View source for History of architecture

{{Short description|none}}
{{Redirect|Architectural history|the journal|Architectural History (journal)|the book|A History of Architecture}}
{{Distinguish|History of construction}}
[[File:Thomas Cole - Architect’s Dream - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|''[[The Architect's Dream]]'', by [[Thomas Cole]], 1840, oil on canvas]]
{{History of art sidebar}}

The '''history of architecture''' traces the changes in [[architecture]] through various traditions, regions, overarching stylistic trends, and dates. The beginnings of all these traditions is thought to be humans satisfying the very basic need of shelter and protection.<ref>Ching, Francis, D.K. and Eckler, James F. Introduction to Architecture. 2013. John Wiley & Sons. p13</ref> The term "architecture" generally refers to buildings, but in its essence is much broader, including fields we now consider specialized forms of practice, such as [[urbanism]], [[civil engineering]], [[naval architecture|naval]], [[military engineering|military]],<ref>Architecture. Def. 1. ''Oxford English Dictionary'' Second Edition on CD-ROM (v. 4.0)
Oxford University Press 2009</ref> and [[landscape architecture]].

Trends in architecture were influenced, among other factors, by technological innovations, particularly in the 19th, 20th and 21st centuries. The improvement and/or use of [[steel]], [[cast iron]], tile, [[reinforced concrete]], and glass helped for example [[Art Nouveau]] appear and made [[Beaux-Arts architecture|Beaux Arts]] more grandiose.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Virginia McLeod, Belle Place, Sarah Kramer, Milena Harrison-Gray, and Cristopher Lacy|title=HOUSES - Extraordinary Living|date=2019|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-7809-6|page=9|url=|language=}}</ref>

==Paleolithic==
Humans and their ancestors have been creating various types of shelters for at least hundreds of thousands of years, and shelter-building may have been present early in hominin evolution. All [[great apes]] will [[Nest-building in primates|construct "nests" for sleeping]], albeit at different frequencies and degrees of complexity. [[Chimpanzees]] regularly make nests out of bundles of branches woven together;<ref>{{cite book|last=Wrangham|first=Richard W.|title=Chimpanzee cultures|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IzBIHPeE45IC&pg=PA115|access-date=2 July 2011|year=1996|publisher=Chicago Academy of Sciences, Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-11663-4|pages=115–125}}</ref> these vary depending on the weather (nests have thicker bedding when cool and are built with larger, stronger supports in windy or wet weather).<ref name="Monke">McLester, E. (2018, July 26). Chimpanzee ‘nests’ shed light on the origins of humanity. ''The Conversation''.</ref> [[Orangutans]] currently make the most complex nests out of all non-human great apes, complete with roofs, blankets, pillows, and "bunks".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Didik|first1=Prasetyo|last2=Ancrenaz|first2=Marc|last3=Morrogh-Bernard|first3=Helen C.|last4=Atmoko|first4=S. Suci Utami|last5=Wich| first5=Serge A.|last6=van Schaik|first6=Carel P.|editor1-first=Serge A. |editor1-last=Wich|editor2-first=S. Suci Utami |editor2-last=Atmoko |editor3-first=Tatang Mitra |editor3-last=Setia |title=Orangutans: geographic variation in behavioral ecology and conservation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHsNfZC3DfYC&pg=PA270|chapter=Nest building in orangutans |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHsNfZC3DfYC&q=nest-building%20by%20primates&pg=PA269 |access-date=5 July 2011|year=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-921327-6|pages=270–275}}</ref>

It has been argued that nest-building practices were even more important to the evolution of human creativity and construction skill than tool use, as hominins became required to build nests not just in uniquely adapted circumstances but as forms of [[Signalling theory|signalling]].<ref name=Verpootis>Verpooten, Jan, and Yannick Joye. "Evolutionary interactions between human biology and architecture: insights from signaling theory and a cross-species comparative approach." ''Naturalistic approaches to culture'' (2014): 101-121.</ref> Retaining arboreal features like highly prehensile hands for the expert construction of nests and shelters would have also benefitted early hominins in unpredictable environments and changing climates.<ref name="Monke"/> Many hominins, especially the earliest ones such as ''[[Ardipithecus]]''<ref>White, Tim D., Berhane Asfaw, Yonas Beyene, Yohannes Haile-Selassie, C. Owen Lovejoy, Gen Suwa, and Giday WoldeGabriel. "Ardipithecus ramidus and the paleobiology of early hominids." ''Science'' 326, no. 5949 (2009): 64-86.</ref> and ''[[Australopithecus]]''<ref>Alemseged, Zeresenay, Fred Spoor, William H. Kimbel, René Bobe, Denis Geraads, Denné Reed, and Jonathan G. Wynn. "A juvenile early hominin skeleton from Dikika, Ethiopia." ''Nature'' 443, no. 7109 (2006): 296-301.</ref> retained such features and may have chosen to build nests in trees where available. The development of a "home base" 2 million years ago may have also fostered the evolution of constructing shelters or protected caches.<ref>Isaac, Glynn. "The food-sharing behavior of protohuman hominids." ''Scientific American'' 238, no. 4 (1978): 90-109.</ref> Regardless of the complexity of nest-building, early hominins may still have still slept in more or less 'open' conditions, unless the opportunity of a [[rock shelter]] was afforded.<ref name="Verpootis"/> These rock shelters could be used as-is with little more amendments than nests and hearths, or in the case of established bases —especially among later hominins— they could be personalized with [[rock art]] (in the case of [[Lascaux]]) or other types of aesthetic structures (in the case of the [[Bruniquel Cave]] among the Neanderthals)<ref>Jaubert, Jacques, Sophie Verheyden, Dominique Genty, Michel Soulier, Hai Cheng, Dominique Blamart, Christian Burlet et al. "Early Neanderthal constructions deep in Bruniquel Cave in southwestern France." ''Nature'' 534, no. 7605 (2016): 111-114.</ref> In cases of sleeping in open ground, Dutch ethologist [[Adriaan Kortlandt]] once proposed that hominins could have built temporary enclosures of thorny bushes to deter predators, which he supported using tests that showed [[lion]]s becoming averse to food if near thorny branches.<ref>Kortlandt, Adriaan. "How might early hominids have defended themselves against large predators and food competitors?." ''Journal of Human Evolution'' 9, no. 2 (1980): 79-112.</ref>

In 2000, archaeologists at the [[Meiji University]] in Tokyo claimed to have found 2 pentagonal alignments of post holes on a hillside near the village of [[Chichibu]], interpreting it as two huts dated around 500,000 years old and built by ''Homo erectus''.<ref>“World's Oldest Building Discovered.” ''BBC News'', March 1, 2000.</ref> Currently, the earliest confirmed purpose-built structures are in [[France]] at the site of [[Terra Amata (archaeological site)|Terra Amata]], along with the earliest evidence of artificial fire, c. 400,000 years ago.{{sfn|de Lumley|2007|p=211}} Due to the perishable nature of shelters of this time, it is difficult to find evidence for dwellings beyond hearths and the stones that may make up a dwelling's foundation. Near [[Wadi Halfa]], [[Sudan]], the Arkin 8 site contains 100,000 year old circles of sandstone that were likely the anchor stones for tents.<ref>Chmielewski, Waldemar. "Early and Middle Paleolithic sites near Arkin, Sudan." ''The prehistory of Nubia;[final report] papers assembled and'' (1968): 110-147.</ref> In eastern [[Jordan]], post hole markings in the soil give evidence to houses made of poles and thatched brush around 20,000 years ago.<ref>Maher, Lisa A., Tobias Richter, Danielle Macdonald, Matthew D. Jones, Louise Martin, and Jay T. Stock. "Twenty thousand-year-old huts at a hunter-gatherer settlement in eastern Jordan." ''PloS one'' 7, no. 2 (2012): e31447.</ref> In areas where bone — especially [[mammoth]] bone — is a viable material, evidence of structures preserve much more easily, such as the mammoth-bone dwellings among the [[Mal'ta-Buret']] culture 24–15,000 years ago and at [[Mezhirich]] 15,000 years ago. The [[Upper Paleolithic]] in general is characterized by the expansion and cultural growth of [[anatomically modern humans]] (as well as the cultural growth of [[Neanderthals]], despite their steady extinction at this time), and although we currently lack data for dwellings built before this time, the dwellings of this era begin to more commonly show signs of aesthetic modification, such as at Mezhirich where engraved mammoth tusks may have formed the "facade" of a dwelling.<ref>Baitenov, Eskander. "New Interpretation of the Engraving Discovered at Mezhirich Upper Paleolithic Site." In 3rd International Conference on Architecture: Heritage, Traditions and Innovations (AHTI 2021), pp. 85-93. Atlantis Press, 2021.</ref>

<gallery>
File:Chimp's Nest.jpg|Chimpanzee nest. Later hominins may have developed shelter-building traditions from such earlier nest-building practices.
File:Bilzingsleben, Steinrinne, in der Ausgrabungshalle-2.jpg|[[Bilzingsleben (Paleolithic site)|Bilzingsleben]], possibly built by [[Homo heidelbergensis]], 400–350.000 BCE.<ref>[[Monumente]], Jg. 28 (2018), Nr. 4, S. 18–23, hier S. 21.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://stanzon.husemann.net/download.php?id=201533&type=T|title=Nr.33/2015 - Homo erectus lädt in seine Welt ein|publisher=Thüringer Staatsanzeiger|date=17 August 2015|issn=0939-9135|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250214140050/http://stanzon.husemann.net/download.php?id=201533&type=T|archive-date=14 February 2025|url-status=live}}</ref>
File:Terra-Amata-Hut.gif|Reconstruction of a [[Terra Amata (archaeological site)|Terra Amata]] dwelling, possibly built by [[Homo heidelbergensis]], 380–230,000 BCE.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.musee-terra-amata.org/musee/le-site-acheuleen-de-terra-amata/ |title=Le site acheuléen de Terra Amata |language=fr |trans-title=The Acheulean site of Terra Amata |author=Musée de Préhistoire Terra Amata |website=Musée de Préhistoire Terra Amata |access-date=10 June 2022}}</ref>
File:Mammoth House (Replica).JPG|A mammoth bone dwelling like those constructed at [[Mezhirich]] 15,000 years ago
File:Urfa museum Shelter in caves Palaeolithic Age in 2024 0347.jpg|Museum expositon of a [[palaeolithic]] shelter, technology and culture
</gallery>

==10,000–2000 BC==
{{main|Neolithic architecture}}
{{See also|List of oldest known surviving buildings}}

[[File:Hunter gatherer's camp at Irish National Heritage Park - geograph.org.uk - 1252699.jpg|thumb|Reconstruction of a [[Mesolithic]] house in Ireland, [[Irish National Heritage Park]]]]
Architectural advances are an important part of the [[Neolithic]] period (10,000-2000 BC), during which some of the major innovations of human history occurred. The domestication of plants and animals, for example, led to both new economics and a new relationship between people and the world, an increase in community size and permanence, a massive development of material culture and new social and ritual solutions to enable people to live together in these communities. New styles of individual structures and their combination into settlements provided the buildings required for the new lifestyle and economy, and were also an essential element of change.{{sfn|Jones|2014|pp=148, 149}}

Although many dwellings belonging to all prehistoric periods and also some clay models of dwellings have been uncovered enabling the creation of faithful reconstructions, they seldom included elements that may relate them to art. Some exceptions are provided by wall decorations and by finds that equally apply to Neolithic and [[Chalcolithic]] rites and art.

In South and Southwest Asia, Neolithic [[Archaeological culture|cultures]] appear soon after 10,000 BC, initially in the [[Levant]] ([[Pre-Pottery Neolithic A]] and [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic B]]) and from there spread eastwards and westwards. There are early Neolithic cultures in Southeast Anatolia, Syria and Iraq by 8000 BC, and food-producing societies first appear in southeast Europe by 7000 BC, and Central Europe by c. 5500 BC (of which the earliest cultural complexes include the [[Kőrös culture|Starčevo-Koros (Cris)]], [[Linearbandkeramic]], and [[Vinca culture|Vinča]]).<ref>{{cite web|title=The Old Copper Complex: North America's First Miners & Metal Artisans|url=http://copperculture.homestead.com/|access-date=10 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Song|first1=Jeeun|title=The History of Metallurgy and Mining in the Andean Region|url=http://www.zum.de/whkmla/sp/1011/pope/sje2.html|website=World History at Korean Minjok Leadership Academy|publisher=Korean Minjok Leadership Academy|access-date=10 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Choi|first1=Charles Q.|title=Pre-Incan Metallurgy Discovered|url=http://www.livescience.com/1442-pre-incan-metallurgy-discovered.html|website=Live Science|date=18 April 2007|access-date=10 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Maldonado|first1=Blanco D.|title=Tarascan Copper Metallurgy at the Site of Itziparátzico, Michoacán, México|journal=Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies|date=2003|url=http://www.famsi.org/reports/02063/02063Maldonado01.pdf|access-date=22 January 2016}}</ref>

Neolithic [[List of archaeological sites|settlements and "cities"]] include:
* [[Göbekli Tepe]] in [[Turkey]], ca. 9,000 BC
* [[Jericho]] in [[Palestine]], Neolithic from around 8,350 BC, arising from the earlier [[Epipaleolithic]] [[Natufian culture]]
* [[Nevali Cori]] in Turkey, ca. 8,000 BC
* [[Çatalhöyük]] in Turkey, 7,500 BC
* [[Mehrgarh]] in [[Pakistan]], 7,000 BC
* [[Herxheim (archaeological site)]] in [[Germany]], 5,300 BC
* [[Knap of Howar]] and [[Skara Brae]], the [[Orkney Islands]], [[Prehistoric Scotland|Scotland]], from 3,500 BC
* over 3,000 settlements of the [[Cucuteni-Trypillian culture]], some with populations up to 15,000 residents, flourished in present-day [[Romania]], [[Moldova]] and [[Ukraine]] from 5,400 to 2,800 BC.
<gallery>
Göbekli Tepe, Urfa.jpg|[[Göbekli Tepe]] ([[Turkey]]), {{circa}}9500-8000 BC

Goseck Circle 1.jpg|[[Goseck circle]], [[Germany]] 4900 BC

Hemudu Site Museum, 2017-08-12 13.jpg|Reconstructed wooden house ([[Hemudu]], [[China]]), 5000-4500 BC{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=18}}

2018 07 12 Schottland (90) Skara Brae.jpg|[[Skara Brae]] ([[Scotland]]), 3200-2200 BC{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=22}}

Ireland 2010 etc 079.jpg|Decorated stone, [[Newgrange]] ([[Prehistoric Ireland|Ireland]]), 3200-3100 BC
</gallery>

==Antiquity==
===Mesopotamian===
{{Main|Architecture of Mesopotamia}}
{{See also|Ziggurat}} 
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin 048.jpg|Columns with clay mosaic cones from the [[Eanna]] precinct in [[Uruk]] (southern Mesopotamia), [[Pergamon Museum]], [[Berlin]], [[Germany]], unknown architect, 3600-3200 BC<ref>{{cite book|last1=van Lemmen|first1=Hans|title=5000 Years of Tiles|date=2013|publisher=The British Museum Press|isbn=978-0-7141-5099-4|page=16|url=|language=en}}</ref>

File:Ancient ziggurat at Ali Air Base Iraq 2005.jpg|[[Ziggurat of Ur]], [[Tell el-Muqayyar]], [[Dhi Qar Province]], [[Iraq]], unknown architect, 21st century BC<ref>{{cite book|last1=Weston|first1=Richard|title=100 Ideas That Changed Architecture|date=2011|publisher=Laurence King|isbn=978-1-78627-567-7|page=21|url=|language=en}}</ref>

Glazed Tile.jpg|Tile with a guilloche border from the North-West Palace at [[Nimrud]] (now in modern Iraq), [[British Museum]], London, unknown artisan, 883-859 BC<ref>{{cite book|last1=van Lemmen|first1=Hans|title=5000 Years of Tiles|date=2013|publisher=The British Museum Press|isbn=978-0-7141-5099-4|page=17|url=|language=en}}</ref>

File:Ishtar gate in Pergamon museum in Berlin..jpg|[[Reconstruction (architecture)|Reconstruction]] of the [[Ishtar Gate]], [[Pergamon Museum]], [[Berlin]], Germany, unknown architect, {{circa}}605-539 BC{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=6}}
</gallery>
Assyrian palaces had a large public court with a suite of apartments on the east side and a series of large banqueting halls on the south side. This was to become the traditional plan of Assyrian palaces, built and adorned for the glorification of the king.{{sfn|Cole|2002|p=32}} Massive amounts of [[Nimrud Ivories|ivory furniture pieces]] were found in some palaces.

[[Mesopotamia]] is most noted for its construction of [[mud-brick]] buildings and the construction of [[ziggurat]]s, occupying a prominent place in each city and consisting of an artificial mound, often rising in huge steps, surmounted by a temple. The mound was no doubt to elevate the temple to a commanding position in what was otherwise a flat river valley. The great city of [[Uruk]] had a number of religious precincts, containing many temples larger and more ambitious than any buildings previously known.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Risebero|first1=Bill|title=The Story of Western Architecture|date=2018|publisher=Bloomsbury|isbn=978-1-3500-9212-9|page=13|language=en}}</ref>

The word ''ziggurat'' is an anglicized form of the [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] word ''ziqqurratum'', the name given to the solid stepped towers of mud brick. It derives from the verb ''zaqaru'', ("to be high"). The buildings are described as being like mountains linking Earth and heaven. The [[Ziggurat of Ur]], excavated by [[Leonard Woolley]], is 64 by 46 meters at base and originally some 12 meters in height with three stories. It was built under [[Ur-Nammu]] (circa 2100 B.C.) and rebuilt under [[Nabonidus]] (555–539 B.C.), when it was increased in height to probably seven stories.<ref>{{cite web|title=Gods and Goddesses|url=http://www.mesopotamia.co.uk/staff/resources/background/bg22/home.html|website=Mesopotamia.co.uk|access-date=9 November 2015}}</ref>

===Ancient Egyptian===
{{Main|Ancient Egyptian architecture|Egyptian temple}}

<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
File:Sakkara 02a.jpg|The [[Pyramid of Djoser]], [[Saqqara]], [[Egypt]], by [[Imhotep]], 2667–2648 BC{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=28}}

Kheops-Pyramid.jpg|[[Great Pyramid of Giza]], [[Giza]], Egypt, by [[Hemiunu]], {{c.}}2589-2566 BC{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=25}}

Beni Hassan 16.jpg|Interior hall of the rock-cut tomb of [[Amenemhat (nomarch, 16th nome)|Amenemhat]], [[Amenemhat (nomarch, 16th nome)#The tomb BH2|Tomb 2 (BH2)]], [[Beni Hasan]], Egypt, unknown architect, {{circa}}1900 BC<ref>{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Hutton|title=The History of Art - From Prehistory to Presentday - A Global View|date=2022|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-02236-8|page=|url=|language=en}}</ref>

File:Pillars of Great Hypostyle Hall in Karnak Luxor Egypt.JPG|Hypostyle Hall of the [[Karnak|Karnak Temple Complex]], [[Luxor]], Egypt, unknown architect, {{circa}}1294–1213 BC{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=27}}

File:Abu Simbel Main Temple (2346939149).jpg|Great Temple of [[Abu Simbel]], Egypt, unknown architect, {{circa}}1264 BC{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=12}}

Luxor-Tempel Pylon 08.jpg|Entrance of the [[Luxor Temple]] complex, unknown architect, 1279-1212 BC<ref>{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Hutton|title=The History of Art - From Prehistory to Presentday - A Global View|date=2022|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-02236-8|page=126|url=|language=en}}</ref>

File:Philae temple at night.jpg|Temple of Philae, unknown architect, 380 BC–117 AD{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=30}}

File:Examples of Historical Ornament, Egyptian by Boston Public Library.jpg|Illustrations from 1874 of [[ornament (art)|ornaments]] and [[pattern]]s used by ancient Egyptians
</gallery>

Modern imaginings of [[ancient Egypt]] are heavily influenced by the surviving traces of monumental architecture. Many formal styles and motifs were established at the dawn of the [[pharaoh|pharaonic]] state, around 3100 BC. The most iconic Ancient Egyptian buildings are the [[Egyptian pyramids|pyramids]], built during the [[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Old]] and [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdoms]] ({{circa}}2600–1800 BC) as tombs for the [[pharaoh]]. However, there are also impressive temples, like the [[Karnak|Karnak Temple Complex]].

The Ancient Egyptians believed in the [[afterlife]]. They also believed that in order for their soul (known as ''[[Ancient Egyptian conception of the soul|ka]]'') to live eternally in their afterlife, their bodies would have to remain intact for eternity. So, they had to create a way to protect the deceased from damage and grave robbers. This way, the [[mastaba]] was born. These were [[adobe]] structures with flat roofs, which had underground rooms for the coffin, about 30 [[meter|m]] down. [[Imhotep]], an ancient Egyptian priest and architect, had to design a tomb for the Pharaoh [[Djoser]]. For this, he placed five mastabas, one above the next, this way creating the first Egyptian pyramid, the [[Pyramid of Djoser]] at [[Saqqara]] ({{circa}}2667–2648 BC), which is a [[step pyramid]]. The first smooth-sided one was built by Pharaoh [[Sneferu]], who ruled between {{circa}}2613 and 2589 BC. The most imposing one is the [[Great Pyramid of Giza]], made for Sneferu's son: [[Khufu]] ({{circa}}2589–2566 BC), being the last surviving [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World|wonder of the ancient world]] and the largest pyramid in Egypt. The stone blocks used for pyramids were held together by [[Mortar (masonry)|mortar]], and the entire structure was covered with highly polished white limestone, with their tops topped in gold. What we see today is actually the core structure of the pyramid. Inside, narrow passages led to the royal burial chambers. Despite being highly associated with the Ancient Egypt, pyramids have been built by other civilisations too, like the [[Maya civilisation|Mayans]].

Due to the lack of resources and a shift in power towards priesthood, ancient Egyptians stepped away from pyramids, and [[Ancient Egyptian temple|temples]] became the focal point of cult construction. Just like the pyramids, Ancient Egyptian temples were also spectacular and monumental. They evolved from small shrines made of perishable materials to large complexes, and by the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]] (circa 1550–1070 BC) they have become massive stone structures consisting of halls and courtyards. The temple represented a sort of 'cosmos' in stone, a copy of the original mound of creation on which the god could rejuvenate himself and the world. The entrance consisted of a twin gateway ([[Pylon (architecture)|pylon]]), symbolizing the hills of the horizon. Inside there were columned halls symbolizing a primeval papyrus thicket. It was followed by a series of hallways of decreasing size, until the sanctuary was reached, where a god's cult statue was placed. Back in ancient times, temples were painted in bright colours, mainly red, blue, yellow, green, orange, and white. Because of the desert climate of Egypt, some parts of these painted surfaces were preserved well, especially in interiors.

An architectural element specific to ancient Egyptian architecture is the [[cavetto]] [[cornice]] (a concave [[Molding (decorative)|moulding]]), introduced by the end of the Old Kingdom. It was widely used to accentuate the top of almost every formal pharaonic building. Because of how often it was used, it will later decorate many [[Egyptian Revival architecture|Egyptian Revival]] buildings and objects.{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=24, 25, 26}}{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=12}}

===Harappan===
{{Main|Harappan architecture}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">

Moenjodaro - The Great Bath 1 - by nadzir81.jpg|The Great Bath, in the raised citadel area of the city, [[Mohenjo Daro]], [[Sindh Province]], [[Pakistan]], unknown architect, {{circa}}2600-1900 BC<ref>{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Hutton|title=The History of Art - From Prehistory to Presentday - A Global View|date=2022|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-02236-8|page=137|url=|language=en}}</ref>

Moenjodaro(a) by Usman Ghani.jpg|View of Mohenjo Daro, showing the walls and main streets of the city, unknown architect, {{circa}}2600-1900 BC<ref>{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Hutton|title=The History of Art - From Prehistory to Presentday - A Global View|date=2022|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-02236-8|page=136|url=|language=en}}</ref>
</gallery>
The first Urban Civilization in the [[Indian subcontinent]] is traceable originally to the [[Indus Valley civilisation]] mainly in [[Mohenjodaro]] and [[Harappa]], now in modern-day Pakistan as well western states of the Republic of India. The earliest settlements are seen during the Neolithic period in [[Merhgarh]], [[Balochistan (Pakistan)|Balochistan]]. The civilization's cities were noted for their urban planning with baked brick buildings, elaborate drainage and water systems, and handicraft ([[carnelian]] products, seal carving). This civilisation transitioned from the Neolithic period into the [[Chalcolithic]] period and beyond with their expertise in metallurgy (copper, bronze, lead, and tin).{{Sfn|Wright|2009|pp=115–125}} Their urban centres possibly grew to contain between 30,000 and 60,000 individuals,{{Sfn|Dyson|2018|p=29}} and the civilisation itself may have contained between one and five million individuals.{{Sfn|McIntosh|2008|p=187}}

===Greek===
{{Main|Ancient Greek architecture}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="170px">
File:Ναός του Ηφαίστου.jpg|[[Temple of Hephaestus]] on the Agoraios Kolonos Hill, [[Athens]], [[Greece]], {{circa}}449 BC, unknown architect{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=14}}
File:Erechtheum Acropolis Athens.jpg|[[Erechtheion]], Athens, with its [[Ionic order|Ionic]] columns and [[caryatid]] [[portico|porch]], 421–405 BC,{{sfn|Rogers|Gumuchdjian|Jones|2014|p=32}} unknown architect
File:Parthenon (30276156187).jpg|[[Parthenon]], Athens, Greece, 447–432 BC, by [[Ictinus]], [[Callicrates]] and [[Phidias]]{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=57}}
File:Delphi tholos cazzul.JPG|[[Tholos of Delphi|Tholos]] of the [[Temple of Athena Pronaia|Sanctuary of Athena Pronaia]], [[Delphi]], Greece, 380–360 BC, by Theodoros of Phocaea{{sfn|Rogers|Gumuchdjian|Jones|2014|p=35}}
File:The great theater of Epidaurus, designed by Polykleitos the Younger in the 4th century BC, Sanctuary of Asklepeios at Epidaurus, Greece (14015010416).jpg|[[Ancient Theatre of Epidaurus]], [[Epidaurus]], Greece, 3rd century BC,{{sfn|Rogers|Gumuchdjian|Jones|2014|p=40}} unknown architect
Torre dels Vents d'Atenes.JPG|[[Tower of the Winds]], Athens, 1st century BC,<ref>{{cite book|last1=|first1=|title=1000 de Minuni Arhitecturale|date=2009|publisher=Editura Aquila|isbn=978-973-714-450-8|page=226|url=|language=ro}}</ref> unknown architect
File:Schema Saeulenordnungen.jpg|Illustration of [[Doric order|Doric]] (left three), [[Ionic order|Ionic]] (middle three) and [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] (right two) [[column]]s and [[entablature]]s
File:Examples of Historical Ornament, Greek by Boston Public Library.jpg|Illustrations from 1874 of [[ornament (art)|ornaments]] and [[pattern]]s used by ancient Greeks and Romans
Antike Polychromie 1.jpg|Illustration from 1883 that shows the [[polychrome|colour scheme]] of the Doric order
</gallery>
Since the advent of the [[Classical antiquity|Classical Age]] in [[Athens]], in the 5th century BC, the Classical way of building has been deeply woven into Western understanding of architecture and, indeed, of civilization itself.{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=6}} From circa 850 BC to circa 300 AD, [[ancient Greek culture]] flourished on the [[Greek mainland]], on the [[Peloponnese]], and on the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] islands. However, Ancient Greek architecture is best known for [[Ancient Greek temple|its temples]], many of which are found throughout the region, and the [[Parthenon]] is a prime example of this. Later, they will serve as inspiration for [[Neoclassical architecture|Neoclassical]] architects during the late 18th and the 19th century. The most well-known temples are the Parthenon and the [[Erechtheion]], both on the [[Acropolis of Athens]]. Another type of important Ancient Greek buildings were the theatres. Both temples and theatres used a complex mix of optical illusions and balanced ratios.

Ancient Greek temples usually consist of a base with continuous stairs of a few steps at each edges (known as ''[[crepidoma]]''), a [[cella]] (or ''naos'') with a cult statue in it, [[column]]s, an entablature, and two [[pediment]]s, one on the front side and another in the back. By the 4th century BC, Greek architects and stonemasons had developed a system of rules for all buildings known as the [[classical order|orders]]: the [[Doric order|Doric]], the [[Ionic order|Ionic]], and the Corinthian. They are most easily recognised by their columns (especially by the [[capital (architecture)|capitals]]). The Doric column is stout and basic, the Ionic one is slimmer and has four [[scroll (art)|scrolls]] (called ''[[volute]]s'') at the corners of the capital, and the Corinthian column is just like the Ionic one, but the capital is completely different, being decorated with [[acanthus (ornament)|acanthus]] leaves and four scrolls.{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=14}} Besides columns, the frieze was different based on order. While the Doric one has [[metope]]s and [[triglyph]]s with [[gutta]]e, Ionic and Corinthian friezes consist of one big continuous band with [[relief (art)|reliefs]].

Besides the columns, the temples were highly decorated with sculptures, in the pediments, on the [[frieze]]s, [[metope]]s and [[triglyph]]s. [[Ornament (art)|Ornaments]] used by Ancient Greek architects and artists include [[palmette]]s, vegetal or [[wave]]-like [[scroll (art)|scrolls]], lion [[mascaron (architecture)|mascarons]] (mostly on lateral [[cornice]]s), [[dentil]]s, [[acanthus (ornament)|acanthus]] leaves, [[bucranium|bucrania]], [[festoon]]s, [[egg-and-dart]], [[rais-de-cœur]], beads, [[Meander (art)|meanders]], and [[acroterion|acroteria]] at the corners of the pediments. Pretty often, ancient Greek ornaments are used continuously, as bands. They will later be used in [[Etruscan architecture|Etruscan]], [[Ancient Roman architecture|Roman]] and in the post-medieval styles that tried to revive Greco-Roman art and architecture, like [[Renaissance architecture|Renaissance]], [[Baroque architecture|Baroque]], [[Neoclassical architecture|Neoclassical]] etc.

Looking at the archaeological remains of ancient and medieval buildings it is easy to perceive them as limestone and concrete in a grey taupe tone and make the assumption that ancient buildings were monochromatic. However, architecture was [[polychrome]]d in much of the Ancient and Medieval world. One of the most iconic Ancient buildings, the [[Parthenon]] ({{c.}} 447–432 BC) in [[Athens]], had details painted with vibrant reds, blues and greens. Besides ancient temples, Medieval cathedrals were never completely white. Most had colored highlights on [[capital (architecture)|capitals]] and [[column]]s.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Zukowsky|first1=John|title=A Chronology of Architecture|date=2019|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-34356-2|page=23|url=|language=en}}</ref> This practice of coloring buildings and artworks was abandoned during the early Renaissance. This is because [[Leonardo da Vinci]] and other Renaissance artists, including [[Michelangelo]], promoted a color palette inspired by the ancient Greco-Roman ruins, which because of neglect and constant decay during the Middle Ages, became white despite being initially colorful. The pigments used in the ancient world were delicate and especially susceptible to weathering. Without necessary care, the colors exposed to rain, snow, dirt, and other factors, vanished over time, and this way Ancient buildings and artworks became white, like they are today and were during the Renaissance.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Vinzenz Brinkmann, Renée Dreyfus and Ulrike Koch-Brinkmanny|title=Gods in Color - polychromy in the ancient world|date=2017|publisher=Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco, Legion of Honor|isbn=978-3-7913-5707-2|page=13|url=|language=en}}</ref>

===Celtic===
{{Main|Celts}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
Heuneburg.jpg|Reconstructed walls and building at the [[Heuneburg]] by the Danube, Germany, {{Circa|600 BC}}, the oldest city north of the Alps<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.heuneburg-pyrene.de/en/celtic-city|title=Celtic City: Staatliche Schlösser und Gärten Baden-Württemberg|website=www.heuneburg-pyrene.de|accessdate=31 July 2024}}</ref>

Palais Lassois07.jpg|Vix palace (reconstruction), [[Mont Lassois]], France, unknown architect, late 6th century BC<ref name="auto2">{{cite web|url=https://api.nakala.fr/iiif/10.34847/nkl.daden24n/7df314e34b34e98de179503435756d5b91a77296/full/max/0/default.jpg |title=Digital reconstruction of the Vix palace complex |date=2021|doi=10.34847/nkl.daden24n |last1=Rothe |first1=Klaus }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://una-editions.fr/vix-et-le-phenomene-princier/ |title=Vix et le phénomène princier |editor-last1=Brun |editor-first1=Patrice |editor-last2=Chaume |editor-first2=Bruno|editor-last3=Sacchetti |editor-first3=Federica |date=2021 |website=Ausonius Éditions}}</ref>

Glauberg oppidum Stockheim Gate (reconstruction).jpg|alt=Glauberg oppidum main entrance gate (reconstruction)|[[Glauberg]] oppidum, Germany, main [[c:File:Oppidum_Glauberg_Hinweistafel_05.JPG|entrance gate]] (reconstruction), unknown architect, {{circa|500 BC}}
</gallery>

Celtic architecture, in its broadest sense, refers to the styles and structures associated with the Celtic peoples who once inhabited a large part of Europe, including parts of modern-day France, Germany, the British Isles, and beyond.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Hallstatt_Culture/ | title=Hallstatt Culture }}</ref> This architecture is difficult to define strictly because the Celts did not have a unified, standardized architectural style across the different regions they inhabited. However, general characteristics of Celtic architecture are shared, for example, in structures of central Europe like from Germany and France, which provide insights into the material culture and architectural forms of the Celts in these regions.

Many Celtic structures, particularly in the earlier periods, were made of wood, which has not survived as well as stone or other materials.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aislingmagazine.com/aislingmagazine/articles/TAM33/monotheism/CeltsinGermany.html|title=The celts in Germany|website=www.aislingmagazine.com}}</ref>
The Celts often built round houses and settlements, with circular huts (or roundhouses) being the most common residential structures.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.timetrips.co.uk/roman%20towns%20celts.htm#:~:text=The%20Celts%20lived%20in%20round%20houses%20with%20only,in%20with%20mud%20and%20supported%20by%20strong%20logs|title=New Page 2}}</ref>
The Celts were skilled in creating defensive structures, such as hillforts, which included ditches, ramparts, and palisades.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.thecollector.com/celtic-hillforts-oppida-iron-age/ | title=4 Hillforts and Oppida from the Iron Age | date=3 November 2023 }}</ref>
In later periods, especially during the Iron Age, some Celtic groups began constructing stone buildings, such as temples, shrines, and more permanent dwellings.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://researchframeworks.org/emherf/regional-overview/later-bronze-age-and-iron-age/|title=Later Bronze Age and Iron Age}}</ref>

One of the most famous Celtic sites is the [[Heuneburg]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.heuneburg.de|title=Keltenmuseum Heuneburg in Herbertingen|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250317122520/https://www.heuneburg.de/|archive-date=17 March 2025|url-status=live}}</ref> located on the [[Swabian Jura]] in Germany. Heuneburg was a large Celtic settlement and a key center of power in the late Hallstatt and early La Tène periods. The site is famous for its fortifications, including large earthworks and timber palisades, indicative of the Celtic emphasis on defensive architecture.
The [[Mont Lassois]] is another important Celtic archaeological site<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Mont-Lassois | title=Mont Lassois &#124; Gallic Wars, Battle of Alesia, Julius Caesar &#124; Britannica }}</ref> located in the Burgundy region of eastern France, near the town of Montbard, in the Côte-d'Or department. The site is notable for being one of the largest and most significant Celtic oppida (fortified settlements) of the La Tène period (approximately 450 BCE to 1 BCE). Mont Lassois offers crucial insights into Celtic urban planning, architecture, and the socio-political organization of the Celtic tribes in Gaul just before the Roman conquest.
The [[Glauberg]] [[Celts|Celtic]] hillfort<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.keltenwelt-glauberg.de/|title=Keltenwelt am Glauberg|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250402200950/https://www.keltenwelt-glauberg.de/|archive-date=2 April 2025|url-status=live}}</ref> or [[oppidum]] in [[Hesse]], Germany, is consisting of a fortified settlement and several burial mounds, "a princely seat of the late [[Hallstatt culture|Hallstatt]] and early [[La Tène culture|La Tène]] periods."<ref>R.K., in John T. Koch, ed., ''Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia'', 2006, ''s.v.'' "Glauberg".</ref><ref>Prestige goods diagnostic of an elite habitation have not been found; the common designation of the Glauberg as a "princely seat" is based on the contents of the tombs located in a walled sanctuary at the foot of the southern slope.</ref> Archaeological discoveries in the 1990s place the site among the most important early Celtic centres in Europe. It provides unprecedented evidence on Celtic burial, sculpture and monumental architecture.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.dw.com/en/13-recent-archaeological-finds-in-germany/g-45580713 | title=13 recent archaeological finds in Germany – DW – 09/04/2020 | website=[[Deutsche Welle]] }}</ref>

===Roman===
{{Main|Ancient Roman architecture}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
File:Colosseo 2020.jpg|[[Colosseum]], [[Rome]], unknown architect, 72–80 AD{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=48}}
File:Pont du Gard BLS.jpg|[[Pont du Gard]], [[Vers-Pont-du-Gard]], [[Gard]], France, a [[Roman aqueduct]], unknown architect, 40–60 AD{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=16}}
Einblick Panorama Pantheon Rom.jpg|[[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]], Rome, unknown architect, {{circa}}114-123 AD{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=52}}
File:Ephesus Celsus Library Façade.jpg|[[Library of Celsus]], [[Ephesus]], Turkey, unknown architect, {{circa}}112–120 AD{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=48}}
File:Trier Konstantinbasilika BW 2017-06-16 14-07-56.jpg|[[Aula Palatina]], largest extant [[hall]] from [[Classical antiquity|antiquity]], [[Trier]], [[Germany]], unknown architect, 300-310 AD
File:500px photo (217110515).jpeg|[[Arch of Constantine]], Rome, unknown architect, 316 AD{{sfn|Irving|2019|p=36}}
</gallery>
The architecture of [[ancient Rome]] has been one of the most influential in the world. Its legacy is evident throughout the medieval and early modern periods, and Roman buildings continue to be reused in the modern era in both [[New Classical architecture|New Classical]] and [[Postmodern architecture|Postmodern]] architecture. It was particularly influenced by [[Ancient Greek architecture|Greek]] and [[Etruscan architecture|Etruscan]] styles. A range of temple types was developed during the [[Roman republic|republican years]] (509–27 BC), modified from Greek and Etruscan prototypes.

Wherever the Roman army conquered, they established towns and cities, spreading [[Roman Empire|their empire]] and advancing their architectural and engineering achievements. While the most important works are to be found in Italy, Roman builders also found creative outlets in the western and eastern provinces, of which the best examples preserved are in modern-day [[North Africa]], [[Turkey]], [[Syria]] and [[Jordan]]. Extravagant projects appeared, like the [[Arch of Septimius Severus (Leptis Magna)|Arch of Septimius Severus]] in [[Leptis Magna]] (present-day [[Libya]], built in 216 AD), with broken pediments on all sides, or the [[Arch of Caracalla (Thebeste)|Arch of Caracalla]] in [[Theveste|Thebeste]] (present-day [[Algeria]], built in {{circa}}214 AD), with paired columns on all sides, projecting entablatures and [[Medallion (architecture)|medallions]] with divine busts. Due to the fact that the empire was formed from multiple nations and cultures, some buildings were the product of combining the Roman style with the local tradition. An example is the [[Monumental Arch of Palmyra|Palmyra Arch]] (present-day [[Syria]], built in {{circa}}212–220), [[:commons:File:Palmira._Arco_monumentale_-_DecArch_-_1-22.jpg|some of its arches being embellished with a repeated band design]] consisting of four ovals within a circle around a [[rosette (design)|rosette]], which are of Eastern origin.

Among the many Roman architectural achievements were [[domes]] (which were created for temples), baths, villas, palaces and tombs. The best known example is that of the [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]] in Rome, being the largest surviving Roman dome and having a large [[Oculus (architecture)|oculus]] at its centre. Another important innovation is the rounded stone arch, used in arcades, aqueducts and other structures. Besides the Greek orders (Doric, Ionic and Corinthian), the Romans invented two more. The [[Tuscan order]] was influenced by the [[Doric order|Doric]], but with un-fluted columns and a simpler [[entablature]] with no [[triglyph]]s or [[guttae]], while the [[Composite order|Composite]] was a mixed [[classical order|order]], combining the [[volute]]s of the [[Ionic order]] capital with the [[Acanthus (ornament)|acanthus]] leaves of the Corinthian order.

Between 30 and 15 BC, the architect and engineer [[Vitruvius|Marcus Vitruvius Pollio]] published a major treatise, ''[[De architectura]]'', which influenced architects around the world for centuries. As the only treatise on architecture to survive from antiquity, it has been regarded since the Renaissance as the first book on architectural theory, as well as a major source on the canon of classical architecture.<ref name="Kruft, Hanno-Walter 1994">Kruft, Hanno-Walter. ''A History of Architectural Theory from Vitruvius to the Present'' (New York, Princeton Architectural Press: 1994).</ref>

Just like the Greeks, the Romans built [[amphitheatre]]s too. The largest amphitheatre ever built, the [[Colosseum]] in Rome, could hold around 50,000 spectators. Another iconic Roman structure that demonstrates their precision and technological advancement is the [[Pont du Gard]] in southern France, the highest surviving Roman aqueduct.{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=46, 73, 76, 77}}{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=16}}

==Americas (Pre-Columbian)==
{{Main|Mesoamerican architecture|Aztec architecture|Maya architecture|Inca architecture}}

From over 3,000 years before the Europeans 'discovered' America, complex societies had already been established across North, Central and South America. The most complex ones were in [[Mesoamerica]], notably the [[Maya civilisation|Mayans]], the [[Olmecs]] and the [[Aztecs]], but also [[Inca Empire|Incas]] in [[South America]]. Structures and buildings were often aligned with astronomical features or with the cardinal directions.

===Mesoamerica===
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
File:Teotihuacán, México, 2013-10-13, DD 47.JPG|Avenue of the Dead, [[Teotihuacan]], [[Mexico]], 1–600 AD{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=67}}
Teotihuacan Temple of Quetzalcoatl in Original Colors, Replica.jpg|Facade of the [[Temple of the Feathered Serpent]] (detail reconstruction), [[Teotihuacan]], Mexico, {{circa}}225<ref>{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Hutton|title=The History of Art - From Prehistory to Presentday - A Global View|date=2022|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-02236-8|page=217|url=|language=en}}</ref>
File:The Palace from the top of Temple of the Cross - Palenque Maya Site, Feb 2020.jpg|The Palace of [[Palenque]], [[Chiapas]], Mexico, 7th–8th centuries{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=13}}
File:Tikal ruinas=Great Plaza (6995996121).jpg|[[Tikal Temple I|Temple of the Great Jaguar]], [[Tikal]], [[Guatemala]], {{circa}}732{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=69}}
TulaSite81.JPG|Colossal [[Toltec Empire|Toltec]] atlantes and other sculptures, [[Tula (Mesoamerican site)|Tula]], [[Hidalgo (state)|Hidalgo]], Mexico, {{circa}}900-1100, approximative height: 4.88 m<ref name="Thames & Hudson">{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Hutton|title=The History of Art - From Prehistory to Presentday - A Global View|date=2022|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-02236-8|page=505|url=|language=en}}</ref>
File:Architectural Detail - Nuns' Quadrangle - Uxmal Archaeological Site - Merida - Mexico - 02.jpg|Nunnery Quadrangle, [[Uxmal]], [[Yucatán]], Mexico, 800–1000{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=69}}
</gallery>

Much of the Mesoamerican architecture developed through cultural exchange – for example the [[Aztecs]] learnt much from earlier [[Maya civilization|Mayan]] architecture. Many cultures built entire cities, with monolithic temples and pyramids decoratively carved with animals, gods and kings. Most of these cities had a central plaza with governmental buildings and temples, plus public ball courts, or ''[[tlachtli]]'', on raised platforms. Just like in ancient Egypt, here were built pyramids too, being generally [[Step pyramid|stepped]]. They were probably not used as burial chambers, but had important religious sites at the top.{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=13}} They had few rooms, as interiors mattered less than the ritual presence of these imposing structures and the public ceremonies they hosted; so, platforms, altars, processional stairs, statuary, and carving were all important.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jonathan|first1=Glancey|title=Architecture A Visual History|date=2006|publisher=DK, [[Penguin Random House]]|isbn=978-0-2412-8843-6|page=35|url=|language=}}</ref>

===Andes===
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
Bol-tihuanaco-sonnentor.jpg|Gateway of the Sun, [[Tiahuanaco]], [[Bolivia]], {{circa}}375-500 AD<ref name="Thames & Hudson"/>
Machu Picchu, Peru.jpg|Machu Picchu, [[Peru]], {{circa}}1450 AD
</gallery>

[[Inca]] architecture originated from the [[Tiwanaku]] styles, founded in the 2nd century B.C.E.. The Incas used topography and land materials in their designs, with the capital city of [[Cuzco]] still containing many examples. The famous [[Machu Picchu]] royal estate is a surviving example, along with [[Sacsayhuamán]] and [[Ollantaytambo]]. The Incas also developed a road system along the western continent, placing their distinctive architecture along the way, visually asserting their imperial rule along the frontier. Other groups such as the [[Muisca]] did not construct grand architecture of stone based materials, but rather made of materials like wood and clay.

==South Asia==

After the fall of the [[Indus Valley]], South Asian architecture entered the Dharmic period which saw the development of [[Ancient Indian architecture|Ancient Indian architectural styles]] which further developed into various unique forms in the Middle Ages, along with the combination of [[Indo-Islamic architecture|Islamic styles]], and later, other global traditions.

===Ancient Buddhist===
{{Main|Buddhist architecture}}

<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
Sanchi1 N-MP-220.jpg|The Great [[Stupa]] of [[Sanchi]] ([[Madhya Pradesh]], India), unknown architect, 3rd century-{{circa}}100 BC

Paharpur_Buddhist_Bihar.jpg|[[Somapura Mahavihara]] ([[Bangladesh]]), unknown architect, {{circa}}8th century AD

Ajanta, grotta 19, chaitya del V secolo dc. , esterno 04,0.jpg|Cave 19 of the [[Ajanta Caves]], [[Maharashtra]], a [[chaitya]] hall, and also an example of [[Indian rock-cut architecture]], unknown architect, 5th-century

Ruwanwelisaya.jpg|[[Ruwanwelisaya]], [[Anuradhapura]], [[Sri Lanka]], unknown architect, {{circa}}140 BC (renovated in the early 20th century)
</gallery>

Buddhist architecture developed in the Indian subcontinent during the 4th and 2nd century BC, and spread first to China and then further across Asia. Three types of structures are associated with the [[sacred architecture|religious architecture]] of [[History of Buddhism|early Buddhism]]: monasteries ([[vihara]]s), places to venerate relics ([[stupa]]s), and shrines or prayer halls ([[chaitya]]s, also called ''chaitya grihas''), which later came to be called temples in some places. The most iconic Buddhist type of building is the stupa, which consists of a [[dome]]d structure containing relics, used as a place of meditation to commemorate [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]]. The dome symbolised the infinite space of the sky.{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=15}}

[[Buddhism]] had a significant influence on Sri Lankan architecture after its introduction,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lankalibrary.com/phpBB/viewtopic.php?t=4545&sid=4cbad2333da654cc007f3bdab0b17947 |title=Home and family in ancient and medieval Sri Lanka |publisher=Lankalibrary.com |date=2008-12-21 |access-date=2010-09-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120221224018/http://www.lankalibrary.com/phpBB/viewtopic.php?t=4545&sid=4cbad2333da654cc007f3bdab0b17947 |archive-date=2012-02-21 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and ancient Sri Lankan architecture was mainly religious, with over 25 styles of Buddhist monasteries.<ref name="pieris">Pieris K (2006), Architecture and landscape in ancient and medieval Lanka</ref> Monasteries were designed using the [[Manjusri Vasthu Vidya Sastra]], which outlines the layout of the structure.

After the fall of the Gupta empire, Buddhism mainly survived in [[Bengal]] under the [[Pala Empire|Palas]],<ref name=MHR>{{cite thesis |type=PhD |last=Reza |first=Mohammad Habib |date=2012 |title=Early Buddhist Architecture of Bengal: Morphological study on the vihāras of c. 3rd to 8th centuries |publisher=Nottingham Trent University |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235762760}}</ref> and has had a significant impact on pre-Islamic [[Architecture of Bengal|Bengali architecture]] of that period.<ref name=CCB>{{cite journal |last=Reza |first=Mohammad Habib |date=2020 |title=Cultural continuity in the Sultanate Bengal: Adjacent ponds of the mosque as a traditional phenomenon |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348370947 |journal=Esempi di Architettura |volume=8 |issue=10 |pages=225–235 |doi=10.4399/978882553987510 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |access-date=September 19, 2022 }}</ref>

===Ancient Hindu===
{{Main|Hindu temple architecture}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
Deogarh01.jpg|[[Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], unknown architect, {{circa}}6th century AD
Maa_Mundeshwari_Devi.jpg|[[Mundeshwari Temple]], [[Kaimur district]], [[Bihar]], unknown architect, {{circa}}7th century AD
1_Dancing_Shiva,_Cave_21_at_Ellora.jpg|[[Ellora Caves]], [[Aurangabad district, Maharashtra]], unknown architect, {{circa}}6th century AD
Pandrethan Shiva Temple, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India (1981).jpg|[[Pandrethan Shiva Temple|Shiva temple, Pandrethan]], Srinagar, [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]], unkown architect, {{circa|8th–9th century AD}}
</gallery>

Across the Indian subcontinent, Hindu architecture evolved from simple [[Indian rock-cut architecture|rock-cut cave shrines]] to monumental temples. From the 4th to 5th centuries AD, Hindu temples were adapted to the worship of different deities and regional beliefs, and by the 6th or 7th centuries larger examples had evolved into towering brick or stone-built structures that symbolise the sacred five-peaked [[Mount Meru]]. Influenced by early [[Buddhist architecture|Buddhist]] [[stupa]]s, the architecture was not designed for collective worship, but had areas for worshippers to leave offerings and perform rituals.{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=19}}

Many Indian architectural styles for structures such as temples, statues, homes, markets, gardens and planning are as described in [[Hindu texts]].{{sfn|Acharya|1927|p=xviii-xx}}<ref name="Sinha 1998 pp. 27–41">{{harvnb|Sinha|1998|pages=27–41}}</ref> The architectural guidelines survive in Sanskrit manuscripts and in some cases also in other regional languages. These include the [[Vastu shastra]]s, [[Shilpa Shastras]], the ''Brihat Samhita'', architectural portions of the Puranas and the Agamas, and regional texts such as the [[Manasara]] among others.{{sfn|Acharya|1927|p=xviii-xx, Appendix I lists hundreds of Hindu architectural texts}}{{sfn|Shukla|1993|p=}}

Since this architectural style emerged in the classical period, it has had a considerable influence on various medieval architectural styles like that of the [[Māru-Gurjara architecture|Gurjaras]], [[Dravidian architecture|Dravidians]], [[Hemadpanti architecture|Deccan]], [[Kalinga architecture|Odias]], [[Architecture of Bengal|Bengalis]], and the [[Nilachal architecture|Assamese]].

===Maru Gurjara===
{{Main|Māru-Gurjara architecture|Architecture of Gujarat|Architecture of Rajasthan}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
File:20191218 Pałac Wiatrów w Jaipurze 1129 9124.jpg|[[Hawa Mahal]], [[Jaipur]], [[Rajasthan]], unknown architect, 1799
File:Navlakha arial view 02 (cropped).jpg|[[Navlakha Temple, Ghumli]], [[Gujarat]], unknown architect, 12th century
File:Delwada.jpg|Interior of the [[Jain]] Vimal Vasahi Temple, [[Mount Abu]], unknown architect, 1031<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hall|first1=William|title=Stone|date=2019|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-7925-3|page=46|url=|language=en}}</ref>
</gallery>
This style of North Indian architecture has been observed in [[Hinduism|Hindu]] as well as [[Jainism|Jain]] places of worship and congregation. It emerged in the 11th to 13th centuries under the [[Chaulukya dynasty|Chaulukya]] (Solanki) period.<ref>Mitchell (1977), 123; Hegewald</ref> It eventually became more popular among the Jain communities who spread it in the greater region and across the world.<ref>Harle, 239–240; Hegewald</ref> These structures have the unique features like a large number of projections on external walls with sharply carved statues, and several [[urushringa]] spirelets on the main [[shikhara]].

===Himalayan===
{{Main|Architecture of Nepal|Architecture of Tibet}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
File:Nyatapola Temple.JPG|[[Nyatapola Temple]], [[Bhaktapur]], [[Nepal]], unknown architect, 1702
File:Taktshang edit.jpg|[[Paro Taktsang]], [[Paro, Bhutan]], unknown architect, 1692
File:White Palace of the Potala.jpg|[[Potala Palace]], [[Lhasa]], [[Tibet]], unknown architect, 1649
File:Jami Masjid courtyard (6133553291).jpg|[[Jamia Masjid, Srinagar]], [[Kashmir]], unknown architect, 1394
</gallery>
The Himalayas are inhabited by various people groups including the [[Pahari people (Nepal)|Paharis]], [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetans]], [[Kashmiri people|Kashmiris]], and many more groups. Being from different religious and ethnic backgrounds, the architecture has also had multiple influences. Considering the logistical difficulties and slower pace of life in the Himalayas, artisans have that the time to make intricate wood carvings and paintings accompanied by ornamental metal work and stone sculptures that are reflected in religious as well as civic and military buildings. These styles exist in different forms from [[Tibet]] and [[Kashmir]] to [[Assam]] and [[Nagaland]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bernier|first1=Ronald M.|title=Himalayan Architecture|date=1997|publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press|isbn=978-1-61147-121-2|page=8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KXyvjqJoBIcC|language=en}}</ref> A common feature is observed in the slanted layered roofs on temples, mosques, and civic buildings.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bernier|first1=Ronald M.|title=Himalayan Architecture|date=1997|publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press|isbn=978-1-61147-121-2|pages=161, 162, & 163|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KXyvjqJoBIcC|language=en}}</ref>

===Dravidian===
{{Main|Dravidian architecture}}
{{See also|Architecture of Tamil Nadu|Architecture of Kerala|Architecture of Karnataka|Pallava art and architecture|Pandyan art and architecture|Chola art and architecture|Kadamba architecture|Badami Chalukya architecture|Hoysala architecture|Vijayanagara architecture|Western Chalukya architecture}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
File:SaluvanakuppamVel.jpg|Stone ''[[vel]]'' on a brick platform at the entrance to the [[Murugan Temple, Saluvankuppam]], unknown architect, 300 BC<ref name="thehindu_20050921">{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2005/09/21/stories/2005092104692000.htm|title=Remains of ancient temple found|author=N. Subramanian|date=21 September 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121110082332/http://www.hindu.com/2005/09/21/stories/2005092104692000.htm|archive-date=10 November 2012|work=[[The Hindu]]|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="toi_20100801">{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/New-finds-of-old-temples-enthuse-archaeologists/articleshow/6242174.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120915014729/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-08-01/chennai/28281794_1_inscription-shore-temple-oldest-temples|url-status=live|archive-date=15 September 2012|title=New finds of old temples enthuse archaeologists|author=N. Ramya|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=1 August 2010}}</ref>

File:Padmanabhaswamy_Temple_Gopuram.jpg|[[Padmanabhaswamy Temple]], [[Thiruvananthapuram]], [[Kerala]], unknown architect, local Dravidian worship site possibly as early as the 4th century AD, Vaishnavite worship site by the 8th century AD, with its gopuram built by the 16th century AD

File:MEENAKSHI TEMPLE- WEST TOWER.jpg|[[Meenakshi Temple, Madurai]], [[Tamil Nadu]], unknown architect, {{circa}}12th century

</gallery>

This is an architectural style that emerged in the southern part of the Indian subcontinent and in Sri Lanka. These include [[Hindu temple]]s with a unique style that involves a shorter pyramidal tower over the [[garbhagriha]] or sanctuary called a [[Vimana (architectural feature)|vimana]], where the north has taller towers, usually bending inwards as they rise, called [[shikhara]]s. These also include secular buildings that may or may not have slanted roofs based on the geographical region. In the Tamil country, this style is influenced by the Sangam period as well as the styles of the great dynasties that ruled it. This style varies in the region to its west in Kerala that is influenced by geographic factors like western trade and the monsoons which result in sloped roofs.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://nitc.academia.edu/BPhilip/Papers/374480/TRADITIONAL_KERALA_ARCHITECTURE |title = Traditional Kerala Architecture|last1 = Philip|first1 = Boney}}</ref> Further north, the [[Vesara|Karnata Dravida]] style varies based on the diversity of influences, often relaying much about the artistic trends of the rulers of twelve different dynasties.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.infohuBCom/TRAVEL/SIT/sit_pages/9257.html|title=Architectural Wonders of Karnataka|access-date=2009-09-26}}{{Dead link|date=May 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

===Kalinga===
{{Main|Kalinga architecture}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
Temple-Jagannath.jpg|The [[Jagannath Temple, Puri#Structure|Jagannath Temple]], [[Puri]], [[Odisha]], India, one of the four holiest places (Dhamas) of Hinduism,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odissi.com/orissa/jagannath.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801095101/http://www.odissi.com/orissa/jagannath.htm|archive-date=1 August 2020|title=Welcome to Odissi.com ¦ Orissa ¦ Sri Jagannath}}</ref> unknown architect, 12th century
Konarka Temple.jpg|The [[Konark Sun Temple]], Puri, unknown architect, {{circa}}1250

Simplified schema of Kalinga architecture.jpg|Simplified schema of a Kalinga temple
</gallery>
The ancient Kalinga region corresponds to the present-day eastern Indian areas of [[Odisha]], [[West Bengal]] and northern [[Andhra Pradesh]]. Its architecture reached a peak between the 9th and 12th centuries under the patronage of the [[Somavamsi dynasty]] of Odisha. Lavishly sculpted with hundreds of figures, Kalinga temples usually feature repeating forms such as horseshoes. Within the protective walls of the temple complex are three main buildings with distinctive curved towers called ''deul'' or ''deula'' and prayer halls called ''jagmohan''.{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=21}}

{{anchor|East Asia}}<!--linked-->

==East and Southeast Asia==
Chinese and [[Confucianism|Confucian]] culture has had a significant influence on the art and architecture in the [[Sinosphere]] (mainly [[Vietnam]], [[Korea]], [[Japan]]).<ref>{{cite journal|title=VIETNAM AND SOUTHEAST ASIA: An address delivered at the Rotary Club of Bristol, Rhode Island on 6 April 1966|jstor=44635438|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/44635438.pdf|access-date=3 September 2021|last1=Hung|first1=Dinh M.|journal=Naval War College Review|year=1966|volume=18|issue=9|pages=28–33}}</ref>

===China and Vietnam===
{{Main|Chinese architecture|Vietnamese architecture}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
File:Giant Wild Goose Pagoda.jpg|The [[Giant Wild Goose Pagoda]] in southern [[Xi'an]], [[Shaanxi]] province, China, unknown architect, 652
晨曦中的南禅寺.jpg|The main hall of the [[Nanchan Temple|Nanchan Monastery]], [[Mount Wutai|Wutai]], [[Xinzhou]], [[Shanxi]], China, unknown architect, renovated in 782
File:独乐寺观音阁正面1.JPG|The Guanyian Pavilion of the [[Dule Temple|Dule Monastery]], [[Ji County, Tianjin|Jixian]], China, unknown architect, 984
File:Temple of Heaven 20160323 01.jpg|alt=Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests, the main building of the Temple of Heaven (Beijing), 1703-1790|Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests, the main building of the [[Temple of Heaven]], Beijing, unknown architect, 1703–1790
File:Temple of Literature Hanoi.jpg|[[Temple of Literature, Hanoi]], [[Vietnam]], unknown architect, 1070
</gallery>
What is recognised today as Chinese culture has its roots in the [[Neolithic]] period (10,000–2000 BC), covering the cultural sites of [[Yangshao]], [[Longshan culture|Longshan]], and [[Liangzhu culture|Liangzhu]] in central China. Sections of present-day north-east China also contain sites of the Neolithic [[Hongshan culture|Hongshan]] culture that manifested aspects of proto-Chinese culture. Native Chinese belief systems included naturalistic, [[animism|animistic]] and hero worship. In general, open-air platforms (''tan'', or altar) were used for worshipping naturalistic deities, such as the gods of wind and earth, whereas formal buildings (''miao'', or temple) were for heroes and deceased ancestors.

Most early buildings in China were [[Lumber|timber]] structures. Columns with sets of [[Bracket (architecture)|brackets]] on the face of the buildings, mostly in even numbers, made the central intercolumnal space the largest interior opening. Heavily tiled roofs sat squarely on the timber building with walls constructed in brick or pounded earth.

The transmission of Buddhism into China around the 1st century AD led to a new era of religious practices, and so to new building types. Places of worship in form of cave temples appeared in China, based on [[Indian rock-cut architecture|Indian rock-cut]] ones. Another new building type introduced by Buddhism was the Chinese form of [[stupa]] (''ta'') or [[pagoda]]. In India, stupas were erected to commemorate well-known people or teachers: consequently, the Buddhist tradition adapted the structure to remember the great teacher, the Buddha. In The Chinese pagoda shared a similar symbolism with the Indian stupa and was built with sponsorship mainly from imperial patrons who hoped to gain earthly merits for the next life. Buddhism reached its peak from the 6th to the 8th centuries when there was an unprecedented number of monasteries thought China. More than 4,600 official and 40,000 unofficial monasteries were built. They varies in size by the number of cloisters they contained, ranging from 6 to 120. Each cloister consisted of a main stand-alone building – a hall, pagoda of pavilion – and was surrounded by a covered corridor in a rectangular compounded served by a gate building.{{sfn|Jones|2014|pp=54, 55, 56 & 57}}

===Japan and Korea===
{{Main|Japanese architecture|Korean architecture}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
File:NintokuTomb Aerial photograph 2007.jpg|[[Mozu Tombs|Mausoleum of Emperor Nintoku]], [[Sakai]], [[Osaka Prefecture]], Japan, unknown architect, 4th century
File:Horyu-ji, November 2016.jpg|Pagoda at [[Hōryū-ji]], a Buddhist temple in [[Ikaruga, Nara|Ikaruga]], [[Nara Prefecture]], unknown architect, 607
File:Japan 060416 Ninnaji 02.jpg|The garden of the [[Ninna-ji]] temple in [[Kyoto]], [[Kyoto Prefecture]], an example of a [[Japanese garden]], unknown architect, 888

File:Gwanghwamun Woldae(20240413) 1, cropped.jpg|[[Gyeongbokgung|Gyeongbokgung Palace]], [[Seoul]], [[South Korea]], unknown architect, 1395

File:Kinkaku-ji the Golden Temple in Kyoto overlooking the lake - high rez.JPG|[[Kinkaku-ji]], [[Kitayama]], [[Kyoto]], a [[Zen]] [[Buddhist temples in Japan|Buddhist temple]] in [[Kyoto]], unknown architect, 1398
</gallery>

[[Korean architecture]], especially post [[Joseon]] period showcases [[Ming dynasty|Ming]]-[[Qing dynasty|Qing]] influences.<ref>{{cite journal|title=TIMBER BUILDING STRUCTURES IN CHOSEN KOREA — A CASE STUDY ON GEUNJEONGJEON AND INJEONGJEON|jstor=43030720|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/43030720.pdf|access-date=29 July 2021|last1=Guo|first1=Qinghua|journal=Journal of Architectural and Planning Research|year=2005|volume=22|issue=1|pages=51–68}}</ref>

Traditionally, Japanese architecture was made of wood and ''[[fusuma]]'' (sliding doors) in place of walls, allowing internal space to be altered to suit different purposes. The introduction of Buddhism in the mid 6th century, via the neighbouring Korean kingdom of [[Paekche]], initiated large-scale wooden temple building with an emphasis on simplicity, and much of the architecture was imported from China and other Asian cultures. By the end of this century, Japan was constructing Continental-style monasteries, notably the temple, known as [[Horyu-ji]] in [[Ikaruga]].{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=63}} In contrast with Western architecture, Japanese structures rarely use stone, except for specific elements such as foundations. Walls are light, thin, never load-bearing and often movable.<ref name="Kruft, Hanno-Walter 1994"/>

===Khmer===
{{main|Khmer architecture}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
2024 - Mỹ Sơn Group B, C and D - img 03.jpg|[[Mỹ Sơn|Champa Temples]], [[Mỹ Sơn]], [[Vietnam]], unknown architect, {{Circa|4th century}}

Roulos Group - 005 Bakong (8587796725).jpg|[[Bakong]], [[Hariharalaya]], [[Roluos]], Cambodia, unknown architect, 9th century

Prasat_Prang_Ku_Somboon-006.jpg|Prasat Prang Ku, [[Sisaket]], [[Thailand]], unknown architect, 12th century<ref name="so04.tci-thaijo.org"/>

Angkor SiemReap Cambodia Ankor-Wat-01.jpg|[[Angkor Wat]], [[Angkor]], [[Cambodia]], unknown architect, early 12th century 
</gallery>

From the start of the 9th century to the early 15th century, Khmer kings rules over a vad Hindu-Buddhist empire in Southeast Asia. [[Angkor]], in present-day [[Cambodia]], was its capital city, and most of its surviving buildings are east-facing stone temples, many of them constructed in pyramidal, tiered form consisting of five square structures with towers, or ''prasats'', that represent the sacred five-peaked [[Mount Meru]] of [[Hinduism|Hindu]], [[Jainism|Jain]] and [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] doctrine. As the residences of gods, temples were made of durable materials such as [[sandstone]], brick or [[laterite]], a clay-like substance that dries hard.{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=23}}

[[Champa|Cham]] architecture in [[Vietnam]] also follows a similar style.<ref name="so04.tci-thaijo.org">{{cite web|title=THE DESIGNS OF RELIGIOUS MONUMENTS OF THE DVARAVATI, KHMER, AND PENINSULAR REGION /CHAIYA SCHOOLS IN THAILAND|url=https://so04.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/NAJUA-Arch/article/download/46847/38827|access-date=3 September 2021}}</ref>

==Sub-Saharan Africa==
{{Main|Architecture of Africa}}
Traditional [[Sub-Saharan Africa]]n architecture is diverse, varying significantly across regions. Included among traditional house types, are huts, sometimes consisting of one or two rooms, as well as various larger and more complex structures.

===West African and Bantu styles===
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
File:King's palace in Nyanza.jpg|King's palace in [[Nyanza, Rwanda|Nyanza]], [[Rwanda]], unknown architect, unknown date
File:Lunda houses-1854.jpg|Illustration from 1854 of Lunda street and houses
File:Anna Hinderer building.jpg|[[Yoruba architecture]] depicted in a book by [[Anna Hinderer]] in the mid 19th century<ref>{{cite book|title=Seventeen Years in the Yoruba Country. Memorials of Anna Hinderer|first1= Anna|last1=Hinderer|first2=D|last2=Hone|first3=C A|last3=Hone|date=27 August 2016|publisher=Wentworth Press|isbn=978-1371184360}}</ref>
File:07 - (Die sheng) le symbole supreme et representatif de la chefferie et du peuple Bandjoun.JPG|Traditional [[Bamileke people|Bamileke]] architecture, main hall of the [[Bandjoun]] palace in Cameroon, with decoratively carved wooden columns and doorway, unknown architect, unknown date
</gallery>

In much of West Africa, rectangular houses with peaked roofs and courtyards, sometimes consisting of several rooms and courtyards, are also traditionally found (sometimes decorated, with adobe reliefs as among the [[Ashanti Empire|Ashanti]] of Ghana,<ref name="books.google.com">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QQgwAAAAYAAJ|page=291|title=The Monthly Review, Or, Literary Journal|year=1819}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ghanamuseums.org/asante-tradional-buildings.php|title=Ghana Museums & Monuments Board|website=www.ghanamuseums.org|access-date=2020-02-24}}</ref> or carved pillars as among the [[Yoruba people]] of Nigeria, especially in palaces and the dwellings of the wealthy)<ref>{{Citation|last1=Osasona|first1=Cordelia O.|title=From traditional residential architecture to the vernacular: the Nigerian experience|url=http://www.obafemio.com/uploads/5/1/4/2/5142021/nigerianarchitechture.pdf|location=Ile-Ife, Nigeria|publisher=Obafemi Awolowo University|access-date=3 December 2019}}</ref> Besides the regular rectangular type of dwelling with a sharp roof, widespread in [[West Africa]] and [[Madagascar]], there also other types of houses: [[beehive house]]s made from a circle of stones topped with a domed roof, and the round one, with a [[cone]]-shaped roof. The first type, which also existed in America, is characteristic especially for Southern Africa. These were used by [[Bantu peoples|Bantu]]-speaking groups in southern and parts of east Africa, which was made with mud, poles, thatch, and [[cow dung]] (rectangular houses were more common among the Bantu-speaking peoples of the greater Congo region and central Africa). The round hut with a [[cone]]-shaped roof is widespread especially in [[Sudan]] and [[Eastern Africa]], but is also present in [[Colombia]] and [[New Caledonia]], as well as in the [[Western Sudan]] and [[Sahel]] regions of west Africa, where they are sometimes arranged into compounds.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sobeski|first1=Michal|title=Arta Exotică|date=1975|publisher=Editura Meridiane|isbn=|page=42 & 43|url=|language=ro}}</ref> A distinct style of traditional wooden architecture exists among the Grassland peoples of Cameroon, such as the [[Bamileke people|Bamileke]].

In several West African societies, including the kingdom of Benin (and of other [[Edo people]]s), and the kingdoms of the Yoruba, Hausa, at sites like [[Jenne-Jeno]] (a pre-Islamic city in Mali),<ref name="AAC">{{cite journal|last1=Mcintosh|first1=Susan Keech|last2=Mcintosh|first2=Roderick J.|title=Jenne-Jeno: An Ancient African City|journal=Archaeology|date=February 1980|volume= 33|issue= 1|pages=8–14}}</ref><ref>Shaw, Thurstan. ''The Archaeology of Africa: Food, Metals and Towns''. Routledge, 1993, pp.&nbsp;632.</ref> and elsewhere, towns and cities were surrounded by large walls of mud brick or adobe,<ref>{{cite book| last = Coquery-Vidrovitch| first = Catherine| title = The History of African Cities South of the Sahara From the Origins to Colonization| year = 2005| publisher = Markus Wiener Pub| isbn = 978-1-55876-303-6| pages = 123–126 }}</ref> and sometimes by monumental moats and earthworks, such as [[Sungbo's Eredo]] (in the Nigerian Yoruba kingdom of Ijebu) and the [[Walls of Benin]] (of the Nigerian [[Kingdom of Benin]]).<ref name="Protection">{{cite book |author1=Patrick Darling |editor1-last=Korka |editor1-first=Elena |title=The Protection of Archaeological Heritage in Times of Economic Crisis |date=2015 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn=9781443874113 |pages=341–352 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B_imBgAAQBAJ&dq=Walls+of+Benin+&pg=PA353 |access-date=9 March 2019 |language=en |chapter=Conservation Management of the Benin Earthworks of Southern Nigeria: A critical review of past and present action plans}}</ref><ref name="The Guardian">{{cite web |last1=Koutonin |first1=Mawuna |title=Story of cities #5: Benin City, the mighty medieval capital now lost without trace |url=https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2016/mar/18/story-of-cities-5-benin-city-edo-nigeria-mighty-medieval-capital-lost-without-trace |work=The Guardian |access-date=15 August 2020 |date=March 18, 2016}}</ref> In medieval southern Africa, a tradition existed of fortified stone settlements such as [[Great Zimbabwe]] and [[Khami]].

The famed [[Benin City]] of southwest Nigeria (capital of the Kingdom of Benin) destroyed by the [[Punitive Expedition]], was a large complex of homes in coursed clay, with [[Hip roof|hipped roofs]] of [[Roof shingle|shingles]] or palm leaves. The Palace had a sequence of ceremonial rooms, and was decorated with [[Benin Bronzes|brass plaques]]. It was surrounded by a monumental complex of [[Walls of Benin|earthworks and walls]] whose construction is thought to have begun by the early Middle Ages.<ref name="Protection"/><ref name="The Guardian"/><ref name="Ogundiran">{{cite journal |last1=Ogundiran |first1=Akinwumi |title=Four Millennia of Cultural History in Nigeria (ca. 2000 B.C.–A.D. 1900): Archaeological Perspectives |journal=Journal of World Prehistory |date=June 2005 |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=133–168|doi=10.1007/s10963-006-9003-y |s2cid=144422848 }}</ref><ref name="MacEachern">{{cite journal |last1=MacEachern |first1=Scott |title=Two thousand years of West African history |url=https://www.academia.edu/831918 |journal=African Archaeology: A Critical Introduction |date=January 2005 |publisher=Academia}}</ref>

<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
File:Cam0492 Habitation de Pouss.jpg|Beehive-shaped houses of the [[Musgum people|Musgum ethnic group]] in {{ill|Pouss|fr|vertical-align=sup}}, [[Cameroon]], unknown architect, unknown date
File:Koussoukoingou2.jpg|A traditional house of the [[Tammari people]] in the [[Atakora Department]] of the northern Republic of [[Benin]] (not to be confused with the Nigerian Kingdom of Benin), unknown architect, unknown date
File:Kumasi.png|Palace of [[Ashanti Empire|Ashanti]] Kwaku Dua of Kumasi, Ghana, unknown architect, 1896
File:DogonVillage.jpg|A [[Dogon people|Dogon]] village in [[Mali]], with walls made in the [[wattle and daub]] method, unknown architect, unknown date
File:Conical Tower - Great Enclosure III (33736918448).jpg|The conical tower inside the Great Enclosure in [[Great Zimbabwe]], a medieval city built by a prosperous culture, unknown architect, {{circa}}11th–14th century
</gallery>

===Sahelian===
{{Main|Sudano-Sahelian architecture}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
File:Djenne great mud mosque.jpg|The [[Great Mosque of Djenné]], [[Djenné]], [[Mali]], an icon for the [[Sudano-Sahelian architecture]], unknown architect, originally built in the 13th-14th centuries, rebuilt in 1907, [[adobe]]

Larabanga Mosque Ghana.jpg|The [[Larabanga Mosque]], [[Larabanga]], northern [[Ghana]], unknown architect, possibly built in the 15th century

File:Kanogate.jpg|[[Hausa people|Hausa]] gate, the [[Gidan Rumfa]] in [[Kano (city)|Kano]], northern Nigeria, unknown architect, 15th century
</gallery>

In the Western [[Sahel]] region, Islamic influence was a major contributing factor to architectural development from the later ages of the [[Kingdom of Ghana]]. At [[Kumbi Saleh]], locals lived in domed-shaped dwellings in the king's section of the city, surrounded by a great enclosure. Traders lived in stone houses in a section which possessed 12 beautiful mosques, as described by [[Abu Abdullah al-Bakri|al-bakri]], with one centered on [[Friday prayer]].<ref>Historical Society of Ghana. Transactions3 of the Historical Society of Ghana, The Society, 1957, pp81</ref> The king is said to have owned several mansions, one of which was sixty-six feet long, forty-two feet wide, contained seven rooms, was two stories high, and had a staircase; with the walls and chambers filled with sculpture and painting.<ref>Davidson, Basil. The Lost Cities of Africa. Boston: Little Brown, 1959, pp86</ref>

[[Sudano-Sahelian|Sahelian architecture]] initially grew from the two cities of [[Djenné]] and [[Timbuktu]]. The [[Sankore|Sankore Mosque]] in [[Timbuktu]], constructed from mud on timber, was similar in style to the [[Great Mosque of Djenné]]. The rise of kingdoms in the West African coastal region produced architecture which drew on indigenous traditions, utilizing wood, mud-brick and adobe. Though later acquiring Islamic influences, the style also had roots in local pre-Islamic building styles, such as those found in ancient settlements like [[Jenne-Jeno]], [[Dia, Mali]], and [[Dhar Tichitt]],<ref>{{citation | last=Brass | first=Mike | url=http://www.antiquityofman.com/Complex_WA_EA.html | title=The Antiquity of Man: East & West African complex societies | year=1998 | access-date=2021-07-11 | archive-date=2012-04-04 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120404005727/http://www.antiquityofman.com/Complex_WA_EA.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> some of which employed a traditional sahelian style of cylindrical mud brick.<ref name="AAC"/>

===Ethiopian===
{{Main|Ethiopian architecture}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
File:Fasilides_Palace_01.jpg|Emperor [[Fasilides]]' castle, founded by him in the 17th century
File:Bet Giyorgis (5498439545).jpg|Large, monolithic churches such as the [[Church of Saint George, Lalibela|Church of Saint George (Lalibela)]], were hewn out of the ground in [[Ethiopia]], unknown architect, late 12th or early 13th century
</gallery>
[[Architecture of Ethiopia|Ethiopian architecture]] (including modern-day [[Eritrea]]) expanded from the Aksumite style and incorporated new traditions with the expansion of the Ethiopian state. Styles incorporated more wood and rounder structures in domestic architecture in the center of the country and the south, and these stylistic influences were manifested in the construction of churches and monasteries. Throughout the medieval period, Aksumite architecture and influences and its monolithic tradition persisted, with its influence strongest in the early medieval (Late Aksumite) and Zagwe periods (when the [[rock-cut architecture|rock-cut]] [[monolithic church]]es of [[Lalibela]] were carved). Throughout the medieval period, and especially from the 10th to 12th centuries, churches were hewn out of rock throughout Ethiopia, especially during the northernmost region of [[Tigray Province|Tigray]], which was the heart of the Aksumite Empire. The most famous example of Ethiopian rock-hewn architecture are the eleven monolithic churches of Lalibela, carved out of the red volcanic tuff found around the town.<ref>David Keys: [http://www.archaeology.org/0411/newsbriefs/ethiopia.html Medieval Houses of God, or Ancient Fortresses?]</ref> During the early modern period in Ethiopia, the absorption of new diverse influences such as Baroque, Arab, Turkish and [[Gujarati people|Gujarati]] style began with the arrival of [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] missionaries in the 16th and 17th centuries.

==Oceania==
{{main|Oceanic art and architecture}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
Nan madol.jpg|Ruins of [[Nan Madol]], [[Pohnpei]] island, [[Federated States of Micronesia]], unknown architect, {{circa}}8th-13th centuries

File:Men's club house, Palau, 1907 - Südseeabteilung - Ethnological Museum, Berlin - DSC00974.JPG|Men's club house, from [[Palau]], now in [[Ethnological Museum of Berlin]], unknown architect, 1907

File:Abelam ceremonial supply house, Kalabu, Papua New Guinea, 1950 - Südseeabteilung - Ethnological Museum, Berlin - DSC00971.JPG|Detail of a ceremonial supply house, from [[Papua New Guinea]], now in Ethnological Museum of Berlin

File:Little world, Aichi prefecture - House of Yap in Micronesia.jpg|Traditional house in [[Micronesia]], unknown architect, unknown date
</gallery>
Most Oceanic buildings consist of [[hut]]s, made of wood and other vegetal materials. [[Oceanian art|Art]] and architecture have often been closely connected—for example, storehouses and meetinghouses are often decorated with elaborate carvings—and so they are presented together in this discussion. The architecture of the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] Islands was varied and sometimes large in scale. Buildings reflected the structure and preoccupations of the societies that constructed them, with considerable symbolic detail. Technically, most buildings in [[Oceania]] were no more than simple assemblages of poles held together with cane lashings; only in the Caroline Islands were complex methods of joining and pegging known.

An important Oceanic archaeological site is [[Nan Madol]] from the [[Federated States of Micronesia]]. Nan Madol was the ceremonial and political seat of the [[Saudeleur Dynasty]], which united Pohnpei's estimated 25,000 people until about 1628.<ref name=Ayres>[http://www.uoregon.edu/~wsayres/pohnpei/NanMadol.html Nan Madol, Madolenihmw, Pohnpei] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613194928/http://www.uoregon.edu/~wsayres/pohnpei/NanMadol.html |date=2010-06-13 }} William Ayres, Department of Anthropology University Of Oregon, Accessed 26 September 2007</ref> Set apart between the main island of [[Pohnpei]] and [[Temwen Island]], it was a scene of human activity as early as the first or second century AD. By the 8th or 9th century, islet construction had started, with construction of the distinctive [[megalith|megalithic architecture]] beginning 1180–1200 AD.<ref name="McCoy et al">{{cite journal|last1=McCoy|first1=Mark D.|last2=Alderson|first2=Helen A.|last3=Hemi|first3=Richard|last4=Cheng|first4=Hai|last5=Edwards|first5=R. Lawrence|date=November 2016|title=Earliest direct evidence of monument building at the archaeological site of Nan Madol (Pohnpei, Micronesia) identified using 230Th/U coral dating and geochemical sourcing of megalithic architectural stone|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/0338E86D312973BA0B32D56A5D297FAF/S0033589400039958a.pdf/earliest_direct_evidence_of_monument_building_at_the_archaeological_site_of_nan_madol_pohnpei_micronesia_identified_using_230thu_coral_dating_and_geochemical_sourcing_of_megalithic_architectural_stone.pdf|journal=Quaternary Research|volume=86|issue=3|pages=295–303|doi=10.1016/j.yqres.2016.08.002|access-date=30 October 2017|bibcode=2016QuRes..86..295M|doi-access=free}}</ref>

== Islamic ==
{{Main|Islamic architecture}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="170">
File:Jerusalem-2013(2)-Temple Mount-Dome of the Rock (SE exposure).jpg|[[Dome of the Rock]], [[Jerusalem]], unknown architect, 691{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=95}}
File:Samarra, Iraq (25270211056) edited.jpg|[[Great Mosque of Samarra]], [[Samarra]], [[Iraq]], unknown architect, {{circa}}851{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=95}}
File:Sultan-Hassan-Moschee 2015-11-14zc.jpg|[[Mosque-Madrasa of Sultan Hasan]], Cairo, Egypt, unknown architect, 1356-1363<ref name="Behrens-Abouseif">{{cite book |last=Behrens-Abouseif |first=Doris |title=Cairo of the Mamluks : a history of the architecture and its culture |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-84511-549-4 |location=London |pages=201–213 |language=en}}</ref>
File:Alhambra Löwenhof mit Löwenbrunnen 2014.jpg|[[Court of the Lions]], [[Alhambra]], [[Granada]], [[Spain]], unknown architect, 1362-1391{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=120}}
File:SüleymaniyeMosqueIstanbul (cropped).jpg|[[Süleymaniye Mosque]], Istanbul, Turkey, by [[Mimar Sinan]], 1550-1557<ref>{{Cite book |last=Necipoğlu |first=Gülru |url=https://archive.org/details/ageofsinanarchit0000neci |title=The Age of Sinan: Architectural Culture in the Ottoman Empire |publisher=Reaktion Books |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-86189-253-9 |pages=208 |language=en |orig-year=2005}}</ref>
File:Taj Mahal, Agra, India edit3.jpg|[[Taj Mahal]], [[Agra]], [[India]], {{circa}}1649, by [[Ustad Ahmad Lahori]]{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=212}}
</gallery>
Due to the extent of the [[Early Muslim conquests|Islamic conquests]], Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range of [[architectural styles]] from the foundation of Islam (7th century) to the present day. Early Islamic architecture was influenced by [[Roman architecture|Roman]], [[Byzantine architecture|Byzantine]], [[Persian architecture|Persian]], [[Architecture of Mesopotamia|Mesopotamian]] architecture and all other lands which the [[Early Muslim conquests]] conquered in the 7th and 8th centuries.<ref name="Krautheimer">{{Cite book |last1=Krautheimer |first1=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WXwX7fQ2DkUC&q=islam |title=Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture |last2=Ćurčić |first2=Slobodan |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-300-05294-7 |pages=285 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Fletcher |first=Banister |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ULcsAAAAYAAJ&q=islam |title=A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method for Students, Craftsmen & Amateur |publisher=B.T. Batsford, Limited |year=1901 |isbn=978-1-343-92962-3 |pages=476 |language=en}}</ref> Further east, it was also influenced by [[Chinese architecture|Chinese]] and [[Architecture of India|Indian architecture]] as Islam spread to Southeast Asia. This wide and long history has given rise to many local architectural styles, including but not limited to: [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]], [[Abbasid architecture|Abbasid]], [[Persian architecture|Persian]], [[Moorish architecture|Moorish]], [[Fatimid architecture|Fatimid]], [[Mamluk architecture|Mamluk]], [[Ottoman architecture|Ottoman]], [[Indo-Islamic architecture|Indo-Islamic]] (particularly [[Mughal architecture|Mughal]]), [[Chinese mosques|Sino-Islamic]] and [[Sudano-Sahelian architecture|Sahelian]] architecture.

Some distinctive structures in Islamic architecture are [[mosque]]s, [[madrasa]]s, tombs, palaces, [[Hammam|baths]], and forts. Notable types of Islamic religious architecture include [[hypostyle]] mosques, domed mosques and mausoleums, structures with vaulted [[iwan]]s, and madrasas built around central courtyards. In secular architecture, major examples of preserved historic palaces include the [[Alhambra]] and the [[Topkapı Palace|Topkapi Palace]]. Islam does not encourage the worship of idols; therefore the architecture tends to be decorated with [[Arabic calligraphy]] (including [[Quran|Qur'anic]] verses or other poetry) and with more abstract motifs such as [[Islamic geometric patterns|geometric patterns]], ''[[muqarnas]]'', and [[arabesque]]s, as opposed to illustrations of scenes and stories.<ref name=":0">{{cite book|last1=Ettinghausen|first1=Richard|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l1uWZAzN_VcC&pg=PP1|title=Islamic Art and Architecture: 650–1250|last2=Grabar|first2=Oleg|last3=Jenkins|first3=Marilyn|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2001|isbn=9780300088670}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite book|last1=Blair|first1=Sheila S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-mhIgewDtNkC&pg=PP3|title=The Art and Architecture of Islam 1250-1800|last2=Bloom|first2=Jonathan M.|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1995|isbn=9780300064650|location=|pages=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=|first=|title=Islam: Art and Architecture|publisher=h.f.ullmann|year=2011|isbn=9783848003808|editor-last=Hattstein|editor-first=Markus|location=|pages=|chapter=|editor-last2=Delius|editor-first2=Peter}}</ref><ref name=":24">{{cite book|last=|first=|title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780195309911|editor-last=M. Bloom|editor-first=Jonathan|location=|pages=|chapter=|editor-last2=S. Blair|editor-first2=Sheila}}</ref>

==European==
===Medieval===
{{Main|Medieval architecture}}
{{See also|Norse architecture|Architecture of the Tarnovo Artistic School}}
Surviving examples of medieval secular architecture mainly served for defense across various parts of Europe. [[Castle]]s and [[fortified wall]]s provide the most notable remaining non-religious examples of medieval architecture. New types of civic, military, as well as religious buildings of new styles begin to pop up in this region during this period.

====Byzantine====
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
Istanbul Hagia Irene IMG 8067 1920.jpg|[[Hagia Irene]], [[Istanbul]], [[Turkey]], unknown architect, 6th century{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=83}}

Hagia Sophia Mars 2013.jpg|[[Hagia Sophia]], Istanbul, by [[Anthemius of Tralles]] and [[Isidore of Miletus]], 537{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=62}}

Basilica of San Vitale - triumphal arch mosaics.jpg|[[Basilica of San Vitale]], [[Ravenna]], [[Italy]], unknown architect, 527-548{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=19}}

A015 Basilica di Sant'Apollinare in Classe - Ravenna -.jpg|[[Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe]], Ravenna, unknown architect, 549{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=88}}

The Byzantine Church of Panagia Kapnikarea on March 19, 2020.jpg|[[Church of Panagia Kapnikarea|Kapnikarea]], Athens, unknown architect, 1050{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=90}}
</gallery>
Byzantine architects built city walls, palaces, hippodromes, bridges, [[Aqueduct (bridge)|aqueducts]], and churches. They built many types of churches, including the [[basilica]] (the most widespread type, and the one that reached the greatest development). After the early period, the most common layout was the [[cross-in-square]] with five domes, also found in [[Moscow]], [[Novgorod]] or [[Kiev]], as well as in [[Romania]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Serbia]], [[North Macedonia]] and [[Albania]]. Through modifications and adaptations of local inspiration, the Byzantine style will be used as the main source of inspiration for architectural styles in all [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] countries.<ref>{{cite book|last1=George D. Hurmuziadis|title=Cultura Greciei|date=1979|publisher=Editura științifică și enciclopedică|page=89 & 90|language=ro}}</ref> For example, in Romania, the [[Brâncovenesc style]] is highly based on Byzantine architecture, but also has individual Romanian characteristics.

Just as the [[Parthenon]] is the most famous building of [[Ancient Greek architecture]], [[Hagia Sophia]] remains the iconic church of [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christianity]]. In [[Greek temple|Greek]] and [[Roman temple]]s, the exterior was the most important part of the temple, where sacrifices were made; the interior, where the cult statue of the deity to whom the temple was built was kept, often had limited access by the general public. But Christian liturgies are held in the interior of the churches, Byzantine exteriors usually have little if any ornamentation.<ref>{{cite book|last1=George D. Hurmuziadis|title=Cultura Greciei|date=1979|publisher=Editura științifică și enciclopedică|page=92|language=ro}}</ref>

Byzantine architecture often featured marble columns, [[coffer]]ed ceilings and sumptuous decoration, including the extensive use of [[mosaic]]s with [[gold ground|golden backgrounds]].{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=17}} The building material used by Byzantine architects was no longer marble, which was very appreciated by the Ancient Greeks. They used mostly stone and brick, and also thin [[alabaster]] sheets for windows.<ref>{{cite book|last1=George D. Hurmuziadis|title=Cultura Greciei|date=1979|publisher=Editura științifică și enciclopedică|page=93|language=ro}}</ref> Mosaics were used to cover brick walls, and any other surface where [[fresco]] would not resist. Good examples of mosaics from the proto-Byzantine era are in [[Hagios Demetrios]] in [[Thessaloniki]] (Greece), the [[Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo]] and the [[Basilica of San Vitale]], both in [[Ravenna]] (Italy), and [[Hagia Sophia]] in [[Istanbul]].

====Armenia====
{{main|Armenian architecture}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
Էջմիածնի Մայր Տաճար.jpg|[[Etchmiadzin Cathedral]], [[Vagarshapat]], by [[Gregory the Illuminator]], 301-1868{{sfn|Arakelian|Yeremian|Arevshatian|Bartikian|1984|p=571}}

Երերույքի Տաճար 05.jpg|[[Yererouk]], [[Anipemza]], [[4th century|4th]]-[[5th century|5th centuries]]

Jerevan - Armenië (2892629248).jpg|[[Saint Hripsime Church]], [[Vagarshapat]], by [[Komitas Aghtsetsi]], 618<!-- "հանդիսանում է հայկական ճարտարապետական ամենաբարդ հորինվածքներից մեկը" --><ref name="ejmiatsin.am">{{cite web|script-title=hy:Սուրբ Հռիփսիմե վանք|trans-title=Saint Hripsime Monastery|url=http://ejmiatsin.am/mer-qaxaq/ekexeciner/664--.html|website=ejmiatsin.a m|publisher=Municipality of Ejmiatsin|language=hy|date=2 March 2012|access-date=15 January 2024|archive-date=29 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181129013034/http://ejmiatsin.am/mer-qaxaq/ekexeciner/664--.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

St. Gayane Church.jpg|[[Saint Gayane Church]], [[Vagarshapat]], by Ezra I, 630

Zvartnots img 6965.jpg|[[Zvartnots Cathedral]] ruins, [[Vagarshapat]], [[Nerses III the Builder]], 643-652<ref name="SAE">{{in lang|hy}} Stepanian, A. and H. Sargsian. s.v. "Zvart'nots'," [[Armenian Soviet Encyclopedia]], vol. 3, pp. 707-710.</ref>
</gallery>
From the very beginning of the formation of feudal relations, the architecture and urban planning of Armenia entered a new stage. The ancient Armenian cities experienced economic decline; only Artashat and Tigranakert retained their importance. The importance of the cities of [[Dvin (ancient city)|Dvin]] and Karin (Erzurum) increased. The construction of the city of [[Arshakavan]] by the king of Great Armenia Arshak II was not completely completed. Christianity brought to life a new architecture of religious buildings, which was initially nourished by the traditions of the old, ancient architecture.

Churches of the 4th-5th centuries are mainly basilicas ([[Kasagh Basilica|Kasakh]], 4th-5th centuries, Ashtarak, 5th century, Akhts, 4th century, Yeghvard, 5th century). Some basilicas of Armenian architecture belong to the so-called “Western type” of basilica churches. Of these, the most famous are the churches of [[Tekor Church|Tekor]] (5th century), [[Yererouk]] (4th-5th centuries), [[Dvin (ancient city)|Dvin]] (470), [[Tsitsernavank Monastery|Tsitsernavank]] (IV-5 centuries). The three-nave Yereruyk basilica stands on a 6-step stylobate, presumably built on the site of an earlier pre-Christian temple. The basilicas of Karnut (5th century), Yeghvard (5th century), Garni (4th century), Zovuni (5th century), Tsaghkavank (6th century), Dvina (553–557), Tallinn (5th century) have also been preserved c., Tanaat (491), Jarjaris (4th-5th centuries), Lernakert (4th-5th centuries), etc.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://bibliotekar.ru/Iskuss1/9.htm | title=Искусство Армении. Месроп Маштоц }}</ref>

====Carolingian and Ottonian====
{{Main|Carolingian architecture|Ottonian architecture}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
File:Aachener Dom Pfalzkapelle vom Münsterplatz 2014.jpg|[[Palatine Chapel, Aachen|Charlemagne's palace chapel]], [[Aachen]], Germany, [[Odo of Metz]], 768–814<ref>{{cite book | last = Conant | first = Kenneth J. | title = Carolingian and Romanesque Architecture | edition = 4th | publisher = Yale University Press | location = New Haven, CT (US) | year = 1994 | isbn = 0-3000-5298-7 | orig-year = 1959 | lccn = 78149801 | url=https://archive.org/details/carolingianroman00cona | url-access = registration | page = [https://archive.org/details/carolingianroman00cona/page/47 47] }}</ref>
* the church of [[Germigny-des-Prés]] in 806–811<ref name=Ching>{{cite book|first1=Francis D. K.|last1=Ching|first2=Mark M.|last2=Jarzombek|first3=Vikramaditya|last3=Prakash|title=A Global History of Architecture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=isuTDpkqdk8C|year=2010|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|location=Hoboken, New Jersey (US)|isbn=9781118007396|page=317 |quote=In 806–811, the Armenian architect, Oton Matsaetsi, built the church of Germigny-des-Prés in France.}}</ref>
File:Kloster Lorsch 07.jpg|[[Lorsch Abbey]] gatehouse, [[Lorsch]], unknown architect {{circa|800}}<ref>https://kloster-lorsch.de/klosterlorsch/gebaeude/torhalle/</ref>
File:20190419_Gernrode_StCyriakus_DSC07781_HDRfusion_PtrQs.jpg|[[Saint Cyriakus, Gernrode]] church, [[Gernrode]], unknown architect, c. 959/960-1014<ref>https://www.cyriakushaus-gernrode.de/stiftskirche</ref>
File:Goslar kaiserpfalz.jpg|[[Imperial Palace of Goslar]], [[Goslar]], unknown architect, c.1040-1050<ref>https://www.welterbeimharz.de/en/world-heritage-in-the-harz/historic-town-of-goslar/imperial-palace-goslar</ref>
</gallery>
Carolingian architecture refers to the style of the [[Carolingian Empire]], particularly under [[Charlemagne]] 768–814 and his successors. It is considered a revival of Roman architectural forms, blending the classical heritage of the Roman Empire with new Christian ideals.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.medievalchronicles.com/medieval-architecture/medieval-architecture-history/carolingian-architecture/ | title=Carolingian Architecture | date=23 May 2016 }}</ref>

Churches followed the Roman basilica plan, with a long, rectangular nave, aisles, and an apse. Charlemagne's Palatine Chapel at Aachen is a prime example, with its octagonal shape influenced by early Christian and Byzantine architecture.
Vaulting

Carolingian architects used barrel vaults and groin vaults, inspired by Roman engineering, to create large, stable roofs. The Palatine Chapel in Aachen (792–797) is known for its ribbed vaulting.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Palatine-Chapel-Aachen-Germany | title=Palatine Chapel &#124; Charlemagne's Coronation Site, Germany &#124; Britannica }}</ref>

Columns, arches, and entablatures were borrowed from Roman architecture. Churches were designed to express the divine order, reflecting the Carolingian Empire's Christian imperial ideals.

Ottonian architecture evolved during the reign of the Ottonian dynasty (c. 919–1024 AD). This style was marked by both the continuation of Carolingian forms and the integration of new Byzantine and Romanesque elements.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Western-architecture/Ottonian-period | title=Western architecture - Ottonian, Romanesque, Gothic &#124; Britannica }}</ref>

Ottonian churches often retained a basilica plan but expanded it with double aisles or additional chapels.

The [[westwork]]—a monumental, fortress-like façade—became a characteristic feature of Ottonian churches. The [[Saint Cyriakus, Gernrode|Church of Saint Cyriakus at Gernrode]] features an iconic westwork with towers and a large entrance. The first church towers developed out of westworks.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.academia.edu/116324468 | title=Turris occidentalis. Das Phänomen des Westbaus in der karolingischen Architektur. Teil 1: Die Anfänge unter Karl dem Großen. In: INSITU. Zeitschrift für Architekturgeschichte 16, 2024, S. 5-44. Worms 2024 | work=INSITU. Zeitschrift für Architekturgeschichte | date=January 2024 | last1=Georg | first1=Skalecki }}</ref>

The Ottonians advanced vaulting techniques and used crypts more extensively. [[Magdeburg Cathedral]] (c. 1200) was one of the key buildings of this period, symbolizing imperial power and Christian devotion.

Ottonian architecture was known for its elaborate mosaics, frescoes, and sculptures that incorporated both Byzantine and local traditions. Manuscripts from the period also show the richness of Ottonian visual culture.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/oton/hd_oton.htm | title=Ottonian Art &#124; Essay &#124; the Metropolitan Museum of Art &#124; Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | date=September 2008 }}</ref>

Ottonian rulers built grand palaces, continuing the Carolingian legacy of the Aachen Palace, but with added sophistication. The [[Imperial Palace of Goslar]] and other imperial buildings reinforced the emperor's authority.

The Carolingian and Ottonian styles were precursors of the [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] style.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://archive.org/details/carolingian-and-romanseque-architecture-800-1200 | title=Carolingian and Romanseque Architecture 800-1200, Kenneth John Conant | date=1966 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1523150 | jstor=1523150 | title=The History of Medieval Architecture from Carolingian to Romanesque: Criteria and Definitions from 1925 to the Present Day | last1=Fernie | first1=Eric | journal=Muqarnas | date=1991 | volume=8 | pages=36–39 | doi=10.2307/1523150 | url-access=subscription }}</ref>

====Romanesque====
{{Main|Romanesque architecture}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
Michaelisplatz, St. Michaelis, Innenraum Hildesheim 20171201-013.jpg|[[St. Michael's Church, Hildesheim|St. Michael's Church]], [[Hildesheim]], [[Germany]], unknown architect, 1010-1031{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=136}}

Claustro de Santo Domingo de Silos. Panda sur.jpg|Portico of the [[Abbey of Santo Domingo de Silos]], [[Santo Domingo de Silos]], Spain, unknown architect, begun in 1085<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hooklingsworth|first1=Mary|title=ARTA în Istoria Umanității|date=2002|publisher=rao|isbn=|page=148|url=|language=ro}}</ref>

Conques eglise face ter.jpg|[[Abbey Church of Sainte-Foy]], [[Conques]], France, unknown architect, 1087-1107{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=138}}

Durham Cathedral Nave.jpg|Interior of the [[Durham Cathedral]], [[Durham, England|Durham]], [[UK]], unknown architect, 1093-1133{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=133}}

Glees Germany Maria-Laach-Abbey-01.jpg|[[Maria Laach Abbey]], [[Glees, Germany|Glees]], [[Germany]], unknown architect, 1093-1230{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=24}}

Roermond, de Munsterkerk RM32582 IMG 3036 2019-12-29 09.24.jpg|[[Munsterkerk]], [[Roermond]], The Netherlands, unknown architect, 1220
</gallery>
The term 'Romanesque' is rooted in the 19th century, when it was coined to describe medieval churches built from the 10th to 12th century, before the rise of steeply pointed arches, [[flying buttress]]es and other Gothic elements. This style of architecture emerged nearly simultaneously in multiple countries (France, [[Romanesque architecture in Germany|Germany]], Italy, Spain).<ref>{{cite book |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Art |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-19-860476-1 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780198604761.001.0001 |chapter=Romanesque}}</ref> For 19th-century critics, the Romanesque reflected the architecture of stonemasons who evidently admired the heavy barrel vaults and intricate carved [[capital (architecture)|capitals]] of the ancient Romans, but whose own architecture was considered derivative and degenerate, lacking the sophistication of their classical models.

Scholars in the 21st century are less inclined to understand the architecture of this period as a 'failure' to reproduce the achievements of the past, and are far more likely to recognise its profusion of experimental forms, as a series of creative new inventions. At the time, however, research has questioned the value of Romanesque as a stylistic term. On the surface, it provides a convenient designation for buildings that share a common vocabulary of rounded [[arch]]es and thick stone [[masonry]], and appear in between the [[Carolingian Renaissance#Carolingian architecture|Carolingian revival of classical antiquity]] in the 9th century and the swift evolution of Gothic architecture after the second half of the 12th century. One problem, however, is that the term encompasses a broad array of regional variations, some with closer links to Rome than others. It should also be noted that the distinction between Romanesque architecture and its immediate predecessors and followers is not at all clear. There is little evidence that medieval viewers were concerned with the stylistic distinctions that we observe today, making the slow evolution of medieval architecture difficult to separate into neat chronological categories. Nevertheless, Romanesque remains a useful word despite its limitations, because it reflects a period of intensive building activity that maintained some continuity with the classical past, but freely reinterpreted ancient forms in a new distinctive manner.{{sfn|Jones|2014|pp=148, 149}}

Romanesque cathedrals can be easily differentiated from Gothic and Byzantine ones, since they are characterized by the wide use of thick piers and columns, round arches and severity. Here, the possibilities of the round-arch arcade in both a structural and a spatial sense were once again exploited to the full. Unlike the sharp pointed arch of the later Gothic, the Romanesque round arch required the support of massive piers and columns. In comparison to Byzantine churches, Romanesque ones tend to lack complex ornamentation both on the exterior and interior. An example of this is the [[Périgueux Cathedral]] ([[Périgueux]], France), built in the early 12th century and designed on the model of [[St. Mark's Basilica]] in [[Venice]], but lacking mosaics, leaving its interior very austere and minimalistic.{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|pp=23, 25}}

====Gothic====
{{Main|Gothic architecture}}

<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
Notre-Dame de Paris 2013-07-24.jpg|[[Notre-Dame de Paris|Notre-Dame Cathedral]], Paris, by various architects, begun in 1163{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=149}}

Canterbury Cathedral - Back 01.jpg|[[Canterbury Cathedral]], [[Canterbury]], [[Kent]], [[UK]], by [[William of Sens]], {{circa}}1174–1184{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=149}}

Notre Dame de Chartres.jpg|[[Chartres Cathedral]], [[Chartres]], France, unknown architect, 1194-1250{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=25}}

Sainte Chapelle Interior Stained Glass.jpg|[[Sainte-Chapelle]], Paris, by [[Pierre de Montreuil]], 1243-1248<ref>{{cite book|last1=Melvin|first1=Jeremy|title=…isme Să Înțelegem Stilurile Arhitecturale|date=2006|publisher=Enciclopedia RAO|isbn=973-717-075-X|page=39|url=|language=ro}}</ref>

File:Bevel Koninklijke Marechaussee in handen van Leijtens-9.jpg|[[Ridderzaal]], [[The Hague, South Holland|The Hague]], Netherlands, unknown architect, 1288

Marienkirche am Abend.jpg|[[St. Mary's Church, Lübeck|St. Mary's Church]], 1265–1352, in [[Lübeck]], unknown architect, [[Germany]]

Stralsunder Rathaus mit Schaufassade, dahinter die Nikolaikirche-2630.jpg|Town Hall and [[St. Nicholas' Church, Stralsund|St. Nicholas' church]] in [[Stralsund]], from around 1250 to 1400, unknown architect, [[Germany]]
</gallery>
Gothic architecture began with a series of experiments, which were conducted to fulfil specific requests by patrons and to accommodate the ever-growing number of [[Pilgrimage|pilgrims]] visiting sites that housed precious relics. Pilgrims in the [[high Middle Ages]] (circa 1000 to 1250 AD) increasingly travelled to well-known pilgrimage sites, but also to local sites where local and national saints were reputed to have performed miracles. The churches and monasteries housing important [[relic]]s therefore wanted to heighten the popularity of their respective saints and build appropriate shrines for them. These shrines were not merely gem-encrusted reliquaries, but more importantly took the form of powerful architectural settings characterised by coloured light emitting from the large areas of [[stained glass]]. The use of stained glass, however, is not the only defining element of Gothic architecture and neither are the [[Pointed arch (architecture)|pointed arch]], the ribbed [[Vault (architecture)|vault]], the [[rose window]] or the [[flying buttress]], as many of these elements were used in one way or another in preceding architectural traditions. It was rather the combination and constant refinement of these elements, along with the quick response to the rapidly changing building techniques of the time, that fuelled the Gothic movement in architecture.

Consequently, it is difficult to point to one element or the exact place where Gothic first emerged; however, it is traditional to initiate a discussion of Gothic architecture with the [[Basilica of St Denis]] (circa 1135–1344) and its patrons, [[Abbot Suger]], who began to rebuild the west front and the choir of the church. As he wrote in his ''De Administratione'', the old building could no longer accommodate the large volumes of pilgrims who were coming to venerate the relics of St Denis, and the solution for this twofold: a west [[façade]] with three large [[portal (architecture)|portal]]s and the innovative new [[Choir (architecture)|choir]], which combined an [[ambulatory]] with radiating [[chapel]]s that were unique as they were not separated by walls. Instead a row of slim columns was inserted between the chapels and the choir arcade to support the rib vaults. The result enabled visitors to circulate around the altar and come within reach of the relics without actually disrupting the altar space, while also experiencing the large stained-glass windows within the chapels. As confirmed by [[Suger]], the desire for more stained-glass was not necessarily to bring more daylight into the building but rather to fill the space with a continuous ray of colorful light, rather like mosaics or precious stones, which would make the wall vanish. The demand for ever more stained-glass windows and the search for techniques that would support them are constant throughout the development of Gothic architecture, as is evident in the writings of Suger, who was fascinated by the mystical quality of such lighting.{{sfn|Jones|2014|pp=148, 149}}

[[Brick Gothic]] was a specific style of Gothic architecture common in [[Baltic region|Northeast]] and [[Central Europe]] especially in the regions in and around the [[Baltic Sea]], which do not have resources of standing rock. The buildings are essentially built using [[brick]]s.

===Renaissance===
{{Main|Renaissance architecture}}
{{See also|Henry II style|Henry IV style}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
Florence Duomo (167859687).jpeg|Early Renaissance - [[Florence Cathedral]], [[Florence]], [[Italy]], by [[Arnolfo di Cambio]], [[Filippo Brunelleschi]] and [[Emilio De Fabris]], 1294–1436{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=82}}

Façade de la basilique Saint-André de Mantoue, réalisée par Leon Alberti.jpg|Early Renaissance - [[Basilica of Sant'Andrea, Mantua|Basilica of Sant'Andrea]], [[Mantua]], Italy, by [[Leon Battista Alberti]], begun in 1470{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=55}}

Tempietto del Bramante Vorderseite.jpg|[[High Renaissance]] - [[San Pietro in Montorio#The Tempietto|The Tempietto]], [[San Pietro in Montorio]], Rome, by [[Donato Bramante]], 1502{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=26}}

Giovanni Da Udine - Decoration of the Garden Loggia (detail) - WGA09427.jpg|High Renaissance - [[Villa Madama]], outside Rome, begun by [[Raphael]], 1518-1525{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=60}}

Chateau-Azay-le-Rudeau-1.jpg|[[Northern Renaissance]] - [[Château d'Azay-le-Rideau]], [[Loire]], France, unknown architect, 1518-1527{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=47}}

France Loir-et-Cher Chambord Chateau 03.jpg|Northern Renaissance - [[Château de Chambord]], Loire, France, by [[Domenico da Cortona]], 1519-1547{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=64}}

Palais Farnese.jpg|High Renaissance - [[Palazzo Farnese]], Rome, by [[Antonio da Sangallo the Younger]], 1534-1546{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=61}}

Palazzo Massimo alle Colonne.jpg|[[Mannerism]] - [[Palazzo Massimo alle Colonne]], Rome, by [[Baldassare Peruzzi]], begun 1535{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=205}}

20060416-Michaelskirche Muenchen.jpg|Mannerism - [[St. Michael's Church, Munich|St. Michael's Church]], [[Munich]], Germany, by Wendel Dietrich and [[Friedrich Sustris]], 1583–1597

El Escorial View from the north-west.jpg|Mannerism - [[El Escorial]], outside [[Madrid]], [[Spain]], by [[Juan Bautista de Toledo]] and [[Juan de Herrera]], 1559-1584{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=67}}

Rathaus Augsburg perspective.jpg|[[Mannerism]] - [[Augsburg Town Hall]], [[Augsburg]], by [[Elias Holl]], 1615–1624

File:Delft Stadhuis (2).jpg|Mannerism - [[City Hall (Delft)|City Hall]], [[Delft]], The Netherlands, by [[Hendrick de Keyser]], 1618–1620
</gallery>
During the [[Renaissance]], Italy consisted of many states, and intense rivalry between them generated an increase in technical and artistic developments. The [[House of Medici|Medici Family]], an Italian [[banking family]] and [[political dynasty]], is famous for its financial support of Renaissance art and architecture.

The period began in around 1452, when the architect and humanist [[Leon Battista Alberti]] (1404–1472) completed his treatise ''[[De Re Aedificatoria]]'' (''On the Art of Building'') after studying the ancient ruins of Rome and [[Vitruvius]]'s ''[[De Architectura]]''. His writings covered numerous subjects, including history, town planning, engineering, sacred geometry, [[humanism]] and philosophies of beauty, and set out the key elements of architecture and its ideal proportions. In the last decades of the 15th century, artists and architects began to visit Rome to study the ruins, especially the [[Colosseum]] and the [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]]. They left behind precious records of their studies in the form of drawings. While humanist interest in Rome had been building up over more than a century (dating back at least to [[Francesco Petrarca|Petrarch]] in the 14th century), antiquarian considerations of monuments had focused on literary, epigraphic and historical information rather than on the physical remains. Although some artists and architects, such as [[Filippo Brunelleschi]] (1377–1446), [[Donatello]] (circa 1386–1466) and Leon Battista Alberti, are reported to have made studies of Roman sculpture and ruins, almost no direct evidence of this work survives. By the 1480s, prominent architects, such as [[Francesco di Giorgio]] (1439–1502) and [[Giuliano da Sangallo]] (circa 1445–1516), were making numerous studies of ancient monuments, undertaken in ways that demonstrated that the process of transforming the model into a new design had already begun. In many cases, drawing ruins in their fragmentary state necessitated a leap of imagination, as Francesco himself readily admitted in his annotation to his reconstruction of the [[Capitoline Hill|Campidoglio]], noting 'largely imagined by me, since very little can be understood from the ruins.{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=196}}

Soon, grand buildings were constructed in Florence using the new style, like the [[Pazzi Chapel]] (1441–1478) or the [[Palazzo Pitti]] (1458–1464). The Renaissance begun in Italy, but slowly spread to other parts of Europe, with varying interpretations.{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=26}}

Since Renaissance art is an attempt of reviving Ancient Rome's culture, it uses pretty much the same ornaments as the Ancient Greek and Roman. However, because most if not all resources that Renaissance artists had were [[Ancient Roman architecture|Roman]], Renaissance architecture and applied arts widely use certain motifs and ornaments that are specific to Ancient Rome. The most iconic one is the [[margent]], a vertical arrangement of flowers, leaves or hanging vines, used at [[pilaster]]s. Another ornament associated with the Renaissance is the round [[Medallion (architecture)|medallion]], containing a profile of a person, similar with Ancient [[Cameo (carving)|cameos]]. Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, and other post-medieval styles use [[putto|putti]] (chubby baby angels) much more often compared to Greco-Roman art and architecture. An ornament reintroduced during the Renaissance, that was of Ancient Roman descent, that will also be used in later styles, is the [[cartouche (design)|cartouche]], an [[oval]] or oblong design with a slightly [[wikt:convex|convex]] surface, typically edged with ornamental [[scrollwork]].

==Worldwide==
===Baroque===
{{Main|Baroque architecture}}
{{See also|Louis XIV style|Baroque garden}}

<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
Paris 75004 Temple du Marais (temple Sainte-Marie) 20151213.jpg|[[Temple du Marais]], Paris, by François Mansart, {{c.|1632}}{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=223}}

San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane - Front.jpg|[[San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane]], Rome, by [[Francesco Borromini]], 1638-1677{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=226}}

File:Palacio Real, Ámsterdam, Países Bajos, 2016-05-30, DD 07-09 HDR.jpg|[[Royal Palace of Amsterdam]], [[Amsterdam]], [[The Netherlands]], by [[Jacob van Campen]], 1648–1665

St Peter's Square, Vatican City - April 2007.jpg|[[St. Peter's Square]], Rome, by [[Gian Lorenzo Bernini]], 1656-1667{{sfn|Bailey|2012|pp=211}}

Kasteel van Vaux-le-Vicomte - Maincy 06.jpg|Gardens at [[Vaux-le-Vicomte]], France, by [[André Le Nôtre]], 1657-1661{{sfn|Bailey|2012|pp=328}}

Cour de Marbre du Château de Versailles October 5, 2011.jpg|Marble Court of the [[Palace of Versailles]], [[Versailles]], France, by [[Louis Le Vau]] and [[Jules Hardouin-Mansart]], {{c.|1660}} - 1715{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=102}}

Cathédrale Saint-Louis-des-Invalides, 140309 2.jpg|[[Les Invalides|Dôme des Invalides]], Paris, by [[Jules Hardouin-Mansart]], 1677-1706{{sfn|Bailey|2012|pp=238}}

Palace of Versailles June 2010.jpg|Garden façade of the Palace of Versailles, by Jules Hardouin-Mansart, 1678–1688

Wien Graben Pestsäule Ostseite.jpg|[[Plague Column, Vienna|Plague Column]], Vienna, by [[Matthias Rauchmiller]] and [[Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach]], 1682 and 1694{{sfn|Bailey|2012|p=216}}

Versailles Chapel - July 2006 edit.jpg|[[Chapels of Versailles#Fifth Chapel|Chapel of the Palace of Versailles]], 1696–1710<ref>{{cite book|last1=Martin|first1=Henry|title=Le Style Louis XIV|date=1927|publisher=Flammarion|isbn=|page=39|url=|language=fr}}</ref>

Karlskirche Wien September 2016.jpg|[[Karlskirche]], [[Vienna]], [[Austria]], by [[Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach]], 1715-1737{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=230}}

100130 150006 Dresden Frauenkirche winter blue sky-2.jpg|[[Frauenkirche, Dresden|Frauenkirche]], [[Dresden]], [[Germany]], by [[George Bähr]], 1726–1743

Residenz Wuerzburg Vorderan.jpg|The [[Würzburg Residence]], [[Würzburg]], [[Germany]], by [[Balthasar Neumann]], 1744–1780

</gallery>

The Baroque emerged from the [[Counter Reformation]] as an attempt by the [[Catholic Church]] in Rome to convey its power and to emphasize the magnificence of God. The Baroque and its late variant the [[Rococo]] were the first truly global styles in the arts. Dominating more than two centuries of art and architecture in Europe, Latin America and beyond from circa 1580 to circa 1800. Born in the painting studios of [[Bologna]] and [[Rome]] in the 1580s and 1590s, and in Roman sculptural and architectural ateliers in the second and third decades of the 17th century, the Baroque spread swiftly throughout [[Italian Baroque architecture|Italy]], [[Spanish Baroque architecture|Spain]] and [[Baroque architecture in Portugal|Portugal]], Flanders, [[French Baroque architecture|France]], the Netherlands, England, Scandinavia, and Russia, as well as to central and eastern European centres from [[Munich]] (Germany) to [[Vilnius]] ([[Lithuania]]). The [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]], [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] and [[French colonial empire|French]] empires and the Dutch treading network had a leading role in spreading the two styles into the Americas and colonial Africa and Asia, to places such as [[Lima]], [[Mozambique]], [[Goa]] and the [[Philippines]].{{sfn|Bailey|2012|p=4}} Due to its spread in regions with different architectural traditions, multiple kinds of Baroque appeared based on location, different in some aspects, but similar overall. For example, French Baroque appeared severe and detached by comparison, preempting [[Neoclassical architecture|Neoclassicism]] and the architecture of the [[Age of Enlightenment]].{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=223}} Hybrid Native American/European Baroque architecture first appeared in South America (as opposed to Mexico) in the late 17th century, after the indigenous symbols and styles that characterize this unusual variant of Baroque had been kept alive over the preceding century in other media, a very good example of this being the [[c:Category:Jesuit Church, Arequipa|Jesuit Church]] in [[Arequipa]] (Peru).{{sfn|Bailey|2012|p=364}}

The first Baroque buildings were cathedrals, churches and monasteries, soon joined by civic buildings, mansions, and palaces. Being characterized by dynamism, for the first time walls, façades and interiors curved,{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=29}} a good example being [[San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane]] in Rome. Baroque architects took the basic elements of [[Renaissance architecture]], including domes and colonnades, and made them higher, grander, more decorated, and more dramatic. The interior effects were often achieved with the use of ''[[quadratura]]'', or ''[[trompe-l'œil]]'' painting combined with sculpture: the eye is drawn upward, giving the illusion that one is looking into the heavens. Clusters of sculpted angels and painted figures crowd the ceiling. Light was also used for dramatic effect; it streamed down from cupolas and was reflected from an abundance of gilding. [[Solomonic column]]s were often used, to give an illusion of upwards motion and other decorative elements occupied every available space. In Baroque palaces, grand stairways became a central element.<ref>Ducher (1988), Flammarion, pg. 102</ref> Besides architecture, Baroque painting and sculpture are characterized by dynamism too. This is in contrast with how static and peaceful [[Renaissance art]] is.

Besides the building itself, the space where it was placed had a role too. Both Baroque and Rococo buildings try to seize viewers' attention and to dominate their surroundings, whether on a small scale such as the [[San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane]] in Rome, or on a massive one, like the new facade of the [[Santiago de Compostela Cathedral]], designed to tower over the city. A manifestation of power and authority on the grandest scale, Baroque urban planning and renewal was promoted by the church and the state alike. It was the first era since antiquity to experience mass migration into cities, and urban planners took idealistic measures to regulate them. The most notable early example was [[Domenico Fontana]]'s restructuring of Rome's street plan of [[Pope Sixtus V]]. Architects had experimented with idealized city schemes since the early Renaissance, examples being [[Leon Battista Alberti]] (1404–1472) planning a centralized model city, with streets leading to a central piazza, or [[Filarete]] (Antonio di Pietro Aver(u)lino, {{c.|1400}}-{{c.|1469}}) designing a round city named [[Sforzinda]] (1451–1456) that he based on parts of the human body in the idea that a healthy city should reflect the physiognomy of its inhabitants. However, none of these idealistic cities has ever been built. In fact, few such projects were put into practice in Europe as new cities were prohibitively costly and existing urban areas, with existing churches and palaces, could not be demolished. Only in the Americas, where architects often had a clean space to work with, were such cities possible, as in [[Lima]] (Peru) or [[Buenos Aires]] ([[Argentina]]). The earliest Baroque ideal city is [[Zamość]], built north-east of [[Kraków]] (Poland) by the Italian architect [[Bernardo Morando]] ({{c.|1540}}-1600), being a centralized town focusing on a square with radiating streets. Where entire cities could not be rebuilt, patrons and architects compensated by creating spacious and symmetrical squares, often with avenues and radiating out at perpendicular angles and focusing on a fountain, statue or [[obelisk]]. A good example of this is the [[Place des Vosges]] (formerly Place Royale), commissioned by [[Henry IV of France|Henry IV]] probably after plans by [[Baptiste du Cerceau]] (1545–1590). The most famous Baroque space in the world is [[Gianlorenzo Bernini]]'s [[St. Peter's Square]] in Rome.{{sfn|Bailey|2012|pp=205, 206, 207 & 208}} Similar with ideal urban planning, [[Baroque garden]]s are characterized by straight and readapting avenues, with geometric spaces.

===Rococo===
{{main|Rococo|Rocaille}}
{{See also|Style Louis XV}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
Dresden-Zwinger-Wallpavillion-gp.jpg|[[Zwinger (Dresden)|Zwinger]], [[Dresden]], Germany, by [[Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann]], 1719<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hall|first1=William|title=Stone|date=2019|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-7925-3|page=185|url=|language=en}}</ref>

Porte de l'hôtel de Chenizot.jpg|Door of the {{ill|Hôtel de Chenizot|fr|H%C3%B4tel_de_Chenizot|vertical-align=sup}}, Paris, by {{ill|Pierre Vigné de Vigny|fr|Pierre_Vign%C3%A9_de_Vigny|vertical-align=sup}}, 1719

File:Salon ovale de la princesse in the Hôtel de Soubise (11).jpg|The ceiling of the oval Salon of the Princesse in [[Hôtel de Soubise]], Paris, by [[Germain Boffrand]], 1740{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=241}}

Facade of the Christian VII's Palæ.jpg|[[Amalienborg]], [[Copenhagen]], Denmark, by [[Nicolai Eigtved]], 1750-1754<ref>{{cite book|last1=Watkin|first1=David|title=A History of Western Architecture|date=2022|publisher=Laurence King|isbn=978-1-52942-030-2|page=419|url=|language=en}}</ref>

Palais royal de Queluz - Vue générale.jpg|[[Palace of Queluz]], [[Lisbon]], Portugal, by [[Mateus Vicente de Oliveira]], 1752{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=238}}

Wieskirche, Gemeinde Steingaden Ortsteil Wies.JPG|[[Wieskirche|Pilgrimage Church of Wies]], [[Steingaden]], Germany, by [[Dominikus Zimmermann|Dominikus]] and [[Johann Baptist Zimmermann]], 1754{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=238}}
</gallery>
The name ''Rococo'' derives from the French word ''[[rocaille]]'', which describes shell-covered rock-work, and ''coquille'', meaning seashell. Rococo architecture is fancy and fluid, accentuating asymmetry, with an abundant use of curves, scrolls, gilding and ornaments. The style enjoyed great popularity with the ruling elite of Europe during the first half of the 18th century. It developed in France out of a new fashion in interior decoration, and spread across Europe.{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=30}} Domestic Rococo abandoned Baroque's high moral tone, its weighty allegories and its obsession with legitimacy: in fact, its abstract forms and carefree, pastoral subjects related more to notions of refuge and joy that created a more forgiving atmosphere for polite conversations. Rococo rooms are typically smaller than their Baroque counterparts, reflecting a movement towards domestic intimacy. Even the grander salons used for entertaining were more modest in scale, as social events involved smaller numbers of guests.

Characteristic of the style were Rocaille motifs derived from the shells, icicles and rock-work or grotto decoration. Rocaille arabesques were mostly abstract forms, laid out symmetrically over and around architectural frames. A favourite motif was the scallop shell, whose top scrolls echoed the basic S and C framework scrolls of the [[arabesque]]s and whose sinuous ridges echoed the general curvilinearity of the room decoration. While few Rococo exteriors were built in France, a number of Rococo churches are found in southern Germany.{{sfn|Cole|2002|p=270}} Other widely-user motifs in decorative arts and interior architecture include: [[Acanthus (ornament)|acanthus]] and other leaves, birds, bouquets of flowers, fruits, elements associated with love ([[putto|putti]], quivers with arrows ans arrowed hearts) [[Trophy of arms|trophies of arms]], [[putto|putti]], medallions with faces, many many flowers, and [[Chinoiserie|Far Eastern elements]] ([[pagoda|pagodes]], dragons, monkeys, bizarre flowers, bamboo, and Chinese people).<ref>{{cite book |last1= Graur|first1=Neaga|title=Stiluri în arta decorativă|date=1970|publisher=Cerces|page=193 & 194|language=ro}}</ref> Pastel colours were widely used, like light blue, mint green or pink. Rococo designers also loved mirrors (the more the better), an example being the Hall of Mirrors of the [[Amalienburg]] ([[Munich]], Germany), by [[Johann Baptist Zimmermann]]. Generally, mirrors are also featured above fireplaces.

===Exoticism===
{{Main|Exoticism}} 
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
Chinese House Potsdam-, Germany.jpg|Chinese inspiration/[[Chinoiserie]] - [[Chinese House (Potsdam)|Chinese House]], [[Sanssouci Park]], [[Potsdam]], Germany, by [[Johann Gottfried Büring]], 1755-1764{{sfn|Sund|2019|p=104}}

Stockholm Sweden Royal-Domain-of Drottningholm Drottningholms-Kina-Slott-01.jpg|Chinese inspiration/Chinoiserie - [[Chinese Pavilion at Drottningholm|Chinese Pavilion]], [[Ekerö Municipality|Ekerö]], Sweden, by Carl Fredrik Adelcrantz, 1763–1769<ref name=Fastighet>{{cite web|title=Kina slott, Drottningholm|url=http://www.sfv.se/fastigheter/sverige/stockholms-lan-ab/slott/drottningholm/kina-slott-drottningholm/|website=www.sfv.se|publisher=National Property Board of Sweden|access-date=2 August 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20140806205518/http://www.sfv.se/fastigheter/sverige/stockholms-lan-ab/slott/drottningholm/kina-slott-drottningholm/|archive-date=6 August 2014}}</ref>

MoscheeSchwetzingen Panorama quad-mj.jpg|Islamic inspiration - Garden Mosque of the [[Schwetzingen Palace]], Germany, by [[Nicolas de Pigage]], 1779-1795{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=264}}

Haga Park March 2015 01.jpg|Islamic inspiration - Turkish Tent, [[Hagaparken]], [[Stockholm]], Sweden, by [[Louis Jean Desprez]], 1787{{sfn|Sund|2019|p=151}}

The Royal Pavilion Brighton UK.jpg|Islamic inspiration - [[Royal Pavilion]], [[Brighton]], UK, by [[John Nash (architect)|John Nash]], 1787-1823{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=262}}

Hôtel de Beauharnais.jpg|Egyptian inspiration/[[Egyptian Revival architecture|Egyptian Revival]] - portico of the [[Hôtel Beauharnais]], Paris, L.E.N. Bataille, {{circa}}1804{{sfn|Sund|2019|p=216}}

Egyptian Building, Richmond, VA.jpg|Egyptian inspiration/Egyptian Revival - [[Egyptian Building]], part of the [[Virginia Commonwealth University]], [[Richmond, Virginia]], USA, by Thomas Stewart, 1845{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=130}}

File:Facade, Mayan Theater, Los Angeles.jpg|Pre-Columbian inspiration/[[Mayan Revival architecture|Mayan Revival]] - facade detail of the [[Mayan Theater]], [[Los Angeles]], USA, by [[Stiles O. Clements]], 1927

Paris 10e Cinéma Le Louxor 965.jpg|Egyptian inspiration/mix of Egyptian Revival and Art Deco - {{ill|Le Louxor Cinema|fr|Le%20Louxor|vertical-align=sup}}, Paris, by Henri Zipcy, 1919-1921<ref>{{cite book|last1=Texier|first1=Simon|title=Architectures Art Déco - Paris et Environs - 100 Bâtiments Remarquable|date=2022|publisher=Parigramme|isbn=978-2-37395-136-3|page=37|url=|language=en}}</ref>

450 Sutter St. lobby 1.JPG|Pre-Columbian inspiration/mix of Mayan Revival and Art Deco - Interior detail of [[450 Sutter Street]], [[San Francisco]], California, by [[Timothy L. Pflueger]], 1929
</gallery>
The interactions between East and West brought on by colonialist exploration have had an impact on aesthetics. Because of being something rare and new to Westerners, some non-European styles were really appreciated during the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. Some nobles and kings built little structures inspired by these styles in the gardens of their palaces, or fully decorated a handful of rooms of palaces like this. Because of not fully understanding the origins and principles that govern these exotic aesthetics, Europeans sometimes created hybrids of the style which they tried to replicate and which were the trends at that time. A good example of this is '''chinoiserie''', a Western decorative style, popular during the 18th century, that was heavily inspired by Chinese arts, but also by Rococo at the same time. Because traveling to China or other Far Eastern countries was something hard at that time and so remained mysterious to most Westerners, European imagination were fuelled by perceptions of Asia as a place of wealth and luxury, and consequently patrons from emperors to merchants vied with each other in adorning their living quarters with Asian goods and decorating them in Asian styles. Where Asian objects were hard to obtain, European craftsmen and painters stepped up to fill the demand, creating a blend of Rococo forms and Asian figures, motifs and techniques.

Chinese art was not the only foreign style with which Europeans experimented. Another was the [[Islamic architecture|Islamic]] one. Examples of this include the Garden Mosque of the [[Schwetzingen Palace]] in Germany (the only surviving example of an 18th-century European garden mosque), the [[Royal Pavilion]] in [[Brighton]], or the [[Moorish Revival architecture|Moorish Revival]] buildings from the 19th and early 20th centuries, with horseshoe arches and brick patterns. When it come to the Orient, Europeans also had an interest for the culture of Ancient Egypt. Compared to other cases of exoticism, the one with the land of [[pharaoh]]s is the oldest one, since [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]] and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] had this interest during Antiquity. The main periods when [[Egyptian Revival architecture|Egyptian Revival]] monuments were erected were the early 19th century, with Napoleon's military campaigns in Egypt, and the 1920s, when the [[Tomb of Tutankhamun]] was discovered in 1922, which caused an [[Ancient Egypt in the Western imagination|Egyptomania]] that lead to [[Art Deco]] sometimes using motifs inspired by Ancient Egypt. During the late 18th and early 19th century, [[Neoclassicism]] sometimes mixed Greco-Roman elements with Egyptian ones. Because of its association with [[pharaoh]]s, [[death]] and [[eternity]], multiple Egyptian Revival tombs or cemetery entry gates were built in this style. Besides mortuary structures, other buildings in this style include certain [[synagogue]]s, like the [[Karlsruhe Synagogue]] or some [[Empire style|Empire]] monuments built during the reign of [[Nepoleon]], such as the Egyptian [[portico]] of the [[Hôtel Beauharnais]] or the [[Fontaine du Fellah]]. During the 1920s and 1930s, [[Pre-Columbian era|Pre-Columbian]] [[Mesoamerican architecture]] was of great interest for some American architects, particularly what the [[Maya civilization|Mayans]] built. Several of [[Frank Lloyd Wright]]'s California houses were erected in a Mayan Revival style, while other architects combined Mayan motifs with Art Deco ones.{{sfnm|Hopkins|2014|1p=117, 130, 225|Bailey|2012|2pp=279, 281|Jones|2014|3p=265|Sund|2019|4pp=208, 216, 217, 224, 225}}

===Neoclassicism===
{{main|Neoclassical architecture}}
{{See also|Palladian architecture|Louis XVI style|Adam style|Empire style}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
Stourhead Bridge A.jpg|[[English landscape garden]] at [[Stourhead]], UK, by [[Henry Hoare]], the 1740s<ref>{{cite book|last1=Weston|first1=Richard|title=100 Ideas That Changed Architecture|date=2011|publisher=Laurence King|isbn=978-1-78627-567-7|page=84|url=|language=en}}</ref>

Pantheon 1, Paris May 11, 2013.jpg|[[Panthéon]], Paris, by [[Jacques-Germain Soufflot]] and [[Jean-Baptiste Rondelet]], 1758–1790{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=276}}

West facade of Petit Trianon 002.JPG|[[Petit Trianon]], [[Versailles]], France, by [[Ange-Jacques Gabriel]], 1764{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=273}}

The Petit Trianon (23935245609).jpg|Staircase of the Petit Trianon, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, 1764{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=273}}

Bordeaux Grand Théâtre R03.jpg|Stairway of the [[Grand Théâtre de Bordeaux|Grand Theater of Bordeaux]], [[Bordeaux]], France, by [[Victor Louis]], 1777-1780{{sfn|de Martin|1925|p=17}}

Osterley House, entrance hall.jpg|The Hall, [[Osterley Park]], London, by [[Robert Adam]], 1767{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=274}}

Cabinet dore Marie-Antoinette Versailles.jpg|Cabinet Doré of [[Marie-Antoinette]] in the [[Palace of Versailles]], 1783, by the Rousseau brothers{{sfn|de Martin|1925|p=61}}

File:Villa Welgelegen with Laocoön and His Sons.JPG|[[Villa Welgelegen]], [[Haarlem]], Netherlands, by [[Abraham van der Hart]], 1789

Brandenburger Tor abends.jpg|[[Brandenburg Gate]], in Berlin, Germany, by [[Carl Gotthard Langhans]], 1791

Château de Malmaison, France (48029730202).jpg|[[Empress Joséphine]]'s Bedroom in [[Château de Malmaison]], [[Rueil-Malmaison]], France, by [[Charles Percier]] and [[Pierre-François-Léonard Fontaine]], 1800-1802{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=275}}

File:Parc et Château de Rambouillet (50029592691).jpg|Napoleon's bath of the [[Château de Rambouillet]], [[Rambouillet]], France, painted by Godard and Jean Vasserot, 1806

150214 Neue Wache Berlin.jpg|[[Neue Wache]], Berlin, by [[Karl Friedrich Schinkel]] and [[Salomo Sachs]], 1816<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hall|first1=William|title=Stone|date=2019|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-7925-3|page=159|url=|language=en}}</ref>

File:2021-07-19 Schloßbrücke 03.jpg|[[Cast iron]] railing detail of the [[Schlossbrücke]], Berlin, by Karl Friedrich Schinkel, designed in 1819 and produced in 1824<ref>{{cite book|last1=Steffens|first1=Martin|title=Schinkel|date=2004|publisher=Taschen|isbn=973-7959-11-6|page=37|url=|language=ro}}</ref>

Burns Monument (43281676364).jpg|[[Burns Monument]], [[Edinburgh]], UK, by [[Thomas Hamilton (architect)|Thomas Hamilton]], 1820-1831{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=109}}
</gallery>
Neoclassical architecture focused on [[Ancient Greek architecture|Ancient Greek]] and [[Ancient Roman architecture|Roman]] details, plain, white walls and grandeur of scale. Compared to the previous styles, Baroque and Rococo, Neoclassical exteriors tended to be more minimalist, featuring straight and angular lines, but being still ornamented. The style's clean lines and sense of balance and proportion worked well for grand buildings (such as the [[Panthéon]] in Paris) and for smaller structures alike (such as the [[Petit Trianon]]).

Excavations during the 18th century at [[Pompeii]] and [[Herculaneum]], which had both been buried under volcanic ash during the 79 AD eruption of [[Mount Vesuvius]], inspired a return to order and rationality, largely thanks to the writings of [[Johann Joachim Winckelmann]].{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=31}}<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/critics/winckelmann.htm | title=Winckelmann, Johann Joachim: Neoclassical Art Historian }}</ref> In the mid-18th century, [[ancient history|antiquity]] was upheld as a standard for architecture as never before. Neoclassicism was a fundamental investigation of the very bases of architectural form and meaning. In the 1750s, an alliance between archaeological exploration and architectural theory started, which will continue in the 19th century. [[Marc-Antoine Laugier]] wrote in 1753 that 'Architecture owes all that is perfect to the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]]'.{{sfn|Bergdoll|2000|pp=9, 14}}

{{multiple image|perrow = 2|total_width=350
| image1 = Étienne-Louis Boullée, Cénotaphe de Newton - 02 - Élévation perspective.jpg
| image2 = Étienne-Louis Boullée, Cénotaphe de Newton - 04 - Coupe, représentation de jour avec effet intérieur de nuit.jpg
| footer = The Cenotaph of Newton, {{c.}} 1784 (never built), by [[Étienne-Louis Boullée]]{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=275}}
}}

The style was adopted by progressive circles in other countries such as Sweden and Russia. [[Federal architecture|Federal-style architecture]] is the name for the classicizing architecture built in [[North America]] between c. 1780 and 1830, and particularly from 1785 to 1815. This style shares its name with its era, the [[Federalist Era|Federal Period]]. The term is also used in association with furniture design in the United States of the same time period. The style broadly corresponds to the middle-class classicism of [[Biedermeier]] style in the German-speaking lands, [[Regency style]] in Britain and to the French [[Empire style]]. In Central and Eastern Europe, the style is usually referred to as ''Classicism'' ({{langx|de|Klassizismus}}, {{langx|ru|Классицизм}}), while the newer [[Revivalism (architecture)|Revival styles]] of the 19th century until today are called neoclassical.

[[Étienne-Louis Boullée]] (1728–1799) was a visionary architect of the period. His [[utopia]]n projects, never built, included a monument to [[Isaac Newton]] (1784) in the form of an immense dome, with an [[Oculus (architecture)|oculus]] allowing the light to enter, giving the impression of a sky full of stars. His [[:commons:File:Bibliotheque_nationale_boul.jpg|project for an enlargement of the Royal Library]] (1785) was even more dramatic, with a gigantic arch sheltering the collection of books. While none of his projects were ever built, the images were widely published and inspired architects of the period to look outside the traditional forms.<ref>Prina and Demartini (2006), pg. 250-51</ref>

Similarly with the Renaissance and Baroque periods, during the Neoclassical one urban theories of how a good city should be appeared too. [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] writers of the 18th century decried the problems of Paris at that time, the biggest one being the big number of narrow medieval streets crowded with modest houses. [[Voltaire]] openly criticized the failure of the French Royal administration to initiate public works, improve the quality of life in towns, and stimulate the economy. 'It is time for those who rule the most opulent capital in Europe to make it the most comfortable and the most magnificent of cities. There must be public markets, fountains which actually provide water and regular pavements. The narrow and infected streets must be widened, monuments that cannot be seen must be revealed and new ones built for all to see', Voltaire insisted in a polemical essay on 'The Embellishments of Paris' in 1749. In the same year, [[Étienne La Font de Saint-Yenne]], criticized how [[Louis XIV]]'s great [[Louvre Colonnade|east façade of the Louvre]], was all but hidden from views by a dense quarter of modest houses. Voltaire also said that in order to transform Paris into a city that could rival ancient Rome, it was necessary to demolish more than it was to build. 'Our towns are still what they were, a mass of houses crowded together haphazardly without system, planning or design', [[Marc-Antoine Laugier]] complained in 1753. Writing a decade later, [[Pierre Patte]] promoted an urban reform in quest of health, social order, and security, launching at the same time a medical and organic metaphor which compared the operations of urban design to those of the surgeons. With bad air and lack of fresh water its current state was pathological, Patte asserted, calling for fountains to be placed at principal intersections and markets. Squares are recommended promote the circulation of air, and for the same reason houses on the city's bridges should be demolished. He also criticized the location of hospitals next to markets and protested continued burials in overcrowded city churchyards.{{sfn|Bergdoll|2000|pp=48, 49, 50}} Besides cities, new ideas of how a garden should be appeared in 18th century England, making place for the [[English landscape garden]] (aka ''jardin à l'anglaise''), characterized by an idealized view of nature, and the use of Greco-Roman or Gothic ruins, bridges, and other picturesque architecture, designed to recreate an idyllic pastoral landscape. It was the opposite of the symmetrical and geometrically planned [[Baroque garden]] (aka ''jardin à la française'').

=== Revivalism and Eclecticism ===
{{main|Revivalism (architecture)}}
{{See also|Eclecticism in architecture|Victorian architecture|Napoleon III style#Architecture}}

<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">

File:Moscow July 2011-7a.jpg|[[Russian Revival architecture|Russian Revival]] - [[Cathedral of Christ the Saviour]], [[Moscow]], Russia, 1839–1860, destroyed in 1931 and rebuilt in 1995–2000

All Saints Margaret Street Interior 2, London, UK - Diliff.jpg|[[Gothic Revival Architecture|Gothic Revival]] - Interior of the [[All Saints, Margaret Street|All Saints]], London, by [[William Butterfield]], 1850–1859

Saint Augustin Church Paris.jpg|[[Eclecticism in architecture|Eclectic]] - The [[Saint-Augustin, Paris|Église Saint-Augustin de Paris]], by [[Victor Baltard]], 1860–1868

Chhatrapati_Shivaji_Terminus_%28Victoria_Terminus%29.jpg|[[Indo-Saracenic architecture|Indo-Saracenic]] - The [[Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus]], previously Victoria Terminus, a mixture of [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]], [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] and [[Mughal architecture|Mughal]] elements [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]], by [[Frederick William Stevens]] 1878&ndash;1888

File:Cathedral Saint Alexander Nevsky (23997180108).jpg|[[Byzantine Revival architecture|Byzantine Revival]] - [[Alexander Nevsky Cathedral, Sofia|Alexander Nevsky Cathedral]], [[Sofia]], Bulgaria, by [[Alexander Pomerantsev]], 1882–1912

Belfast City Hall 2.jpg|[[Baroque Revival architecture|Neo-Baroque]] - [[Belfast City Hall]], [[Belfast]], UK, by [[Brumwell Thomas]], 1898–1906

Beaney Institute 002.jpg|[[Tudor Revival architecture]] - The [[Beaney House of Art and Knowledge]], [[Canterbury]], England, by A.H. Campbell, 1899

Immeuble rue La Boétie, rue de Miromesnil, Paris 8e.jpg|[[Rococo Revival]] - Apartment building no. 8 on [[Rue de Miromesnil]], Paris, by P. Lobrot, 1900

Place Beauvau (731).jpg|Louis XVI Revival - Apartment building no. 2 on Rue de Miromesnil, Paris, unknown architect, {{circa}}1900

File:La haye palais paix jardin face.JPG|[[Renaissance Revival architecture|Renaissance Revival]] - [[Peace Palace]], [[The Hague]], Netherlands, by [[Louis Marie Cordonnier]], 1907

56, Bulevardul Dacia, Bucharest (Romania).jpg|[[Romanian Revival architecture|Romanian Revival]] - The C.N. Câmpeanu House on Bulevardul Dacia, [[Bucharest]], Romania, {{c.|1923}}, by Constantin Nănescu<ref>{{cite book|last1=Woinaroski|first1=Cristina|title=Istorie urbană, Lotizarea și Parcul Ioanid din București în context european|date=2013|publisher=SIMETRIA|isbn=978-973-1872-30-8|page=|url=|language=ro}}</ref>

Ankara asv2021-10 img23 Ziraat Bank Museum.jpg|[[First national architectural movement|First national movement]] - [[Ziraat Bank|Ziraat Bank Museum]], [[Ankara]], Turkey, 1929, by [[Giulio Mongeri]]

12 Strada Armenească, Bucharest (03).jpg|[[Mediterranean Revival architecture|Mediterranean Revival]] - General Mandiros Ciomac and Simion Ciomac Building (Strada Armenească no. 12), Bucharest, by Ion Giurgea, 1938<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ghigeanu|first1=Mădălin|title=Curentul Mediteraneean în arhitectura interbelică|date=2022|publisher=Vremea|isbn=978-606-081-135-0|page=521|url=|language=}}</ref>
</gallery>
The 19th century was dominated by a wide variety of stylistic revivals, variations, and interpretations. <!--Ruskin, etc.-->[[Revivalism (architecture)|Revivalism]] in [[architecture]] is the use of visual styles that consciously echo the style of a [[Architectural style|previous architectural era]]. Modern-day Revival styles can be summarized within [[New Classical architecture]], and sometimes under the umbrella term traditional architecture.

The idea that architecture might represent the glory of kingdoms can be traced to the dawn of civilisation, but the notion that architecture can bear the stamp of national character is a modern idea, that appeared in the 18th century historical thinking and given political currency in the wake of the [[French Revolution]]. As the map of Europe was repeatedly changing, architecture was used to grant the aura of a glorious past to even the most recent nations. In addition to the credo of universal Classicism, two new, and often contradictory, attitudes on historical styles existed in the early 19th century. Pluralism promoted the simultaneous use of the expanded range of style, while Revivalism held that a single historical model was appropriate for modern architecture. Associations between styles and building types appeared, for example: [[Egyptian Revival architecture|Egyptian]] for prisons, [[Gothic Revival architecture|Gothic]] for churches, or [[Renaissance Revival architecture|Renaissance Revival]] for banks and exchanges. These choices were the result of other associations: the [[pharaoh]]s with [[death]] and [[eternity]], the [[Middle Ages]] with [[Christianity]], or the [[House of Medici|Medici family]] with the rise of banking and modern commerce.

[[File:View of Devonpart, near Plymouth, by John Foulston, 1820s, including an 'Egyptian' library, a 'Hindoo' nonconformist chapel, a 'primitive Doric' town hall, and a street of houses with a Roman Corinthian order.jpg|thumb|300px|View of [[Devonport, Plymouth|Devonpart]], near [[Plymouth]] (UK), by [[John Foulston]], 1820s, including an '[[Egyptian Revival architecture|Egyptian]]' library, a 'Hindoo' nonconformist chapel, a 'primitive [[Doric order|Doric]]' town hall, and a street of houses with a [[Ancient Roman architecture|Roman]] [[Corinthian order]]]]
Whether their choice was [[Neoclassical architecture|Classical]], medieval, or [[Renaissance Revival architecture|Renaissance]], all revivalists shared the strategy of advocating a particular style based on national history, one of the great enterprises of historians in the early 19th century. Only one historic period was claimed to be the only one capable of providing models grounded in national traditions, institutions, or values. Issues of style became matters of state.{{sfn|Bergdoll|2000|pp=139, 140, 141}}

The most well-known Revivalist style is the [[Gothic Revival architecture|Gothic Revival]] one, that appeared in the mid-18th century in the houses of a number of wealthy antiquarians in England, a notable example being the [[Strawberry Hill House]]. German [[Romanticism|Romantic]] writers and architects were the first to promote Gothic as a powerful expression of national character, and in turn use it as a symbol of national identity in territories still divided. [[Johann Gottfried Herder]] posed the question 'Why should we always imitate foreigners, as if we were Greeks or Romans?'.{{sfn|Bergdoll|2000|pp=139–142, 145}}

In art and architecture history, the term [[Orientalism]] refers to the works of the Western artists who specialized in Oriental subjects, produced from their travels in [[Western Asia]], during the 19th century. In that time, artists and scholars were described as Orientalists, especially in France.

In India, during the [[British Raj]], a new style, [[Indo-Saracenic architecture|Indo-Saracenic]], (also known as '''Indo-Gothic''', '''Mughal-Gothic''', '''Neo-Mughal''', or '''Hindoo style''') was getting developed, which incorporated varying degrees of Indian elements into the Western European style. The [[Churches and convents of Goa]] are another example of the blending of traditional Indian styles with western European architectural styles. Most Indo-Saracenic public buildings were constructed between 1858 and 1947, with the peaking at 1880.<ref>Jayewardene-Pillai, 6, 14</ref> The style has been described as "part of a 19th-century movement to project themselves as the natural successors of the Mughals".<ref>Das, xi</ref> They were often built for modern functions such as transport stations, government offices, and law courts. It is much more evident in British power centres in the subcontinent like [[Mumbai]], [[Chennai]], and [[Kolkata]].<ref>Das, xi, xiv, 98, 101</ref>

===Beaux-Arts===
{{Main|Beaux-Arts architecture}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">

Paris Palais Garnier 2010-04-06 16.55.07.jpg|Exterior of the [[Palais Garnier]], Paris, by [[Charles Garnier (architect)|Charles Garnier]], 1860–1875{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=296}}

Opera Garnier Grand Escalier.jpg|Grand stairs of the Palais Garnier, by [[Charles Garnier (architect)|Charles Garnier]], 1860–1875{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=296}}

Palacio CEC, Bucarest, Rumanía, 2016-05-29, DD 91-93 HDR.jpg|The [[CEC Palace]] on [[Calea Victoriei|Victory Avenue]], [[Bucharest]], Romania, by [[Paul Gottereau]], 1897-1900<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marinache|first1=Oana|title=Paul Gottereau - Un Regal în Arhitectură|date=2017|publisher=Editura Istoria Artei|isbn=978-606-8839-09-7|page=184|url=|language=ro}}</ref>

The Cantacuzino Palace from Bucharest (Romania).jpg|[[Cantacuzino Palace]], Bucharest, by [[Ion D. Berindey]], 1898-1906<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mariana Celac, Octavian Carabela and Marius Marcu-Lapadat|title=Bucharest Architecture - an annotated guide|date=2017|publisher=Ordinul Arhitecților din România|isbn=978-973-0-23884-6|page=90|url=|language=en}}</ref>

Petit-Palais-Paris-02-2018.jpg|[[Petit Palais]], Paris, by [[Charles Giraud]], 1900{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=294}}

Building at the intersection of Calea Victoriei with Strada Franklin, Bucharest, circa 1900, by Leonida Negrescu.jpg|Anker Building, Bucharest,  by [[Leonida Negrescu]], {{circa}}1900<ref>{{cite book|last1=Oltean|first1=Radu|title=Bucureștii Belle Époque|date=2016|publisher=Art Historia|isbn=978-973-0-22923-3|page=47|url=|language=ro}}</ref>

Image-Grand central Station Outside Night 2.jpg|[[Grand Central Terminal]],  New York City,  by [[Reed and Stem]] and [[Warren and Wetmore]], 1903{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=135}}

29 avenue Bugeaud Paris.jpg|Hôtel Roxoroid de Belfort, Paris, 1911, by [[André Arfvidson]]

Della Faillelaan 23, Antwerpen.jpg|Villa, [[Antwerp]], Belgium, by [[Michel de Braey]], 1913<ref>{{cite web|url=https://inventaris.onroerenderfgoed.be/erfgoedobjecten/6694|title=Villa in neorégencestijl|website=inventaris.onroerenderfgoed.be|date=29 March 2019 |access-date=8 April 2022}}</ref>
</gallery>
The Beaux-Arts style takes its name from the [[École des Beaux-Arts]] in Paris, where it developed and where many of the main exponents of the style studied. Due to the fact that international students studied here, there are buildings from the second half of the 19th century and the early 20th century of this type all over the world, designed by architects like [[Charles Girault]], [[Thomas Hastings (architect)|Thomas Hastings]], [[Ion D. Berindey]] or [[Petre Antonescu]]. Today, from [[Bucharest]] to [[Buenos Aires]] and from [[San Francisco]] to [[Brussels]], the Beaux-Arts style survives in opera houses, civic structures, university campuses commemorative monuments, luxury hotels and townhouses. The style was heavily influenced by the [[Palais Garnier|Paris Opéra House]] (1860–1875), designed by [[Charles Garnier (architect)|Charles Garnier]], the masterpiece of the 19th century [[Haussmann's renovation of Paris|renovation of Paris]], dominating its entire neighbourhood and continuing to astonish visitors with its majestic staircase and reception halls. The Opéra was an aesthetic and societal turning point in French architecture. Here, Garnier showed what he called a ''style actuel'', which was influenced by the spirit of the time, aka [[Zeitgeist]], and reflected the designer's personal taste.

Beaux-Arts façades were usually imbricated, or layered with overlapping classical elements or sculpture. Often façades consisted of a high rusticated basement level, after it a few floors high level, usually decorated with pilasters or columns, and at the top an attic level and/or the roof. Beaux-Arts architects were often commissioned to design monumental civic buildings symbolic of the self-confidence of the town or city. The style aimed for a [[Baroque architecture|Baroque]] opulence through lavishly decorated monumental structures that evoked [[Louis XIV]]'s [[Versailles]]. However, it was not just a revival of the Baroque, being more of a synthesis of Classicist styles, like [[Renaissance architecture|Renaissance]], Baroque, [[Rococo]], [[Neoclassical architecture|Neoclassicism]] etc.{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=292, 295, 296}}{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=132, 133, 134, 135}}{{sfn|Bailey|2012|pp=413}}

===Industry and new technologies===
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
Les Halles, Paris, by Victor Baltard, 1852-1855.jpg|[[Les Halles]], Paris, by [[Victor Baltard]], 1852-1855{{sfn|Bergdoll|2000|pp=248}}

Crystal.Palace.Paxton.Plan.jpg|Plan and elevation for [[the Crystal Palace]], London, by [[Joseph Paxton]], 1854{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=267}}

File:De Binnen Amstel gezien naar het in 1866 gedempte Amstelgrachtje, thans Maarten Jansz Kosterstraat, en het Paleis voor Volksvlijt op het Frederiksplein.jpg|[[Paleis voor Volksvlijt]], [[Amsterdam]], Netherlands, by [[Cornelis Outshoorn]], 1859–1964

Le Bon Marché, 001.jpg|[[Le Bon Marché]], Paris, by [[Louis-Charles Boileau]] in collaboration with the engineering firm of [[Gustave Eiffel]], 1872{{sfn|Bergdoll|2000|pp=236}}

Bradbury Atrium.jpg|Interior of the [[Bradbury Building]], with its exposed staircases and free-standing hydraulic elevators, [[Los Angeles]], USA, by [[George Wyman|George Herbert Wyman]], 1889-1893<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gössel|first1=Peter|last2=Leuthäuser|first2=Gabriele|title=Architecture in the 20th Century|date=2022|publisher=TASCHEN|isbn=978-3-8365-7090-9|page=54|url=|language=en}}</ref>

Warenhaus Tietz Leipziger Str. 1900.jpg|Tietz Department Store, with its huge shop windows running through all the floors, Berlin, Germany, by [[Bernhard Sehring]] and L.Lachmann, 1899-1900<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gössel|first1=Peter|last2=Leuthäuser|first2=Gabriele|title=Architecture in the 20th Century|date=2022|publisher=TASCHEN|isbn=978-3-8365-7090-9|page=78|url=|language=en}}</ref>
</gallery>
Because of the [[Industrial Revolution]] and the new technologies it brought, new types of buildings appeared. By 1850 iron was quite present in daily life at every scale, from mass-produced decorative architectural details and objects of apartment buildings and commercial buildings to train sheds. A well-known 19th century glass and iron building is [[the Crystal Palace]] from [[Hyde Park, London|Hyde Park]] (London), built in 1851 to house the [[Great Exhibition]], having an appearance similar to a greenhouse. Its scale was daunting.

The marketplace pioneered novel uses of iron and glass to create an architecture of display and consumption that made the temporary display of the world fairs a permanent feature of modern urban life. Just after a year after the Crystal Palace was dismantaled, [[Aristide Boucicaut]] opened what historians of mass consumption have labelled the first [[department store]], [[Le Bon Marché]] in Paris. As the store expanded, its exterior took on the form of a public monument, being highly decorated with French [[Renaissance Revival architecture|Renaissance Revival]] motifs. The entrances advanced subtly onto the pavemenet, hoping to captivate the attention of potential customers. Between 1872 and 1874, the interior was remodelled by [[Louis-Charles Boileau]], in collaboration with the young engineering firm of [[Gustave Eiffel]]. In place of the open courtyard required to permit more daylight into the interior, the new building focused around three skylight atria.{{sfn|Bergdoll|2000|pp=207, 237, 238}}

===Art Nouveau===
{{main|Art Nouveau#Architecture and ornamentation}}
{{See also|Art Nouveau religious buildings}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="160px">
Tassel House stairway.JPG|[[Hôtel Tassel]], [[Brussels]], Belgium, by [[Victor Horta]], 1894{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=321}}

File:Castel Béranger, February 16, 2013.jpg|Entrance of the [[Castel Béranger]], Paris, by [[Hector Guimard]], 1895–1898<ref>{{cite book|last1=Madsen|first1=S. Tschudi|title=Art Nouveau|date=1977|publisher=Editura Meridiane|isbn=|page=|url=|language=ro}}</ref>

Wien, Friedrichstraße 12, Secession-20160621-011.jpg|[[Secession Building]], [[Vienna]], Austria, by [[Joseph Maria Olbrich]], 1897{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=323}}

FMarbeuf.jpg|[[La Fermette Marbeuf]], Paris, by [[Émile Hurtré]], 1898<ref>{{cite magazine|author      = <!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|title       = Paris et l'Art Nouveau|url         =|magazine    = Nº281 Dossier de l'Art|location    =|publisher   = Éditions Faton|date        = 2020|access-date =|language    = fr}}</ref>

La colonie dartistes jugendstil (Mathildenhöhe, Darmstadt) (7882268852).jpg|Ernst Ludwig House in [[Mathildenhöhe|Darmstadt Artists' Colony]], [[Darmstadt]], [[Jugendstil|Germany]], by [[Joseph Maria Olbrich]] (1900)

Paris Metro 2 Porte Dauphine Libellule.JPG|The [[Porte Dauphine (Paris Métro)|Porte Dauphine Métro Station]], Paris, by [[Hector Guimard]], 1900{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=141}}

Maison Huot de style art nouveau (Nancy) (7966479700).jpg|[[:commons:Category:Maison Huot (Nancy)|Maison Huot]], [[Nancy, France|Nancy]], France, by [[Émile André]], 1903{{sfn|Duncan|1994|p=44}}

File:Casa Batllo Overview Barcelona Spain cut.jpg|[[Casa Batlló]], [[Barcelona]], Spain, by [[Antoni Gaudí]], 1904–1906{{sfn|Duncan|1994|p=52}}
</gallery>
Popular in many countries from the early 1890s until the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Art Nouveau was an influential although relatively brief art and design movement and philosophy. Despite being a short-lived fashion, it paved the way for the [[modern architecture]] of the 20th century. Between {{c.}} 1870 and 1900, a crisis of historicism occurred, during which the historicist culture was critiqued, one of the voices being [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] in 1874, who diagnosed 'a malignant historical fervour' as one of the crippling symptoms of a modern culture burdened by archaeological study and faith in the laws of historical progression.

Focusing on natural forms, asymmetry, sinuous lines and whiplash curves, architects and designers aimed to escape the excessively ornamental styles and historical replications, popular during the 19th century. However, the style was not completely new, since Art Nouveau artists drew on a huge range of influences, particularly [[Beaux-Arts architecture]], the [[Arts and Crafts movement]], [[aestheticism]] and [[Japanese art|Japanese]] art. Buildings used materials associated in the 19th century with modernity, such as cast-iron and glass. A good example of this is the Paris Metro entrance at [[Porte Dauphine (Paris Métro)|Porte Dauphine]] by [[Hector Guimard]] (1900). Its cast-iron and glass canopy is as much sculpture as it is architecture. In Paris, Art Nouveau was even called Le Style Métro by some. The interest for stylized organic forms of ornamentation originated in the mid 19th century, when it was promoted in ''[[The Grammar of Ornament]]'' (1854), a pattern book by British architect [[Owen Jones (architect)]] (1809–1874).

[[Whiplash (decorative art)|Whiplash]] curves and sinuous organic lines are its most familiar hallmarks, however the style can not be summarized only to them, since its forms are much more varied and complex. The movement displayed many national interpretations. Depending on where it manifested, it was inspired by [[Celtic art]], [[Gothic Revival architecture|Gothic Revival]], [[Rococo Revival]], and [[Baroque Revival architecture|Baroque Revival]]. In Hungary, Romania and Poland, for example, Art Nouveau incorporated folkloric elements. This is true especially in Romania, because it facilitated the appearance of the [[Romanian Revival architecture|Romanian Revival]] style, which draws inspiration from [[Brâncovenesc architecture]] and traditional peasant houses and objects. The style also had different names, depending on countries. In Britain it was known as ''Modern Style'', in the Netherlands as ''Nieuwe Kunst'', in Germany and Austria as ''Jugendstil'', in Italy as ''[[Liberty style]]'', in Romania as ''Arta 1900'', and in Japan as ''Shiro-Uma''. It would be wrong to credit any particular place as the only one where the movement appeared, since it seems to have arisen in multiple locations.{{sfn|Bergdoll|2000|pp=269, 279}}{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=320, 321, 322}}{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=36}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Madsen|first1=S. Tschudi|title=Art Nouveau|date=1977|publisher=Editura Meridiane|pages=7|language=ro}}</ref>

===Modern===
{{Main|Modern architecture}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
Berlin AEG Turbinenfabrik.jpg|[[AEG turbine factory]], Berlin, Germany, by [[Peter Behrens]], 1909

Casa Steiner - Foto Fachada Trasera.jpg|Steiner House, [[Vienna]], Austria, by [[Adolf Loos]], 1910<ref>{{cite book|last1=Virginia McLeod, Belle Place, Sarah Kramer, Milena Harrison-Gray, and Cristopher Lacy|title=HOUSES - Extraordinary Living|date=2019|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-7809-6|page=56|url=|language=}}</ref>

Fagus Gropius Hauptgebaeude 200705 wiki front.jpg|[[Fagus Factory]], [[Alfeld]], Germany, by [[Walter Gropius]], 1911{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=347}}

VT16_PD_zahrada.jpg|[[Villa Tugendhat]], [[Brno]], Czech Republic, by [[Ludwig Mies van der Rohe]] and [[Lilly Reich]], 1930{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=348}}
</gallery>

Rejecting ornament and embracing minimalism and modern materials, Modernist architecture appeared across the world in the early 20th century. [[Art Nouveau]] paved the way for it, promoting the idea of non-historicist styles. It developed initially in Europe, focusing on functionalism and the avoidance of decoration. Modernism reached its peak during the 1930s and 1940s with the [[Bauhaus]] and the [[International Style (architecture)|International Style]], both characterised by asymmetry, flat roofs, large ribbon windows, metal, glass, white rendering and open-plan interiors.{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=37}}

====Art Deco====
{{main|Art Deco|Streamline Moderne}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
The boudoir of fashion designer Jeanne Lanvin, now in the Museum of Decorative Arts in Paris.png|The boudoir of fashion designer [[Jeanne Lanvin]] (now in the [[Musée des Arts décoratifs, Paris|Museum of Decorative Arts]], Paris), by [[Armand-Albert Rateau]], 1920-1922<ref>{{cite book|last1=Criticos|first1=Mihaela|title=Art Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat - Art Deco or Well-Tempered Modernism|date=2009|publisher=SIMETRIA|isbn=978-973-1872-03-2|page=43|url=|language=Romanian, English}}</ref>

Edgar brandt, porte da ascensore in ferro, vetro e bronzo, francia 1926 01.jpg|Elevator doors, now in the [[Calouste Gulbenkian Museum]], [[Lisbon]], Portugal, by [[Edgar Brandt]], 1926

La samaritaine as seen from the Pont Neuf.jpg|[[La Samaritaine]], Paris, by [[Henri Sauvage]], 1926–1928<ref>{{Cite book|title=Frantz Jourdain and the Samaritaine : art nouveau theory and criticism|last=L.|first=Clausen, Meredith|date=1987|publisher=E.J Brill|isbn=9789004078796|location=Leiden|oclc=27266259}}</ref>

28 Bulevardul Lascăr Catargiu, Bucharest (01).jpg|Door of [[Bulevardul Lascăr Catargiu]] no. 28, [[Bucharest]], Romania, unknown architect, {{circa}}1930

Chrysler Building spire, Manhattan, by Carol Highsmith (LOC highsm.04444).png|[[Chrysler Building]], New York City, by [[William Van Allen]], 1930{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=359}}

Biarritz - Musée de la mer (edited).jpg|[[Biarritz Aquarium|Musée de la Mer]], [[Biarritz]], France, by [[Joseph Hiriart]], 1933{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=360}}
</gallery>
Art Deco, named retrospectively after an exhibition held in Paris in 1925, originated in France as a luxurious, highly decorated style. It then spread quickly throughout the world - most dramatically in the United States - becoming more [[Streamline Moderne|streamlined]] and modernistic through the 1930s. The style was pervasive and popular, finding its way into the design of everything from jewellery to film sets, from the interiors of ordinary homes to cinemas, luxury streamliners and hotels. Its exuberance and fantasy captured the spirit of the 'roaring 20s' and provided an escape from the realities of the [[Great Depression]] during the 1930s.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Dempsey|first1=Amy|title=Modern Art|date=2018|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-29322-5|page=70|url=|language=en}}</ref>

Although it ended with the start of World War II, its appeal has endured. Despite that it is an example of modern architecture, elements of the style drew on [[Ancient Egyptian architecture|ancient Egyptian]], [[Ancient Greek architecture|Greek]], [[Ancient Roman architecture|Roman]], [[African architecture|African]], [[Aztecs|Aztec]] and [[Japanese architecture|Japanese]] influences, but also on [[Futurism]], [[Cubism]] and the [[Bauhaus]]. Bold colours were often applied on low-reliefs. Predominant materials include [[chrome plating]], [[brass]], polished [[steel]] and [[aluminium]], inlaid wood, stone and stained glass.

====International Style====
{{Main|International Style (architecture)}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
The Barcelona Pavilion, Barcelona, 2010.jpg|[[Barcelona Pavilion]], [[Barcelona]], Spain, by [[Ludwig Mies van der Rohe]], 1929{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=164}}

VillaSavoye.jpg|[[Villa Savoye]], [[Poissy]], France, by [[Le Corbusier]], 1929-1930{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=134}}

Lever House 390 Park Avenue.jpg|[[Lever House]], New York City, by [[Skidmore, Owings & Merrill]], 1952{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=416}}

NewYorkSeagram 04.30.2008.JPG|[[Seagram Building]], New York City, by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, 1958{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=418}}
</gallery>
The International Style emerged in Europe after World War I, influenced by recent movements, including [[De Stijl]] and [[Streamline Moderne]], and had a close relationship to the [[Bauhaus]]. The antithesis of nearly every other architectural movement that preceded it, the International Style eliminated extraneous ornament and used modern industrial materials such as steel, glass, reinforced concrete and [[chrome plating]]. Rectilinear, flat-roofed, asymmetrical and white, it became a symbol of modernity across the world. It seemed to offer a crisp, clean, rational future after the horrors of war. Named by the architect [[Philip Johnson]] and historian [[Henry-Russell Hitchcock]] (1903–1987) in 1932, the movement was epitomized by [[Charles-Edouard Jeanneret]], or [[Le Corbusier]] and was clearly expressed in his statement that 'a house is a machine for living in'.{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=42}}

====Brutalist====
{{Main|Brutalist architecture}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">

File:2009-0522-MN-SJU-abbeychurch.jpg|[[Saint John's Abbey, Collegeville|Saint John's Abbey]], [[Collegeville Township, Stearns County, Minnesota|Collegeville]], US, by [[Marcel Breuer]], 1961<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hopkins|first1=Owen|title=The Brutalists: Brutalism's Best Architects|date=2023|publisher=[[Phaidon Press|Phaidon]]|isbn=9781838665630|page=345|url=|language=en}}</ref>

File:KZ-Jasenovac-Denkmal-Seitenansicht.JPG|[[Stone Flower (sculpture)|Flower Monument]], Jasenovac Memorial Site, [[Jasenovac]], [[Sisak-Moslavina]], [[Croatia]], by [[Bogdan Bogdanović (architect)|Bogdan Bogdanović]], 1965<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hopkins|first1=Owen|title=The Brutalists: Brutalism's Best Architects|date=2023|publisher=[[Phaidon Press|Phaidon]]|isbn=9781838665630|page=347|url=|language=en}}</ref>

File:Banco de Guatemala desde Palacio Municipal.jpg|Bank of Guatemala, [[Guatemala City]], [[Guatemala]], by [[Raúl Minondo Herrera]] and [[Jorge Montes Córdova]], 1966<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hopkins|first1=Owen|title=The Brutalists: Brutalism's Best Architects|date=2023|publisher=[[Phaidon Press|Phaidon]]|isbn=9781838665630|page=213|url=|language=en}}</ref>

File:Panorama vecinal.jpg|[[Banco de Londres y América del Sur Headquarters|Bank of London and South America Headquarters]], [[Buenos Aires]], [[Argentina]], by [[Clorindo Testa]], 1966<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hopkins|first1=Owen|title=The Brutalists: Brutalism's Best Architects|date=2023|publisher=[[Phaidon Press|Phaidon]]|isbn=9781838665630|page=348|url=|language=en}}</ref>

Montreal - QC - Habitat67 2.jpg|[[Habitat 67]], [[Montreal]], Canada, by [[Moshe Safdie]], 1966–1967{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=146}}
Geisel Library 3 2013-08-08.jpg|[[Geisel Library]], [[San Diego]], [[California]], US, by [[William Pereira]], 1970{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=426}}
Robarts Library-2.jpg|[[Robarts Library]], [[Toronto]], Canada, by Mathers & Halden Architects, 1973{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=425}}
Seattle Freeway Park 24.jpg|[[Freeway Park]] Fountain, [[Seattle]], [[Washington (state)|Washington]], US, by [[Lawrence Halprin]], 1976{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=428}}
</gallery>
Supposedly based on social equality, Brutalism was inspired by [[Le Corbusier]]'s 1947-1952 [[Unité d'habitation]] in [[Marseille]]. It seems the term was originally coined by Swedish architect [[Hans Asplund]] (1921–1994), but Le Corbusier's use of the description ''béton brut'', meaning raw concrete, for his choice of material for the Unité d'habitation was particularly influential. The style flourished from the 1950s to the mid-1970s, mainly using concrete, which although new in itself, was unconventional when exposed on facades. Before Brutalism, concrete was usually hidden beneath other materials.{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=46}}

===Postmodern===
{{Main|Postmodern architecture}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
File:PiazzaDItalia1990.jpg|[[Piazza d'Italia (New Orleans)|Piazza d'Italia]], [[New Orleans]], USA, by [[Charles Moore (architect)|Charles Moore]], 1978{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=47}}
File:Stuttgart - Neue Staatsgalerie (35736927202).jpg|[[Neue Staatsgalerie]], [[Stuttgart]], Germany, by [[James Stirling (architect)|James Stirling]], 1984<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hall|first1=William|title=Stone|date=2019|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-7925-3|page=79|url=|language=en}}</ref>
File:Sony Building by David Shankbone crop.jpg|[[550 Madison Avenue|AT&T Headquarters]], New York City, by [[Philip Johnson]] and [[John Burgee]], 1984{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=502}}
File:The Walt Disney Company office.jpg|[[Team Disney]] Building, [[Los Angeles]], USA, by [[Michael Graves]], 1990{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=510}}

Pumping station, Stewart Street (geograph 4678320).jpg|[[Isle of Dogs Pumping Station]], London, [[John Outram]], 1988<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gura|first1=Judith|title=Postmodern Design Complete|date=2017|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-51914-1|page=121|url=|language=en}}</ref>

File:Cambridge University Judge Business School interior.jpg|Multicolour interior of the [[Cambridge Judge Business School]], [[Cambridge]], UK, by [[John Outram]], 1995<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gura|first1=Judith|title=Postmodern Design Complete|date=2017|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-51914-1|page=120|url=|language=en}}</ref>

A House For Essex - geograph.org.uk - 4471511.jpg|House for Essex, [[Wrabness]], [[Essex]], UK, by FAT and [[Grayson Perry]], 2014<ref>{{cite book|last1=Watkin|first1=David|title=A History of Western Architecture|date=2022|publisher=Laurence King|isbn=978-1-52942-030-2|page=722|url=|language=en}}</ref>
</gallery>
Not one definable style, Postmodernism is an eclectic mix of approaches that appeared in the late 20th century in reaction against Modernism, which was increasingly perceived as monotonous and conservative. As with many movements, a complete antithesis to Modernism developed. In 1966, the architect [[Robert Venturi]] (1925–2018) had published his book, ''Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture'', which praised the originality and creativity of [[Mannerist architecture|Mannerist]] and [[Baroque architecture]] of Rome, and encouraged more ambiguity and complexity in contemporary design. Complaining about the austerity and tedium of so many smooth steel and glass Modernist buildings, and in deliberate denunciation of the famous Modernist 'Less is more', Venturi stated 'Less is a bore'. His theories became a majore influence on the development of Postmodernism.{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=47}}

====Deconstructivist====
{{Main|Deconstructivism}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
Wexner Center for the Arts by Peter Eisenman.jpg|[[Wexner Center for the Arts]], [[Ohio State University]], [[Columbus, Ohio]], US, by [[Peter Eisenman]], 1989{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=531}}

Vitra Campus - Hadid Fire Station - full view, blue sky.jpg|[[:commons:Category:Vitra fire station|Vitra Fire Station]], [[Weil am Rhein]], Germany, by [[Zaha Hadid]], 1989–1993{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=154}}

Jewish Museum Berlin - panoramio (3).jpg|[[Jewish Museum Berlin|Jewish Museum]], Berlin, Germany, by [[Daniel Libeskind]], 1992–1999{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=205}}

Bilbao - Guggenheim aurore.jpg|[[Guggenheim Museum Bilbao|Guggenheim Museum]], [[Bilbao]], Spain, by [[Frank Gehry]], opened in 1997{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=206}}

5307 Wolfsburg.JPG|[[Phaeno Science Center]], [[Wolfsburg]], Germany, by Zaha Hadid, 2005<ref>{{cite book|last1=Melvin|first1=Jeremy|title=…isme Să Înțelegem Stilurile Arhitecturale|date=2006|publisher=Enciclopedia RAO|isbn=973-717-075-X|page=137|url=|language=ro}}</ref>
</gallery>
Deconstructivism in architecture is a development of [[postmodern architecture]] that began in the late 1980s. It is characterized by ideas of fragmentation, [[Nonlinear (arts)|non-linear]] processes of design, an interest in manipulating ideas of a structure's surface or skin, and apparent [[non-Euclidean geometry]],<ref>Husserl, ''Origins of Geometry'', Introduction by Jacques Derrida</ref> (i.e., non-[[rectilinear polygon|rectilinear]] shapes) which serve to distort and dislocate some of the [[Design elements|elements of architecture]], such as structure and [[building envelope|envelope]]. The finished visual appearance of buildings that exhibit the many deconstructivist "styles" is characterised by a stimulating unpredictability and a controlled chaos.

Important events in the history of the Deconstructivist movement include the 1982 [[Parc de la Villette]] [[architectural design competition]] (especially the entry from the French philosopher [[Jacques Derrida]] and the American architect [[Peter Eisenman]]<ref>Jacques Derrida and Peter Eisenman, ''Chora L Works'' (New York: Monacelli Press, 1997)</ref> and [[Bernard Tschumi]]'s winning entry), the [[Museum of Modern Art]]'s 1988 ''Deconstructivist Architecture'' exhibition in New York, organized by [[Philip Johnson]] and [[Mark Wigley]], and the 1989 opening of the [[Wexner Center for the Arts]] in [[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], designed by Peter Eisenman. The New York exhibition featured works by [[Frank Gehry]], [[Daniel Libeskind]], [[Rem Koolhaas]], [[Peter Eisenman]], [[Zaha Hadid]], [[Coop Himmelblau]], and [[Bernard Tschumi]]. Since the exhibition, many of the architects who were associated with Deconstructivism have distanced themselves from the term. Nonetheless, the term has stuck and has now, in fact, come to embrace a general trend within contemporary architecture.

=== Contemporary architecture ===
{{Excerpt|Contemporary architecture|only=|paragraphs=1|files=0}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Architecture}}
*[[History of architectural engineering]]
*[[Outline of architecture]]
*[[Timeline of architecture]]
*[[Timeline of architectural styles]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|24em}}

==References==
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{cite book|first=P. K.|last=Acharya|year=1927|title=Indian Architecture according to the Manasara Shilpa Shastra|url=https://archive.org/stream/encyclopaediaofh07achauoft#page/n9/mode/2up |publisher=Oxford University Press (Republished by Motilal Banarsidass)|location=London|isbn=0300062176}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Arakelian|editor1-first=Babken N.|editor2-last=Yeremian|editor2-first=Suren T.|editor3-last=Arevshatian|editor3-first=Sen S.|editor4-last=Bartikian|editor4-first=Hrach M.|editor5-last=Danielian|editor5-first=Eduard L.|editor6-last=Ter-Ghevondian|editor6-first=Aram N.|editor1-link=Babken Arakelyan|editor2-link=Suren Yeremian|editor3-link=Sen Arevshatyan|editor4-link=Hrach Bartikyan|editor6-link=Aram Ter-Ghevondyan |script-title=hy:Հայ ժողովրդի պատմություն հատոր II. Հայաստանը վաղ ֆեոդալիզմի ժամանակաշրջանում |trans-title=History of the Armenian People Volume II: Armenia in the Early Age of Feudalism |url=http://serials.flib.sci.am/openreader/Hay%20joxovrdi%20patmutyun_%20h.2/book/Binder1.pdf|date=1984|publisher=Armenian SSR Academy of Sciences Publishing|location=Yerevan|language=hy|access-date=5 July 2014|archive-date=14 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714163125/http://serials.flib.sci.am/openreader/Hay%20joxovrdi%20patmutyun_%20h.2/book/Binder1.pdf|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|last1=Bailey|first1=Gauvin Alexander|title=Baroque & Rococo|date=2012|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-5742-8|language=en}}
* {{cite book |last1=Benton |first1=Janetta Rebold |last2=DiYanni |first2=Robert |title=Arts and Culture: An Introduction to the Humanities |volume=1 |publisher=Prentice Hall |location=New Jersey |year=1998}}
* {{cite book |last=Bergdoll |first=Barry |title=European Architecture 1750-1890 |year=2000 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-284222-0 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last=Bourbon |first=F |title=Lost Civilizations |publisher=Barnes & Noble, Inc |location=New York |year=1998}}
* {{cite book |last=Braun |first=Hugh |title=An Introduction to English Mediaeval Architecture |location=London |publisher=Faber and Faber |year=1951}}
* {{cite book |last1=Ching |first1=Francis |last2=Jarzombek |first2=Mark |author-link2=Mark Jarzombek |first3=Vikram |last3=Prakash |title=A Global History of Architecture |publisher=Wiley |year=2006}}
* {{cite book |last1=Cole |first1=Emily |title=Architectural Details |date=2002 |publisher=Ivy Press |isbn=978-1-78240-169-8 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Copplestone |editor-first=Trewin |year=1963 |title=World architecture – An illustrated history |publisher=Hamlyn |location=London}}
* {{cite book |last=de Martin |first=Henry |title=Le Style Louis XV |year=1925 |publisher=Flammarion |language=fr}}
* {{cite book |last=de Lumley |first=Henry |author-link=Henry de Lumley |title=La Grande Histoire des premiers hommes européens |language=fr |trans-title=The Great History of the First European Men |date=2007 |publisher=Editions Odile Jacob |isbn=978-2738119186}}
* {{cite book|last=Duncan|first=Alastair|title=Art déco|url=https://archive.org/details/artdeco00dunc|url-access=registration|publisher=Thames & Hudson|year=1988|isbn=2-87811-003-X}}
* {{cite book|last1=Duncan|first1=Alastair|title=Art Nouveau|date=1994|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-20273-9|language=en}}
* {{cite book|last=Duncan |first=Alastair |title=Art Deco Complete: The Definitive Guide to the Decorative Arts of the 1920s and 1930s |publisher=Abrams |year= 2009 |isbn=978-0-8109-8046-4 }}
* {{cite book |last=Dyson |first=Tim |title=A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ |year=2018 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-882905-8|author-link=Tim Dyson}}
* {{cite book |last=Fortenberry |first=Diane |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YsxDswEACAAJ |title=The Art Museum |date=2017 |publisher=Phaidon Press |isbn=978-0-7148-7502-6 |edition=Revised |location=London |access-date=2021-04-23 |archive-date=2021-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423220204/https://books.google.com/books?id=YsxDswEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Hitchcock |first=Henry-Russell |author-link=Henry-Russell Hitchcock |title=The Pelican History of Art: Architecture : Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries |publisher=Penguin Books |year=1958}}
* {{cite book |last1=Hodge |first1=Susie |title=The Short Story of Architecture |date=2019 |publisher=Laurence King Publishing |isbn=978-1-7862-7370-3 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last1=Hopkins|first1=Owen|title=Architectural Styles: A Visual Guide|date=2014|publisher=Laurence King|isbn=978-178067-163-5 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last1=Irving |first1=Mark |title=1001 Buildings You Must See Before You Die |date=2019 |publisher=Cassell Illustrated |isbn=978-1-78840-176-0 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last=Jarzombek|first=Mark|author-link=Mark Jarzombek |title=Architecture of First Societies: a Global History |publisher=Wiley Press |year=2013}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Jones |editor-first1=Denna |title=Architecture The Whole Story |date=2014 |publisher=Thames & Hudson |isbn=978-0-500-29148-1 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last=McIntosh|first=Jane|title=The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives|year=2008 |publisher=[[ABC-Clio]]|isbn=978-1-57607-907-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC|author-link=Jane McIntosh}}
* {{cite book |last=Nuttgens |first=Patrick |year=1983 |title=The Story of Architecture |publisher=Prentice Hall}}
* {{cite book |last1=Renault |first1=Christophe |last2=Lazé |first2=Christophe |title=les Styles de l'architecture et du mobliier |publisher=Editions Jean-Paul Gisserot |year=2006 |language=fr |isbn=978-2-87747-465-8}}
* {{cite book|last1=Rogers |first1=Richard |last2=Gumuchdjian |first2=Philip |last3=Jones |first3=Denna |title=Architecture The Whole Story |date=2014 |publisher=Thames & Hudson |isbn=978-0-500-29148-1 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last=Shukla |first=D. N. |year=1993 |title=Vastu-Sastra: Hindu Science of Architecture |publisher=Munshiram Manoharial Publishers |isbn=978-81-215-0611-3}}
* {{cite journal | last=Sinha | first=Amita | title=Design of Settlements in the Vaastu Shastras | journal=Journal of Cultural Geography | publisher=Taylor & Francis | volume=17 | issue=2 | year=1998 | doi=10.1080/08873639809478319 | pages=27–41}}
* {{cite book|last1=Sund|first1=July|title=Exotic: A Fetish for the Foreign|date=2019|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-7637-5 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last=Texier |first=Simon |title=Paris: Panorama de l'architecture |year=2012 |publisher=Parigramme |isbn=978-2-84096-667-8 |language=fr}}
* {{cite book |last=Watkin |first=David |date=September 2005 |title=A History of Western Architecture |publisher=Hali Publications}}
* {{cite book |last=Wright |first=Rita P. |author-link=Rita P. Wright |title=The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy, and Society |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gAgFPQAACAAJ |access-date=29 September 2013 |year=2009 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press & Assessment|Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-57219-4}}
{{refend}}

;Modernism
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{cite book |last=Banham |first=Reyner |date=1 Dec 1980 |title=Theory and Design in the First Machine Age |publisher=Architectural Press}}
* {{cite book | last = Curl | first = James Stevens | title = A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture | year = 2006 | url =https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofarch00curl_0 | url-access = registration | type = Paperback | edition=  Second | publisher = Oxford University Press | id = ISBN | page = [https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofarch00curl_0/page/880 880] | isbn = 978-0-19-280630-7 }}
* {{cite book |last=Curtis |first=William J. R. |year=1987 |title=Modern Architecture Since 1900 |publisher=Phaidon Press}}
* {{cite book |last=Frampton |first=Kenneth |year=1992 |title=Modern Architecture, a critical history |publisher=Thames & Hudson |edition=Third}}
* {{cite book |last=Jencks |first=Charles |year=1993 |title=Modern Movements in Architecture |publisher=Penguin Books Ltd |edition=second}}
* {{cite book |last=Pevsner |first=Nikolaus |date=28 Mar 1991 |title=Pioneers of Modern Design: From William Morris to Walter Gropius |publisher=Penguin Books Ltd}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
* ''Sir Banister Fletcher's a History of Architecture'' [[Banister Fletcher|Fletcher, Banister]]; Cruickshank, Dan, Architectural Press, 20th edition, 1996. {{ISBN|0-7506-2267-9}}

==External links==
<!--======================== {{No more links}} ============================
    | PLEASE BE CAUTIOUS IN ADDING MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. Wikipedia  |
    | is not a collection of links nor should it be used for advertising. |
    |                                                                     |
    |           Excessive or inappropriate links WILL BE DELETED.         |
    | See [[Wikipedia:External links]] & [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details.  |
    |                                                                     |
    | If there are already plentiful links, please propose additions or   |
    | replacements on this article's discussion page, or submit your link |
    | to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org)   |
    | and link back to that category using the {{dmoz}} template.         |
    ======================= {{No more links}} =============================-->
{{Commons category}}
*[http://www.sah.org/ The Society of Architectural Historians web site ]
*[http://www.sahgb.org.uk/ The Society of Architectural Historians of Great Britain web site ]
*[http://www.sahanz.net/ The Society of Architectural Historians, Australia and New Zealand web site ]
*[http://www.eahn.org/ European Architectural History Network web site] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181212043430/http://www.eahn.org/ |date=2018-12-12 }}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110310024053/http://www.essentialhumanities.net/s_art_arch_time.php Western Architecture Timeline ]
*[http://monoskop.org/Architecture Extensive collection of source documents in the history, theory and criticism of 20th-century architecture]

{{Archhistory}}
{{Architecture of the world}}
{{Modern architecture}}
{{Prehistoric technology}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Architectural history| ]]
[[Category:Architectural design]]
[[Category:Art history by medium|Architecture]]