States stood at four million.<ref name="itd.nps.gov">{{cite web |url=https://www.nps.gov/civilwar/soldiers-and-sailors-database.htm |title=Introduction – Social Aspects of the Civil War |publisher=Itd.nps.gov |access-date=4 December 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070714073725/http://www.itd.nps.gov/cwss/manassas/social/introsoc.htm |archive-date=14 July 2007}}</ref> Ninety-five percent of blacks lived in the South, constituting one third of the population there as opposed to 1% of the population of the North. The central issue in politics in the 1850s involved the extension of slavery into the [[Western United States|western territories]], which settlers from the Northern states opposed. The [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig Party]] split and collapsed on the slavery issue, to be replaced in the North by [[History of the United States Republican Party|the new Republican Party]], which was dedicated to stopping the expansion of slavery. Republicans gained a majority in every northern state by [[Free Soil Party|absorbing a faction of anti-slavery Democrats]], and warning that slavery was a backward system that undercut [[liberal democracy]] and economic modernization.<ref>Eric Foner, ''Free soil, free labor, free men: The ideology of the Republican party before the Civil War'' (1971).</ref> Numerous compromise proposals were put forward, but they all collapsed. A majority of Northern voters were committed to stopping the expansion of slavery, which they believed would ultimately end slavery. Southern voters were overwhelmingly angry that they were being treated as second-class citizens. In the [[U.S. presidential election, 1860|election of 1860]], the Republicans swept [[Abraham Lincoln]] into the [[President of the United States|Presidency]] and his party took control with legislators into the [[United States Congress]]. The states of the [[Deep South]], convinced that the economic power of what they called "[[King Cotton]]" would overwhelm the North and win support from Europe voted to secede from the U.S. (the Union). They formed the [[Confederate States of America]], based on the promise of maintaining slavery. War broke out in April 1861, as both sides sought wave after wave of enthusiasm among young men volunteering to form new regiments and new armies. In the North, the main goal was to preserve the union as an expression of [[American nationalism]].
[[File:Company I of the 36th Colored Regiment.jpg|thumb|Company I of the 36th Colored Regiment [[United States Colored Troops|USCT]]]] Rebel leaders [[Jefferson Davis]], [[Robert E. Lee]], [[Nathan Bedford Forrest]] and others were slavers and [[slave-traders]].

By 1862 most northern leaders realized that the mainstay of Southern secession, slavery, had to be attacked head-on. All the [[Border states (American Civil War)|border states]] rejected President Lincoln's proposal for [[compensated emancipation]]. However, by 1865 all had begun the abolition of slavery, except [[Kentucky]] and [[Delaware]]. The [[Emancipation Proclamation]] was an [[executive order]] issued by Lincoln on 1 January 1863. In a single stroke, it changed the legal status, as recognized by the U.S. government, of 3 million slaves in designated areas of the Confederacy from "slave" to "free." It had the practical effect that as soon as a slave escaped the control of the Confederate government, by running away or through advances of the [[Union Army]], the slave became legally and actually free. Plantation owners, realizing that emancipation would destroy their economic system, sometimes moved their human property as far as possible out of reach of the Union Army. By June 1865, the Union Army controlled all of the Confederacy and liberated all of the designated slaves. The owners were never compensated.<ref>Michael Vorenberg, ed. ''The Emancipation Proclamation: A Brief History with Documents'' (2010),</ref> About 186,000 free blacks and newly freed people [[Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War|fought for the Union in the Army and Navy]], thereby validating their claims to full citizenship.<ref>Ira Berlin, Joseph Patrick Reidy, and Leslie S. Rowland, eds. ''Freedom's Soldiers: The Black Military Experience in the Civil War'' (1998).</ref>

The severe dislocations of war and Reconstruction had a severe negative impact on the black population, with a large amount of sickness and death.<ref>Jim Downs, ''Sick from Freedom: African-American Illness and Suffering during the Civil War and Reconstruction'' (2015)</ref><ref>Margaret Humphreys, ''Marrow of Tragedy: The Health Crisis of the American Civil War'' (2013)</ref> After liberation, many of the Freedmen remained on the same plantation. Others fled or crowded into refugee camps operated by the [[Freedmen's Bureau]]. The Bureau provided food, housing, clothing, medical care, church services, some schooling, legal support, and arranged for labor contracts.<ref>Paul A. Cimbala, ''The Freedmen's Bureau: Reconstructing the American South after the Civil War'' (2005)</ref> Fierce debates about the rights of the Freedmen, and of the defeated Confederates, often accompanied by killings of black leaders, marked the [[Reconstruction Era]], 1863–1877.<ref>Eric Foner, ''A short history of Reconstruction, 1863–1877'' (1990)</ref>

Slavery was never reestablished, but after President [[Ulysses S. Grant]] left the [[White House]] in 1877, [[White supremacy|white-supremacist]] "[[Redeemers|Redeemer]]" [[Southern Democrats]] took control of all the southern states, and blacks lost nearly all the political power they had achieved during Reconstruction. By 1900, they also [[Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era|lost the right to vote]] – they had become second class citizens. The great majority lived in the rural South in [[Poverty in the United States|poverty]] working as laborers, sharecroppers or tenant farmers; a small proportion owned their own land. The [[black church]]es, especially the [[Baptist Church]], was the center of community activity and leadership.<ref>C. Vann Woodward, ''Origins of the New South, 1877–1913'' (1951)</ref>

==Asia==
{{Main|History of slavery in Asia}}
{{further|Slavery in antiquity|History of slavery in the Muslim world}}
[[File:Naturales 1.png|thumb|upright|A plate in the [[Boxer Codex]] possibly depicting ''[[alipin]]'' (slaves) in the pre-colonial Philippines.]]
[[File:Chinese Slave trade.jpg|thumb|upright|A contract from the [[Tang dynasty]] that records the purchase of a 15-year-old slave for six bolts of plain silk and five [[Ancient Chinese coinage|Chinese coins]].]]

Slavery has existed all throughout Asia, and forms of slavery still exist today. In the ancient [[Near East]] and [[Asia Minor]] slavery was common practice, dating back to the very earliest recorded civilisations in the world such as [[Sumer]], [[Elam]], [[Ancient Egypt]], [[Akkadian Empire|Akkad]], [[Assyria]], [[Ebla]] and [[Babylonia]], as well as amongst the [[Hattians]], [[Hittites]], [[Hurrians]], [[Mycenaean Greece]], [[Luwians]], [[Canaanites]], [[Israelites]], [[Amorites]], [[Phoenicians]], [[Arameans]], [[Ammon]]ites, [[Edomites]], [[Moabites]], [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]], [[Philistines]], [[Medes]], [[Phrygians]], [[Lydians]], [[Mitanni]], [[Kassites]], [[Parthian Empire|Parthians]], [[Urartians]], [[Colchians]], [[Chaldea]]ns and [[Armenians]].<ref>^ "Ancient Slavery". Ditext.com. Retrieved 18 October 2015.</ref><ref>Hopkins, Keith (31 January 1981). Conquerors and Slaves. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 101. {{ISBN|978-0521281812}}.</ref><ref>"Cyrus Charter of Human Rights". www.persepolis.nu. MANI. Retrieved 21 July 2015</ref>

Slavery in the Middle East first developed out of the [[slavery]] practices of the Ancient Near East,<ref name="Lewis">Lewis 1994, [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/med/lewis1.html Ch.1]</ref> and these practices were radically different at times, depending on social-political factors such as the [[Muslim slave trade]]. Two rough estimates by scholars of the number of slaves held over twelve centuries in Muslim lands are 11.5 million<ref>[Total of black slave trade in the Muslim world from Sahara, Red Sea and Indian Ocean routes thru the 19th century comes to an estimated 11,500,000, "a figure not far short of the 11,863,000 estimated to have been loaded onto ships during the four centuries of the Atlantic slave trade." (Paul E. Lovejoy, Transformation in Slavery (CUP, 1983)</ref>
and 14 million.<ref>Raymond Mauvy estimates a total of 14 million black slaves were traded in Islam thru the 20th Century, including 300,000 for part of the 20th century. (p. 57,  source: "Les Siecles obsurs de l'Afrique Noire" (Paris: Fayard, 1970)]</ref><ref name=nyt-2015>{{cite news|last1=Hochschild|first1=Ada|title=Human Cargo|url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/01/03/04/reviews/010304.04hochsct.html|access-date=1 September 2015|agency=New York Times|date=4 March 2001}}</ref>

Under [[Sharia]] (Islamic law),<ref name="Lewis" /><ref name="eois">Brunschvig. 'Abd; ''[[Encyclopedia of Islam]]''</ref> children of slaves or prisoners of war could become slaves, but only if they are non-Muslim, leading to the Islamic world to import many slaves from other regions, predominantly Europe.<ref>Du Pasquier, Roger, ''Unveiling Islam'', p. 67</ref> [[Manumission]] of a slave was encouraged as a way of expiating sins.<ref name=autogenerated3>Gordon 1987, p. 40.</ref> Many early converts to Islam, such as [[Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi]], were poor and former slaves.<ref>The Qur'an with Annotated Interpretation in Modern English By Ali Ünal p. 1323 [https://books.google.com/books?id=DyuqdDIjaswC&dq=Bilal+ibn+Rabah+al-Habashi&pg=PA1323]</ref><ref>[[Encyclopedia of the Qur'an]], Slaves and Slavery</ref><ref>Bilal b. Rabah, [[Encyclopedia of Islam]]</ref><ref>''The Cambridge History of Islam'' (1977), p. 36</ref>

===Byzantine Empire===
{{Main|Slavery in the Byzantine Empire|Balkan slave trade|Black Sea slave trade}}
Slavery played a notable role in the economy of the Byzantine Empire. Many slaves were sourced from wars within the Mediterranean and Europe while others were sourced from [[Volga trade route|trading with Vikings]] visiting the empire. Slavery's role in the economy and the power of slave owners slowly diminished while laws gradually improved the rights of slaves.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-world-history-of-slavery/slavery-in-the-byzantine-empire/6BC93914928532A51E2D9BE5EF40771F|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 2: AD 500–AD 1420|first=Noel|last=Lenski|chapter=Slavery in the Byzantine Empire |editor-first1=Craig|editor-last1=Perry|editor-first2=David|editor-last2=Eltis|editor-first3=David|editor-last3=Richardson|editor-first4=Stanley L.|editor-last4=Engerman|date=6 March 2021|publisher=Cambridge University Press|volume=2|pages=453–481|doi=10.1017/9781139024723.019 |isbn=9780521840675 |s2cid=240619349 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qlU37xo9LeUC&q=slavery|title=Change in Byzantine Culture in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries|first1=Aleksandr Petrovich|last1=Kazhdan|first2=Ann Wharton|last2=Epstein|first3=Annabel Jane|last3=Wharton|date=1 January 1985|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520051294 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref name="books.google.gr">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZW9DjTAox6EC&q=Orthodox|title=Islam and the Abolition of Slavery|first=W. G.|last=Clarence-Smith|date=6 March 2006|publisher=Hurst|isbn=9781850657088 |via=Google Books}}</ref> Under the influence of Christianity, views of slavery shifted leading to slaves gaining more rights and independence, and although slavery became rare and was seen as evil by many citizens it was still legal.<ref>Clarence-Smith. W. G. ''Religions and the abolition of slavery - a comparative approach.'' https://www.lse.ac.uk/Economic-History/Assets/Documents/Research/GEHN/GEHNConferences/conf10/Conf10-ClarenceSmith.pdf</ref><ref>Youval Rotman, "Byzantine Slavery and the Mediterranean World", transl. by Jane Marie Todd, Cambridge, Massachusetts – London, Harvard University Press 2009. Book presentation in a) [http://www.mediterraneanchronicle.org/datafiles/file/MC1_294.pdf Nikolaos Linardos (University of Athens), ''Mediterranean Chronicle'' 1 (2011)  pp. 281, 282], b) [https://academic.oup.com/ahr/article/115/5/1513/42872 Alice Rio, ''American Historical Review'', Vol. 115, Issue 5, 2010, pp. 1513–1514]</ref>

During the [[Arab–Byzantine wars]] many prisoners of war were ransomed into slavery while others took part in [[Arab–Byzantine prisoner exchanges]]. Exchanges of prisoners became a regular feature of the relations between the Byzantine Empire and the [[Abbasid Caliphate]].{{sfn|Toynbee|1973|pp=382–383, 388–390}}{{sfn|Oikonomides|1991|p=1722}}{{sfn|Toynbee|1973|p=388}}

After the fall of the Byzantine empire thousands of Byzantine citizens were enslaved, with 30,000–50,000 citizens being enslaved by the Ottoman Empire after the [[Fall of Constantinople]].<ref name="Akbar2002">{{cite book|author=M.J Akbar|title=The Shade of Swords: Jihad and the Conflict Between Islam and Christianity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d_iBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA86|date=3 May 2002|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-45259-0|page=86|quote=Some 30,000 Christians were either enslaved or sold.|access-date=6 August 2020|archive-date=12 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201012040247/https://books.google.com/books?id=d_iBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA86|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Davis">{{Cite book |last=Davis |first=Paul K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eKhZHVtIX8UC&pg=PA84 |title=Besieged: 100 Great Sieges from Jericho to Sarajevo |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-521930-2 |pages=84 |language=en}}</ref>

===Ottoman Empire===
{{main|Slavery in the Ottoman Empire|Crimean slave trade}}
[[File:Yasyr 3.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Ottoman Turks with captives from the [[Hundred Years' Croatian–Ottoman War]]]]
Slavery was a legal and important part of the [[economy of the Ottoman Empire]] and [[Social structure of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman society]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst373/readings/inalcik6.html|title=Supply of Slaves}}</ref> until the slavery of [[peoples of the Caucasus|Caucasians]] was banned in the early 19th century, although slaves from other groups were allowed.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=TnVgKpqCxzQC&pg=PA28 Ottomans against Italians and Portuguese about (white slavery)].</ref> In [[Constantinople]] (present-day [[Istanbul]]), the administrative and political center of the Empire, about a fifth of the population consisted of slaves in 1609.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157 Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History].</ref> Even after several measures to ban slavery in the late 19th century, the practice continued largely unaffected into the early 20th century. As late as 1908, female slaves were still sold in the Ottoman Empire. [[Sexual slavery]] was a central part of the Ottoman slave system throughout the history of the institution.<ref name="Schierbrand1886">{{cite news | title=Slaves sold to the Turk; How the vile traffic is still carried on in the East. Sights our correspondent saw for twenty dollars—in the house of a grand old Turk of a dealer. (news was reported on March 4)|author=Wolf Von Schierbrand |author-link=Wolf Curt von Schierbrand |work=[[The New York Times]]|date=28 March 1886 |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1886/03/28/106300694.pdf|access-date=19 January 2011}}</ref><ref name="Zilfi2010">Madeline C. Zilfi ''Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire'' Cambridge University Press, 2010</ref>

A member of the Ottoman slave class, called a ''[[wikt:kul#Turkish|kul]]'' in [[Turkish language|Turkish]], could achieve high status. [[Harem]] guards and [[janissaries]] are some of the better-known positions a slave could hold, but slaves were actually often at the forefront of Ottoman politics. The majority of officials in the Ottoman government were bought slaves, raised as slaves of the Sultan, and integral to the success of the Ottoman Empire from the 14th century into the 19th. Many officials themselves owned a large number of slaves, although the [[Sultan of the Ottoman Empire|Sultan]] himself owned by far the largest amount.<ref name="Dursteler2006">{{cite book|author=Eric Dursteler|title=Venetians in Constantinople: Nation, Identity, and Coexistence in the Early Modern Mediterranean|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LF8uer6PMfAC&pg=PA72|year=2006|publisher=JHU Press|isbn=978-0801883248|page=72}}</ref> By raising and specially training slaves as officials in [[palace school]]s such as [[Enderun]], the Ottomans created administrators with intricate knowledge of government and fanatic loyalty.

Ottomans practiced ''[[devşirme]]'', a sort of "blood tax" or "child collection", young Christian boys from the [[Balkans]] and [[Anatolia]] were taken from their homes and families, brought up as Muslims, and enlisted into the most famous branch of the ''[[kapıkulu]]'', the [[Janissary|Janissaries]], a special soldier class of the [[Military of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman army]] that became a decisive faction in the [[Ottoman wars in Europe|Ottoman invasions of Europe]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=266205|title=Janissary |website=www.everything2.com}}</ref>

During the various 18th and 19th century [[persecution of Christians|persecution campaigns against Christians]] as well as during the culminating [[Assyrian genocide|Assyrian]], [[Armenian genocide|Armenian]] and [[Greek genocide|Greek]] genocides of [[World War I]], many indigenous Armenian, Assyrian and Greek Christian women and children were carried off as slaves by the Ottoman Turks and their Kurdish allies. [[Henry Morgenthau, Sr.]], U.S. Ambassador in Constantinople from 1913 to 1916, reports in his ''[[Ambassador Morgenthau's Story]]'' that there were gangs trading white slaves during his term in Constantinople.<ref>{{cite book | last=Morgenthau | first=Henry | date=1918 | title=Ambassador Morgenthau's Story | location=Garden City, N.Y | publisher=Doubleday, Page & Co. | chapter=8 | chapter-url=http://www.gwpda.org/wwi-www/morgenthau/MorgenTC.htm | access-date=24 July 2019 }}</ref> He also reports that Armenian girls were sold as slaves during the Armenian Genocide.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gwpda.org/wwi-www/morgenthau/Morgen24.htm|title=Ambassador Morgenthau's Story. 1918. Chapter Twenty-Four.|website=www.gwpda.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L-fpAwAAQBAJ&q=HENRY+I+MORGENTHAU+slavery+ottoman+empire&pg=PA41|title=Remembering Genocide|first1=Nigel|last1=Eltringham|first2=Pam|last2=Maclean|date=27 June 2014|publisher=Routledge|via=Google Books|isbn=978-1317754220}}</ref>

According to [[Ronald Segal]], the male:female gender ratio in the [[Atlantic slave trade]] was 2:1, whereas in Islamic lands the ratio was 1:2. Another difference between the two was, he argues, that slavery in the west had a racial component, whereas the Qur'an explicitly condemned racism. This, in Segal's view, eased assimilation of freed slaves into society.<ref name=Segal>Interview with Ronald Segal on the subject of his book ''Islam's Black Slaves: The Other Black Diaspora''. Suzy Hansen, [http://archive.salon.com/books/int/2001/04/05/segal/index.html "Islam's black slaves,"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070301113533/http://archive.salon.com/books/int/2001/04/05/segal/index.html |date=2007-03-01 }} ''[[Salon (website)|Salon]]'', 5 April 2001. Quote: "Here we get to a further dimension of the difference between the two trades. Slavery in the West...the concept of race developed and was popularized...The Koran very explicitly attacks [racism]...This is important for the assimilation aspect too, because once you were freed, there was no discrimination in law against you...I don't think that there's any disputing that slavery was a more benevolent institution in Islam than it was in the West."</ref> Men would often take their female slaves as [[Concubinage in Islam|concubines]]; in fact, most Ottoman sultans were sons of such concubines.<ref name=Segal/>

===Ancient history===

====Ancient India====
{{See also|Slavery in India}}
Scholars differ as to whether or not slaves and the institution of slavery existed in [[History of India|ancient India]]. These English words have no direct, universally accepted equivalent in [[Sanskrit]] or other Indian languages, but some scholars translate the word ''[[dasa]]'', mentioned in texts like ''[[Manu Smriti]]'',<ref name="Stein">B. Stein, D. Arnold. ''A History of India'', p. 212 [https://books.google.com/books?id=0K3GZfqCabsC&q=slavery]. John Wiley and Sons, 2010, 444 pp. {{ISBN|1405195096}}</ref> as slaves.<ref name=as>A Sharma (September 2005), Journal American Acad Religion, vol 73, issue 3, pp. 843–70</ref> Ancient historians who visited India offer the closest insights into the nature of Indian society and slavery in other ancient civilizations. For example, the Greek historian [[Arrian]], who chronicled India about the time of [[Alexander the Great]], wrote in his ''Indika'',<ref name=jwc/>

{{blockquote|The Indians do not even use aliens as slaves, much less a countryman of their own.| The Indika of Arrian<ref name=jwc>J.W. McCrindle (Translator),  [https://archive.org/stream/AncientIndiaAsDescribedByMegasthenesAndArrianByMccrindleJ.W#page/n217/mode/2up/search/slaves Ancient India] Trubner & Co. London</ref>}}

====Ancient China====
{{See also|History of slavery in China}}
* '''[[Qin dynasty]] (221–206&nbsp;BC)''' Men sentenced to [[castration]] became [[eunuch]] slaves of the Qin dynasty state and as a result they were made to do forced labor, on projects like the [[Terracotta Army]].<ref>{{cite book |url={{Google books |id=V6U2AQAAIAAJ |plainurl=yes }} |title=Qin Shihuang|author=Bayerischen Landesamtes für Denkmalpflege|year=2001|publisher=Bayerisches Landesamt für Denkmalpflege|isbn=978-3874907118|page=273|access-date=11 January 2011}}</ref> The Qin government confiscated the property and enslaved the families of those who received castration as a punishment for rape.<ref>{{cite book| url={{Google books |id=EHKxM31e408C |page=252 |plainurl=yes }} |title=The early Chinese empires: Qin and Han|author=Mark Edward Lewis|year=2007|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0674024779|access-date=11 January 2011}}</ref>
** Slaves were deprived of their rights and connections to their families.<ref>{{cite book|url={{Google books |id=hYNuAAAAMAAJ |plainurl=yes }} |title=Journal of East Asian archaeology, Volume 3|author=Society for East Asian Studies|year=2001|publisher=Brill|page=299|access-date=11 January 2011}}</ref>
* '''[[Society and culture of the Han dynasty|Han dynasty (206&nbsp;BC – 220&nbsp;AD)]]''' One of [[Emperor Gaozu of Han|Emperor Gao]]'s first acts was to set free from slavery agricultural workers who were enslaved during the [[Warring States period]], although domestic servants retained their status.
**  Men punished with castration during the [[Han dynasty]] were also used as slave labor.<ref>{{cite book|url={{Google books |id=8IktAAAAIAAJ |plainurl=yes }}|title=Osiris, Volume 10|author=History of Science Society|year=1952|publisher=Saint Catherine Press|page=144|access-date=11 January 2011}}</ref>
** Deriving from earlier [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalist]] laws, the Han dynasty set in place rules that the property of and families of criminals doing three years of hard labor or sentenced to castration were to have their families seized and kept as property by the government.<ref>{{cite book|url={{Google books |id=6M26AAAAIAAJ |plainurl=yes }} |title=Artisans in early imperial China|author=Anthony Jerome Barbieri-Low|year=2007|publisher=University of Washington Press|page=146|access-date=11 January 2011}}</ref>

During the millennium long [[Chinese domination of Vietnam]], Vietnam was a great source of slave girls who were used as sex slaves in China.<ref name="Henley">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gKCea9iRga4C&q=%22slave+girls+of+viet%22&pg=PT232|title=Vietnam Past and Present: The North|last=Henley|first=Andrew Forbes, David|date=26 December 2012 |publisher=Cognoscenti Books|isbn=9781300568070|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/vermilionbirdtan00scha|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/vermilionbirdtan00scha/page/56 56]|quote=slave girls of viet.|title=The Vermilion Bird|last=Schafer|first=Edward Hetzel|date=1967|publisher=University of California Press|language=en}}</ref> The slave girls of Viet were even eroticized in Tang dynasty poetry.<ref name="Henley"/>

The [[Tang dynasty]] purchased Western slaves from the Radhanite Jews.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hirschman|first1=Elizabeth Caldwell|last2=Yates|first2=Donald N.|title=The Early Jews and Muslims of England and Wales: A Genetic and Genealogical History|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0786476848|page=51|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zq9iAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA51|access-date=14 February 2017|language=en|date=29 April 2014}}</ref> Tang Chinese soldiers and pirates enslaved Koreans, Turks, Persians, Indonesians, and people from Inner Mongolia, Central Asia, and northern India.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ_WAAAAMAAJ&q=korean+girls+ming|title=Memoirs of the Research Department, Issue 2|page=63|access-date=4 July 2010|last1=(Japan)|first1=Tōyō Bunko}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XrZQs-6KswMC&q=chinese+slaves+korea&pg=PA49|title=Korea and East Asia: the story of a Phoenix|author=Kenneth B. Lee|year=1997|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|page=49|isbn=978-0275958237|access-date=4 July 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Davis|first1=David Brion|title=The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0195056396|page=51|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IyodFB4SdOIC&pg=PA51|access-date=14 February 2017|language=en|year=1966}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url={{Google books |id=T9AZAQAAIAAJ |plainurl=yes }} |title=The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Daily Life: The medieval world|author=Joyce E. Salisbury|author-link= Joyce E. Salisbury |year=2004|publisher=Greenwood Press|page=316|isbn=978-0313325434|access-date=9 January 2011}}</ref> The greatest source of slaves came from southern tribes, including Thais and aboriginals from the southern provinces of [[Fujian]], [[Guangdong]], [[Guangxi]], and [[Guizhou]]. Malays, Khmers, Indians, and black Africans were also purchased as slaves in the Tang dynasty.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Schafer|first1=Edward H.|title=The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A Study of Tʻang Exotics|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0520054622|pages=45–46|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jqAGIL02BWQC&pg=PA45|access-date=14 February 2017|language=en|year=1963}}</ref> Slavery was prevalent until the late 19th century and early 20th century China.<ref>Gray, John Henry. (1878). ''China: A History of the Laws, Manners and Customs of the People'', pp. 241–43. Reprint: Dover Publications, Mineola, New York. (2002).</ref> All forms of slavery have been illegal in China since 1910.<ref>. Commemoration of the Abolition of Slavery Project</ref>

===Postclassical history===

====Indian subcontinent====
The [[Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent|Islamic invasions]], starting in the 8th century, also resulted in hundreds of thousands of Indians being enslaved by the invading armies, one of the earliest being the armies of the Umayyad commander [[Muhammad bin Qasim]].<ref>Andre Wink, Al-Hind: the Making of the Indo-Islamic World, vol. 1, Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam, Seventh to Eleventh Centuries (Leiden, 1990)</ref><ref name="Muhammad Qasim Firishta 1864">Muhammad Qasim Firishta, Tarikh-i-Firishta (Lucknow, 1864).</ref><ref name="Andre Wink 1997">Andre Wink, Al-Hind: the Making of the Indo-Islamic World, vol. 2, The Slave Kings and the Islamic Conquest, 11th–13th centuries (Leiden, 1997)</ref><ref name="Utbi 1847">Abu Nasr Muhammad al-Utbi, Tarikh al-Yamini (Delhi, 1847), tr. by James Reynolds, The Kitab-i-Yamini (London, 1858),</ref><ref>Mirza Kalichbeg Fredunbeg, tr., ''The Chachnamah, an Ancient History of Sind'', 1900, reprint (Delhi, 1979), pp. 154, 163. This thirteenth-century source is a Persian translation of an (apparently lost) eighth-century Arabic manuscript detailing the Islamic conquests of Sind.</ref> [[Qutb-ud-din Aybak]], a Turkic slave of [[Muhammad Ghori]] rose to power following his master's death. For almost a century, his descendants ruled North-Central India in form of [[Mamluk dynasty (Delhi)|Slave Dynasty]]. Several slaves were also brought to India by the [[Indian Ocean trade]]s; for example, the [[Siddi]] are descendants of [[Bantu peoples|Bantu]] slaves brought to India by Arab and Portuguese merchants.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Shah|first=Anish M.|title=Indian Siddis: African Descendants with Indian Admixture|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|date=15 July 2011|volume=89|issue=1|pages=154–61|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.05.030|display-authors=etal|pmid=21741027|pmc=3135801}}</ref>

Andre Wink summarizes the slavery in 8th and 9th century India as follows,

{{blockquote|(During the invasion of Muhammad al-Qasim), invariably numerous women and children were enslaved. The sources insist that now, in dutiful conformity to religious law, 'the one-fifth of the slaves and spoils' were set apart for the caliph's treasury and despatched to Iraq and Syria. The remainder was scattered among the army of Islam. At Rūr, a random 60,000 captives reduced to slavery. At Brahamanabad 30,000 slaves were allegedly taken. At Multan 6,000. Slave raids continued to be made throughout the late Umayyad period in Sindh, but also much further into Hind, as far as [[Ujjain]] and [[Malwa]]. The Abbasid governors raided Punjab, where many prisoners and slaves were taken.| Al Hind, André Wink<ref>Andre Wink (1991), Al-Hind: the Making of the Indo-Islamic World, vol. 1, Brill Academic (Leiden), {{ISBN|978-9004095090}}, pages 172-173</ref>}}

In the early 11th century Tarikh al-Yamini, the Arab historian [[Al-Utbi]] recorded that in 1001 the armies of [[Mahmud of Ghazna]] conquered [[Peshawar]] and [[Waihand]] (capital of Gandhara) after [[Battle of Peshawar (1001)|Battle of Peshawar]] (1001), "in the midst of the land of [[Hindustan]]", and captured some 100,000 youths.<ref name="Muhammad Qasim Firishta 1864"/><ref name="Andre Wink 1997"/> Later, following his twelfth expedition into India in 1018–19, Mahmud is reported to have returned with such a large number of slaves that their value was reduced to only two to ten dirhams each. This unusually low price made, according to Al-Utbi, "merchants [come] from distant cities to purchase them, so that the countries of Central Asia, Iraq and Khurasan were swelled with them, and the fair and the dark, the rich and the poor, mingled in one common slavery". Elliot and Dowson refer to "five hundred thousand slaves, beautiful men and women.".<ref name="Utbi 1847"/><ref>Wink, Al-Hind, II</ref><ref>Henry M. Elliot and John Dowson, History of India as told by its own Historians, 8 vols (London, 1867–77), II,</ref> Later, during the [[Delhi Sultanate]] period (1206–1555), references to the abundant availability of low-priced Indian slaves abound. Levi attributes this primarily to the vast human resources of India, compared to its neighbors to the north and west (India's [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] population being approximately 12 to 20 times that of [[Turan]] and [[Iran]] at the end of the 16th century).<ref>Dale, Indian Merchants,</ref>

{{blockquote|Slavery and empire-formation tied in particularly well with ''iqta'' and it is within this context of Islamic expansion that elite slavery was later commonly found. It became the predominant system in North India in the thirteenth century and retained considerable importance in the fourteenth century. Slavery was still vigorous in fifteenth-century Bengal, while after that date it shifted to the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] where it persisted until the seventeenth century. It remained present to a minor extent in the Mughal provinces throughout the seventeenth century and had a notable revival under the Afghans in North India again in the eighteenth century.| Al Hind, André Wink<ref>Andre Wink (1991), Al-Hind: the Making of the Indo-Islamic World, vol. 1, Brill Academic (Leiden), {{ISBN|978-9004095090}}, pages 14-15</ref>}}

The [[Delhi sultanate]] obtained thousands of slaves and eunuch servants from the villages of Eastern [[Bengal]] (a widespread practice which Mughal emperor [[Jahangir]] later tried to stop). Wars, famines, pestilences drove many villagers to sell their children as slaves. The Muslim conquest of [[Gujarat]] in Western India had two main objectives. The conquerors demanded and more often forcibly wrested both land owned by Hindus and Hindu women. Enslavement of women invariably led to their conversion to Islam.<ref>Satish C. Misra, ''The Rise of Muslim Power in Gujarat'' (Bombay, 1963), p. 205.</ref> In battles waged by Muslims against Hindus in [[Malwa]] and [[Deccan plateau]], a large number of captives were taken. Muslim soldiers were permitted to retain and enslave POWs as plunder.<ref>''Cambridge History of India'' ed. Wolseley Haig, Vol. III pp. 356, 449.</ref>

The first [[Bahmani]] sultan, [[Alauddin Bahman Shah]] is noted to have captured 1,000 singing and dancing girls from Hindu temples after he battled the northern [[Carnatic region|Carnatic]] chieftains. The later Bahmanis also enslaved civilian women and children in wars; many of them were converted to Islam in captivity.<ref>''Cambridge History of India'' ed. Wolseley Haig, Vol. III, pp. 391, 397–98</ref><ref>Sewell, Robert. ''A Forgotten Empire (Vijayanagar)'' pp. 57–58.</ref> About the [[Mughal empire]], W.H. Moreland observed, "it became a fashion to raid a village or group of villages without any obvious justification, and carry off the inhabitants as slaves."<ref>Moreland W.H., ''India at the Death of Akbar'', (1920) p. 92.</ref><ref>Sarkar, Jadunath. ''The History Of Aurangzeb'', vol. III, pp. 331–32</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Khan |first1=Samsam ud Daula Shah Nawaz
|last2=Khan |first2= Abdul Hai
|title=Maasir-ul-Umara |translator-last1=Beni Prasad
|translator-last2=Beveridge  |translator-first2=H |language=fa |location=Calcutta |volume=III| page=442}}</ref>

During the rule of [[Shah Jahan]], many peasants were compelled to sell their women and children into slavery to meet the land revenue demand.<ref>''Travels of Fray Sebāstien Manrique, 1629–1643'' vol. II, p. 272. (Ashgate, 2010 reprint)</ref> Slavery was officially abolished in British India by the [[Indian Slavery Act, 1843]]. However, in modern India, Pakistan and Nepal, there are millions of [[debt bondage|bonded laborers]], who work as slaves to pay off debts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2004/0901/p16s01-wogi.html |title=Slavery is not dead, just less recognizable |publisher=Csmonitor.com |date=1 September 2004 |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4042207.stm |title=Life as a modern slave in Pakistan |work=BBC News  |date=25 November 2004 |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/31672.stm Widespread slavery found in Nepal], BBC News</ref>

===Modern history===
====Iran====
{{Main|Slavery in Iran}}
[[Reginald Dyer]], recalling operations against tribes in [[Sistan and Baluchestan province|Iranian Baluchistan]] in 1916, stated in a 1921 memoir that the local Balochi tribes would regularly carry out raids against travellers and small towns. During these raids, women and children would often be abducted to become slaves, and would be sold for prices varying based on quality, age and looks. He stated that the average price for a young woman was 300 rupees, and the average price for a small child 25 rupees. The slaves, it was noted, were often half starved.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dyer|first=Reginald|url=https://archive.org/details/raidersofsarhadb00dyerrich/page/42/mode/2up|title=The raiders of the Sarhad|publisher=London, H.F. & G. Witherby|year=1921|pages=42–44}}</ref>

====Japan====
{{Main|Slavery in Japan}}
Slavery in Japan was, for most of its history, indigenous, since the export and import of slaves was restricted by Japan being a group of islands. In late-16th-century Japan, slavery was officially banned; but forms of contract and indentured labor persisted alongside the period penal codes' forced labor. During the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] and the [[Pacific War]], the [[Imperial Japanese Armed Forces]] used millions of civilians and [[prisoners of war]] from several countries as forced laborers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~asiactr/sino-japanese/minutes_2002.htm |title=Japan's Atrocities of Conscripting and Abusing North China Draftees after the Outbreak of the Pacific War |author=Ju Zhifen |year=2002 |work=Joint study of the Sino-Japanese war }}</ref><ref>[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+id0029) Library of Congress, 1992, "Indonesia: World War II and the Struggle For Independence, 1942–50; The Japanese Occupation, 1942–45"] Access date: 9 February 2007.</ref><ref>{{Cite book| first=R. J. | last=Rummel | title=Statistics of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1990 | publisher=Lit Verlag | year=1999 | isbn=978-3825840105}} Available online: {{cite web| title=Statistics of Democide: Chapter 3 – Statistics Of Japanese Democide Estimates, Calculations, And Sources | work=Freedom, Democracy, Peace; Power, Democide, and War | url=http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.CHAP3.HTM | access-date=1 March 2006}}</ref>

====Korea====
{{Main|Slavery in Korea}}
In [[Korea]], slavery was officially abolished with the [[Gabo Reform]] of 1894. During the [[Joseon]] period, in times of poor harvest and [[famine]], many peasants voluntarily sold themselves into the [[slavery in Korea|nobi system]] in order to survive.<ref name="seoul">{{cite web|first1=Young-hoon|last1= Rhee|first2=Donghyu|last2= Yang|title=Korean Nobi in American Mirror: Yi Dynasty Coerced Labor in Comparison to the Slavery in the Antebellum Southern United States|url=https://ideas.repec.org/p/snu/ioerwp/no26.html |work=Working Paper Series |publisher=Institute of Economic Research, Seoul National University}}</ref>

====Southeast Asia====
{{Main|Slavery in Southeast Asia|Slavery in Brunei|Slavery in Indonesia|Slavery in Malaysia}}
In Southeast Asia, there was a large slave class in [[Khmer Empire]] who built the enduring monuments in [[Angkor Wat]] and did most of the heavy work.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://travel.mongabay.com/cambodia/angkorwat.htm |title=Cambodia Angkor Wat |publisher=Travel.mongabay.com |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref> Between the 17th and the early 20th centuries one-quarter to one-third of the population of some areas of [[Thailand]] and [[Burma]] were slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24156 |title=Slavery |encyclopedia=Britannica.com |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref> By the 19th century, [[Bhutan]] had developed a slave trade with [[Sikkim]] and [[Tibet]], also enslaving British subjects and Brahmins.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.279230|title=Sikhim & Bhutan: Twenty-one Years on the North-east Frontier, 1887-1908|last=White|first=John Claude|date=1909|publisher=E. Arnold|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/britishrelations0000gupt|url-access=registration|title=British Relations With Bhutan|last=Gupta|first=Shantiswarup|date=1974|publisher=Panchsheel Prakashan|language=en}}</ref> According to the [[International Labour Organization]] (ILO), during the early 21st century an estimated 800,000
people are subject to forced labor in [[Myanmar]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/GC29Ae02.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050404025755/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/GC29Ae02.html |url-status=unfit |archive-date=4 April 2005 |title=ILO cracks the whip at Yangon |publisher=Atimes.com |date=29 March 2005 |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref>

Slavery in [[History of the Philippines (900–1521)|pre-Spanish Philippines]] was practiced by the tribal [[Austronesian peoples]] who inhabited the [[Ethnic groups in the Philippines|culturally diverse islands]]. The neighboring [[Muslim]] states conducted slave raids from the 1600s into the 1800s in coastal areas of the [[Gulf of Thailand]] and the [[Philippines|Philippine islands]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Thomas H. |last=McKenna|title=Muslim Rulers and Rebels|publisher=University of California Press|year= 1998}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=James Francis|last=Warren|title=The Port of Jolo and the Sulu Zone Slave Trade|work=The Journal of Sophia Asian Studies|volume=25|year=2007|url=http://repository.cc.sophia.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/123456789/15569/1/200000079942_000127000_303.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216235524/http://repository.cc.sophia.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/123456789/15569/1/200000079942_000127000_303.pdf|archive-date=16 December 2014}}</ref> Slaves in [[Toraja]] society in [[Indonesia]] were family property. People would become slaves when they incurred a debt. Slaves could also be taken during wars, and slave trading was common. Torajan slaves were sold and shipped out to [[Java]] and [[Siam]]. Slaves could buy their freedom, but their children still inherited slave status. Slavery was [[abolitionism|abolished]] in 1863 in all Dutch colonies.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://stampslandia.webng.com/gallery2/niz/niz_old.htm |title=Stamps |publisher=Stamslandia.webng.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080922042728/http://stampslandia.webng.com/gallery2/niz/niz_old.htm |archive-date=22 September 2008  }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.everyculture.com/East-Southeast-Asia/Toraja-History-and-Cultural-Relations.html |title=Toraja History and Cultural Relations |publisher=Everyculture.com |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref>

=== Islamic State slave trade ===
{{See also|Human rights in Islamic State-controlled territory#Slave trade|Yazidi genocide#Sexual slavery and reproductive violence|Sexual jihad|Sexual slavery#Middle East|Concubinage in Islam|Sexual violence in the Iraqi insurgency|Slavery in 21st-century Islamism}}

According to media reports from late 2014, the [[Islamic State]] (IS) was selling [[Yazidis|Yazidi]] and [[Christianity|Christian]] women as slaves.<ref>Fiona Keating, [http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/iraq-slave-markets-sell-women-10-attract-isis-recruits-1468506 "Iraq Slave Markets Sell Women for $10 to Attract Isis Recruits"], ''[[International Business Times]]'', 4 October 2014.</ref> According to Haleh Esfandiari of the [[Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars]], after IS militants have captured an area "[t]hey usually take the older women to a makeshift slave market and try to sell them."<ref>{{cite news|last1=Brekke|first1=Kira|title=ISIS Is Attacking Women, And Nobody Is Talking About It|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/09/08/isis-attacks-on-women_n_5775106.html?cps=gravity|access-date=11 September 2014|work=The Huffington Post|date=8 September 2014}}</ref> In mid-October 2014, the UN estimated that 5,000 to 7,000 Yazidi women and children were abducted by IS and sold into slavery.<ref>Richard Spencer, [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/islamic-state/11160906/Isil-carried-out-massacres-and-mass-sexual-enslavement-of-Yazidis-UN-confirms.html "Isil carried out massacres and mass sexual enslavement of Yazidis, UN confirms,"] ''[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]]'', 14 October 2014</ref> In the digital magazine ''[[Dabiq (magazine)|Dabiq]]'', IS claimed [[Islamic views on slavery|religious justification]] for enslaving Yazidi women whom they consider to be from a heretical sect. IS claimed that the Yazidi are idol worshipers and their enslavement is part of the old [[shariah]] practice of [[Ma malakat aymanukum|spoils of war]].<ref>[[Reuters]], [http://www.newsweek.com/islamic-state-seeks-justify-enslaving-yazidi-women-and-girls-iraq-277100 "Islamic State Seeks to Justify Enslaving Yazidi Women and Girls in Iraq,"] ''[[Newsweek]]'', 13 Oct 2014</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://au.ibtimes.com/articles/569402/20141013/islamic-state-dabiq-magazine-isis-slavery.htm#.V6wTbzU3BnI |title=Judgment Day Justifies Sex Slavery Of Women – ISIS Out With Its 4th Edition Of Dabiq Magazine |work=[[International Business Times]]-Australia |date=13 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141014091529/http://au.ibtimes.com/articles/569402/20141013/islamic-state-dabiq-magazine-isis-slavery.htm#.V6wTbzU3BnI |archive-date=14 October 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>Allen McDuffee, [https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2014/10/isis-confirms-and-justifies-enslaving-yazidis-in-new-magazine-article/381394/ "ISIS Is Now Bragging About Enslaving Women and Children,"] ''[[The Atlantic]]'', 13 October 2014</ref><ref>Salma Abdelaziz, [http://www.cnn.com/2014/10/12/world/meast/isis-justification-slavery/ "ISIS states its justification for the enslavement of women,"] ''[[CNN]]'', 13 October 2014</ref><ref>Richard Spencer, [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/islamic-state/11158797/Thousands-of-Yazidi-women-sold-as-sex-slaves-for-theological-reasons-says-Isil.html "Thousands of Yazidi women sold as sex slaves 'for theological reasons', says Isil,"] ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'', 13 October 2014.</ref> According to ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'', IS appeals to [[Islamic eschatology|apocalyptic beliefs]] and claims "justification by a Hadith that they interpret as portraying the revival of slavery as a precursor to the end of the world".<ref>Nour Malas, [https://online.wsj.com/articles/ancient-prophecies-motivate-islamic-state-militants-1416357441 "Ancient Prophecies Motivate Islamic State Militants: Battlefield Strategies Driven by 1,400-year-old Apocalyptic Ideas,"] ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'', 18 November 2014 (accessed 22 November 2014)</ref>

IS announced the revival of slavery as an institution.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.atheistrepublic.com/news/islamic-state-cites-koran-reinstate-sex-slavery|title=Islamic State Cites the Koran to Reinstate Sex Slavery|website=www.atheistrepublic.com|date=4 September 2015 }}</ref> In 2015 the official slave prices set by IS were following:<ref>{{cite web |title=Islamic State Price List for Captured Christian Women |url=http://newenglishreview.com/blog_direct_link.cfm/blog_id/60655 |url-status=dead |website=newenglishreview.com |access-date=13 May 2017 |archive-date=12 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012083726/http://newenglishreview.com/blog_direct_link.cfm/blog_id/60655 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-05-12/trump-s-china-deal-gives-u-s-lng-a-boost-without-changing-rules|title=Trump's China Deal Boosts U.S. LNG Without Rule Change|date=12 May 2017|via=www.bloomberg.com|newspaper=Bloomberg.com}}</ref>
{{col div}}
* Children aged 1 to 9 were sold for 200,000 dinars ($169).
* Women and children 10 to 20 years sold for 150,000 dinars ($127).
* Women 20 to 30 years old for 100,000 dinar ($85).
* Women 30 to 40 years old are 75,000 dinar ($63).
* Women 40 to 50 years old for 50,000 dinar ($42).
{{col div end}}
However some slaves have been sold for as little as a pack of [[cigarette]]s.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jun/09/isis-slave-markets-sell-girls-for-as-little-as-a-pack-of-cigarettes-un-envoy-says|title=Isis slave markets sell girls for 'as little as a pack of cigarettes', UN envoy says|agency=Agence France-Presse|date=9 June 2015|via=www.theguardian.com|newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref>
[[Concubinage in Islam|Sex slaves]] were sold to Saudi Arabia, other [[Persian Gulf]] states and Turkey.<ref>{{cite web |date=28 September 2016 |title=Saudi Arabian Buyers Are Shopping For Sex Slaves – At ISIS Auctions! |url=http://www.indiatimes.com/news/world/saudi-arabian-buyers-are-shopping-for-sex-slaves-at-isis-auctions-262564.html |website=Indiatimes |access-date=13 May 2017 |archive-date=21 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190521003232/https://www.indiatimes.com/news/world/saudi-arabian-buyers-are-shopping-for-sex-slaves-at-isis-auctions-262564.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Europe==
{{see also|White slavery|Human trafficking in Europe}}
[[File:Charles Bartlett - Captives in Rome, 1888.jpg|thumb|''Captives in Rome'', a nineteenth-century painting by [[Charles W. Bartlett]]]]

===Ancient history===

====Ancient Greece====
{{See also|Slavery in ancient Greece}}
Records of [[slavery in Ancient Greece]] go as far back as [[Mycenaean Greece]]. The origins are not known, but it appears that slavery became an important part of the economy and society only after the establishment of cities.<ref>Victoria Cuffel, "The Classical Greek Concept of Slavery," ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' Vol. 27, No. 3 (Jul–Sep 1966), pp.&nbsp;323–42 {{JSTOR|2708589}}</ref> Slavery was common practice and an integral component of [[ancient Greece]], as it was in other societies of the time. It is estimated that in [[Athens]], the majority of [[polis|citizens]] owned at least one slave. Most ancient writers considered slavery not only natural but necessary, but some isolated debate began to appear, notably in [[Socratic dialogues]]. The Stoics produced the first condemnation of slavery recorded in history.<ref name=Roberts/>

During the 8th and the 7th centuries BC, in the course of the two [[Messenian Wars (disambiguation)|Messenian Wars]], the [[Sparta]]ns reduced an entire population to a pseudo-slavery called ''[[helots|helotry]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/sparta/a/spartamilitstat.htm |title=Sparta – A Military City-State |publisher=Ancienthistory.about.com |date=7 August 2010 |access-date=4 December 2011 |archive-date=7 November 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051107173313/http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/sparta/a/spartamilitstat.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> According to [[Herodotus]] (IX, 28–29), helots were seven times as numerous as Spartans. Following several helot revolts around the year 600 BC, the Spartans restructured their city-state along authoritarian lines, for the leaders decided that only by turning their society into an armed camp could they hope to maintain control over the numerically dominant helot population.<ref>Thomas R. Martin, ''Ancient Greece: From Prehistoric to Hellenistic Times'' (Yale UP, 2000) pp. 66, 75–77</ref> In some [[Ancient Greek]] city-states, about 30% of the population consisted of slaves, but paid and slave labor seem to have been equally important.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Ancient Greece |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_1741501460_4/Ancient_Greece.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028184313/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_1741501460_4/Ancient_Greece.html |archive-date=28 October 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

====Rome====
{{See also|Slavery in ancient Rome}}
Romans inherited the institution of slavery from the [[Greeks]] and the [[Phoenicians]].<ref>"Slavery," ''The Encyclopedia Americana'', 1981, p. 19</ref> As the [[Roman Republic]] expanded outward, it enslaved entire populations, thus ensuring an ample supply of laborers to work in [[Farming in Ancient Rome|Rome's farms]], quarries and households. The people subjected to [[Roman slavery]] came from all over Europe and the Mediterranean. Slaves were used for labor, and also for amusement (e.g. [[gladiator]]s and [[sex slave]]s). In the late Republic, the widespread use of recently enslaved groups on [[plantation]]s and [[ranch]]es led to [[slave revolts]] on a large scale; the [[Third Servile War]] led by [[Spartacus]] was the most famous and most threatening to Rome.

====Other European tribes====
Various tribes of Europe are recorded by Roman sources as owning slaves.<ref>''The Ancient Celts'', Barry Cunliffe</ref> [[Strabo]] records slaves as an export commodity from [[Britannia]],<ref>[[Strabo]] Geography.  Book IV Chapter 5 [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/4E*.html]</ref> From [[Llyn Cerrig Bach]] in Anglesey, an iron gang chain dated to 100 BCE-50 CE was found, over 3 metres long with neck-rings for five captives.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Iron Age iron gang chain |url=https://museum.wales/collections/online/object/3d333bab-eb3a-378c-97f0-a1ca1caf8765/Iron-Age-iron-gang-chain/?field0=string&value0=llyn%20cerrig%20bach%20chain&field1=with_images&value1=1&page=3&index=33 |access-date=2023-08-11 |website=Museum Wales |language=en}}</ref>

===Post-classical history===
{{Main|Slavery in medieval Europe|Black Sea slave trade|Balkan slave trade}}

The chaos of invasion and frequent warfare also resulted in victorious parties taking slaves throughout Europe in the [[early Middle Ages]]. [[St. Patrick]], himself captured and sold as a slave, protested against an attack that enslaved newly baptized Christians in his [[q:Saint Patrick#Letter to the Soldiers of Coroticus (c. 450)|"Letter to the Soldiers of Coroticus"]]. As a commonly traded commodity, like cattle, slaves could become a form of internal or trans-border currency.<ref>
{{cite book |last1            = Campbelly
 |first1           = Jamesetta
 |chapter          = Part I: The Romans to the Norman Conquest, 500 BC – AD 1066
 |editor1-last     = Clark
 |editor1-first    = Jonathan
 |editor1-link     = J. C. D. Clark
 |title            = A World by Itself: A History of the British Isles
 |chapter-url      = https://books.google.com/books?id=UN8CAR5EEmgC
 |publisher        = Random House
 |publication-date = 2011
 |page             = [https://archive.org/details/worldbyitselfhis0000clar/page/n58 23]
 |isbn             = 978-0712664967
 |access-date       = 23 February 2014
 |quote            = Whatever currency was in use [in Ireland in antiquity], it was not coin—as in other pre-coin economies, there was a system of conventional valuations in which female slaves, for example, were important units.
 |year             = 2011
 |url              = https://archive.org/details/worldbyitselfhis0000clar
|url-access       = registration
 }}
</ref>
Slavery during the [[Early Middle Ages]] had several distinct sources.

The [[Vikings]] raided across Europe, where they took slaves. While the Vikings kept some slaves as servants, known as ''[[thralls]]'', they sold most captives in the [[Byzantine]] via the [[Black Sea slave trade|Black sea slave trade]] or Islamic markets such as the [[Khazar slave trade]], [[Volga Bulgarian slave trade]] and [[Bukhara slave trade]]. In the West, their target populations were primarily English, Irish, and Scottish, while in the East they were mainly Slavs ([[saqaliba]]). The Viking slave-trade slowly ended in the 11th century, as the Vikings settled in the European territories they had once raided. They converted serfs to Christianity and themselves merged with the local populace.<ref name="vikings">{{cite book|author=Junius P Rodriguez, Ph.D.|title=The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery. vol 1. A–K|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA674|year=1997|publisher=ABC-CLIO|page=674|isbn=978-0874368857}}</ref>

In central Europe, specifically the [[Carolingian Empire|Frankish/German/Holy Roman Empire]] of [[Charlemagne]], raids and wars to the east generated a steady supply of slaves from the Slavic captives of these regions. Because of high demand for slaves in the wealthy [[Caliphate|Muslim empires]] of Northern Africa, [[Al-Andalus|Spain]], and the Near East, especially for slaves of European descent, a market for these slaves rapidly emerged. So lucrative was this market that it spawned an economic boom in central and western Europe, today known as the [[Carolingian Renaissance]].<ref>{{cite journal | title=New Light on the 'Dark Ages': How the Slave Trade Fuelled the Carolingian Economy | author=McCormick, Michael | journal=Past & Present | issue=177 | date=1 November 2002 | pages=17–54 | doi=10.1093/past/177.1.17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=From Slavs to Slaves | author=Frost, Peter | url=http://evoandproud.blogspot.com/2013/09/from-slavs-to-slaves.html | date=14 September 2013 | website=Evo and Proud}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title=The Theft of History | author=Goody, Jack | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2012 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cc0LAQAAQBAJ | pages=87–88| isbn=978-1107394704 }}</ref> This boom period for slaves stretched from the [[early Muslim conquests]] to the [[High Middle Ages]] but declined in the later Middle Ages as the [[Islamic Golden Age]] waned.

[[Spain in the Middle Ages|Medieval Spain]] and [[History of Portugal|Portugal]] saw almost constant [[warfare]] between Muslims and Christians. [[Al-Andalus]] sent periodic raiding expeditions to loot the Iberian Christian kingdoms, bringing back [[Looting|booty]] and slaves. In a raid against [[Lisbon]], Portugal in 1189, for example, the [[Almohad]] caliph [[Yaqub al-Mansur]] took 3,000 female and child captives. In a subsequent attack upon [[Silves Municipality, Portugal|Silves]], Portugal in 1191, his governor of [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] took 3,000 Christian slaves.<ref>
{{cite web|author=James William Brodman |url=http://libro.uca.edu/rc/rc1.htm |title=Ransoming Captives in Crusader Spain: The Order of Merced on the Christian-Islamic Frontier |publisher=Libro.uca.edu |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref>

==== Ottoman Empire ====
{{main|Slavery in the Ottoman Empire}}
[[File:Meccan merchant and his Circassian slave.jpg|thumb|250px|A [[Mecca]]n merchant (right) and his [[Circassians|Circassian]] slave. Entitled, "Vornehmer Kaufmann mit seinem cirkassischen Sklaven" [Distinguished merchant and his circassian slave] by [[Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje]], {{circa|1888}}.]]
The [[Byzantine-Ottoman wars]] and the [[Ottoman wars in Europe]] resulted in the taking of large numbers of Christian slaves and using or selling them in the [[Islam by country|Islamic world]] too.<ref>{{cite book|last=Phillips|first=William D. Jr.|title=Slavery from Roman times to the Early Transatlantic Trade | year = 1985| publisher = Manchester University Press | location = Manchester | isbn = 978-0719018251 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=0B8NAQAAIAAJ&q=Byzantine-Ottoman%20wars%20slavery&pg=PA37|page=37}}
</ref> After the [[Battle of Lepanto (1571)|battle of Lepanto]] the victors freed approximately 12,000 Christian galley slaves from the [[Ottoman fleet]].<ref>
{{cite web|url=http://www.trivia-library.com/b/famous-battles-in-history-the-turks-and-christians-at-lepanto.htm |title=Famous Battles in History The Turks and Christians at Lepanto |publisher=Trivia-library.com |access-date=4 December 2011}}
</ref>

Similarly, Christians sold [[Islam by country|Muslim]] slaves captured in war. The Order of the [[Knights Hospitaller|Knights of Malta]] attacked pirates and Muslim shipping, and their base became a centre for slave trading, selling captured [[North Africans]] and [[Turkish people|Turks]]. [[Malta]] remained a slave market until well into the late 18th century. One thousand slaves were required to man the galleys (ships) of the Order.<ref>{{cite journal|title=A medical service for slaves in Malta during the rule of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem  |date=20 April 2015 |pmc=1033829 | pmid=4875614 |volume=12 |issue=3 |journal=Med Hist |pages=270–77 | last1 = Cassar | first1 = P | doi = 10.1017/s0025727300013314}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=October 2015}}<ref>
{{cite web |url=http://www.hmml.org/centers/malta/hospitallers/hospitallers.html |title=Brief History of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem |publisher=Hmml.org |date=23 September 2010 |access-date=4 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929074357/http://www.hmml.org/centers/malta/hospitallers/hospitallers.html |archive-date=29 September 2011  }}</ref>

====Eastern Europe====

Poland banned slavery in the 14th century; in [[Lithuania]], slavery was formally abolished in 1588; the institution was replaced by the second [[serfdom|enserfment]]. Slavery remained a minor institution in Russia until 1723, when [[Peter the Great]] converted the household slaves into house serfs. Russian agricultural slaves were formally converted into serfs earlier, in 1679.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160 |title=Historical survey > Ways of ending slavery |encyclopedia=Britannica.com |date=31 January 1910 |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref>

====British Isles====
{{Main|Slavery in the British Isles}}

Capture in war, voluntary servitude and [[debt slavery]] became common within the British Isles before 1066. The [[Bodmin manumissions]] show both that slavery existed in 9th and 10th Century [[Cornwall]] and that many Cornish slave owners did set their slaves free. Slaves were routinely bought and sold. Running away was also common and slavery was never a major economic factor in the British Isles during the Middle Ages. Ireland and Denmark provided markets for captured Anglo-Saxon and Celtic slaves. [[Pope Gregory I]] reputedly made the pun, ''Non Angli, sed Angeli'' ("Not Angles, but Angels"), after a response to his query regarding the identity of a group of fair-haired [[Angles (tribe)|Angles]], slave children whom he had observed in the marketplace. After the [[Norman Conquest]], the law no longer supported chattel slavery and slaves became part of the larger body of serfs.<ref>Allen J. Frantzen and Douglas Moffat, eds. ''The Work of Work: Servitude, Slavery, and Labor in Medieval England'' (1994)</ref><ref>The complete sentence was ''Non '''Angli''', sed '''angeli''', si forent Christiani.'' "They are not Angles, but [[Angel|angels]], if they were Christian", see p. 117 of [[Ghil'ad Zuckermann|Zuckermann, Ghil'ad]] (2003), [[Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew]]. [[Palgrave Macmillan]]. {{ISBN|9781403917232}} / {{ISBN|9781403938695}} [http://www.palgrave.com/br/book/9781403917232]</ref>

====France====

In the early Middle Ages, the city of [[Verdun]] was the centre of the thriving European slave trade in young boys who were sold to the Islamic [[emirate]]s of [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]] where they were enslaved as [[Eunuch (court official)|eunuchs]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rousseau |first1=Félix |title=Mélanges Félix Rousseau, Études sur l'histoire du pays mosan au moyen age, 673-686 |date=1958 |publisher=La Renaissance du Livre |language=fr|oclc=30141458 }}</ref> The Italian ambassador [[Liutprand of Cremona]], as one example in the 10th century, presented a gift of four eunuchs to Emperor [[Constantine VII]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Stevenson|first=Walter|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_yPaAAAAMAAJ|title=Eunuchs in Antiquity and Beyond|date=2002|publisher=Classical Press of Wales and Duckworth|isbn=978-0-7156-3129-4|editor-last=Tougher|editor-first=Shaun|location=|pages=148|language=en|chapter=Eunuchs and early Christianity}}</ref>

====Barbary pirates and Maltese corsairs====
[[File:360Niklas Stör Entführung in die Sklaverei.jpg|thumb|Ottoman advances resulted in many captive Christians being carried deep into Muslim territory.]]

[[Barbary pirates]] and [[Maltese Corso|Maltese corsairs]] both raided for slaves and purchased slaves from European merchants, often the [[Radhanites]], one of the few groups who could easily move between the Christian and Islamic worlds.<ref name="radhanites">
Olivia Remie Constable (1996). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=M-CVlhPb21MC&pg=PA203 Trade and Traders in Muslim Spain: The Commercial Realignment of the Iberian Peninsula, 900–1500]''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 203–04. {{ISBN|0521565030}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=slave |encyclopedia=Online Etymology Dictionary |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=slave |access-date=26 March 2009}}
</ref>

====Genoa and Venice====
{{Main|Venetian slave trade|Genoese slave trade|Balkan slave trade|Black Sea slave trade}}
In the late [[Middle Ages]], from 1100 to 1500, the European slave-trade continued, though with a shift from being centered among the Western Mediterranean Islamic nations to the Eastern Christian and Muslim states. The city-states of [[Venice]] and [[Genoa]] controlled the Eastern Mediterranean from the 12th century and the [[Black Sea]] from the 13th century. They sold both [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] and [[Balts|Baltic]] slaves, as well as [[Georgians]], [[Turkish people|Turks]], and other ethnic groups of the Black Sea and [[Caucasus]] via the [[Black Sea slave trade]]. The sale of European slaves by Europeans slowly ended as the Slavic and Baltic ethnic groups [[Christianized]] by the [[Late Middle Ages]].<ref name="muslim"/>

From the 1440s into the 18th century, Europeans from Italy, Spain, Portugal, France, and England were sold into slavery by North Africans. In 1575, the [[Crimean Tatars|Tatars]] captured over 35,000 Ukrainians; a 1676 raid took almost 40,000. About 60,000 Ukrainians were captured in 1688; some were ransomed, but most were sold into slavery.<ref>
Junius A. Rodriguez, ed., ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'' (1997) 2:659</ref><ref>
Paul E. Lovejoy, ''Slavery on the Frontiers of Islam''. (2004) p. 27</ref> Some 150,000–200,000 of the [[Romani people|Roma people]] were enslaved over five centuries in [[Romania]] until abolition in 1864 (see [[Slavery in Romania]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.roconsulboston.com/Pages/InfoPages/Culture/Roma150Yrs.html |title=Roma Celebrate 150 years of Freedom 2005 Romania |publisher=Roconsulboston.com |date=21 February 2006 |access-date=4 December 2011 |archive-date=15 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215180146/http://www.roconsulboston.com/Pages/InfoPages/Culture/Roma150Yrs.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

====Mongols====
[[File:Giovanni Maria Morandi - Religieux.jpg|thumb|[[Giovanni Maria Morandi]], ''The ransoming of Christian slaves held in Turkish hands'', 17th century]]
{{Main|Slave trade in the Mongol Empire}}
The [[Mongol invasions]] and conquests in the 13th century also resulted in taking numerous captives into slavery.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/citd/RussianHeritage/4.PEAS/4.L/12.III.5.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20110427075859/https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/citd/RussianHeritage/4.PEAS/4.L/12.III.5.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=27 April 2011 |title=The Destruction of Kiev |publisher=Tspace.library.utoronto.ca |access-date=4 December 2011 }}
</ref> The Mongols enslaved skilled individuals, women and children and marched them to [[Karakorum]] or [[Sarai (city)|Sarai]], whence they were sold throughout [[Eurasia]]. Many of these slaves were shipped to the slave market in [[Novgorod Republic|Novgorod]].<ref>
{{cite web|url=http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/rubruck.html |title=William of Rubruck's Account of the Mongols |publisher=Depts.washington.edu |access-date=4 December 2011}}
</ref><ref>
{{cite web|url=http://geocities.com/medievalnovgorod/nov10.html |title=Life in 13th Century Novgorod – Women and Class Structure |date=26 October 2009 |access-date=4 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091026193520/http://geocities.com/medievalnovgorod/nov10.html |archive-date=26 October 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Sras.Org |url=http://www.sras.org/news2.phtml?m=477 |title=The Effects of the Mongol Empire on Russia |publisher=Sras.org |date=15 July 2003 |access-date=4 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080224043031/http://www.sras.org/news2.phtml?m=477 |archive-date=24 February 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Slave commerce during the [[Late Middle Ages]] was mainly in the hands of [[Republic of Venice|Venetian]] and [[Republic of Genoa|Genoese]] merchants and cartels, who were involved in the slave trade with the [[Golden Horde]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fisher |first1=Alan W. |title=The Crimean Tatars |date=1987 |publisher=Hoover Institution Press |location=Stanford, Calif. |isbn=0817966633 |pages=26–28}}</ref>  In 1382 the Golden Horde under Khan [[Tokhtamysh]] sacked Moscow, burning the city and carrying off thousands of inhabitants as slaves. Between 1414 and 1423, some 10,000 eastern European slaves were sold in [[Republic of Venice|Venice]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Rawlins|first1=Gregory J.E.|title=Rebooting Reality – Chapter 2, Labor|url=http://www.roxie.org/books/shoulders/ch02-labor.html|website=roxie.org|access-date=14 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081223185836/http://www.roxie.org/books/shoulders/ch02-labor.html|archive-date=23 December 2008}}</ref> Genoese merchants organized the slave trade from the [[Crimea]] to [[Mamluk#Egypt|Mamluk Egypt]]. For years, the [[Khanate of Kazan|Khanates of Kazan]] and [[Astrakhan Khanate|Astrakhan]] routinely made raids on Russian principalities for slaves and to plunder towns. Russian chronicles record about 40 raids by [[List of Kazan khans|Kazan Khans]] on the Russian territories in the first half of the 16th century.<ref name="Annals 13">''The Full Collection of the Russian Annals'', vol. 13, SPb, 1904</ref>

In 1441 [[Haci I Giray]] declared independence from the Golden Horde and established the [[Crimean Khanate]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fisher |first1=Alan W. |title=The Crimean Tatars |date=1987 |publisher=Hoover Institution Press |location=Stanford, Calif. |isbn=0817966633 |pages=1–8}}</ref> For a long time, until the early 18th century, the [[Tatar confederation|Tatar khanate]] maintained an extensive [[Crimean slave trade|slave-trade]] with the [[Ottoman Empire]] and the Middle East. In a process called the "harvesting of the [[steppe]]" they enslaved many Slavic peasants. Muscovy recorded about 30 major raids into [[Tsardom of Russia|Muscovite]] territories between 1558 and 1596.<ref name="Inalcik">{{cite book |last1=Inalcik |first1=Halil |editor1-last=Ascher |editor1-first=Abraham |editor2-last=Halasi-Kun |editor2-first=Tibor |editor3-last=Király |editor3-first=Béla K |title=The mutual effects of the Islamic and Judeo-Christian worlds: The East European pattern |date=1979 |publisher=Brooklyn College Press, Distributed by Columbia University Press |location=Brooklyn, N.Y. |isbn=0930888006 |url=http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst373/readings/inalcik6.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101092722/http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst373/readings/inalcik6.html |url-status=dead |access-date=8 March 2021 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |chapter=Servile Labor in the Ottoman Empire |series=Studies on society in change, no.3.}}</ref>

Moscow was repeatedly a target.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=KOŁODZIEJCZYK |first1=DARIUSZ |title=Slave hunting and slave redemption as a business enterprise: The northern Black Sea region in the sixteenth to seventeenth centuries |journal=Oriente Moderno |date=2006 |volume=25 (86) |issue=1 |pages=149–159 |jstor=25818051 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25818051 |access-date=8 March 2021 |issn=0030-5472}}</ref> In 1521, the combined forces of Crimean Khan [[Mehmed I Giray|Mehmed Giray]] and his Kazan allies attacked the city and captured thousands of slaves.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.allempires.com/article/index.php?q=The_Crimean_Khanate |title=The Tatar Khanate of Crimea – All Empires |publisher=Allempires.com |access-date=4 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160323101012/http://www.allempires.com/article/index.php?q=The_Crimean_Khanate |archive-date=23 March 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 1571, the Crimean Tatars attacked and sacked Moscow, burning everything but the Kremlin and taking thousands of captives as slaves.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=MATSUKI |first1=Eizo |title=The Crimean Tatars and their Russian-Captive Slaves: An Aspect of Muscovite-Crimean Relations in the 16th and 17th Centuries |journal=Mediterranean World |date=2006 |volume=XVIII |pages=171–182 |url=http://www6.econ.hit-u.ac.jp/areastd/mediterranean/en/mw/mw-18.html |access-date=8 March 2021 |publisher=Mediterranean Studies Group at Hitotsubashi University |location=Tokyo}}</ref> In [[Crimea]], about 75% of the population consisted of slaves.<ref name = "Britannica-24157">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157 |title=Historical survey > Slave societies |encyclopedia=Britannica.com |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref>

====The Vikings and Scandinavia====
{{Main|Thrall|Volga trade route|Black Sea slave trade|Khazar slave trade|Volga Bulgarian slave trade}}

In the [[Viking]] era beginning circa 793, the [[Norsemen|Norse]] raiders often captured and enslaved militarily weaker peoples they encountered. The [[Nordic countries]] called their slaves ''[[thrall]]s'' ([[Old Norse]]: ''Þræll'').<ref name="vikings"/> The thralls were mostly from Western Europe, among them many [[Franks]], [[Frisians]], [[Anglo-Saxons]], and both [[Irish people|Irish]] and [[Celtic Britons|Britonnic Celts]]. Many Irish slaves travelled in expeditions for the colonization of [[Iceland]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://naturalhistory.si.edu/research/anthropology/programs/arctic-studies-center|title=Arctic Studies Center &#124; Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History|website=naturalhistory.si.edu}}</ref> The Norse also took German, Baltic, Slavic and Latin slaves. The slave trade was one of the pillars of Norse commerce during the 9th through 11th centuries. The 10th-century Persian traveller [[Ibn Rustah]] described how Swedish Vikings, the [[Varangians]] or [[Rus' Khaganate|Rus]], terrorized and enslaved the [[East Slavs|Slavs]] taken in their raids along the Volga River and sold them to [[slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate]] via the [[Volga Bulgarian slave trade]] and the [[Samanid slave trade]]. The thrall system was finally abolished in the mid-14th century in Scandinavia.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Skyum-Nielsen | first1 = Niels | year = 1978 | title = Nordic Slavery in an International Context | journal = Medieval Scandinavia | volume = 11 | pages = 126–48 }}</ref>

===Early Modern history===
[[File:Livorno Quattro mori monument 07.JPG|thumb|upright|One of the four chained slaves depicted at the bottom of the 17th-century [[Monument of the Four Moors]] in [[Livorno]], [[Italy]].]]
[[Mediterranean]] powers frequently sentenced convicted criminals to row in the war-[[galley]]s of the state (initially only in time of war).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi303.htm |title=The Last Galleys |publisher=Uh.edu |date=1 August 2004 |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref> After the [[Edict of Fontainebleau|revocation]] of the [[Edict of Nantes]] in 1685 and [[Camisard|Camisard rebellion]], the French Crown filled its galleys with French [[Huguenots]], Protestants condemned for resisting the state.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://manakin.addr.com/galleys.html |title=Huguenots and the Galleys |publisher=Manakin.addr.com |date=14 June 2011 |access-date=4 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090202123700/http://manakin.addr.com/galleys.html |archive-date=2 February 2009  }}</ref> [[Galley-slaves]] lived and worked in such harsh conditions that many did not survive their terms of sentence, even if they survived [[shipwreck]] and [[murder|slaughter]] or torture at the hands of enemies or of pirates.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.milism.net/galere.htm |title=French galley slaves of the ancien régime |publisher=Milism.net |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref> [[Naval warfare|Naval forces]] often turned 'infidel' [[prisoner of war|prisoners-of-war]] into galley-slaves. Several well-known historical figures served time as galley slaves after being captured by the enemy—the Ottoman corsair and admiral [[Turgut Reis]] and the [[Knights Hospitaller]] Grand Master [[Jean Parisot de la Valette]] among them.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sanandrea.edu.mt/Senior/CyberFair/knights/5a.html |title=The Great Siege of 1565 |publisher=Sanandrea.edu.mt |access-date=4 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118114822/http://www.sanandrea.edu.mt/Senior/CyberFair/knights/5a.html |archive-date=18 January 2012  }}</ref>

[[Denmark-Norway]] was the first European country to ban the slave trade.<ref>Niklas Thode Jensen, and Simonsen, Gunvor. "Introduction: The historiography of slavery in the Danish-Norwegian West Indies, c. 1950–2016." ''Scandinavian Journal of History'' Sep-Dec 2016, Vol. 41 Issue 4/5, pp. 475–94.</ref> This happened with a decree issued by King [[Christian VII of Denmark]] in 1792, to become fully effective by 1803. Slavery as an institution was not banned until 1848. At this time [[Iceland]] was a part of [[Denmark-Norway]] but slave trading had been abolished in Iceland in 1117 and had never been reestablished.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&q=abolish+slavery+iceland&pg=PA8 |title=The Historical encyclopedia of world slavery, Volume 1 By Junius P. Rodriguez |access-date=4 December 2011|isbn=978-0874368857 |year=1997 |last1=Rodriguez |first1=Junius P. |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic }}</ref>

Slavery in the [[French Republic]] was abolished on 4 February 1794, including in its colonies. The lengthy [[Haitian Revolution]] by its slaves and [[free people of color]] established [[Haiti]] as a free republic in 1804 ruled by blacks, the first of its kind.<ref name=Haiti>{{cite web |url=http://www.webster.edu/~corbetre/haiti/history/earlyhaiti/dessalines.htm |title=A Brief History of Dessalines |work=Missionary Journal |publisher=Webster.edu |year=1825 |access-date=4 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130901072137/http://www2.webster.edu/~corbetre/haiti/history/earlyhaiti/dessalines.htm |archive-date=1 September 2013  }}</ref> At the time of the revolution, Haiti was known as [[Saint-Domingue]] and was a colony of France.<ref>Jeremy Popkin, ''You Are All Free: The Haitian Revolution and the Abolition of Slavery''(Cambridge University Press; 2010)</ref> [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] gave up on Haiti in 1803, but reestablished slavery in Guadeloupe and Martinique in 1804, at the request of [[plantation|planters]] of the Caribbean colonies. Slavery was permanently abolished in the [[French colonial empire|French empire]] during the [[French Revolution of 1848]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1040594362|title=Abolitions as a global experience|publisher=NUS Press, National University of Singapore|others=Hideaki Suzuki, 鈴木英明|year=2016|isbn=978-981-4722-72-8|location=Singapore|pages=32|oclc=1040594362}}</ref>

Although exact figures are difficult to ascertain, it is estimated that over a million Muslims were enslaved in Europe during the early modern period (1500-1800).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Why is a 16-year-old book on slavery so popular now? Ohio State University |url=https://news.osu.edu/why-is-a-16-year-old-book-on-slavery-so-popular-now/ |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=Why is a 16-year-old book on slavery so popular now? |language=en-us}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=2016-06-16 |title=Muslim slaves in early modern Europe: a forgotten history of slavery. University of Leiden. |url=https://www.leidenislamblog.nl/articles/muslim-slaves-in-early-modern-europe-a-forgotten-history-of-slavery |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=www.leidenislamblog.nl |language=en}}</ref> Likewise, historian Salvatore Bono estimates that in total, around 400,000 to 500,000 Muslim men, women and children (primarily North Africans and Turks) were enslaved in various parts of Italian peninsula during the early modern period.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Bono |first=Salvatore |url= |title=Schiavi musulmani nell'Italia moderna: galeotti, vu' cumpra', domestici |date=1999 |publisher=Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane |isbn=978-88-8114-883-7 |series=Pubblicazioni / Università degli Studi di Perugia, Dipartimento di Scienze Storiche |location=Napoli}}</ref> These slaves were captured by Christian corsairs, pirates, and privateers, as well as the [[Knights Hospitaller|Knights Hospitaller of Malta]], who raided Muslim coastal areas in the Mediterranean, in addition to prisoners of war.<ref name=":4" />

====Portugal====
{{See also|Slavery in Portugal|Portuguese Empire|Economic history of Portugal}}
[[File:African man portrait Mostaert.jpg|right|thumb|upright|''[[Portrait of an African Man]]'', c. 1525–1530. The insignia on his hat alludes to possible Spanish or Portuguese origins.]]
The 15th-century [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] exploration of the African coast is commonly regarded as the harbinger of European colonialism. In 1452, [[Pope Nicholas V]] issued the [[papal bull]] [[Dum Diversas]], granting [[Afonso V of Portugal]] the right to reduce any "Saracens, pagans and any other unbelievers" to hereditary slavery which legitimized slave trade under Catholic beliefs of that time. This approval of slavery was reaffirmed and extended in his [[Romanus Pontifex]] bull of 1455. These papal bulls came to serve as a justification for the subsequent era of the slave trade and European [[colonialism]], although for a short period as in 1462 Pius II declared slavery to be "a great crime".<ref name=Catholic>{{cite encyclopedia | last = Allard | first = Paul | title = Slavery and Christianity | encyclopedia = Catholic Encyclopedia | volume = XIV | publisher = Robert Appleton Company | location = New York | year = 1912 | url = http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14036a.htm | access-date =4 February 2006 }}</ref> Unlike Portugal, [[Protestantism|Protestant]] nations did not use the papal bull as a justification for their involvement in the slave trade. The position of the church was to condemn the slavery of Christians, but slavery was regarded as an old established and necessary institution which supplied Europe with the necessary workforce. In the 16th century, African slaves had replaced almost all other ethnicities and religious enslaved groups in Europe.<ref name="ReferenceA">Klein, Herbert. ''The Atlantic Slave Trade''.</ref> Within the Portuguese territory of Brazil, and even beyond its original borders, the enslavement of Native Americans was carried out by the [[Bandeirantes]].

Among many other European slave markets, [[Genoa]], and [[Venice]] were some well-known markets, their importance and demand growing after the [[Great Plague|great plague]] of the 14th century which decimated much of the European workforce.<ref>Bales, Kevin. ''Understanding Global Slavery: A Reader''</ref>
The maritime town of [[Lagos, Portugal]], was the first slave market created in Portugal for the sale of imported African slaves, the ''[[Mercado de Escravos]]'', which opened in 1444.<ref name="Goodman">Goodman, Joan E. (2001). [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ziv7J90u-mAC&dq=Lagos,+Portugal+first+slave+market&pg=PT14 A Long and Uncertain Journey: The 27,000&nbsp;Mile Voyage of Vasco Da Gama]. Mikaya Press, {{ISBN|978-0965049375}}.</ref><ref name="Oliveira">de Oliveira Marques, António Henrique R. (1972). ''History of Portugal''. Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0231031592}}, pp. 158–60, 362–70.</ref> In 1441, the first slaves were brought to Portugal from northern [[Mauritania]].<ref name="Oliveira" /> Prince [[Henry the Navigator]], major sponsor of the Portuguese African expeditions, as of any other merchandise, taxed one fifth of the selling price of the slaves imported to Portugal.<ref name="Oliveira" /> By the year 1552 African slaves made up 10 percent of the population of [[Lisbon]].<ref>Thomas Foster Earle, K.J.P. Lowe "Black Africans in Renaissance Europe" p.  157 [https://books.google.com/books?id=d2dN5vh2200C&dq=slaves+black+in+portugal&pg=PA156 Google]</ref><ref>David Northrup, "Africa's Discovery of Europe" p. 8 ([https://books.google.com/books?id=RzJzjQ4eOgQC&dq=lisbon+balck+slaves+percent&pg=PA8 Google])</ref>

In the second half of the 16th century, the Crown gave up the monopoly on slave trade and the focus of European trade in African slaves shifted from import to Europe to slave transports directly to tropical colonies in the Americas—in the case of Portugal, especially [[Brazil]].<ref name="Oliveira" /> In the 15th century, one-third of the slaves were resold to the African market in exchange of gold.<ref name="ReferenceA" />

Importation of black slaves was prohibited in mainland Portugal and [[Portuguese India]] in 1761, but slavery continued in Portuguese overseas colonies.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Ramos|first=Luís O.|date=1971|title=Pombal e o esclavagismo|url=https://repositorio-aberto.up.pt/bitstream/10216/7680/2/3108.pdf|publisher=Repositório Aberto da UNiversidade do Porto}}</ref> At the same time, was stimulated the trade of black slaves ("the pieces", in the terms of that time) to Brazil and two companies were founded, with the support and direct involvement of the Marquis of Pombal - the ''Company of Grão-Pará and Maranhão'' and the ''General Company of Pernambuco and Paraíba'' - whose main activity was precisely the trafficking of slaves, mostly black Africans, to Brazilian lands.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Caldeira|first=Arlindo Manuel|title=Escravos e Traficantes no Império Português: O comércio negreiro português no Atlântico durante os séculos XV a XIX.|publisher=A Esfera dos Livros|year=2013|pages=219–224|language=pt}}</ref><ref name=":0" />

Slavery was finally abolished in all Portuguese colonies in 1869.

====Spain====
{{See also|Slavery in Spain|Spanish Empire|Spanish colonization of the Americas|Black ladino|Asiento}}
[[File:Capture of Tunis 1535 liberation of 20000 Christian captives.jpg|thumb|[[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Charles V]] [[Conquest of Tunis (1535)|captured Tunis in 1535]], liberating 20,000 Christian slaves]]

The [[Slavery in the Spanish New World colonies|Spaniards]] were the first Europeans to use African slaves in the [[New World]] on islands such as [[Cuba]] and [[Hispaniola]], due to a shortage of labor caused by the spread of diseases, and so the Spanish colonists gradually became involved in the [[Atlantic slave trade]]. The first African slaves arrived in Hispaniola in 1501;<ref>{{cite web|title=Chapter 1: Health In Slavery|url=http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|website=www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk|access-date=14 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090103011956/http://www.ukcouncilhumanrights.co.uk/webbook-chap1.html|archive-date=3 January 2009}}</ref> by 1517, the natives had been "virtually annihilated" mostly to diseases.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=ha&regionCode=ca&#ha |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612230135/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2028.html?countryName=Haiti&countryCode=HA&regionCode=ca&#ha |url-status=dead |archive-date=12 June 2009 |title=CIA Factbook: Haiti |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref>
The problem of the justness of Native American's slavery was a key issue for the Spanish Crown. It was [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] who gave a definite answer to this complicated and delicate matter. To that end, on 25 November 1542, the Emperor abolished slavery by decree in his [[New Laws|Leyes Nuevas]]. This bill was based on the arguments given by the best Spanish theologists and jurists who were unanimous in the condemnation of such slavery as unjust; they declared it illegitimate and outlawed it from America—not just the slavery of Spaniards over Natives—but also the type of slavery practiced among the Natives themselves<ref>Garcia Anoveros, J.M. Carlos V y la abolicion de la exclavitud de los indios, Causas, evolucion y circunstancias. Revista de Indias, 2000, vol. LX, núm. 218</ref> Thus, Spain became the first country to officially abolish slavery.

However, in the [[Captaincy General of Cuba|Spanish colonies of Cuba]] and [[Captaincy General of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico]], where sugarcane production was highly profitable based on slave labor, African slavery persisted until 1873 in Puerto Rico "with provisions for periods of apprenticeship",<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160 |title=Ways of ending slavery |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=29 April 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309101044/https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160 |archive-date=9 March 2013 }}</ref> and 1886 in Cuba.<ref>''The Cuba Reader: History, Culture, Politics.''
(2004) Edited by Aviva Chomsky, Barry Carr, Pamela Maria Smorkaloff, {{ISBN|978-0822331971}}, pp. 37–38.</ref>

====Netherlands====
{{Main|History of Dutch slavery}}
Although slavery was illegal inside the [[History of the Netherlands|Netherlands]] it flourished throughout the [[Dutch Empire]] in the Americas, Africa, Ceylon and Indonesia.<ref>Johannes Postma, ''The Dutch in the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1600–1815'' (2008)</ref> The '''Dutch Slave Coast''' ([[Dutch language|Dutch]]: ''Slavenkust'') referred to the trading posts of the [[Dutch West India Company]] on the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]], which lie in contemporary [[Ghana]], [[Benin]], [[Togo]] and [[Nigeria]]. Initially the Dutch shipped slaves to [[Dutch Brazil]], and during the second half of the 17th century they had a controlling interest in the trade to the Spanish colonies. Today's Suriname and Guyana became prominent markets in the 18th century. Between 1612 and 1872, the Dutch operated from some 10 fortresses along the Gold Coast (now Ghana), from which slaves were shipped across the Atlantic. Dutch involvement on the Slave Coast increased with the establishment of a trading post in [[Offra]] in 1660. [[Willem Bosman]] writes in his ''Nauwkeurige beschrijving van de Guinese Goud- Tand- en Slavekust'' (1703) that [[Allada]] was also called Grand Ardra, being the larger cousin of Little Ardra, also known as Offra. From 1660 onward, Dutch presence in Allada and especially Offra became more permanent.<ref name="AMH-Allada">{{cite web|url=http://www.atlasofmutualheritage.nl/detail.aspx?page=dpost&lang=nl&id=827#tab2|title=Plaats: Allada (Ardra, Ardres, Arder, Allada, Harder)|author=Atlas of Mutual Heritage|access-date=6 April 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130503000054/http://www.atlasofmutualheritage.nl/detail.aspx?page=dpost&lang=nl&id=827#tab2|archive-date=3 May 2013}}</ref> A report from this year asserts Dutch trading posts, apart from Allada and Offra, in [[Benin City]], [[Grand-Popo]], and [[Savi]].

The Offra trading post soon became the most important Dutch office on the Slave Coast. According to a 1670 report, annually 2,500 to 3,000 slaves were transported from Offra to the Americas. These numbers were only feasible in times of peace, however, and dwindled in time of conflict. From 1688 onward, the struggle between the [[Aja people|Aja]] king of Allada and the peoples on the coastal regions, impeded the supply of slaves. The [[Dutch West India Company]] chose the side of the Aja king, causing the Offra office to be destroyed by opposing forces in 1692. 
[[File:Frans Hals - Familiegroep in een landschap.jpg|alt=Domestic slave at the center of the composition of "Family Group in a Landscape" (1645-1648) by Fran Hals, now in Thyssen-Bornemisza National Museum, Madrid.|thumb|A domestic slave<ref>{{Cite news |last=Marlowe |first=Lara |date=October 26, 2024 |title=Exhibition forces viewers to confront the sweat and dead bodies that built Europe's fortunes |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/opinion/2024/10/26/exhibition-forces-viewers-to-confront-the-sweat-and-dead-bodies-that-built-europes-fortunes/ |access-date=January 9, 2025 |newspaper=The Irish Times}}</ref> in a dutch family, as painted by [[Frans Hals]]. Display at [[Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum|Thyssen]].]]


By 1650 the Dutch had the pre-eminent slave trade in Europe and South East Asia. Later, trade shifted to [[Ouidah]]. On the instigation of Governor-General of the [[Dutch Gold Coast]] Willem de la Palma, Jacob van den Broucke was sent in 1703 as "opperkommies" (head merchant) to the Dutch trading post at [[Ouidah]], which according to sources was established around 1670.<ref name="AMH-Ouidah">{{cite web|url=http://www.atlasofmutualheritage.nl/detail.aspx?page=dpost&lang=nl&id=819#tab2|title=Plaats: Ouidah (Fida, Whydah, Juda, Hueda, Whidah)|author=Atlas of Mutual Heritage|access-date=6 April 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130504150011/http://www.atlasofmutualheritage.nl/detail.aspx?page=dpost&lang=nl&id=819#tab2|archive-date=4 May 2013}}</ref><ref name="Delepeleire3c2">{{harvnb|Delepeleire|2004}}, section 3.c.2.</ref> Political unrest caused the Dutch to abandon their trading post at Ouidah in 1725, and they then moved to [[Jaquim]], at which place they built Fort Zeelandia.<ref>P.C. Emmer, Chris Emery, "The Dutch Slave Trade, 1500–1850" (2006) p. 3</ref> The head of the post, Hendrik Hertog, had a reputation for being a successful slave trader. In an attempt to extend his trading area, Hertog negotiated with local tribes and mingled in local political struggles. He sided with the wrong party, however, leading to a conflict with Director-General [[Jan Pranger]] and to his exile to the island of Appa in 1732. The Dutch trading post on this island was extended as the new centre of the slave trade. In 1733, Hertog returned to Jaquim, this time extending the trading post into Fort Zeelandia. The revival of the slave trade at Jaquim was only temporary, however, as his superiors at the Dutch West India Company noticed that Hertog's slaves were more expensive than at the Gold Coast. From 1735, Elmina became the preferred spot to trade slaves.<ref name="AMH-Jaquim">{{cite web|url=http://www.atlasofmutualheritage.nl/detail.aspx?page=dpost&lang=nl&id=822#tab2|title=Plaats: Jaquim (Jaquin, Jakri, Godomey, Jakin)|author=Atlas of Mutual Heritage|access-date=6 April 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130504144844/http://www.atlasofmutualheritage.nl/detail.aspx?page=dpost&lang=nl&id=822#tab2|archive-date=4 May 2013}}</ref> As of 1778, it was estimated that the Dutch were shipping approximately 6,000 Africans for enslavement in the [[Dutch West Indies]] each year.<ref name="Kitchin1">{{cite book|last=Kitchin|first=Thomas|title=The Present State of the West-Indies: Containing an Accurate Description of What Parts Are Possessed by the Several Powers in Europe|year=1778|publisher=R. Baldwin|location=London|page=21|url=http://www.wdl.org/en/item/4397/view/1/21/}}</ref> 

Slavery also characterised the [[Dutch East Indies|Dutch possessions in Indonesia]], [[Dutch Ceylon|Ceylon]], and [[Dutch Cape Colony|South Africa]], where Indonesians have made a significant contribution to the [[Cape Coloured]] population of that country. The Dutch part in the Atlantic slave trade is estimated at 5–7 percent, as they shipped about 550,000–600,000 African slaves across the Atlantic, about 75,000 of whom died on board before reaching their destinations. From 1596 to 1829, the Dutch traders sold 250,000 slaves in the [[Surinam (Dutch colony)|Dutch Guianas]], 142,000 in the [[Dutch Caribbean]], and 28,000 in Dutch Brazil.<ref>Rik Van Welie, "Slave Trading and Slavery in the Dutch Colonial Empire: A Global Comparison," ''NWIG: New West Indian Guide / Nieuwe West-Indische Gids'', 2008, Vol. 82 Issue 1/2, pp. 47–96 [http://www.kitlv-journals.nl/index.php/nwig/article/view/3580/4340 tables 2 and 3]</ref> In addition, tens of thousands of slaves, mostly from India and some from Africa, were carried to the Dutch East Indies.<ref>Vink Markus, "'The World's Oldest Trade': Dutch Slavery and Slave Trade in the Indian Ocean in the Seventeenth Century," ''Journal of World History'' June 2003 [http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jwh/14.2/vink.html 24 December 2010] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090924124618/http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jwh/14.2/vink.html |date=24 September 2009 }}.</ref> The Netherlands abolished slavery in 1863. Although the decision was made in 1848, it took many years for the law to be implemented. Furthermore, slaves in Suriname would be fully free only in 1873, since the law stipulated that there was to be a mandatory 10-year transition.

====Barbary corsairs====
{{main|Barbary slave trade}}
[[File:Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p.12, February 1859, XVI) - Copy.jpg|thumb|Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants (p. 12, February 1859, XVI)<ref name=Offering1859>{{cite journal|title=Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants|journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=February 1859|volume=XVI|page=[https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog/page/n22 12]|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil07socigoog|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>]]

[[Barbary Corsairs]] continued to trade in European slaves into the Modern time-period.<ref name="muslim"/> Muslim pirates, primarily [[Algeria]]ns with the support of the [[Ottoman Empire]], raided European coasts and shipping from the 16th to the 19th centuries, and took thousands of captives, whom they sold or enslaved. Many were held for ransom, and European communities raised funds such as Malta's [[Monte della Redenzione degli Schiavi]] to buy back their citizens. The raids gradually ended with the naval decline of the Ottoman Empire in the late 16th and 17th [[centuries]], as well as the European conquest of North Africa throughout the 19th century.<ref name="muslim">
''[https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C&pg=PA45 Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800]''. Robert Davis (2004). p. 45. {{ISBN|1403945519}}.
</ref>

From 1609 to 1616, England lost 466 merchant ships to Barbary pirates. 160 English ships were captured by Algerians between 1677 and 1680.<ref name="British Slaves on the Barbary Coast">Rees Davies, [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml British Slaves on the Barbary Coast], [[BBC]], 1 July 2003</ref> Many of the captured sailors were made into slaves and held for ransom. The corsairs were no strangers to the South West of England where raids were known in a number of coastal communities. In 1627 [[Barbary Pirates]] under command of the Dutch renegade [[Jan Janszoon]] (Murat Reis), operating from the Moroccan port of [[Salé]], occupied the island of [[Lundy]].<ref>{{Cite book| title=Piracy: the complete history | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=USiyy1ZA-BsC&pg=PA91 | access-date=15 April 2011 | publisher=Osprey Publishing | isbn=978-1846032400 | last=Konstam |first=Angus | year=2008 |page=91}}</ref> During this time there were reports of captured slaves being sent to Algiers.<ref>{{Cite news| title=Pirates who got away with it | work=Study of sails on pirate ships | url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article1449736.ece | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070302095231/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article1449736.ece | url-status=dead | archive-date=2 March 2007 | access-date=25 November 2007 | location=London | date=28 February 2007 | first=Simon | last=de Bruxelles}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book| title=Europe: a History | work=Norman Davis | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jrVW9W9eiYMC&q=barbary+lundy&pg=PA561 | access-date=25 November 2007| isbn=978-0198201717 | last1=Davies | first1=Norman | year=1996 | publisher=Oxford University Press }}</ref>

Ireland, despite its northern position, was not immune from attacks by the corsairs. In June 1631 [[Jan Janszoon|Janszoon]], with pirates from [[Algiers]] and armed troops of the [[Ottoman Empire]], stormed ashore at the little harbor village of [[Baltimore, County Cork]]. They [[Sack of Baltimore|captured almost all the villagers]] and took them away to a life of slavery in North Africa.<ref name=EB1911>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Barbary Pirates |volume=3 |pages=383–384 |first=David McDowall |last=Hannay|authorlink=David Hannay (historian)}}</ref> The prisoners were destined for a variety of fates—some lived out their days chained to the oars as galley slaves, while others would spend long years in the scented seclusion of the harem or within the walls of the sultan's palace. Only two of them ever saw Ireland again.

The [[Congress of Vienna]] (1814–15), which ended the [[Napoleonic Wars]], led to increased European consensus on the need to end [[Barbary Pirates|Barbary]] raiding.<ref name=EB1911/> The sacking of [[Palma, Sardinia|Palma]] on the island of [[Sardinia]] by a Tunisian squadron, which carried off 158 inhabitants, roused widespread indignation. Britain had by this time banned the slave trade and was seeking to induce other countries to do likewise. States that were more vulnerable to the corsairs complained that Britain cared more for ending the trade in [[Atlantic slave trade|African slaves]] than stopping the enslavement of Europeans and Americans by the Barbary States.
[[File:Thomas Luny - Bombardment of Algiers.jpg|thumb|''Bombardment of Algiers by [[Lord Exmouth]] in August 1816'', [[Thomas Luny]]]]

In order to neutralise this objection and further the anti-slavery campaign, in 1816 Britain sent [[Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth|Lord Exmouth]] to secure new concessions from [[Ottoman Tripolitania|Tripoli]], [[Beylik of Tunis|Tunis]], and [[Ottoman Algeria|Algiers]], including a pledge to treat Christian captives in any future conflict as [[prisoners of war]] rather than slaves. He imposed peace between Algiers and the kingdoms of [[Piedmont-Sardinia|Sardinia]] and [[Kingdom of the Two Sicilies|Sicily]]. On his first visit, Lord Exmouth negotiated satisfactory treaties and sailed for home. While he was negotiating, a number of Sardinian fishermen who had settled at [[Annaba|Bona]] on the Tunisian coast were brutally treated without his knowledge.<ref name=EB1911/> As Sardinians they were technically under British protection, and the government sent Exmouth back to secure reparation. On 17 August, in combination with a Dutch squadron under Admiral Van de Capellen, Exmouth [[Bombardment of Algiers (1816)|bombarded Algiers]].<ref name=EB1911/> Both Algiers and Tunis made fresh concessions as a result.

The Barbary states had difficulty securing uniform compliance with a total prohibition of slave-raiding, as this had been traditionally of central importance to the North African economy. Slavers continued to take captives by preying on less well-protected peoples. Algiers subsequently renewed its slave-raiding, though on a smaller scale.<ref name=EB1911/> Europeans at the [[Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818)|Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle]] in 1818 discussed possible retaliation. In 1820 a British fleet under Admiral Sir Harry Neal bombarded Algiers. Corsair activity based in Algiers did not entirely cease until France [[French Algeria#French conquest of Algeria|conquered the state in 1830]].
<ref name=EB1911 />

====Crimean Khanate====
{{further|Crimean-Nogai raids into East Slavic lands|Crimean slave trade|Ottoman slave trade}}

The Crimeans frequently mounted raids into the [[Danubian principalities]], [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth|Poland-Lithuania]], and [[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Muscovy]] to enslave people whom they could capture; for each captive, the khan received a fixed share (savğa) of 10% or 20%. These campaigns by Crimean forces were either ''sefers'' ("sojourns" – officially declared military operations led by the khans themselves), or ''çapuls'' ("despoiling" – raids undertaken by groups of noblemen, sometimes illegally because they contravened treaties concluded by the khans with neighbouring rulers).

For a long time, until the early 18th century, the [[Crimean Khanate]] maintained a massive slave trade with the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East, exporting about 2 million slaves from Russia and Poland-Lithuania over the period 1500–1700.<ref>Darjusz Kołodziejczyk, as reported by {{cite journal |author=Mikhail Kizilov |author-link=Mikhail Kizilov|title= Slaves, Money Lenders, and Prisoner Guards:The Jews and the Trade in Slaves and Captives in the Crimean Khanate |url= https://www.academia.edu/3706285 |journal= The Journal of Jewish Studies|year= 2007|volume= 58 |issue= 2 |pages= 189–210 |doi= 10.18647/2730/JJS-2007 }}</ref> [[Caffa]] (modern Feodosia) became one of the best-known and significant trading ports and slave markets.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url= https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157 |title= Historical survey > Slave societies |encyclopedia=Britannica.com |access-date= 14 October 2015}}</ref> In 1769 the last major Tatar raid saw the capture of 20,000 Russian and Ruthenian slaves.<ref name="slave trade"/>

Author and historian [[Brian Glyn Williams]] writes:
{{blockquote| Fisher estimates that in the sixteenth century the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth lost around 20,000 individuals a year and that from 1474 to 1694, as many as a million Commonwealth citizens were carried off into Crimean slavery.<ref>{{cite web |author= Brian Glyn Williams |title= The Sultan's Raiders: The Military Role of the Crimean Tatars in the Ottoman Empire |url= http://www.jamestown.org/uploads/media/Crimean_Tatar_-_complete_report_01.pdf |work= [[The Jamestown Foundation]] |date= 2013 |page= 27 |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131021092115/http://www.jamestown.org/uploads/media/Crimean_Tatar_-_complete_report_01.pdf |archive-date= 21 October 2013 |df= dmy-all }}</ref>}}

Early modern sources are full of descriptions of sufferings of Christian slaves captured by the Crimean Tatars in the course of their raids:
{{blockquote|It seems that the position and everyday conditions of a slave depended largely on his/her owner. Some slaves indeed could spend the rest of their days doing exhausting labor: as the Crimean ''vizir'' (minister) Sefer Gazi Aga mentions in one of his letters, the slaves were often "a plough and a scythe" of their owners. Most terrible, perhaps, was the fate of those who became [[galley]]-slaves, whose sufferings were poeticized in many Ukrainian ''dumas'' (songs). ... Both female and male slaves were often used for sexual purposes.<ref name="slave trade">
{{cite journal
|author= Mikhail Kizilov
|author-link=Mikhail Kizilov
|title= Slave Trade in the Early Modern Crimea From the Perspective of Christian, Muslim, and Jewish Sources
|volume= 11
|issue= 1
|pages= 1–31
|url= https://www.academia.edu/2971600
|journal= Oxford University
|year= 2007
}}
</ref>}}

====British slave trade====
{{main|Atlantic slave trade}}
[[File:Petition-slavery-1826.jpg|thumb|Illustration from the book: ''The Black Man's Lament, or, how to make sugar'' by [[Amelia Opie]]. (London, 1826)]]

Britain played a prominent role in the [[Atlantic slave trade]], especially after 1640, when sugar cane was introduced to the region. At first, most were white Britons, or Irish, enslaved as indentured labour – for a fixed period – in the West Indies. These people may have been criminals, political rebels, the poor with no prospects or others who were simply tricked or kidnapped. Slavery was a legal institution in all of the 13 [[Thirteen Colonies|American colonies]] and Canada (acquired by Britain in 1763). The profits of the slave trade and of [[West Indies|West Indian]] plantations amounted to under 5% of the [[Economic history of Britain|British economy]] at the time of the [[Industrial Revolution]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Digital History, Steven Mintz |url=http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/historyonline/con_economic.cfm |title=Was slavery the engine of economic growth? |publisher=Digitalhistory.uh.edu |access-date=4 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120513025327/http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/historyonline/con_economic.cfm |archive-date=13 May 2012  }}</ref>

A little-known incident in the career of [[Judge Jeffreys]] refers to an [[assize]] in Bristol in 1685 when he made the mayor of the city, then sitting fully robed beside him on the bench, go into the dock and be fined £1000 for being a "kidnapping knave"; some Bristol traders at the time were known to kidnap their own countrymen and ship them away as slaves.<ref>Patrick Medd,"Romilly", Collins, 1968, p. 149.</ref>

[[Somersett's case]] in 1772 was generally taken at the time to have decided that the condition of slavery did not exist under [[English law]] in England. In 1785, English poet [[William Cowper]] wrote: "We have no slaves at home – Then why abroad? Slaves cannot breathe in England; if their lungs receive our air, that moment they are free. They touch our country, and their shackles fall. That's noble, and bespeaks a nation proud. And jealous of the blessing. Spread it then, And let it circulate through every vein."<ref>Rhodes, Nick (2003). William Cowper: Selected Poems. p. 84. Routledge, 2003</ref> The decision proved to be a milestone in the British abolitionist movement, though slavery was not abolished in the British Empire until the passage of the [[Slavery Abolition Act 1833|1833 Slavery Abolition Act]].<ref>Simon Schama, ''Rough Crossings'' (London: BBC Books, 2005), p. 61.</ref> In 1807, following many years of lobbying by the [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|abolitionist movement]], led primarily by [[William Wilberforce]], the [[British Parliament]] voted to make the slave trade illegal anywhere in the Empire with the [[Slave Trade Act 1807]]. Thereafter Britain took a prominent role in combating the trade, and slavery itself was abolished in the British Empire (except for India) with the [[Slavery Abolition Act 1833]]. Between 1808 and 1860, the [[West Africa Squadron]] seized approximately 1,600 slave ships and freed 150,000 Africans who were aboard.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml Sailing against slavery. By Jo Loosemore] BBC</ref> Action was also taken against African leaders who refused to agree to British treaties to outlaw the trade. [[Akitoye]], the 11th [[Oba of Lagos]], is famous for having used British involvement to regain his rule in return for suppressing slavery among the Yoruba people of Lagos in 1851. Anti-slavery treaties were signed with over 50 African rulers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pdavis.nl/Background.htm#WAS |title=The West African Squadron and slave trade |publisher=Pdavis.nl |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref> In 1839, the world's oldest international human rights organization, [[British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society]] (now Anti-Slavery International), was formed in Britain as by [[Joseph Sturge]], which worked to outlaw slavery in other countries.<ref>[http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.php-URL_ID=9462&URL_DO=DO_PRINTPAGE&URL_SECTION=201.html Anti-Slavery International] UNESCO. Retrieved 15 October 2011</ref>

After 1833, the freed African slaves declined employment in the cane fields. This led to the importation of indentured labour again – mainly from India, and also China.

In 1811, [[Arthur William Hodge]] was executed for the murder of a slave in the [[British West Indies]]. He was not, however, as some{{who|date=February 2017}} have claimed, the first white person to have been [[capital punishment|lawfully executed]] for the [[murder]] of a slave.<ref>Vernon Pickering, ''A Concise History of the British Virgin Islands'', {{ISBN|978-0934139052}}, p. 48</ref><ref>Records indicate at least two earlier incidents. On 23 November 1739, in [[Williamsburg, Virginia|Williamsburg]], Virginia, two white men, Charles Quin and David White, were hanged for the murder of another white man's black slave; and on 21 April 1775, the [[Fredericksburg, Virginia|Fredericksburg]] newspaper, the ''[[Virginia Gazette]]'' reported that a white man William Pitman had been hanged for the murder of his own black slave. ''[https://archive.org/details/blacksincolonial00reis/page/101 <!-- quote="murder of a negro. --> Blacks in Colonial America]'', p. 101, Oscar Reiss, McFarland & Company, 1997; [https://web.archive.org/web/20100624151602/http://departments.umw.edu/hipr/www/fredericksburg/newspapers/vagaz/12may75s_1_3.htm ''Virginia Gazette'', 21 April 1775], [[University of Mary Washington]] Department of Historic Preservation archives</ref>

===Late Modern history===

==== Germany ====
{{See also|Forced labour under German rule during World War II}}

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-E10855, Polen, Juden zur Zwangsarbeit befohlen.jpg|thumb|[[Polish Jew]]s are lined up by German soldiers to do forced labour, September 1939, [[Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)|German-occupied Poland]] ]]
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-185-0112-12, Belgrad, Erfassung von Juden.jpg|thumb|Registration of [[Jew]]s by Nazis for forced labor, 1941]]
During [[World War II]] [[Nazi Germany]] operated several categories of ''[[Arbeitslager]]'' (Labor Camps) for different categories of inmates. The largest number of them held [[Polish people|Polish]] gentiles and [[Jewish]] civilians forcibly abducted in occupied countries (see [[Łapanka]]) to provide labor in the German war industry, repair bombed railroads and bridges or work on farms. By 1944, 20% of all workers were foreigners, either civilians or [[prisoners of war]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Herbert |first1=Ulrich |year=2000 |title=Forced Laborers in the Third Reich: An Overview (Part One) |journal=International Labor and Working-Class History |volume=58 |url=http://www.nathaninc.com/sites/default/files/Pub%20PDFs/Forced%20Labor%20Under%20the%20Third%20Reich,%20Part%20One.pdf |access-date=12 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509054212/http://www.nathaninc.com/sites/default/files/Pub%20PDFs/Forced%20Labor%20Under%20the%20Third%20Reich,%20Part%20One.pdf |archive-date=9 May 2013 |url-status=dead  |doi=10.1017/S0147547900003677 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |s2cid=145344942 }} (offprint)</ref><ref>[http://avalon.law.yale.edu/imt/chap_10.asp Yale Law School Avalon Project] retrieved 8 January 2011</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/germancos.html |title=German Firms That Used Slave or Forced Labor During the Nazi Era |date=27 January 2000 |encyclopedia=[[Jewish Virtual Library]] |access-date=19 September 2010}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005180 United States Holocaust Museum] retrieved 8 January 2011</ref>

====Allied powers====
{{See also|Forced labor of Germans after World War II}}
As agreed by the Allies at the [[Yalta conference]], Germans were used as [[forced labor]] as part of the reparations to be extracted. By 1947, it is estimated that 400,000 Germans (both civilians and [[Prisoner of war|POWs]]) were being used as forced labor by the U.S., France, the UK and the Soviet Union. German prisoners were for example forced to clear minefields in France and the Low Countries. By December 1945, it was estimated by French authorities that 2,000 German prisoners were being killed or injured each month in accidents.<ref>{{cite journal|first=S.P. |last=MacKenzie |title=The Treatment of Prisoners of War in World War II|journal= The Journal of Modern History|volume= 66|number= 3|date=September 1994|pages= 487–520|doi=10.1086/244883|s2cid=143467546 }}</ref> In Norway the last available casualty record, from 29 August 1945, shows that by that time a total of 275 German soldiers died while clearing mines, while 392 had been injured.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.vg.no/pub/vgart.hbs?artid=166207| title=Tyske soldater brukt som mineryddere |language=no|trans-title=German soldiers used for mine-clearing| access-date = 2 June 2007 | last = Tjersland | first = Jonas| date = 8 April 2006 | publisher = VG Nett}}</ref>

====Soviet Union====
{{See also|Gulag|POW labor in the Soviet Union}}
The [[Soviet Union]] took over the already extensive [[katorga]] system and expanded it immensely, eventually organizing the [[Gulag]] to run the camps. In 1954, a year after Stalin's death, the new Soviet government of [[Nikita Khrushchev]] began to release political prisoners and close down the camps. By the end of the 1950s, virtually all "corrective labor camps" were reorganized, mostly into the system of [[corrective labor colony|corrective labor colonies]]. Officially, the Gulag was terminated by the [[Ministry of Internal Affairs (Soviet Union)|MVD]] order 20 25 January 1960.<ref name="memo">{{cite web|url=http://www.memo.ru/history/NKVD/GULAG/r1/r1-4.htm |title=Система исправительно-трудовых лагерей в СССР |publisher=Memo.ru |access-date=14 October 2015}}</ref>{{Verify source|date=October 2015}}

During the period of [[Stalinism]], the [[Gulag]] labor camps in the [[Soviet Union]] were officially called "Corrective labor camps." The term "labor colony"; more exactly, "Corrective labor colony", ({{langx|ru|исправительно-трудовая колония}}, abbr. ''ИТК''), was also in use, most notably the ones for underaged (16 years or younger) convicts and captured ''[[besprizorniki]]'' ([[street children]], literally, "children without family care"). After the reformation of the camps into the Gulag, the term "corrective labor colony" essentially encompassed labor camps{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}}.

A total of around 14 million prisoners passed through the [[Gulag]] labor camps.<ref>Robert Conquest in [http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/CNQ-Victims_Stalinism.pdf "Victims of Stalinism: A Comment."] ''Europe-Asia Studies'', Vol. 49, No. 7 (Nov. 1997), pp. 1317–19 states: "We are all inclined to accept the Zemskov totals (even if not as complete) with their 14 million intake to Gulag 'camps' alone, to which must be added 4–5 million going to Gulag 'colonies', to say nothing of the 3.5 million already in, or sent to, 'labor settlements'. However taken, these are surely 'high' figures."</ref>

==Oceania==
{{see also|Blackbirding}}
In the first half of the 19th century, small-scale slave raids took place across [[Polynesia]] to supply labor and [[sex workers]] for the [[whaling]] and [[seal hunting|sealing]] trades, with examples from both the westerly and easterly extremes of the [[Polynesian triangle]].
By the 1860s this had grown to a larger scale operation with [[Peru]]vian slave raids in the [[South Sea Islands]] to collect labor for the [[guano]] industry.

===Hawaii===
[[Ancient Hawaii]] was a [[caste|caste society]]. People were born into specific social classes. '''Kauwa''' were those of the outcast or slave class. They are believed to have been war captives or their descendants. Marriage between higher castes and the kauwa was strictly forbidden. The kauwa worked for the chiefs and were often used as [[human sacrifice]]s at the ''[[luakini]] heiau''. (They were not the only sacrifices; law-breakers of all castes or defeated political opponents were also acceptable as victims.)<ref>{{cite web|author=mythichawaii.com |url=http://www.mythichawaii.com/hawaiian-culture-society.htm |title=Kapu System and Caste System of Ancient Hawai'i |publisher=Mythichawaii.com |date=23 October 2006 |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref>

The [[Kapu (Hawaiian culture)|kapu]] system was abolished during the [[ʻAi Noa]] in 1819, and with it the distinction between the kauwā slave class and the makaʻāinana (commoners).<ref>{{cite journal|last=Levin|first=Stephenie Seto|title=The Overthrow of the Kapu System in Hawaii|journal=Journal of the Polynesian Society|volume=77|year=1968|pages=402–30|url=http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document/Volume_77_1968/Volume_77,_No._4/The_overthrow_of_the_kapu_system_in_Hawaii,_by_Stephenie_Seto_Levin,_p_402_-_430/p1|access-date=31 August 2018|archive-date=19 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419202518/https://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document/Volume_77_1968/Volume_77,_No._4/The_overthrow_of_the_kapu_system_in_Hawaii,_by_Stephenie_Seto_Levin,_p_402_-_430/p1|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[1852 Constitution of the Kingdom of Hawaii]] officially made slavery illegal.<ref name="WongRayson1987">{{cite book|last1=Wong|first1=Helen|last2=Rayson|first2=Ann|title=Hawaii's Royal History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sY8iLDyCltMC|year=1987|publisher=Bess Press|location=Honolulu|isbn=978-0935848489|page=101}}</ref>

===New Zealand===
Before the arrival of [[Pākehā settlers|European settlers]], New Zealand comprised many individual [[Polity|polities]], with each [[Māori people|Māori]] tribe (''[[iwi]]'') a separate entity equivalent to a nation. In the traditional Māori society of [[Aotearoa]], [[prisoners of war]] became ''taurekareka'', slaves – unless released, ransomed or eaten.<ref>{{cite journal |jstor= 480764 |title={{As written|Maori}} Prisoners and Slaves in the Nineteenth Century | volume= 8 |issue= 2 | pages= 144–55| journal= [[Ethnohistory (journal)|Ethnohistory]] | date= Spring 1961 | doi= 10.2307/480764|last1= Vayda |first1= Andrew P. }}</ref> With some exceptions, the child of a slave remained a slave.

As far as it is possible to tell, slavery seems to have increased in the early-19th century with increased numbers of prisoners being taken by Māori military leaders (such as [[Hongi Hika]] and [[Te Rauparaha]]) to satisfy the need for labor in the [[Musket Wars]], to supply whalers and traders with food, flax and timber in return for western goods. The intertribal Musket Wars lasted from 1807 to 1843; northern tribes who had acquired muskets captured large numbers of slaves. About 20,000 Māori died in the wars. An unknown number of slaves were captured. Northern tribes used slaves (called ''mokai'') to grow large areas of potatoes for trade with visiting ships. Chiefs started an extensive [[sex trade]] in the [[Bay of Islands]] in the 1830s, using mainly slave girls. By 1835 about 70 to 80 ships per year called into the port. One French captain described the impossibility of getting rid of the girls who swarmed over his ship, outnumbering his crew of 70 by 3 to 1. All payments to the girls were stolen by the chief.<ref>{{Cite book |last=O'Malley |first=Vincent |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4-haAwAAQBAJ |title=The Meeting Place: Maori and Pakeha Encounters, 1642-1840 |date=2013-10-01 |publisher=Auckland University Press |isbn=978-1-86940-757-5 |language=en}}</ref> By 1833 Christianity had become established in the north of New Zealand, and large numbers of slaves were freed.

Slavery was outlawed in 1840 via the [[Treaty of Waitangi]], although it did not end completely until government was effectively extended over the whole of the country with the defeat of the [[Māori King Movement|King movement]] in the [[New Zealand Wars|Wars of the mid-1860s]].

====Chatham Islands====
One group of [[Polynesians]] who migrated to the [[Chatham Islands]] became the [[Moriori people|Moriori]] who developed a largely pacifist culture. It was originally speculated that they settled the Chathams direct from Polynesia, but it is now widely believed they were disaffected Māori who emigrated from the [[South Island|South Island of New Zealand]].<ref>{{Cite book
| last = Clark
| first = Ross
| title = Moriori and {{As written|Maori}}: The Linguistic Evidence. In Sutton, Douglas G. (Ed.) (1994), ''The Origins of the First New Zealanders''
| publisher = Auckland University Press
| year = 1994
| location = Auckland
| pages = 123–35
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book
| last = Solomon
| first = Māui
| author2 = Denise Davis
| title = Moriori
| publisher = Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand
| date = 9 June 2006
| url = http://www.teara.govt.nz/NewZealanders/MaoriNewZealanders/Moriori/en
| access-date = 12 March 2008
| archive-date = 8 May 2006
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060508053138/http://www.teara.govt.nz/NewZealanders/MaoriNewZealanders/Moriori/en
| url-status = dead
}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia
| last = Howe
| first = Kerry
| title = Ideas of Māori origins
| encyclopedia = Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand
| date = 9 June 2006
| url = http://www.teara.govt.nz/NewZealanders/MaoriNewZealanders/IdeasOfMaoriOrigins/en
| access-date = 12 March 2008
| archive-date = 16 April 2009
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090416053239/http://www.teara.govt.nz/NewZealanders/MaoriNewZealanders/IdeasOfMaoriOrigins/en
| url-status = dead
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book
| last = King
| first = Michael
| title = Moriori: A People Rediscovered
| publisher = Viking
| date = 2000
| isbn = 978-0140103915}}</ref> Their [[pacifism]] left the Moriori unable to defend themselves when the islands were invaded by mainland Māori in the 1830s.

Two Taranaki tribes, Ngati Tama and Ngati Mutunga, displaced by the Musket Wars, carried out a carefully planned invasion of the Chatham Islands, 800&nbsp;km east of [[Christchurch]], in 1835. About 15% of the Polynesian Moriori natives who had migrated to the islands at about 1500 CE were killed, with many women being tortured to death. The remaining population was enslaved for the purpose of growing food, especially potatoes. The Moriori were treated in an inhumane and degrading manner for many years. Their culture was banned and they were forbidden to marry.<ref name="Moriori. M. King. Penguin. 2003">''Moriori''. [[Michael King (historian)|M. King]]. Penguin. 2003.</ref>

Some 300 Moriori men, women and children were massacred and the remaining 1,200 to 1,300 survivors were enslaved.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/NewZealanders/MaoriNewZealanders/Moriori/4/en |title=Moriori – The impact of new arrivals – Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |publisher=Teara.govt.nz |date=4 March 2009 |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newzealandatoz.com/index.php?pageid=607&PHPSESSID=1c2fab7979e45ccc7c3e7336e8636142 |title=Chatham Islands |publisher=New Zealand A to Z |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref>

Some Māori took Moriori partners. The state of enslavement of Moriori lasted until the 1860s although it had been discouraged by [[CMS missionaries]] in northern New Zealand from the late 1820s. In 1870 Ngati Mutunga, one of the invading tribes, argued before the [[Native Land Court]] in New Zealand that their gross mistreatment of the Moriori was standard Māori practice or [[tikanga]].<ref>
''Moriori''. Michael King. Penguin. 2003.
</ref>

===Rapa Nui / Easter Island===
The isolated island of [[Rapa Nui]]/[[Easter Island]] was inhabited by the [[Rapanui]], who suffered a series of slave raids from 1805 or earlier, culminating in a near [[genocide|genocidal]] experience in the 1860s. The 1805 raid was by American sealers and was one of a series that changed the attitude of the islanders to outside visitors, with reports in the 1820s and 1830s that all visitors received a hostile reception. In December 1862, [[Peru]]vian slave raiders took between 1,400 and 2,000 islanders back to Peru to work in the [[guano]] industry; this was about a third of the island's population and included much of the island's leadership, the last ''ariki-mau'' and possibly the last who could read [[Rongorongo]]. After intervention by the French ambassador in [[Lima]], the last 15 survivors were returned to the island, but brought with them [[smallpox]], which further devastated the island.

==Abolitionist movements==
{{Main|Abolitionism}}
[[File:Slavery_abolition.svg|thumb|Abolition of Slavery by country and year]]
[[File:Proclamation esclavage.jpg|thumb|Proclamation of the abolition of slavery by [[Victor Hugues]] in the [[Guadeloupe]], 1 November 1794]]

Slavery has existed, in one form or another, throughout the whole of human history. So, too, have movements to free large or distinct groups of slaves. However, abolitionism should be distinguished from efforts to help a particular group of slaves, or to restrict one practice, such as the slave trade.

Drescher (2009) provides a model for the history of the abolition of slavery, emphasizing its origins in Western Europe. Around the year 1500, slavery had virtually died out in Western Europe, but was a normal phenomenon practically everywhere else. The imperial powers – the British, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Dutch empires, and a few others – built worldwide empires based primarily on plantation agriculture using slaves imported from Africa. However, the powers took care to minimize the presence of slavery in their homelands. In 1807 Britain and soon after, the United States also, both criminalized the international slave trade. The [[Royal Navy]] was increasingly effective in [[Blockade of Africa|intercepting slave ships]], freeing the captives and taking the crew for trial in courts.

Although there were numerous slave revolts in the Caribbean, the only successful uprising came in the French colony of Haiti in the 1790s, where the slaves rose up, killed the [[mulattoes]] and whites, and established the independent Republic of Haiti.

The continuing profitability of slave-based plantations and the threats of race war slowed the development of abolition movements during the first half of the 19th century. These movements were strongest in Britain, and after 1840 in the United States. The Northern states of the United States abolished slavery, partly in response to the [[United States Declaration of Independence]], between 1777 and 1804. Britain ended slavery in its empire in the 1830s. However, the plantation economies of the southern United States, based on cotton, and those in Brazil and Cuba, based on sugar, expanded and grew even more profitable. The bloody [[American Civil War]] ended slavery in the United States in 1865. The system ended in Cuba and Brazil in the 1880s because it was no longer profitable for the owners. Slavery continued to exist in Africa, where Arab slave traders raided black areas for new captives to be sold in the system. European colonial rule and diplomatic pressure slowly put an end to the trade, and eventually to the practice of slavery itself.<ref>Seymour Drescher, ''Abolition: A History of Slavery and Antislavery'' (Cambridge University Press, 2009)</ref>

===Britain===
{{main|Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|Somerset v Stewart|Abolition of slavery in the British Empire|Emancipation of the British West Indies|Slave Trade Act 1807}}
[[File:The Anti-Slavery Society Convention, 1840 by Benjamin Robert Haydon.jpg|thumb|A painting of the [[British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society#History|1840 Anti-Slavery Conference]].]]
[[File:Protector of Slaves Office (Trinidad) by Richard Bridgens.jpg|thumb|''Protector of Slaves Office (Trinidad)'', Richard Bridgens, 1838.<ref>"{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20150414211920/http://databases.tanap.net/ead/html/CapeTown_1.21/index.html?N100A7 Inventory of the Archives of the Registrar and Guardian of Slaves, 1717–1848]}}"</ref>]]

{{Campaignbox Suppression of the Slave Trade}}
In 1772, the '''[[Somersett's Case|Somersett Case]]''' (''R. v. Knowles, ex parte Somersett'')<ref>(1772) 20 State Tr 1; (1772) Lofft 1</ref> of the English [[Court of King's Bench (England)|Court of King's Bench]] ruled that it was unlawful for a slave to be forcibly taken abroad. The case has since been misrepresented as finding that [[slavery]] was unlawful in England (although not elsewhere in the [[British Empire]]). A similar case, that of [[Joseph Knight (slave)|Joseph Knight]], took place in Scotland five years later and ruled slavery to be contrary to the law of Scotland.

Following the work of campaigners in the United Kingdom, such as [[William Wilberforce]], [[Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville]] and [[Thomas Clarkson]], who founded the [[Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade]] (Abolition Society) in May 1787, the [[Slave Trade Act 1807]] was passed by [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] on 25 March 1807, coming into effect the following year. The act imposed a fine of £100 for every slave found aboard a British ship. The intention was to outlaw entirely the [[Atlantic slave trade]] within the whole British Empire.{{citation needed|date=December 2020}}

The significance of the abolition of the British slave trade lay in the number of people hitherto sold and carried by British slave vessels. Britain shipped 2,532,300 Africans across the Atlantic, equalling 41% of the total transport of 6,132,900 individuals. This made the British Empire the biggest slave-trade contributor in the world due to the magnitude of the empire, which made the abolition act all the more damaging to the global trade of slaves.<ref>Paul E. Lovejoy: 'The Volume of the Atlantic Slave Trade: A Synthesis.' ''The Journal of African History'', Vol. 23, No. 4 (1982).</ref> Britain used its diplomatic influence to press other nations into treaties to ban their slave trade and to give the Royal Navy the right to [[Blockade of Africa|interdict slave ships]] sailing under their national flag.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lovejoy |first=Paul E. |title=Transformations in slavery: a history of slavery in Africa |page=[https://archive.org/details/transformationsi0000love/page/290 290] |location=New York |edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0521780124 |url=https://archive.org/details/transformationsi0000love/page/290 }}</ref>

The [[Slavery Abolition Act 1833]], passed on 1 August 1833, outlawed slavery itself throughout the British Empire, with the exception of India. On 1 August 1834 slaves became indentured to their former owners in an apprenticeship system for six years. Full emancipation was granted ahead of schedule on 1 August 1838.<ref>Dryden, John. 1992  "Pas de Six Ans!" In: ''Seven Slaves & Slavery: Trinidad 1777–1838'', by Anthony de Verteuil, Port of Spain, pp. 371–79.</ref> Britain abolished slavery in both [[Hindu]] and [[Islam in India|Muslim]] India with the [[Indian Slavery Act, 1843]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.commonlii.org/in/legis/num_act/bla1941111/ |title=Indian Legislation |publisher=Commonlii.org |access-date=4 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930070602/http://www.commonlii.org/in/legis/num_act/bla1941111/ |archive-date=30 September 2011  }}</ref>

The [[Society for the Mitigation and Gradual Abolition of Slavery Throughout the British Dominions]] (later London Anti-slavery Society ), was founded in 1823, and existed until 1838.<ref name=dnb>{{cite ODNB|url=https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-96359|title=Anti-Slavery Society|first=Catherine|last=Hall| year=2008| doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/96359|access-date=20 December 2020}}</ref>

Domestic slavery practised by the educated African coastal elites (as well as interior traditional rulers) in [[Sierra Leone]] was abolished in 1928. A study found practices of domestic slavery still widespread in rural areas in the 1970s.<ref>{{cite web|author=The Committee Office, House of Commons |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200506/cmselect/cmintdev/923/923m21.htm |title=House of Commons – International Development – Memoranda |publisher=Publications.parliament.uk |date=6 March 2006 |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/story/0,,1998227,00.html |title=Response The 1833 Abolition of Slavery Act didn't end the vile trade |work=The Guardian |location=UK |date=25 January 2007 |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref>

The [[British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society]], founded in 1839 and having gone several name changes since, still exists as Anti-Slavery International.<ref>{{cite web | title=Our history | website=Anti-Slavery International  | url=https://www.antislavery.org/about-us/history/ | access-date=20 December 2020}}</ref>

===France===
{{main|Abolitionism in France|Role of Nantes in the slave trade}}
There were slaves in [[Metropolitan France]] (especially in trade ports such as [[Nantes]] or [[Bordeaux]]).,{{citation needed|date=October 2015}} but the institution was never officially authorized there. The legal case of [[Jean Boucaux]] in 1739 clarified the unclear legal position of possible slaves in France, and was followed by laws that established registers for slaves in mainland France, who were limited to a three-year stay, for visits or learning a trade. Unregistered "slaves" in France were regarded as free. However, slavery was of vital importance to the economy of France's [[Caribbean]] possessions, especially [[Saint-Domingue]].

====Abolition====
In 1793, influenced by the French [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]] of August 1789 and alarmed as the massive slave revolt of August 1791 that had become the [[Haitian Revolution]] threatened to ally itself with the British, the [[French First Republic|Revolutionary French]] commissioners [[Léger-Félicité Sonthonax]] and [[Étienne Polverel]] declared general emancipation to reconcile them with France. In Paris, on 4 February 1794, [[Abbé Grégoire]] and the Convention ratified this action by officially abolishing slavery in all French territories outside mainland France, freeing all the slaves both for moral and security reasons.

====Napoleon restores slavery====
[[Napoleon]] came to power in 1799 and soon had grandiose plans for the French sugar colonies; to achieve them he reintroduced slavery. Napoleon's major adventure into the Caribbean—sending 30,000 troops in 1802 to retake Saint Domingue (Haiti) from ex-slaves under [[Toussaint L'Ouverture]] who had revolted. Napoleon wanted to preserve France's financial benefits from the colony's sugar and coffee crops; he then planned to establish a major base at New Orleans. He therefore re-established slavery in Haiti and Guadeloupe, where it had been abolished after rebellions. Slaves and black freedmen fought the French for their freedom and independence. Revolutionary ideals played a central role in the fighting{{Citation needed|date=May 2015}} for it was the slaves and their allies who were fighting for the revolutionary ideals of freedom and equality, while the French troops under General [[Charles Leclerc (general, born 1772)|Charles Leclerc]] fought to restore the order of the ''ancien régime''. The goal of re-establishing slavery explicitly contradicted the ideals of the French Revolution. The French soldiers were unable to cope with tropical diseases, and most died of [[yellow fever]]. Slavery was reimposed in Guadeloupe but not in Haiti, which became an independent black republic.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Girard | first1 = Philippe R. | year = 2005 | title = Liberte, Egalite, Esclavage: French Revolutionary Ideals and the Failure of the Leclerc Expedition to Saint-Domingue | journal = French Colonial History | volume = 6 | issue = 1| pages = 55–77 | doi=10.1353/fch.2005.0007| s2cid = 144324974 }}</ref> Napoleon's vast colonial dreams for Egypt, India, the Caribbean Louisiana and even Australia were all doomed for lack of a fleet capable of matching Britain's Royal Navy. Realizing the fiasco Napoleon liquidated the Haiti project, brought home the survivors and [[Louisiana Purchase|sold off the huge Louisiana territory]] to the US in 1803.<ref>Steven Englund, ''Napoleon: A Political Life'' (2004) p. 259.</ref>

====Napoleon and slavery====
In 1794 slavery was abolished in the French Empire. After seizing [[Lower Egypt]] in 1798, [[Napoleon|Napoleon Bonaparte]] issued a proclamation in [[Arabic]], declaring all men to be free and equal. However, the French bought males as soldiers and females as concubines. Napoleon personally opposed the abolition and restored colonial slavery in 1802, a year after the capitulation of his troops in Egypt.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZW9DjTAox6EC|title=Islam and the Abolition of Slavery|first=W. G.|last=Clarence-Smith|date=26 April 2006|publisher=C. Hurst & Company|via=Google Books|isbn=9781850657088}}</ref>

Napoleon decreed the abolition of the slave trade upon his returning from [[Elba]] in an attempt to appease Britain. His decision was confirmed by the [[Treaty of Paris (1815)|Treaty of Paris]] on 20 November 1815 and by order of [[Louis XVIII of France|Louis XVIII]] on 8 January 1817. However, trafficking continued despite sanctions.<ref>[[Jean Sévillia]], ''Historiquement correct. Pour en finir avec le passé unique'', Paris, Perrin, 2003 ({{ISBN|2262017727}}), p. 256</ref>
[[File:Plaque rue Schoelcher.JPG|thumb|"Avenue Schœlcher 1804-1893", [[Houilles]] (France)]]

====Victor Schœlcher and the 1848 abolition====
{{Main|End of slavery in France}}
Slavery in the French colonies was finally abolished in 1848, three months after the beginning of the [[French Revolution of 1848|revolution]] against the [[July Monarchy]]. It was in large part the result of the tireless 18-year campaign of [[Victor Schœlcher]]. On 3 March 1848, he had been appointed under-secretary of the navy, and caused a decree to be issued by the provisional government which acknowledged the principle of the enfranchisement of the slaves through the French possessions. He also wrote the decree of 27 April 1848 in which the French government announced that slavery was abolished in all of its colonies.{{Citation needed|date = May 2022}}

===United States===
{{main|Abolitionism in the United States|End of slavery in the United States of America}}

In 1688, four German Quakers in [[Germantown, Philadelphia, PA|Germantown]] presented a [[The 1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery|protest against the institution of slavery]] to their local Quaker Meeting. It was ignored for 150 years but in 1844 it was rediscovered and was popularized by the [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolitionist movement]]. The 1688 Petition was the first American public document of its kind to protest slavery, and in addition was one of the first public documents to define universal human rights.

The [[American Colonization Society]], the primary vehicle for returning black Americans to greater freedom in Africa, established the colony of [[Liberia]] in 1821–23, on the premise that former American slaves would have greater freedom and equality there.<ref>{{cite web|title=Background on Conflict in Liberia|url=http://www.fcnl.org/issues/item.php?item_id=731&issue_id=75|website=fcnl.org|publisher=[[Friends Committee on National Legislation]]|access-date=14 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110108042234/http://www.fcnl.org/issues/item.php?item_id=731&issue_id=75|archive-date=8 January 2011|location=[[Washington, D.C.]]|date=30 July 2003}}</ref> 
Various state colonization societies also had African colonies which were later merged with Liberia, including the [[Republic of Maryland]], [[Mississippi-in-Africa]], and [[Kentucky in Africa]]. These societies assisted in the movement of thousands of African Americans to Liberia, with ACS founder [[Henry Clay]] stating; "unconquerable prejudice resulting from their color, they never could amalgamate with the free whites of this country. It was desirable, therefore, as it respected them, and the residue of the population of the country, to drain them off". [[Abraham Lincoln]], an enthusiastic supporter of Clay, adopted his position on returning the blacks to their own land.<ref>Maggie Montesinos Sale (1997). ''The slumbering volcano: American slave ship revolts and the production of rebellious masculinity.'' p. 264. Duke University Press, 1997. {{ISBN|978-0822319924}}</ref>

Slaves in the United States who escaped ownership would often make their way to the Northern United States and Canada via the "[[Underground Railroad]]". The more famous of the African American [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolitionists]] include former slaves [[Harriet Tubman]], [[Sojourner Truth]] and [[Frederick Douglass]]. Many more people who opposed slavery and worked for abolition were northern whites, such as [[William Lloyd Garrison]] and [[John Brown (abolitionist)|John Brown]]. Slavery was legally abolished in 1865 by the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]].

While abolitionists agreed on the evils of slavery, there were differing opinions on what should happen after African Americans were freed. By the time of Emancipation, African-Americans were now native to the United States and did not want to leave. Most believed that their labor had made the land theirs as well as that of the whites.<ref>Robin D.G. Kelley and Earl Lewis, ''To Make Our World Anew: Volume I'' (2005) p. 255</ref>

===Congress of Vienna===
The ''Declaration of the Powers, on the Abolition of the Slave Trade, of 8 February 1815'' (Which also formed [[s:Final Act of the Congress of Vienna/Act XV|ACT, No. XV.]] of the [[Final Act of the Congress of Vienna|Final Act]] of the [[Congress of Vienna]] of the same year) included in its first sentence the concept of the "principles of humanity and universal morality" as justification for ending a trade that was "odious in its continuance".<ref>The Parliamentary Debates from the Year 1803 to the Present Time, Published by s.n., 1816 Volume 32. [https://books.google.com/books?id=I8ETAAAAYAAJ&pg=P74 p. 200]</ref>

===Twentieth century===
{{See also|Slavery in Morocco|Slavery in Bahrain|Slavery in Kuwait|Slavery in Qatar|Slavery in Saudi Arabia|Slavery in Yemen|Slavery in Oman}}
[[File:The British Army in North-west Europe 1944-45 BU3097.jpg|thumb|Liberated Russian slave workers, [[Nazi Germany]], April 1945]]

During the 20th century the issue of slavery was addressed by the [[League of Nations]], who founded commissions to investigate and eradicate the institution of slavery and slave trade worldwide. Their efforts continued the work of the first international attempt to address the issue made by the [[Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90]], which had concluded with the [[Brussels Conference Act of 1890]]. The 1890 Act was revised by the [[Convention of Saint-Germain-en-Laye 1919]], and when the League of Nations was founded in 1920, a need was felt to revise and continue the struggle against slavery.

The [[Temporary Slavery Commission]] (TSC) was founded by the League in 1924, which conducted a global investigation and filed a report, and a convention was drawn up in view of hastening the total abolition of slavery and the slave trade.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. USA: AltaMira Press. 100-121</ref> 
The [[1926 Slavery Convention]], which was founded upon the investigation of the TSC of the [[League of Nations]], was a turning point in banning global slavery.

In 1932, the League formed the [[Committee of Experts on Slavery]] (CES) to review the result and enforcement of the 1926 Slavery Convention, which resulted in a new international investigation under the first permanent slavery committee, the [[Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery]] (ACE).<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 216</ref>
The ACE conducted a major international investigation on slavery and slave trade, inspecting all the colonial empires and the territories under their control between 1934 and 1939.

Article 4 of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]], adopted in 1948 by the [[UN General Assembly]], explicitly banned slavery. 
After [[World War II]], legal [[chattel slavery]] was formally abolished by law in almost the entire world, with the exception of the Arabian Peninsula and some parts of Africa. Chattel slavery was still legal [[slavery in Saudi Arabia|in Saudi Arabia]], [[slavery in Yemen|in Yemen]], in [[slavery in the Trucial States|the Trucial States]] and [[slavery in Oman|in Oman]], and slaves were supplied to the Arabian Peninsula via the [[Red Sea slave trade]].

When the League of Nations was succeeded by the [[United Nations]] (UN) after the end of the [[World War II]], [[Charles Wilton Wood Greenidge]]  of the [[Anti-Slavery International]] worked for the UN to continue the investigation of global slavery conducted by the ACE of the League, and in February 1950 the 
Ad hoc [[Committee on Slavery]] of the United Nations was inaugurated,<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 323-324</ref> which ultimately resulted in the introduction of the [[Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery]].<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 326</ref>

The [[United Nations 1956 Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery]] was convened to outlaw and ban slavery worldwide, including [[child slavery]]. 
In November 1962, [[Faisal of Saudi Arabia]] finally prohibited the owning of slaves in Saudi Arabia, followed by the abolition of [[slavery in Yemen]] in 1962, [[slavery in Dubai]] 1963 and [[slavery in Oman]] in 1970.

In December 1966, the UN General Assembly adopted the [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]], which was developed from the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]]. Article 4 of this international treaty bans slavery. The treaty came into force in March 1976 after it had been ratified by 35 nations.

As of November 2003, 104 nations had ratified the treaty. However, illegal forced labour involves millions of people in the 21st century, 43% for sexual exploitation and 32% for economic exploitation.<ref>{{cite book|editor=David P. Forsythe|title=Encyclopedia of human rights|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1QbX90fmCVUC&pg=RA1-PA494|year=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=494–502|isbn=978-0195334029}}</ref>

In May 2004, the 22 members of the [[Arab League]] adopted the [[Arab Charter on Human Rights]], which incorporated the 1990 [[Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Slavery in Islam|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/slavery_1.shtml|website=BBC.co.uk|publisher=BBC|access-date=6 October 2015}}</ref> which states:
{{Blockquote|text=Human beings are born free, and no one has the right to enslave, humiliate, oppress or exploit them, and there can be no subjugation but to God the Most-High. |source=Article 11, Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam, 1990}}

Currently, the Anti-trafficking Coordination Team Initiative (ACT Team Initiative), a coordinated effort between the [[United States Department of Justice|U.S. Departments of Justice]], [[United States Department of Homeland Security|Homeland Security]], and [[United States Department of Labor|Labor]], addresses human trafficking.<ref>{{cite news|last1=McKee|first1=Caroline|title=U.S. works to fight modern-day slavery|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/en/perspective/features/2015/07/07/U-S-works-to-fight-modern-day-slavery.html|access-date=21 July 2015|date=7 July 2015}}</ref> The [[International Labour Organization]] estimates that there are 20.9 million victims of human trafficking globally, including 5.5 million children, of which 55% are women and girls.<ref>{{cite web|title=Human Trafficking|url=http://www.polarisproject.org/human-trafficking/overview|website=polarisproject.org|access-date=21 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150721184701/http://www.polarisproject.org/human-trafficking/overview|archive-date=21 July 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Contemporary slavery==
{{main|Slavery in the 21st century}}
According to the Global Slavery Index, slavery continues into the 21st century. It claims that as of 2018, the countries with the most slaves were: India (8 million), China (3.86 million), Pakistan (3.19 million) and North Korea (2.64 million).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/world/which-countries-have-highest-rates-modern-slavery-and-most-victims|title=Which countries have the highest rates of modern slavery and most victims? - World &#124; ReliefWeb|website=reliefweb.int|date=31 July 2018 }}</ref> The countries with highest prevalence of slavery were North Korea (10.5%) and Eritrea (9.3%).<ref name="globalslaveryindex.org"/>

==Historiography==

===Historiography in the United States===
{{main|Historiography of slavery in the United States}}
[[File:Wes Brady, ex-slave, Marshall edited.jpg|thumb|Wes Brady, ex-slave, Marshall, Texas, 1937. This photograph was taken as part of the [[Federal Writers' Project]] [[Slave Narrative Collection]], which has often been used as a primary source by historians. ]]

For much of the 19th and early 20th centuries, historians portrayed American slavery primarily through the lens of white slaveholders. Influenced by the [[Lost Cause of the Confederacy|Lost Cause]] narrative, early scholars such as [[Ulrich Bonnell Phillips]] described slavery as a paternalistic system and characterized enslaved people as passive dependents. This interpretation persisted partly because slaveholders left behind extensive written records, whereas most enslaved people, being denied education, could not document their experiences.<ref>Peter Kolchin, ''American Slavery: 1619–1877'' (1993), pp. 134–135.</ref> In contrast, Black scholars working at historically Black colleges began promoting alternative perspectives earlier, though their work was largely excluded from mainstream historiography.{{sfn|Meier|Rudwick|1986}}

A major shift occurred in the mid-20th century with the work of historians like [[Kenneth M. Stampp]], whose book ''The Peculiar Institution'' (1956) rejected romanticized accounts and highlighted the brutality and resistance inherent in slavery.{{sfn|David|Temin|1974|p=741}} Later scholars, including [[John Blassingame]], [[Eugene Genovese]], and [[Herbert Gutman]], used sources such as slave narratives, WPA interviews, folklore, and archaeology to reconstruct the lives of the enslaved. Their work portrayed enslaved people as active agents who built communities, preserved culture, and exercised autonomy within an oppressive system.<ref>Kolchin, pp. 137–143.</ref>{{sfn|Horton|Horton|2006|p=9}} In parallel, economic historians like [[Robert Fogel]] and [[Stanley Engerman]] argued controversially in [[Time on the Cross]] (1974) that slavery was economically efficient and that the material conditions of enslaved laborers were in some respects better than those of free laborers—an argument that drew sharp criticism for minimizing slavery’s human cost.<ref>Kolchin, p. 136.</ref>

Recent historiography increasingly places American slavery in a global and comparative context. Scholars examine how slavery in the United States resembled or diverged from other forms, such as slavery in the Caribbean, Brazil, or the Islamic world. Compared to the relatively high mortality and low reproduction rates in Caribbean slavery, American slavery saw a self-reproducing, indeed naturally expanding, slave population,{{sfn|Genovese|1976|p=5}} which shaped family structures and resistance differently.{{sfn|Davis|2006|pp=142–160}}

===Economics of slavery in the West Indies===
One of the most controversial aspects of the British Empire is its role in first promoting and then ending slavery. In the 18th-century British merchant ships were the largest element in the "Middle Passage" which transported millions of slaves to the Western Hemisphere. Most of those who survived the journey wound up in the Caribbean, where the Empire had highly profitable sugar colonies, and the living conditions were bad (the plantation owners lived in Britain). Parliament ended the international transportation of slaves in 1807 and used the Royal Navy to enforce that ban. In 1833 it bought out the plantation owners and banned slavery. Historians before the 1940s argued that moralistic reformers such as [[William Wilberforce]] were primarily responsible.<ref>Frank Joseph Klingberg, ''The anti-slavery movement in England: a study in English humanitarianism'' (Yale University Press, 1926)</ref>

[[Historical revisionism]] arrived when West Indian historian [[Eric Williams]], a Marxist, in ''[[Capitalism and Slavery]]'' (1944), rejected this moral explanation and argued that abolition was now more profitable, for a century of sugarcane raising had exhausted the soil of the islands, and the plantations had become unprofitable. It was more profitable to sell the slaves to the government than to keep up operations. The 1807 prohibition of the international trade, Williams argued, prevented French expansion on other islands. Meanwhile, British investors turned to Asia, where labor was so plentiful that slavery was unnecessary. Williams went on to argue that slavery played a major role in making Britain prosperous. The high profits from the slave trade, he said, helped finance the [[Industrial Revolution]]. Britain enjoyed prosperity because of the capital gained from the unpaid work of slaves.<ref>Barbara Solow and Stanley L. Engerman, eds., ''British capitalism and Caribbean slavery: The legacy of Eric Williams'' (Cambridge University Press, 2004)</ref>

Since the 1970s numerous historians have challenged Williams from various angles and Gad Heuman has concluded, "More recent research has rejected this conclusion; it is now clear that the colonies of the British Caribbean profited considerably during the [[French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars|Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars]]."<ref>Gad Heuman "The British West Indies"  in Andrew Porter, ed., ''The Oxford History of the British Empire – Vol. 3: The 19th Century'' (1999) 3:470</ref><ref>Seymour Drescher, "Eric Williams: British Capitalism and British Slavery." ''History and Theory'' (1987): 180–96. [http://his693.clevelandhistory.org/files/2015/01/Drescher-WilliamThesis.pdf online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329123920/http://his693.clevelandhistory.org/files/2015/01/Drescher-WilliamThesis.pdf |date=29 March 2017 }}</ref> In his major attack on the Williams's thesis, [[Seymour Drescher]] argues that Britain's abolition of the slave trade in 1807 resulted not from the diminishing value of slavery for Britain but instead from the moral outrage of the British voting public.<ref>Seymour Drescher, ''Econocide: British Slavery in the Era of Abolition'' (1977).</ref> Critics have also argued that slavery remained profitable in the 1830s because of innovations in agriculture so the [[profit motive]] was not central to abolition.<ref>J.R. Ward, "The British West Indies in the Age of Abolition," in P.J. Marshall, ed. ''The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume II: The Eighteenth Century'' (1998) pp. 415–39.</ref> Richardson (1998) finds Williams's claims regarding the [[Industrial Revolution]] are exaggerated, for profits from the slave trade amounted to less than 1% of domestic investment in Britain. Richardson further challenges claims (by African scholars) that the slave trade caused widespread depopulation and economic distress in Africa—indeed that it caused the "underdevelopment" of Africa. Admitting the horrible suffering of slaves, he notes that many Africans benefited directly because the first stage of the trade was always firmly in the hands of Africans. European slave ships waited at ports to purchase cargoes of people who were captured in the hinterland by African dealers and tribal leaders. Richardson finds that the "terms of trade" (how much the ship owners paid for the slave cargo) moved heavily in favor of the Africans after about 1750. That is, indigenous elites inside West and Central Africa made large and growing profits from slavery, thus increasing their wealth and power.<ref>David Richardson, "The British Empire and the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1660–1807," in P.J. Marshall, ed. ''The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume II: The Eighteenth Century'' (1998) pp. 440–64.</ref>

Economic historian [[Stanley Engerman]] finds that even without subtracting the associated costs of the slave trade (e.g., shipping costs, slave mortality, mortality of British people in Africa, defense costs) or reinvestment of profits back into the slave trade, the total profits from the slave trade and of West Indian plantations amounted to less than 5% of the [[Economic history of the United Kingdom|British economy]] during any year of the [[Industrial Revolution]].<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 3113341|title = The Slave Trade and British Capital Formation in the Eighteenth Century: A Comment on the Williams Thesis|journal = The Business History Review|volume = 46|issue = 4|pages = 430–443|last1 = Engerman|first1 = Stanley L.|year = 1972|doi = 10.2307/3113341| s2cid=154620412 }}</ref> Engerman's 5% figure gives as much as possible in terms of benefit of the doubt to the Williams argument, not solely because it does not take into account the associated costs of the slave trade to Britain, but also because it carries the full-employment assumption from economics and holds the gross value of slave trade profits as a direct contribution to Britain's national income.<ref name="The Slave Trade and British Capital Formation in the Eighteenth Century">{{cite journal|author=Stanley L. Engerman|title=The Slave Trade and British Capital Formation in the Eighteenth Century|jstor=3113341 | volume=46|issue=4|pages=430–43|doi=10.2307/3113341|journal=Business History Review|year=2012|s2cid=154620412 }}</ref> Historian [[Richard Pares]], in an article written before Williams's book, dismisses the influence of wealth generated from the West Indian plantations upon the financing of the Industrial Revolution, stating that whatever substantial flow of investment from West Indian profits into industry there was occurred after emancipation, not before.<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 2590147|title = The Economic Factors in the History of the Empire|journal = The Economic History Review|volume = 7|issue = 2|pages = 119–144|last1 = Pares|first1 = Richard|year = 1937|doi = 10.2307/2590147}}</ref>

==See also==
{{div col}}
;General
* Types of slavery:
** [[Child labour]]/[[Verdingkinder]]/[[Swiss children coercion reparation initiative]]<ref name="NYT">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/11/opinion/slaverys-shadow-on-switzerland.html?_r=0|title=Slavery's Shadow on Switzerland|work=[[New York Times]]|author=Tony Wild|date=10 November 2014|access-date=15 November 2014}}</ref><ref name="BBC-Verdingkinder">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-29765623|title=Switzerland's shame: The children used as cheap farm labour|work=[[BBC News]]|author=Kavita Puri|date=29 October 2014|access-date=15 November 2014}}</ref>
** [[Child slavery]]
** [[Coolie]]s
** [[Debt bondage]]
** [[Forced labour]]
** [[Forced marriage]]
** [[Gulag]]
** [[Indentured servitude]]
** [[Sexual slavery]]
* Types of slave trade:
** [[Atlantic slave trade]]
** [[Barbary slave trade]]
** [[Blackbirding]]
** [[Coastwise slave trade]]
**[[Indian Ocean slave trade]] 
**[[Trans-Saharan slave trade]]
** [[Slavery in Africa]]
*** [[Asiento de Negros]]
** [[Slavery in the Ottoman Empire]]
** [[Swedish slave trade]]
** [[White slavery]]
* Present-day slavery:
** [[Human trafficking]]
** [[Slavery in contemporary Africa]]
** [[Slavery in the 21st century]]
** [[Slavery in 21st-century jihadism]]
;People
* [[List of slaves|List of famous slaves]]
* Types of slave soldiers:
** [[Janissary]]
** [[Mamluk]]
** [[Saqaliba]]
;Ideals and organizations
* [[Abolitionism]]:
** [[Compensated emancipation]]
** [[International Year to Commemorate the Struggle Against Slavery and Its Abolition]]
* [[Abolitionism in the United States]]
* [[Anti-Slavery International]], founded as the British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society in 1839
* [[Anti-Slavery Society (1823–1838)]]
* [[Coalition to Abolish Slavery and Trafficking]]
* [[Quakers]] – Religious Society of Friends
* [[Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade]] (1787–1807?)
* [[United States National Slavery Museum]]
* ''[[Poems on Slavery]]'' by Longfellow
;Other
* [[Fazenda]]
* [[History of Liverpool#Slave trade, privateering|History of Liverpool]]
* [[History of slavery in the Muslim world]]
* [[Slave-owning slaves]]
* [[Slavery in the United States]]:
** ''[[North Carolina v. Mann]]''
** [[Origins of the American Civil War]]
** [[Slavery among Native Americans in the United States]]
** [[Slavery in the colonial history of the United States]]
* [[Influx of disease in the Caribbean]]
* [[List of court cases in the United States involving slavery]]
* [[Pedro Blanco (slave trader)]]
* [[Sambo's Grave]]
* [[Sante Kimes]]
* [[Slave Trade Act]]
* [[Slavery and religion]]
* [[Slavery at common law]]
* [[Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom]]
* [[William Lynch speech]]
* [[List of films featuring slavery]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=nb}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* ''The Cambridge World History of Slavery'', Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2011–2021
** Volume 1: ''The Ancient Mediterranean World'', Edited by Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge, 2011
** Volume 2: ''AD 500–AD 1420'', Edited by Craig Perry, David Eltis, Stanley L. Engerman, David Richardson, 2021
** Volume 3: ''AD 1420–AD 1804'', Edited by David Eltis and Stanley L. Engerman, 2011
** Volume 4: ''AD 1804–AD 2016'', Edited by David Eltis, Stanley L. Engerman, Seymour Drescher and David Richardson, 2017
* {{Cite journal
 | last = Allen | first = R. B.
 | title = Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean
 | year = 2017 | journal = Tempo | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–313
 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf | access-date = 30 June 2019
 | doi = 10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 | doi-access = free }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Allen|2017}} -->
* [[David Brion Davis|Davis, David Brion]]. ''Slavery and Human Progress'' (1984).
* Davis, David Brion. ''The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture'' (1966)
* Davis, David Brion. ''[[Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World]]'' (2006)
* Drescher, Seymour. ''Abolition: A History of Slavery and Antislavery'' (Cambridge University Press, 2009)
* Finkelman, Paul, ed. ''Slavery and Historiography'' (New York: Garland, 1989)
* Finkelman, Paul, and Joseph Miller, eds. ''Macmillan Encyclopedia of World Slavery'' (2 vol 1998)
* Hinks, Peter, and John McKivigan, eds. ''Encyclopedia of Antislavery and Abolition'' (2 vol. 2007) 795 pp; {{ISBN|978-0313331428}}
* Linden, Marcel van der, ed. ''Humanitarian Intervention and Changing Labor Relations: The Long-Term Consequences of the Abolition of the Slave Trade'' (Brill Academic Publishers, 2011) [http://hsozkult.geschichte.hu-berlin.de/rezensionen/id=15833 online review]
* McGrath, Elizabeth and Massing, Jean Michel, ''The Slave in European Art: From Renaissance Trophy to Abolitionist Emblem'' (London: The Warburg Institute, 2012.)
* Miller, Joseph C. ''The problem of slavery as history: a global approach'' (Yale University Press, 2012.)
* Parish, Peter J. ''Slavery: History and Historians'' (1989)
* Phillips, William D. ''Slavery from Roman Times to the Early Atlantic Slave Trade'' (1984)
* [[Junius P. Rodriguez|Rodriguez, Junius P.]] ed. ''The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery'' (2 vol. 1997)
* Rodriguez, Junius P. ed. ''Encyclopedia of Slave Resistance and Rebellion'' (2 vol. 2007)

===Greece and Rome===
* Bradley, Keith. ''Slavery and Society at Rome'' (1994)
* Cuffel, Victoria. "The Classical Greek Concept of Slavery," ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' Vol. 27, No. 3 (Jul–Sep 1966), pp.&nbsp;323–42 {{JSTOR|2708589}}
* Finley, Moses, ed. ''Slavery in Classical Antiquity'' (1960)
* Westermann, William L. ''The Slave Systems of Greek and Roman Antiquity'' (1955) 182 pp

===Europe: Middle Ages===
* {{cite book | last=Delepeleire | first=Y. | title=Nederlands Elmina: een socio-economische analyse van de Tweede Westindische Compagnie in West-Afrika in 1715 | publisher=Universiteit Gent | year=2004 | location= Gent | url=http://www.ethesis.net/wic/wic_inhoud.htm }}
* Rio, Alice. ''Slavery After Rome, 500-1100'' (Oxford University Press, 2017) [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=54675 online review]
* Stark, Rodney. ''The victory of reason: How Christianity led to freedom, capitalism, and Western success'' (Random House, 2006).
* Verhulst, Adriaan. "The decline of slavery and the economic expansion of the Early Middle Ages."  ''Past & Present'' No. 133 (Nov., 1991), pp.&nbsp;195–203 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/650772 online]

===Africa and Middle East===
* Brown, Audrey, and Anthony Knapp. "NPS Ethnography: African American Heritage & Ethnography". ''National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior.'' 2003 [https://web.archive.org/web/20100523120301/http://www.nps.gov/ethnography/aah/aaheritage/histContextsD.htm online]
* Campbell, Gwyn. ''The Structure of Slavery in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia'' (Frank Cass, 2004)
* Davis, Robert C., ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, The Barbary Coast, and Italy, 1500–1800'' (Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2003) {{ISBN|0333719662}}
* Hershenzon, Daniel. "Towards a connected history of bondage in the Mediterranean: Recent trends in the field." ''History Compass'' 15.8 (2017). on Christian captives
* Lovejoy, Paul. ''Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa'' (Cambridge UP, 1983)
* {{ODB | last = Oikonomides | first = Nicolas | authorlink = Nikolaos Oikonomides | title = Prisoners, Exchanges of | page = 1722 }}
* "The Early Cape Slave Trade". ''South African History Online'', 2 Apr. 2015 [https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/early-cape-slave-trade online] 
* Toledano, Ehud R. ''As If Silent and Absent: Bonds of Enslavement in the Islamic Middle East'' (Yale University Press, 2007) {{ISBN|978-0300126181}}
* {{cite book | last = Toynbee | first = Arnold | author-link = Arnold J. Toynbee | title = Constantine Porphyrogenitus and His World | year = 1973 | location = London and New York | publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 0-19-215253-X}}

===Atlantic trade, Latin America and British Empire===
* Blackburn, Robin. ''The American Crucible: Slavery, Emancipation, and Human Rights'' (Verso, 2011) 498 pp; on slavery and abolition in the Americas from the 16th to the late 19th centuries
* Blackburn, Robin. ''The Making of New World Slavery: From the Baroque to the Modern, 1492-1800'' (Verso, 2010)
* [[Fradera, Josep M.]] and Christopher Schmidt-Nowara, eds. ''Slavery and Antislavery in Spain's Atlantic Empire'' (2013) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt9qd02x online]
* Klein, Herbert S. ''African Slavery in Latin America and the Caribbean'' (Oxford University Press, 1988)
* Klein, Herbert. ''The Atlantic Slave Trade'' (1970)
* Klein, Herbert S. ''Slavery in Brazil'' (Cambridge University Press, 2009)
* Morgan, Kenneth. ''Slavery and the British Empire: From Africa to America'' (2008)
* {{cite book|first=Andres |last=[[Andres Resendez|Resendez]]|title= The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2gpCgAAQBAJ&q=Rese%CC%81ndez%2C%20Andre%CC%81s.%202017.%20The%20other%20slavery%3A%20the%20uncovered%20story%20of%20indian%20enslavement%20in%20America.&pg=PP1|year=2016|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|pages=448|isbn=978-0544602670}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Jensen |first1=Niklas Thode |last2=Simonsen |first2=Gunvor |year=2016 |title=Introduction: The historiography of slavery in the Danish-Norwegian West Indies, c. 1950-2016 |journal=[[Scandinavian Journal of History]] |volume=41 |issue=4–5 |pages=475–494 |doi=10.1080/03468755.2016.1210880 |doi-access=free}}
* [[Arthur Stinchcombe|Stinchcombe, Arthur L.]] ''Sugar Island Slavery in the Age of Enlightenment: The Political Economy of the Caribbean World'' (Princeton University Press, 1995)
* [[Hugh Thomas, Baron Thomas of Swynnerton|Thomas, Hugh]]. ''The Slave Trade: The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade: 1440–1870'' (Simon & Schuster, 1997)
* Walvin, James. ''Black Ivory: Slavery in the British Empire'' (2nd ed. 2001)
* Ward, J.R. ''British West Indian Slavery, 1750–1834'' (Oxford U.P. 1988)
* Wright, Gavin. "Slavery and Anglo‐American capitalism revisited." ''Economic History'' Review 73.2 (2020): 353–383. [https://www.gwern.net/docs/economics/2020-wright.pdf online]
* Wyman‐McCarthy, Matthew. "British abolitionism and global empire in the late 18th century: A historiographic overview." History Compass 16.10 (2018): e12480. https://doi.org/10.1111/hic3.12480
* Zeuske, Michael. "Historiography and Research Problems of Slavery and the Slave Trade in a Global-Historical Perspective." ''International Review of Social History'' 57#1 (2012): 87–111.

===United States===
* {{cite book|author-link=David Brion Davis|first=David Brion |last=Davis|title=Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World|year=2006 |url=https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Inhuman_Bondage/oGpnDAAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite journal|author-link1=Paul A. David|first1=Paul A. |last1=David|author-link2=Peter Temin|first2=Peter |last2=Temin|title=Slavery: The progressive institution?|journal=Journal of Economic History|volume=34.3 |year=1974|pp=739-783}}
* {{cite book|author=Fogel, Robert|title=Without Consent or Contract: The Rise and Fall of American Slavery|url=https://archive.org/details/withoutconsentor00foge|url-access=registration|year= 1989|publisher=Norton |isbn=9780393018875 |author-link=Robert Fogel}}
* {{cite book|author=Genovese, Eugene|title=Roll Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made |year=1974|author-link=Eugene Genovese }}
* {{cite book|author=Horne, Gerald|title=The Counter-Revolution of 1776: Slave Resistance and the Origins of the United States of America|year= 2014|author-link=Gerald Horne}}
* {{cite book|first1=James Oliver |last1=Horton|author-link2=Lois E. Horton|first2=Lois E. |last2=Horton|title=Slavery and the Making of America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uUleEW07AvgC&pg=PA8|year=2006|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780195304510}}
* {{cite book|first=Peter |last=Kolchin|title=American Slavery: 1619–1877|year=1993}}
* {{cite book|first1=August |last1=Meier|first2=Elliott M. |last2=Rudwick|title=Black history and the historical profession, 1915–80|year=1986}}
* Miller, Randall M., and John David Smith, eds. ''Dictionary of Afro-American Slavery'' (1988)
* {{cite book|author=Phillips, Ulrich B|title=American Negro Slavery: A Survey of the Supply, Employment and Control of Negro Labor as Determined by the plantation Regime|url=https://archive.org/details/americannegrosl03philgoog|year=1918 |author-link=Ulrich Bonnell Phillips|publisher=D. Appleton and company}}
* Rael, Patrick. ''Eighty-eight years: the long death of slavery in the United States, 1777–1865'' (U of Georgia Press, 2015)
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Rodriguez |editor-first1=Junius P |title=Slavery in the United States: A Social, Political, and Historical Encyclopedia vol. 2 |year= 2007|author-link=Junius P. Rodriguez }}
* Sinha, Manisha. ''The slave's cause: A history of abolition'' (Yale University Press, 2016).
* Wilson, Thomas D. ''The Ashley Cooper Plan: The Founding of Carolina and the Origins of Southern Political Culture''. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2016.

==External links==
<!--Please do not link to news articles, as that is what Wikinews or a Portal are for. Citing such articles in the text is also good to do, but examples shouldn't be given here.-->
{{wikisource|Final Act of the Congress of Vienna/Act XV|Declaration of the Powers &#91;at the Congress of Vienna&#93;, on the Abolition of the Slave Trade, of 8 February 1815}}
{{wikisource|Treaty of Paris (1815)/Definitive Treaty#Additional article on the slave trade|Additional article on the slave trade to the Definitive &#91;Peace&#93; Treaty. Paris: 20 November 1815}}
{{commons category}}
* [https://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?psid=3807&smtID=11 ''Digital History – Slavery Facts & Myths'']
* [https://www.blackhistory4schools.com/slavetrade/ Teaching resources about Slavery and Abolition on blackhistory4schools.com]
* [https://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/international-slavery-museum International Slavery Museum. Great Britain.]
* [https://www.abolitionseminar.org/lesson-plans/ The Abolitionist Seminar], summaries, lesson plans, documents and illustrations for schools; focus on United States
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051227154013/http://americanabolitionist.liberalarts.iupui.edu/index.htm American Abolitionism],  summaries and documents; focus on United States

{{International Criminal Law}}

{{Slave narrative|state=expanded}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Slavery}}
[[Category:History of slavery| ]]
[[Category:Social history|Slavery]]
[[Category:History of human rights|Slavery]]