View source for History of Tunisia

{{Short description|none}}
{{very long|date=August 2023|words=20,000}}
{{History of Tunisia}}
[[Image:Coat of arms of Tunisia.svg|thumb|upright=.8|The Coat of Arms of the Republic of Tunisia]]

The present day [[Republic of Tunisia]], ''al-Jumhuriyyah at-Tunisiyyah'', is situated in Northern Africa. Geographically situated between [[Libya]] to the east, [[Algeria]] to the west and the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the north. [[Tunis]] is the capital and the largest city (population over 800,000); it is near the ancient site of the city of [[Carthage]].

Throughout its recorded history, the physical features and environment of the land of Tunisia have remained fairly constant, although during ancient times more abundant forests grew in the north,<ref>{{Cite book| edition = 3rd| pages = 71–143| editor = Harold D. Nelson| last1 = LaVerle Berry| last2 = Robert Rinehart| title = Tunisia: a country study| chapter = The Society and Its Environment| location = Washington, D.C.| access-date = 2025-08-25| date = 1986| url = https://archive.org/details/tunisiacountryst0000haro}}</ref> and earlier in prehistory the [[Sahara pump theory|Sahara to the south was not an arid desert]].{{Efn|Prior to 6000 years ago, evidently the vast Sahara region to the south was better watered, resembling a savanna and able to support herds; then a gradual desiccation process set in, leaving the parched desert it is today.<ref>{{Cite book| edition = 3rd| editor = Harold D. Nelson| last = Robert Rinehart| title = Tunisia: a country study| chapter = Historical setting| location = Washington, D.C.| access-date = 2025-08-25| date = 1986| url = https://archive.org/details/tunisiacountryst0000haro}}</ref>}}<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Columbia University Press| last = Gautier| first = Emile Félix| others = Dorothy Ford Mayhew (trans.)| title = Sahara: The Great Desert| location = New York| date = 1935 |pages=56–61 |oclc=600086}}</ref>

The weather is temperate in the north, which enjoys a [[Mediterranean climate]] with mild rainy winters and hot dry summers, the terrain being wooded and fertile. The [[Medjerda]] river valley (Wadi Majardah, northeast of Tunis) is currently valuable farmland. Along the eastern coast the central plains enjoy a moderate climate with less rainfall but significant precipitation in the form of heavy dews; these coastlands are currently used for orchards and grazing. Near the mountainous Algerian border rises ''[[Jebel ech Chambi]]'', the highest point in the country at 1544 meters. In the near south, a belt of [[Tunisian salt lakes|salt lakes]] running east–west cuts across the country. Further south lies the [[Sahara]] desert, including the sand dunes of the ''[[Grand Erg Oriental]]''.{{Sfn|J. Perkins|1986|pp=1–5}}{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|pp=1–6}}<ref name="CIA World Fact Book Tunisia">{{cite web |title=Tunisia |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/tunisia/ |website=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |language=en |date=20 August 2025}}</ref>

==Early history==
{{Main|History of early Tunisia}}

===First peoples===
[[Image:Ksar Ouled Soltane 01.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Ksar Ouled Soltane]]{{Efn|Ksar Ouled Soltane was filmed for an episode of [[Star Wars]].}} near the city of [[Tataouine]] in southern Tunisia|alt=]]

Stone age tools dating from the [[Middle Stone Age]] (around 200,000 years ago) found near [[Kelibia]] are the earliest evidence of human activity in the region.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781741790016|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781741790016/page/26 26]|title=Tunisia|author1=Donna Wheeler |author2=Paul Clammer |author3=Emilie Filou |publisher=Lonely Planet|date=2010|isbn=9781741790016}}</ref> Finds have been made of stone blades, tools, and small figurines of the [[Capsian culture]] (named after [[Gafsa]] in Tunisia), which lasted from around 10,000 to 6,000 BC (the [[Mesolithic]] period).<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Pimlico| isbn = 978-0-7126-6608-4| last = Bagnall| first = Nigel| title = The Punic Wars: Rome, Carthage and the Struggle for the Mediterranean| date = 1999}}</ref>{{Efn|The Capsian culture was preceded by the Ibero-Maurusian.<ref name="desanges2000">{{Cite book| edition = Abridged| publisher = Currey [u.a.]| isbn = 978-0-85255-092-2| editor1 = Unesco International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of Africa|editor2= Mohamed Gamal el-Din Mokhtar| last = J. Desanges| title = Ancient civilizations of Africa| chapter = The proto-Berbers| location = London| series = General history of Africa| date = 1990 |url=https://www.maktaba.org/download/file/111/General_history_of_africa_-_volume_2_-_ancient_civilizations_of_africa_Gamal_mokhtar_editor.pdf |chapter-url=https://www.maktaba.org/download/file/111/General_history_of_africa_-_volume_2_-_ancient_civilizations_of_africa_Gamal_mokhtar_editor.pdf#page=255}}</ref>{{Reference page|pages=236–238}}}} Seasonal migration routes evidence their ancient journeys. [[Saharan rock art]], consisting of inscriptions and paintings that show design patterns as well as figures of animals and of humans, are attributed to the Berbers and also to Native [[Demographics of Africa|African]]s from the south. Dating these outdoor art works has proven difficult and unsatisfactory.<ref name="Briggs1960">{{Cite book| publisher = Harvard University Press| isbn = 978-0-674-90870-3| last = Briggs| first = Lloyd Cabot| title = Tribes of the Sahara| date = 1960}}</ref>{{Reference page|pages=38–40}}<ref>{{Cite book| edition = Abridged| publisher = Currey [u.a.]| isbn = 978-0-85255-092-2| editor1 = Unesco International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of Africa |editor2= Mohamed Gamal el-Din Mokhtar| last = P. Salama| title = Ancient civilizations of Africa| chapter = The Sahara in classical antiquity| location = London| series = General history of Africa| date = 1990| url=https://www.maktaba.org/download/file/111/General_history_of_africa_-_volume_2_-_ancient_civilizations_of_africa_Gamal_mokhtar_editor.pdf| chapter-url=https://www.maktaba.org/download/file/111/General_history_of_africa_-_volume_2_-_ancient_civilizations_of_africa_Gamal_mokhtar_editor.pdf#page=303 |pages=286–295}}</ref>{{rp|page=291}} Egyptian influence is thought very unlikely. Among the animals depicted, alone or in staged scenes, are large-horned buffalo (the extinct ''[[bubalus]] antiquus''), elephants, donkeys, colts, rams, herds of cattle, a lion and lioness with three cubs, leopards or cheetahs, hogs, jackals, rhinoceroses, giraffes, hippopotamus, a hunting dog, and various antelope. Human hunters may wear animal masks and carry their weapons. Herders are shown with elaborate head ornamentation; a few other human figures are shown dancing, while others are driving chariots or riding camels.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Penguin Books| last = Macburney| first = C. B. M.| title = The stone Age of Northern Africa| location = Harmondsworth [Middlessex]| series = Pelican Book| date = 1960 |pages=258–266 |oclc=434016076}}</ref>

By five thousand years ago, a [[Neolithic|Neolithic culture]] was evolving among the sedentary proto-Berbers of [[the Maghrib]] in northwest Africa, characterized by the practice of agriculture and animal domestication, as well as the making of pottery and finely chipped stone arrowheads.<ref name="Briggs1960" />{{Reference page|pages=38–40}} They planted wheat, barley, beans and chick peas in their fields, and used ceramic bowls and basins, goblets, plates, and large cooking dishes daily. These were stored by hanging on the walls of their domiciles. Archaeological evidence shows these proto-Berbers were already "farmers with a strong pastoral element in their economy and fairly elaborate cemeteries," well over a thousand years before the [[Phoenicians]] arrived to found [[Carthage]].<ref name=BrettFentress1997>{{cite book| publisher = Blackwell| isbn = 978-0-631-16852-2| last1 = Brett| first1 = Michael| last2 = Fentress| first2 = Elizabeth| title = The Berbers: Michael Brett and Elizabeth Fentress.| location = Oxford, UK, Cambridge, USA| date = 1996 |oclc=782244287| url=https://archive.org/details/michael-brett-elizabeth-fentress-the-berbers}}</ref>{{rp|16}} Individual wealth was measured among the nomadic herders of the south by the number of sheep, goats, and cattle a man possessed. Finds of scraps of cloth woven in stripes of different colors indicate that these groups wove fabrics.<ref name="desanges2000" />{{Reference page|pages=241–243}}
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[Image:Imedghasen.jpg|thumb|300px|right|''Medracen'', 19 meters. [[Numidian]], c. 3rd century BC<ref name=BrettFentress1997/>{{rp|127,129}}<ref>Cf. Mohammed Chafik, "Elements lexicaux Berberes pouvant apporter un eclairage dans la recherche des origines prehistoriques des pyramides" in ''Revue Tifinagh'' ##11–12: 89–98 (1997).</ref>]] -->

The [[Berber mythology|religion of the ancient Berbers]] is undocumented and only funerary rites can be reconstructed from archaeological evidence. Burial sites provide an early indication of religious beliefs; almost sixty thousand tombs are located in the [[Fezzan]] alone, according to the Italian scholar Giacomo Caputo.<ref name=BrettFentress1997/>{{rp|23}} A more recent tomb, the ''Medracen'' in eastern Algeria, still stands. Built for a Berber king and traditionally assigned to [[Masinissa]] (r. 202–149 BC), it may have belonged instead to his father [[Gala (king)|Gala (or Gaia)]]. The architecture of the elegant tower tomb of his contemporary [[Syphax]] shows Greek or [[Carthage|Punic]] influence.{{Efn|Tomb of Syphax is at Siga near Oran.<ref name="BrettFentress1997" />{{rp| pages=27–31}}}} Most other information about Berber religious beliefs comes from later, classical times. The Libyans believed that divine power showed itself in the natural world, and could, for example, inhabit bodies of water or reside in stones, which were objects of worship. Procreative power was symbolized by the bull, the lion, and the ram. Among the proto-Berbers in the area that is now Tunisia, images of fish, often found in mosaics excavated there, were phallic symbols that fended off the evil eye, while sea shells signified the female sex.<ref name="desanges2000" />{{Reference page|page=243}} [[Herodotus]] mentions that Libyans of the [[Nasamones|Nasamone]] tribe slept on the graves of their ancestors in order to induce dreams for divination.<ref name="herodotus4">{{Cite book| publisher = The Loeb classical library| volume = 2| last = Herodotus| translator1 = A. D. Godley| translator2= G. C. Macaulay| title = Herodotus' Histories| access-date = 2025-08-26| url = http://archive.org/details/herodotus-histories-loeb |date=1964}}</ref>{{rp|page=377}} Libyans sacrificed to the sun and to the moon (Ayyur).<ref name="herodotus4" />{{rp|page=391}} Eventually supernatural entities became [[Berber pantheon|personalized as gods]], perhaps influenced by Egyptian or Punic practice; yet the Berbers seemed to be "drawn more to the sacred than to the gods."<ref name="desanges2000" />{{Reference page|page=245|pages=243–245}} Often only a little more than the names of the Berber deities are known, e.g., ''Bonchar'', a leading god.{{Efn|There is a third century A.D. relief from ancient Vaga (now [[Béja]], Tunisia), with Latin inscription, which shows seven Berber gods (the ''Dii Mauri'' or Mauran gods) seated on a bench: Bonchar in the center with a staff (master of the pantheon), to his right sits the goddess Vihina with an infant at her feet (childbirth?), to her right is Macurgum holding a scroll and a serpent entwined staff (health?), to Bonchar's left is Varsissima (without attributes), and to her left is Matilam evidently presiding over the sacrifice of a boar; at. the ends are Macurtan holding a bucket and Iunam (moon?).<ref name="Soren Ben Abed-Ben 1987">{{Cite book| publisher = American museum of natural history W. W. Norton| isbn = 978-0-913424-11-7| last1 = Ben Abed-Ben Khader| first1 = Aïcha| last2 = Soren| first2 = David| title = Carthage: a mosaic of ancient Tunisia| location = New York| date = 1987}}</ref>{{rp|pages=139–140}}}} Eventually, Berbero-Libyans came to adopt elements from [[ancient Egyptian religion]]. Herodotus writes of the divine oracle sourced in the Egyptian god [[Amun|Ammon]] located among the Libyans, at the oasis of [[Siwa Oasis|Siwa]].{{Efn|The Libyan oracle was sister to the divine oracle of [[Dodona]] in Greece<ref name="herodotus2">{{Cite book| publisher = The Loeb classical library| volume = 1| last = Herodotus| translator1 = A. D. Godley| translator2= G. C. Macaulay| title = Herodotus' Histories| access-date = 2025-08-26| url = https://archive.org/details/herodotus-histories-loeb/Herodotus_Histories_Loeb/page/n293/mode/2up |date=1964}}</ref>{{rp|pages=343–345}}}} Later, Berber beliefs influenced the [[Punic religion]] of [[Carthage]], the city-state founded by the Phoenicians.<ref name="Soren Ben Abed-Ben 1987" />{{rp|pages=26–27, 243–244}}<ref>{{Cite book| edition = 1st Syracuse University Press| publisher = Syracuse University Press| isbn = 978-0-8156-0522-5| last = Baldick| first = Julian| title = Black God: The Afroasiatic Roots of the Jewish, Christian, and Muslim Religions| location = Syracuse, NY| date = 1998}}</ref>

{{Hiero|[[Meshwesh]] (''mšwš.w'')|<hiero>G20-SA-A-wA-A-SA-A-T14-A1:Z2</hiero>|align=left|era=egypt}}

[[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] hieroglyphs from the early dynasties also testify to [[Libyans]], the Berbers of the "western desert".{{Efn|The [[Palermo Stone]] (named for the ''Museo Archeologico Regionale'' in [[Palermo]], where much of it is kept), also called the ''Libyan Stone'', contains a list of the earliest pharaohs up to the [[Fifth dynasty of Egypt]] (2487–2348) as well as about fifty prior rulers. Some consider these fifty earlier rulers to be Libyan Berbers, from whom the pharaohs derived. Helene F. Hagan, [http://www.tazzla.org/berber.html "Book Review"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081209031130/http://www.tazzla.org/berber.html |date=2008-12-09 }} of Brett and Fentress, ''The Berbers'' (1996), at paragraph "a".}} First mentioned as the [[Tehenou]] during the pre-dynastic reigns of [[Scorpion II]] (c. 3050) and of [[Narmer]] (on an ivory cylinder), their appearance is later disclosed in a bas relief of the Fifth Dynasty temple of [[Sahure]]. [[Ramses II]] (r. 1279–1213) placed Libyan contingents in his army.<ref name="desanges2000" />{{Reference page|pages=238–240}} Tombs of the 13th century BC show paintings of ''Libu'' leaders wearing fine robes, with ostrich feathers in their "dreadlocks", short pointed beards, and tattoos on their shoulders and arms.<ref name=BrettFentress1997/>{{rp|22–23}} Evidently, [[Osorkon the Elder]] (Akheperre setepenamun), a [[List of Berbers|Berber]] of the [[Meshwesh]] tribe, became the first Libyan pharaoh. Several decades later, his nephew [[Shoshenq I]] (r. 945–924) became [[Pharaoh]] of Egypt, and the founder of its [[Twenty-second dynasty of Egypt|Twenty-second Dynasty]] (945–715).<ref name="Hornung1999">{{Cite book| publisher = Cornell University Press| isbn = 978-0-8014-8475-9| last = Hornung| first = Erik| title = History of ancient Egypt: an introduction| location = Ithaca, N.Y| date = 1999| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O-PjwZsOeIAC&pg=PA129}}</ref>{{rp|page=xv|pages=52–54; xvii-xviii; 128–133}}{{Efn|In 818 the ruling ''Bubastid'' house split, both of its Berber Meshwesh branches continuing to rule, one later called the 23rd Dynasty.<ref name="Hornung1999" />{{rp|page=131}}}}{{efn|Almost two millennia later a [[Fatimid]] Berber army would again occupy Egypt from the west, and establish a dynasty there.}} In 926 [[Shoshenq I]] (thought to be [[Shishak#Shishak identified as Pharaoh Shoshenq I|Shishak of the Bible]]) successfully campaigned to Jerusalem then ruled by [[Rehoboam|Solomon's heir]].<ref>2 ''Chronicles'' 12:2–9.</ref><ref>Hornung, Erik (1999) [https://books.google.com/books?id=O-PjwZsOeIAC&pg=PA129 History of Ancient Egypt: An Introduction] Ithaca: Cornell University Press. page 129. {{ISBN|9780801484759}}.</ref> For several centuries Egypt was governed by a decentralized system based on the Libyan tribal organization of the [[Meshwesh]]. Becoming acculturated, Libyans also served as high priests at [[Ancient Egyptian religion|Egyptian religious centers]].<ref name="Hornung1999" />{{rp|page=129,131}} Hence during the classical era of the Mediterranean, all of the Berber peoples of Northwest Africa were often known collectively as [[Libyans]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Welch|first=Galbraith|year=1949|title=''North African Prelude''|publisher=Wm. Morrow|pages=39}}</ref>{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|pp=7}}<ref>Cf., Herodotus (c.484–c.425), ''The Histories'' IV, 167–201 (Penguin 1954, 1972) pp. 328–337; the [[Garamantes]] of the Libyan desert (the [[Fezzan]]) pp. 329, 332.</ref>

Farther west, foreigners knew some Berbers as [[Gaetulia]]ns (who lived in remote areas), and those Berbers more familiar as the [[Numidians]], and as the Mauri or Maurisi (later the [[Moors]]).<ref>{{cite book|last=Strabo (c. 63–A.D. 24)|title=Geographica|pages=XVIII, 3, ii}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Basset|first=René|author-link=René Basset|year=1901|title=Moorish Literature|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924027722085|publisher=Collier|pages=iii}}</ref>{{efn|Yet these names (''Mauri'' from which ''Moor'') have been used by ancient and medieval authors to designate also black Africans coming from south of the Sahara. Frank M. Snowden, Jr., ''Blacks in Antiquity: Ethiopians in the Greco-Roman Experience'' (Harvard University 1970) pp. 11–14.}} These Berber peoples interacted with Phoenicia and Carthage (who also used the name "Libyphoenicians"), and later with Rome. Yet prior to this era of history, sedentary rural Berbers apparently lived in semi-independent farming villages, composed of small tribal units under a local leader.<ref>Soren, Ben Khader, Slim, ''Carthage'' (Simon and Schuster 1990) pp. 44–45.</ref> Yet seasonally they might leave to find pasture for their herds and flocks. Modern conjecture is that robust [[feud]]ing between neighborhood clans kept Berber political organization from rising above the [[village]] level, yet the military threat from the city-state of Carthage would inspire Berber villages to join in order to marshall large-scale armed forces under a strong leader. Social techniques from the nearby [[polity]] of Carthage were adopted and modified for Berber use.<ref name=BrettFentress1997/>{{rp|33–34}}
A bilingual (Punic and Berber) urban inscription of the 2nd century BC from Berber Numidia, specifically from the city of [[Thugga]] (modern Dougga, Tunisia), indicates a complex city administration, with the Berber title GLD (corresponding to modern Berber ''Aguellid'', or paramount tribal chief) being the ruling municipal office of the city government; this office apparently rotated among the members of leading Berber families.<ref name=BrettFentress1997/>{{rp|37–40}} Circa 220 BC, in the early light given us by historical accounts, three large kingdoms had arisen among the Berbers of Northwest Africa (west to east): (1) the ''[[Mauri people|Mauri]]'' (in modern Morocco) under king Baga; (2) the ''[[Masaesyli]]'' (in northern Algeria) under [[Syphax]] who ruled from two capitals, Siga (near modern [[Oran]]) and to the east [[Cirta]] (modern [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]]); and (3) the ''[[Massylii|Massyli]]'' (south of Cirta, west and south of [[Carthage]]) ruled by [[Gala (king)|Gala]], father of [[Masinissa]]. Later Masinissa would receive full honors befitting an important leader from both Roman and Hellenic states.<ref name=BrettFentress1997/>{{rp|24–27}} Berber ethnic identities were maintained during the long periods of dominance by Carthage and Rome.

During the first centuries of the Islamic era, it was said that the Berber tribes were divided into two blocs, the Butr (Zanata and allies) and the Baranis (Sanhaja, Masmuda, and others).<ref name="ElfasiHrbek1988">{{cite book|author=F. De Medeiros|editor=M. Elfasi, Ivan Hrbek|others=Unesco International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of Africa|title=Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tw0Q0tg0QLoC&pg=PA226|year=1988|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-101709-4|pages=226–227|chapter=The peoples of the Sudan: population movements}}</ref> The [[etymology]] of these names is unclear, perhaps deriving from tribal customs for clothing ("abtar" and "burnous"), or perhaps distinguishing the nomad (Butr) from the farmer (Baranis). The Arabs drew most of their early recruits from the Butr.{{efn|Singular of Baranis is ''Burnus'', from which ''burnous'', understood as a long garment. "Abtar" signifies ''cut short'', hence a short tunic.<ref name="BrettFentress1997" />{{rp|131}} E.F.Gautier is cited for his conjecture regarding farmers and nomads.}} Later, legends arose of an obscure, ancient invasion of Northwest Africa by the [[Himyarite]] Arabs of [[South Arabia|Yemen]], from which a prehistoric [[ancestry]] was evidently fabricated: Berber descent from two brothers, Burnus and Abtar, who were sons of Barr, the grandson of [[Canaan]]<ref name=BrettFentress1997/>{{rp|131}} ([[Table of Nations|Canaan]] being the grandson of [[Noah]] through his son [[Ham, son of Noah|Ham]]).<ref>''Genesis'', in 10:1 & 6. The Hebrew Bible apparently does not list Barr as a descendant of Ham. Chapter 10 of ''Genesis'' is known as ''The Table of Nations''.</ref> Both [[Ibn Khaldun]] (1332–1406) and [[Ibn Hazm]] (994–1064) as well as Berber [[Genealogy|genealogists]] held that the Himyarite Arab ancestry was totally unacceptable.<ref>H.T.Norris, ''Saharan Myth and Saga'' (Oxford Univ. 1972) pp. 26, 30, citing [[René Basset]] (1900 & 1901). Yet Norris also notes that E.F.Gautier (1942) found an echo in the 6th century Byzantine historian [[Procopius]] of the Himyarite myth, and conjectured an ancient [[Canaan]]ite ''Völkerwanderungen'', finding common cultural symbols. ''Ibid.'' p. 30.</ref> This legendary ancestry, however, played a role in the long Arabization process that. continued for centuries among the Berber peoples.<ref name=BrettFentress1997/>{{rp|120–126, 130, 131–132, 135ff}}{{Efn|See below, section ''Berber Role'' per the ''Umayyad Conquest of Ifriqiya''.}}

In their medieval Islamic history the Berbers may be divided into three major tribal groups: the [[Zenata|Zanata]], the [[Sanhaja]], and the [[Masmuda]].{{Efn|The tribal divisions are taken from Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406). Abun-Nasr remarks that "[T]hese divisions do not seem to coincide entirely either with the ethnic groupings or distinctions of dialect."{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|pp=8}}}} The '''Zanata''' early on allied more closely with the Arabs and consequently became more Arabized, although [[Zenati|Znatiya]] Berber is still spoken in small islands across Algeria and in northern Morocco (the [[Rif]] and north [[Middle Atlas]]). The '''Sanhaja''' are also widely dispersed throughout the Maghrib, among which are: the sedentary [[Kabyle people|Kabyle]] on the coast west of modern [[Algiers]], the nomadic [[Zanaga]] of southern Morocco (the south [[Anti-Atlas]]) and the western Sahara to [[Senegal]], and the [[Tuareg people|Tuareg]] (al-Tawarik), the well-known camel breeding nomads of the central [[Sahara]]. The descendants of the '''Masmuda''' are [[sedentism|sedentary]] Berbers of Morocco, in the [[High Atlas]], and from [[Rabat]] inland to Azru and Khanifra, the most populous of the modern Berber regions.<ref name=BrettFentress1997/>{{rp|131–132}}<ref>For Masmuda descendant population, cf., Grimes (ed.), ''Ethnologue'' (12th ed. 1992) p. 307.</ref>{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|pp=8–9}}

Medieval events in [[Ifriqiya]] and [[Maghreb|al-Maghrib]] often have tribal associations. Linked to the Kabyle ''Sanhaja'' were the [[Kutama]] tribes, whose support helped to establish the [[Fatimid|Fatimid Caliphate]] (909–1171, only until 1049 in Ifriqiya);{{Sfn|Perkins|1986|p=34}} their vassals and later successors in Ifriqiya the [[Zirids]] (973–1160) were also ''Sanhaja''.{{Sfn|Perkins|1986|p=36}} The [[Almoravids]] (1056–1147) first began far south of Morocco, among the [[Lamtuna]] ''Sanhaja''.<ref name=BrettFentress1997/>{{rp|131–132}} From the ''Masmuda'' came [[Ibn Tumart]] and the [[Almohads|Almohad movement]] (1130–1269), later supported by the ''Sanhaja''. Accordingly, it was from among the ''Masmuda'' that the [[Hafsid dynasty]] (1227–1574) of [[Tunis]] originated.<ref name=BrettFentress1997/>{{rp|130–132, 134–135}}{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971}}<ref>H. Mones, "The conquest of North Africa and Berber resistance" pp. 118–129, 118–120, in ''General History of Africa, Volume III, Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century'' (UNESCO 1992).</ref>

===Migrating peoples===

The historical era opens with the advent of traders coming by sea from the eastern Mediterranean. Eventually they were followed by a stream of colonists, landing and settling along the coasts of Africa and Iberia, and on the islands of the western seas.

The [[Neolithic Revolution]] brought technological innovations and economic development in the eastern Mediterranean, Mesopotamia, and along the Nile, increased the demand for various metals not found locally in sufficient quantity. Phoenician traders recognized the relative abundance and low cost of the needed metals among the goods offered for trade by local merchants in Hispania, which spurred trade.<ref>Cf., B.H.Warmington, "The Carthaginian period" pp. 246–247, in ''General History of Africa, vol. II'' (UNESCO 1990).</ref> In the Phoenician city-state of Tyre, much of this Mediterranean commerce, as well as the corresponding trading settlements located at coastal stops along the way to the west, were directed by the kings, e.g., [[Hiram I|Hiram]] of Tyre (969–936).<ref>Yuri B. Tsirkin, "Phoenician and Greek Colonization" pp. 347–365, 351, in [[Igor M. Diakonoff]], editor, ''Early Antiquity'' (Univ.of Chicago 1991), translated from ''Rannyaya Drevnost'' (Moskva: Nauka 1982, 1989).</ref>

By three thousand years ago the [[Levant]] and [[Ancient Greece|Hellas]] had enjoyed remarkable prosperity, resulting in population growth in excess of their economic base. On the other hand, political instability from time to time caused disruption of normal business and resulted in short-term economic distress. City-states started organizing their youth to migrate in groups to locations where the land was less densely settled. Importantly, the number of colonists coming from Greece was much larger than those coming from Phoenicia.<ref>B.H.Warmington, "The Carthaginian period" pp. 246–260, 247, in ''General History of Africa, vol. II'' (UNESCO 1990), Abr. Ed.</ref>

To these migrants, lands in the western Mediterranean presented an opportunity and could be reached relatively easily by ship, without marching through foreign territory. Colonists sailed westward following in the wake of their commercial traders. The [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] arrived later, coming to (what is now) southern France, southern Italy including Sicily, and eastern Libya. Earlier the [[Phoenicia]]ns had settled in (what is now) Sardinia, Spain, Morocco, Algeria, Sicily, and Tunisia. In Tunisia the city of Carthage was founded, which would come to rule all the other Phoenician settlements.<ref>Cf., Yuri B. Tsirkin, "Phoenician and Greek Colonization" pp. 347–365, in [[Igor M. Diakonoff]], editor, ''Early Antiquity'' (Univ.of Chicago 1991), translated from ''Rannyaya Drevnost'' (Moskva: Nauka 1982, 1989).</ref>

Throughout Tunisia's history many peoples have arrived among the Berbers to settle: most recently the [[France|French]] along with many [[Tunisian Italians|Italians]], before them came the [[Ottoman empire|Ottoman Turks]] with their multi-ethnic rule, yet earlier the [[Arabs]] who brought their language and the religion of [[Islam]], and its calendar;{{efn|The [[Islamic calendar]] starts on July 16, 622 A.D., an estimated day for [[Muhammad]]'s flight ([[Hegira|Hijra]]) from [[Mecca]] to [[Medina]]. Years in this calendar are designated A.H. for ''Anno Hegira'' or the [[Hijri year]]. Since the Islamic calendar is strictly lunar, it runs about eleven and one-quarter days shorter than a solar year; hence calculation of dates between this lunar and a solar calendar are complicated. The calendar used in this article is a solar calendar, the traditional western calendar, or the [[Gregorian calendar|Gregorian]], with the years dating from an approximate birth date of [[Jesus]], designated either B.C. for ''Before Christ'', or A.D. for ''Anno Domini''. Alternatively the western calendar can be renamed to sanction a secular modernism, a nominal neutrality, or otherwise, the years being called B.C.E. and C.E., for ''[[Common Era]]''. For prehistory, the [[Tya (unit)|kya]] (thousands of years ago) notation is more often employed.}} before them arrived the [[Byzantine empire|Byzantines]], and the [[Vandals]]. Over two thousand years ago came the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], whose Empire long governed the region. The Phoenicians founded [[Carthage]] close to three thousand years ago. Also came migrations from the [[Sahel]] region of Africa. Perhaps eight millennia ago, already there were peoples established among whom the proto-Berbers (coming from the east) mingled, and from whom the [[Berber people|Berbers]] would spring, during an era of their ethno-genesis.<ref name=BrettFentress1997/>{{rp|14–15}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Camps|year=1996|title=''Les Berberes''|publisher=Edisud|pages=11–14}}</ref>
[[File:Carthage Holdings.png|alt=|thumb|400x400px|The city-state of Carthage and territories under its political or commercial influence, circa 264 BC]]

==Carthage==
{{Main|History of Carthage}}

===Foundation===
The city of [[Carthage]] (site of its ruins near present-day Tunis) was founded by [[Phoenicia]]ns coming from the [[Levant|eastern Mediterranean coast]].  Its name, pronounced ''Qart Hadesht'' in the [[Phoenician language|Punic language]] that meant "new city" (It's cognate with [[Arabic]], "Qarya Ħadītha", lit: "Modern Village/City).{{Sfn|Charles-Picard|1968|p=30}}{{Efn|Here ''qart'' meant "city" (cognate with Arabic "Qarya"), ''ħadesht'' "new" (cognate with Arabic "Ħadītha). Note that Qart-Ħadesht is pronounced ''Carchedon'' (Καρχήδόν) in ancient Greek.}} The Punic idiom is a [[Canaanite language]], in the group of [[Northwest Semitic languages]].{{efn|''Cf.'' {{sfn|Lancel|1995|pp=351–360}}}}

Timaeus of Taormina, a third century BC Greek historian from Sicily, gives the date of the founding of Carthage as thirty-eight years before the first [[Olympiad]] (776 BC), which in today's calendar would be the year 814 BC. Timaeus in Sicily was proximous to Cathaginians and their version of the city's foundation; his date is generally accepted as approximate.{{Sfn|Warmington|1960|p=22}}{{efn|Noting that the Greek city of [[Cumae]] was founded in Italy shortly thereafter.}} Ancient authors, such as [[Sallust]] and [[Pliny the Elder]], give founding dates several hundred years earlier for other Phoenician cities in the western Mediterranean, such as [[Utica, Tunisia|Utica]] and [[Cádiz|Gades]], but recent archeology has been unable to verify these earlier dates.{{sfn|Lancel|1995|pp=2–3; 4, 16}}

It was [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]], a major maritime city-state of Phoenicia, which first settled Carthage, probably in order to enjoy a permanent station there for its ongoing trade. Legends alive in the African city for centuries assigned its foundation to a queen of Tyre, Elissa, also called [[Dido (Queen of Carthage)|Dido]].{{efn|Queen Elissa (Dido) would be related to [[Jezebel]] of the Bible. David Soren, Aicha Ben Abed Ben Khader, Hedi Slim, ''Carthage. Uncovering the Mysteries and Splendors of Ancient Tunisia'' (New York: Simon & Schuster 1990) pp. 21, 24. Jezebel was the Phoenician wife of Ahab, King of Israel (c.875–854).}} The Roman historian [[Pompeius Trogus]], a near contemporary of Virgil, describes a sinister web of court intrigue which caused Queen Elissa (Dido) to flee the city of Tyre westward with a fleet of ships.<ref>Soren, Ben Khader, Slim, ''Carthage'' (1990) pp. 23–24. Trogus appears to follow the events as described by the historian Timaeus. The writings of Trogus exist only in a later epitome by [[Justin (historian)|Justin]].</ref> The Roman poet [[Virgil]] (70–19 BC) portrays Dido as the tragic, admirable heroine of his epic the ''[[Aeneid]]'', which contains many inventions loosely based on legendary history, and includes the story about how the Phoenician queen acquired the [[Byrsa]].{{sfn|Lancel|1995|pp=23–25}}

===Sovereignty===

By the middle of the sixth century BC, Carthage had grown into a fully independent [[thalassocracy]]. Under Mago (r., c.550–530) and later his [[List of Monarchs of Carthage|Magonid]] family, Carthage became preeminent among the Phoenician colonies in the western Mediterranean, which included nearby [[Utica, Tunisia|Utica]].

[[File:Hasdrubal coin.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Hasdrubal of Carthage, younger brother of Hannibal (247–c.182)]]

Trading partnerships were established among the Numidian Berbers to the west along the [[Mauretania|African coast]] as well as to the east in [[Libya]]; other stations were located in southern [[Sardinia]] and western [[Sicily]], [[Ibiza]] in the [[Balearics]], [[Lixus (ancient city)|Lixus]] south of the straits, and [[Cádiz|Gades]] north of the straits, with additional trading stations in the south and east of [[Iberian peninsula|Iberia]]. Also, Carthage enjoyed an able ally in the [[Etruscans]], who then ruled a powerful state to the north of the infant city of Rome.{{sfn|Lancel|1995|pp=20–25, 79–86}}{{Sfn|Charles-Picard|1968|pp=59–72}}<ref>Glenn Markoe, ''The Phoenicians'' (Univ. of California 2000) pp. 54–56.</ref>

A merchant sailor of Carthage, [[Himilco]], explored in the Atlantic to the north of the straits, along the coast of the [[Lusitanians]] and perhaps as far as Oestrymnis (modern [[Brittany]]), circa 500 BC. Carthage would soon supplant the Iberian city of [[Tartessus]] in carrying the [[tin]] trade from Oestrymnis. Another, [[Hanno the Navigator]] explored the Atlantic to the south, along the African coast well past the River [[Gambia]]. The traders of Carthage were known to be secretive about business and particularly about trade routes; it was their practice to keep the straits to the Atlantic closed to the Greeks.<ref>Cary and Warmington, ''The Ancient Explorers'' (London: Methuen 1929; revised, Baltimore: Pelican 1963) pp. 45–47 (Himilco), pp. 63–68 (Hanno), p. 47 (straits closed). The Phoenicians themselves had followed the [[Minoans]] in the ancient sea trade, ''Ibid.'', pp. 23–29.</ref>

In the 530s there had been a three sided naval struggle between the Phoenicians, the Greeks, and the Etrusco-Punic allies; the Greeks lost [[Corsica]] to the Etruscans and Sardinia to Carthage. Then the Etruscans attacked Greek colonies in the [[Campania]] south of Rome, but unsuccessfully.  As an eventual result, [[Rome]] threw off their Etruscan kings of the [[Lucius Tarquinius Superbus|Tarquin]] dynasty.  The [[Roman Republic]] and Carthage in 509 entered into a treaty which set out to define their commercial zones.{{Sfn|Charles-Picard|1968|pp=72–78}}

===Greek rivalry===
The energetic presence of [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] traders and their emporia in the Mediterranean region led to disputes over commercial spheres of influence, especially in Sicily.  This Greek threat, plus the foreign conquest of Phoenicia in the Levant, had caused many Phoenician colonies to come under the leadership of Carthage.  In 480 BC (concurrent with [[Persia|Persia's]] invasion of Greece), Mago's grandson [[Hamilcar]] landed a large army in Sicily in order to confront [[Syracuse, Sicily|Syracuse]] (a colony of [[Corinth]]) on the island's eastern coast, but the Greeks prevailed at the [[Battle of Himera (480 BC)|Battle of Himera]].  A long struggle ensued with intermittent warfare between Syracuse led by e.g., the tyrant [[Dionysius I of Syracuse|Dionysius I]] (r.405–367), and Carthage led by e.g., [[Hanno the Great|Hanno I the Great]]. Later, near Syracuse Punic armies defeated the Greek leader [[Agathocles]] (r.317–289) in battle, who then attempted a bold strategic departure by leaving Sicily and landing his forces at [[Cape Bon]] near Carthage, frightening the city. Yet Carthage again defeated Agathocles (310–307). Greece, preoccupied with its conquest of the Persian Empire in the east, eventually became supplanted in the western Mediterranean by Rome, the new rival of Carthage.{{Sfn|Charles-Picard|1968|pp=78–80,131–134, 166–171}}{{sfn|Lancel|pp=90, 115}}

All this while Carthage enlarged its commercial sphere, venturing south to develop the Saharan trade, augmenting its markets along the African coast, in southern Iberia, and among the Mediterranean islands, and exploring in the far Atlantic.  Carthage also established its authority directly among the Numidian Berber peoples in the lands immediately surrounding the city, which grew ever more prosperous.{{sfn|Lancel|pp=88–102}}<ref>Jamil M. Abun-Naysr, ''A History of the Maghrib'' (Cambridge Univ. 1971) pp. 17–20; E. W. Bovill, ''The Golden Trade of the Moors'' (Oxford 1958, 1968) pp. 18–28.</ref>

[[Image:Tunisise Carthage Tophet Salambo 03.JPG|thumb|200px|[[Carthage tophet|Tophet]] funerary stelae, showing (below moon and sun) a symbol of Tanit, queen goddess of Carthage]]

===Religion of Carthage===
The Phoenicians of Tyre brought their lifestyle and inherited customs with them to Northwest Africa. Their religious practices and beliefs were generally similar to those of their neighbors in [[Canaanite religion|Canaan]], which in turn shared characteristics common throughout the [[Ancient Semitic religions|ancient Semitic world]].<ref>Sabatino Moscati, ''Ancient Semitic Civilizations'' (London 1957), e.g., pp. 40 & 113; [[William Robertson Smith|W. Robertson Smith]], ''Lectures on the Religion of the Semites'' (London, 3rd ed. 1927). Cf. Julian Baldick, who posits an even greater and more ancient sweep of a common religious culture in his ''Black God. [[Afro-Asiatic|Afroasiatic]] roots of Jewish, Christian, and Muslim religions'' (1998).</ref> Several aspects of Canaanite religion have been widely criticized, particularly temple prostitution and child sacrifice.<ref>S.G.F.Brandon (ed.), ''Dictionary of Comparative Religion'' (Scribners 1970), "Canaanite Religion" p. 170, and "Molech" p. 448. In the foundation story of Abraham and Isaac (Ishmael in Islam), the practice of child sacrifice is shown rejected by Hebrew religion (''Genesis'' 22:1–19; cf., ''Leviticus'' 18:21, 20:2–5); and temple prostitution is rejected as well per the reforms of Josiah (''2 Kings'' 23:7; cf., ''Deuteronomy'' 23:17).</ref> Canaanite religious sense and mythology do not appear as elaborated or developed as those of Mesopotamia. In Canaan the supreme god was called ''El'', which means "god" in common Semitic. The important storm god was called ''Baal'', which means "master". Other gods were called after royalty, e.g., ''Melqart'' means "king of the city".<ref>Moscati, ''Ancient Semitic Civilizations'' pp. 113–114.</ref>

The gods of the Semitic pantheon that were worshipped would depend on the identity of the particular city-state or tribe.{{efn|''Eshmun'' the god of healing was the chief god of Sidon, ''Dagon'' (whose son was Baal) of Ashdod, the rejuvenating ''Melqart'' of Tyre, ''Terah'' the moon god of the Zebulon, while in Mesopotamia the moon god was ''Sin'' (called ''Nanna'' at Ur), the fertility goddess of Uruk being ''Ishtar'',  the great. god of Babylon being ''Marduk''. Brandon (ed.), ''Dictionary of Comparative Religion'' re "Canaanite Religion" p. 173, "Phoenician Religion" p. 501; Richard Carlyon, ''A Guide to the Gods'' (New York 1981) pp. 311, 315, 320, 324, 326, 329, 332, 333.}} After being transplanted to Africa far from its regional origins, and after co-existing with the surrounding [[Berber pantheon|Berber]] tribes, the original Phoenician pantheon and ways of worship evolved distinctly over time at the city-state of Carthage.{{efn|See also: [[Punic religion]]}}

===Constitution of Carthage===
{{Main|Constitution of Carthage}}
The government of Carthage was undoubtedly patterned after the Phoenician, especially the mother city of Tyre, but Phoenician cities had kings and Carthage apparently did not.{{efn|This discussion first follows Warmington in essence, then turns to Charles-Picard's substantially different results.}} An important office was called in [[Canaanite languages|Punic]] the [[Suffet|''Suffets'']] (a Semitic word agnate with the [[Biblical Hebrew language|Old Hebrew]] ''Shophet'' usually translated as Judges as in the [[Book of Judges]]). Yet the Suffet at Carthage was more the executive leader, but as well served in a judicial role. Birth and wealth were the initial qualifications.{{efn|A circa 2nd century B.C. bilingual inscription from [[Thugga]] (modern Dougga, Tunisia), describes Berber political office holders and indicates some influence by Carthage on Berber state institutions.<ref name="BrettFentress1997" />{{rp|39}}}} It appears that the Suffet was elected by the citizens, and held office for a one-year term; probably there were two of them at a time; hence quite comparable to the [[Consul|Roman Consulship]]. A crucial difference was that the Suffet had no military power. Carthaginian generals marshalled [[mercenary]] armies and were separately elected. From about 550 to 450 the Magonid family monopolized the top military position; later the Barcid family acted similarly. Eventually it came to be that, after a war, the commanding general had to testify justifying his actions before a court of 104 judges.{{Sfn|Warmington|1960|pp=144–147}}

[[Aristotle]] (384–322, Greek) discusses Carthage in his ''Politica'' describing the city as a "mixed constitution", a political arrangement with cohabiting elements of [[monarchy]], [[aristocracy]], and [[democracy]].<ref>Aristotle, ''Politica'' in ''The Basic Works of Aristotle'' edited by R. McKeon, translated by B. Jowett (Random House 1941) pp. 1113–1316, "Carthage" in Book II, Chapter 11, pp. pages 1171–1174 (1272b–1274b).</ref>  Later [[Polybus of Megalopolis]] (c.204–122, Greek) in his ''Histories'' would describe the [[Roman Republic]] as a mixed constitution in which the [[Roman consul|Consuls]] were the monarchy, the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] the aristocracy, and the [[Roman assemblies|Assemblies]] the democracy.<ref>Polybus, ''Histories'' translated as ''Rise of the Roman Empire'' (Penguin 19xy) Chapter VI.</ref>

Evidently Carthage also had an institution of elders who advised the Suffets, similar to the Roman Senate.  We do not have a name for this body. At times members would travel with an army general on campaign.  Members also formed permanent committees.  The institution had several hundred members from the wealthiest class who held office for life.  Vacancies were probably filled by co-option.  From among its members were selected the [[Hundred and Four|104 Judges]] mentioned above. Later the 104 would come to judge not only army generals but other office holders as well. Aristotle regarded the 104 as most important; he compared it to the [[ephor]]ate of [[Sparta]] with regard to control over security. In Hannibal's time, such a Judge held office for life. At some stage there also came to be independent self-perpetuating boards of five who filled vacancies and supervised (non-military) government administration.{{Sfn|Warmington|1960|pp=147–148}}

Popular assemblies also existed at Carthage. When deadlocked the Suffets and the quasi-senatorial institution might request the assembly to vote, or in very crucial matters in order to achieve political coherence.  The assembly members had no ''legal'' wealth or birth qualification.  How its members were selected is unknown, e.g., whether by festival group or urban ward or another method.{{Sfn|Warmington|1960|p=148}}

The Greeks were favorably impressed by the constitution of Carthage; [[Aristotle]] had a study of it made which unfortunately is lost. In the brief approving review of it found in his ''Politica'' Aristotle saw one fault: that focus on pursuit of wealth led to [[oligarchy]].<ref>Aristotle, ''Politica'' in II, 11, pages 1171–1174 (1272b/23–1273b/26).</ref> So it was in Carthage. The people were politically passive; popular rights came late. Being a commercial republic fielding a [[mercenary]] army, the people were not conscripted for military service, an experience which can foster the feel for popular political action. On the other hand, Carthage was very stable; there were few openings for tyrants. "The superiority of their constitution is proved by the fact that the common people remain loyal," noted Aristotle.<ref>Aristotle, ''Politica'' in II, 11, p. page 1171 (1272b/29–32).</ref> Only after defeat by Rome devastated Carthage's imperial ambitions did the people express interest in reform{{Sfn|Warmington|1960|pp=143–144, 148–150}}

In 196, following the Second Punic War, [[Hannibal]], still greatly admired as a Barcid military leader, was elected [[Suffet]]. When his reforms were blocked by a financial official about to become a Judge for life, Hannibal rallied the populace against the 104 Judges. He proposed a one-year term for the 104, as part of a major civic overhaul. His political opponents cravenly went to Rome and charged Hannibal with conspiracy, with plotting war against Rome in league with [[Antiochus III the Great|Antiochus]] the Hellenic ruler of [[Seleucid Empire|Syria]]. Although [[Scipio Africanus]] resisted such maneuver, eventually Roman intervention forced Hannibal to leave Carthage. Thus corrupt officials of Carthage efficiently blocked Hannibal's efforts at reform.{{Sfn|Warmington|1960|pp=240–241}}

The above description of the constitution basically follows Warmington. Largely it is taken from descriptions by Greek foreigners who likely would see in Carthage reflections of their own institutions. How strong was the Hellenizing influence within Carthage? The basic difficulty is the lack of adequate writings due to the secretive nature of the Punic state as well as to the utter destruction of the capital city and its records. Another view of the constitution of Carthage is given by Charles-Picard as follows.

Mago (6th century) was ''King'' of Carthage, Punic ''MLK'' or ''malik'' (Greek ''basileus''), not merely a ''SFT'' or ''Suffet'', which then was only a minor official.  Mago as ''MLK'' was head of state and war leader;  being ''MLK'' was also a religious office.  His family was considered to possess a sacred quality.  Mago's office was somewhat similar to that of [[Pharaoh]], but although kept in a family it was not [[hereditary]], it was limited by legal consent;  however, the council of elders and the popular assembly are late institutions. Carthage was founded by the ''King'' of Tyre who had a royal monopoly on this trading venture. Accordingly, royal authority was the traditional source of power the ''MLK'' of Carthage possessed. Later, as other Phoenician ship companies entered the trading region, and so associated with the city-state, the ''MLK'' of Carthage had to keep order among a rich variety of powerful merchants in their negotiations over risky commerce across the seas.  The office of ''MLK'' began to be transformed, yet it was not until the aristocrats of Carthage became landowners that a council of elders was institutionalized.{{Sfn|Charles-Picard|1968|pp=80–86}}

===Punic Wars with Rome===
The emergence of the Roman Republic and its developing foreign interests led to sustained rivalry with Carthage for dominion of the western Mediterranean.  As early as 509 BC Carthage and Rome had entered into treaty status, but eventually their opposing positions led to disagreement, alienation, and conflict.

[[Image:Portrait Hannibal Barca.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Modern engraving of [[Hannibal]], based on marble bust found at [[Capua]], said to have been made during his lifetime. Museo Nazionale, Naples.]]

The [[First Punic War]] (264–241 BC) started in Sicily.  It developed into a naval war in which the Romans learned how to fight at sea and prevailed.  Carthage lost Sardinia and its western portion of Sicily. Following their defeat, the [[Mercenary War|Mercenary revolt]] threatened the social order of Carthage, which they survived under their opposing leaders [[Hanno II the Great]], and [[Hamilcar Barca]], father of Hannibal.{{Sfn|Charles-Picard|1968|pp=182–202}}

The [[Second Punic War]] (218–201 BC) started over a dispute concerning [[Saguntum]] (near modern Valencia) in [[Hispania]], from whence [[Hannibal]] set out, leading his armies over the [[Alps]] into Italy.  At first Hannibal ("grace of Baal") won great military victories against Rome, at [[Battle of Lake Trasimeno|Trasimeno]] (217 BC) and at [[Battle of Cannae|Cannae]] (216 BC), which came close to destroying Rome's ability to wage war.  Yet the majority of Rome's Italian allies remained loyal; Rome drew on all her resources and managed to rebuild her military strength. For many years Hannibal remained on campaign in southern Italy. An attempt in 207 BC by his brother Hasdrubal to reinforce him failed. Meanwhile, Roman armies were contesting Carthage for the control of Hispania, in 211 BC the domain of armies under Hannibal's three brothers ([[Hasdrubal (Barcid)|Hasdrubal]] and [[Mago (Barcid)|Mago]]), and [[Hasdrubal Gisco]]; by 206 BC the Roman general Cornelius Scipio (later Africanus) had defeated Punic power there. In 204 BC Rome landed armies at [[Utica, Tunisia|Utica]] near Carthage, which forced Hannibal's return. One Numidian king, [[Syphax]], supported Carthage. Another, [[Masinissa]], Rome. At the [[Battle of Zama]] in 202 BC the same Roman general [[Scipio Africanus]] defeated Hannibal, ending the long war.  Carthage lost its trading cities in Hispania and elsewhere in the Western Mediterranean, and much of its influence over the [[Numidians|Numidian Kingdoms]] in Northwest Africa. Carthage became reduced to its immediate surroundings. Also, it was required to pay a large indemnity to Rome.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|pp=25–28}}{{sfn|Lancel|1995|pp=376–401}}{{Sfn|Charles-Picard|1968|pp=230–267}}<ref>Theodor Mommsen, ''Romische Geschichte'' (3 volumes, Leipzig 1854–1856) translated by Wm. Dickson as ''History of Rome'' (4 volumes 1862, 4th ed. 1894); H. H. Scullard, ''History of the Roman World, 753–146 BC'' (rev.ed. 1951). Cf. the ancient Roman historian Livy, ''[[Ab urbe condita]]'' (c.20 B.C.) in Books XXI–XXX, translated as ''The War with Hannibal'' (Penguin 1965).</ref> Carthage revived, causing great alarm in Rome.

The [[Third Punic War]] (149–146 BC) began following the refusal by Carthage to alter the terms of its agreement with Rome. Roman armies again came to Africa and lay siege to the ancient and magnificent city of Carthage, which rejected negotiations.  Eventually, the end came; Carthage was destroyed and its citizens enslaved.{{sfn|Lancel|1995|pp=401–406, 409–427}}

'''Afterward''' The region (modern Tunisia) was annexed by the [[Roman Republic]] as the province of Africa.  Carthage itself was eventually rebuilt by the Romans.  Long after the fall of Rome, the city of Carthage would be again destroyed.

==Roman Province of Africa==
{{Main|Africa (Roman province)|History of Roman-era Tunisia}}

===Republic and early Empire===
The [[Africa Province|Province]] (basically what is now Tunisia and coastal regions to the east) became the scene of military campaigns directed by well known Romans during the last decades of the Republic. [[Gaius Marius]] celebrated his ''triumph'' as a result of successfully finishing Rome's war against [[Jugurtha]], the Numidian king. A wealthy ''[[novus homo]]'' and [[populares]], Marius was the first Roman general to enlist in his army ''[[proletarian|proletari]]'' (landless citizens); he was chosen [[Roman consul|Consul]] an unprecedented seven times (107, 104–100, 86). The [[Optimates|optimate]] [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla]], later Consul (88, 80), and [[Roman dictator|Dictator]] (82–79), had served as [[quaestor]] under the military command of Marius in Numidia. There in 106 Sulla persuaded [[Bocchus I|Bocchus]] to hand over Jurgurtha, which ended the war.{{efn|This conflict was later (circa 40 B.C.) described by the Sallust in his ''Belum Jugurthinum'', translated as ''The Jugurthine War'' (Penguin 1964).}}

In 47 BC [[Julius Caesar]] landed in Africa in pursuit of [[Pompey|Pompey's]] remnant army, which was headquartered at [[Utica, Tunisia|Utica]] where they enjoyed the support of the Numidian King [[Juba I]]. Also present was [[Cato the Younger]], a political leader of Caesar's republican opponents. Caesar's victory nearby at the [[Battle of Thapsus]] almost put an end to that phase of the civil war. Cato committed suicide by his sword.<ref>H. L. Havel, ''Republican Rome'' (London 1914, reprinted 1996) pp. 522–524; Cato was widely admired.</ref>  Caesar then annexed Numidia (the eastern region of modern Algeria).

[[Augustus]] (ruled 31 BC to 14 AD) controlled the Roman state following the civil war that would mark the end of the [[Roman Republic]]. He established a quasi-constitutional regime known as the ''Principate'', later to be called the [[Roman Empire]].

Augustus circa 27 BC restored [[Juba II]] to the throne as King of Mauretania (to the east of the province of Africa). Educated at Rome and obviously a client king, Juba also wrote books about the culture and history of Africa, and a best seller about Arabia, writings unfortunately lost. He married [[Cleopatra Selene II|Cleopatra Selene]], the daughter of Anthony and Cleopatra. After his reign, his kingdom and other lands of [[the Maghrib]] were annexed as the Roman Provinces of [[Mauretania|Mauritania Caesaria]] and [[Mauritania Tingitana]] (approximately the western coast of modern Algeria and northern Morocco).<ref name=BrettFentress1997/>{{rp|43–44}}{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|p=31}}

[[Image:RomanEmpire 117.svg|thumb|right|200px|The Roman Empire, its extent under the emperor Trajan (r. 98–117), in 117]]

===Renaissance of Carthage===
Rebuilding of the city of Carthage began under [[Augustus]] and, notwithstanding reported ill omens, Carthage flourished during the 1st and 2nd centuries. The capital of the [[Africa Province|Province of Africa]], where a Roman ''[[praetor]]'' or ''[[proconsul]]'' resided, was soon moved from nearby [[Utica, Tunisia|Utica]] back to Carthage. Its rich agriculture made the province wealthy; olives and grapes were important products, but by its large exports of wheat it became famous. Marble, wood, and mules were also important exports. New towns were founded, especially in the [[Medjerda River|Majarda valley]] near Carthage; many prior Punic and Berber settlements prospered.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|p=35}}

Expeditions ventured south into the Sahara. Cornelius Balbus, Roman governor at Utica, in 19 BC occupied [[Germa|Gerama]], desert capital of the [[Garamantes]] in the [[Fezzan]].<ref>Pliny (A.D.23–79), ''Natural History'' V, 36 (Heineman, Harvard Univ. 1942) pp. 244–245.</ref><ref>Max Cary and Erik M. Warmington, ''The Ancient Explorers'' (London: Methuen 1929; revised ed., Pelican 1963) pp. 216–221, 219.</ref> These Berber Garamantes had long-time, unpredictable, off-and-on contacts with the Mediterranean.<ref>Roman artifacts and a cut-stone mausoleum at Gerama, 700 km. south of the Mediterranean port of Tripoli. Mortimer Wheeler, ''Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers'' (Penguin 1954) pp. 121–133, 130.</ref><ref>Cf., Herodotus (c.484–c.425), ''The Histories'' IV, 181 (Penguin 1954, 1972) p. 332.</ref> Extensive trade across the Sahara directly with the lands to the south had not yet developed.<ref name="Richard W. Bulliet 1975">Richard W. Bulliet, ''The Camel and the Wheel'' (Harvard Univ. 1975) pp. 113, 138.</ref><ref name="A. Bathily 1992">A. Bathily, "Relations between the different regions of Africa" pp. 348–357, 350, in ''General History of Africa, volume III, Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century'' (UNESCO 1992).</ref>

People from all over the Empire began to migrate into Africa Province, e.g., [[Roman Army|veterans]] in early retirement settled in Africa on farming plots promised for their military service. A sizable [[Latin]] speaking population that was multinational developed, which shared the region with those speaking the Punic and Berber languages.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|pp=35–37}}{{efn|Laroui challenges the accepted view of the prevalence of the Latin language{{Sfn|Laroui|1977|pp=45–46}}}} The local population began eventually to provide the Roman security forces. That the Romans "did not display any racial exclusiveness and were remarkably tolerant of [[Berber mythology|Berber religious cults]]" facilitated local acceptance of their rule.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|p=36}} Here the Romans evidently governed well enough that the province of Africa became integrated into the economy and culture of the Empire, with Carthage as one of its major cities.<ref>Soren, Ben Khader, Slim, ''Carthage'' (Simon and Schuster 1990) pp. 172–173, 187 ff.</ref>

[[Image:Apuleius - Project Gutenberg eText 12788.png|thumb|100px|left|Sketch of Apuleius]]

[[Apuleius]] (c.125–c.185) managed to thrive in the professional and literary communities of Latin-speaking Carthage. A full Berber ([[Numidians|Numidian]] and [[Gaetulia]]n) of [[M'Daourouch|Madaura]] whose father was a provincial magistrate, he studied at Carthage, and later at Athens (philosophy) and at Rome (oratory), where he evidently served as a legal advocate. He also traveled to Asia Minor and [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]]. Returning to Carthage he married an older, wealthy widow; he then was prosecuted for using magic to gain her affections. His speech in defense makes up his ''Apology'';<ref>Apuleius, ''The Apology and Florida of Apuleius of Madaura'' (Greenwood Press 1970), translated by Butler.</ref> apparently he was acquitted. His celebrated work ''Metamorphosus, or the Golden Ass'' is an urbane, extravagant, inventive novel of the ancient world.<ref>Apuleius, ''Golden Ass'' (Indiana Univ. 1960), translated by Lindsay. The plot unfolds in Greece where the hero, while experimenting with the ointment of a sorceress, is changed not into an eagle but into a donkey. In a digression the tale of [[Cupid and Psyche]] is artfully told. After many adventures, the hero regains his human form. One may note the imperial implications of the eagle, and the Northwest African populist image of the donkey.</ref> At Carthage he wrote philosophy, rhetoric, and poetry; several statues were erected in his honor.<ref>Diana Bowder, editor, ''Who was Who in the Roman World'' (Cornell Univ. 1980) p. 27.</ref> [[St. Augustine]] discusses Apuleius in his ''[[The City of God]]''.<ref>Augustine, ''The City of God'' in Book VIII, Chaps. XIV–XXIII (London: J.M.Dent 1967) translated by Healey (1610) as revised by Tasker, in vol. I: 238, 239, 241, 242, 245.</ref> Apuleius used a [[Latin literature|Latin]] style that registered as "New Speech" recognized by his literary contemporaries. It expressed the everyday language used by the educated, along with embedded archaisms, which transformed the more formal, classical grammar favored by [[Cicero]] (106–43), and pointed toward the development of modern [[Romance languages|Romance idioms]].<ref>Michael Grant, ''Roman Literature'' (Cambridge Univ. 1954, reprint Pelican 1958) pp. 118–122, who discusses his language style and gives with various translated excerpts his "novel".</ref> Apuleius was drawn to the mystery religions, particularly the cult of [[Isis]].<ref>Bowder, editor, ''Who was Who in the Roman World'' (1980) p. 27.</ref>

Many native Berbers adopted to the Mediterranean-wide influences operating in the province, eventually intermarrying, or entering into the local aristocracy. Yet the majority did not. There remained a social hierarchy of the [[Romanization (cultural)|Romanized]], the partly [[Cultural assimilation|assimilated]], and the unassimilated, many of whom were Berbers. These imperial distinctions overlay the preexisting stratification of [[economic class]]es, e.g., there continued the practice of slavery, and there remained a co-opted remnant of the wealthy [[Punic]] aristocracy.<ref>Soren, Ben Khader, Slim, ''Carthage'' (Simon and Schuster 1990) p. 179. Of course, many poor immigrants from other regions of the empire might be considered "assimilated".</ref>{{Sfn|Perkins|1986|p=21}} The stepped-up pace and economic demands of a [[Roman culture|cosmopolitan urban life]] could have a very negative impact on the welfare of the rural poor. Large estates (''[[latifundia]]'') at produced crops for export, often were managed for absentee owners and used [[Roman slavery|slave labor]]; these occupied lands previously tilled by small local farmers.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|p=35}} On another interface, tensions increased between [[pastoralism|pastoral]] nomads, who had their herds to graze, and [[Farmers|sedentary farmers]], with the best land being appropriated for planting, usually by the better-connected. These social divisions would manifest in various ways, e.g., the collateral revolt in 238,<ref>Cf., following section ''Emperors from Africa'' re the Gordion line.</ref> and the radical edge to the [[Donatist]] schism.{{Sfn|Perkins|1986|pp=19–23, 21}}

===Emperors from Africa===

[[Image:Aureus Septimius Severus-193-leg XIIII GMV.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Aureus]] minted in 193: obverse, [[Septimius Severus]]; reverse, Legion insignia of XIIII Gemina Martia Victrix]]

[[Septimius Severus]] (145–211, r. 193–211) was born of mixed Punic ancestry in [[Lepcis Magna]], [[Tripolitania]] (now Libya), where he spent his youth.  Although he was said to speak with a Northwest African accent, he and his family were long members of the Roman cosmopolitan elite.  His eighteen-year reign was noted for frontier military campaigns. His wife [[Julia Domna]] of [[Emesa]], Syria, was from a prominent family of priestly rulers there; as empress in Rome she cultivated a salon which may have included [[Ulpian]] of [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]], the jurist of Roman Law. After Severus (whose reign was well regarded), his son [[Caracalla]] (r. 211–217) became emperor; Caracalla's edict of 212 granted citizenship to all free inhabitants of the empire. Later, two grand nephews of Severus through his wife Julia Domna became emperors: [[Elagabalus]] (r. 218–222) who brought the black stone of [[Emesa]] to Rome; and [[Severus Alexander]] (r.222–235) born in Caesarea sub Libano (Lebanon). Though unrelated, the emperor [[Macrinus]] (r. 217–218) came from Iol Caesarea in [[Mauretania]] (modern [[Cherchell|Sharshal]], Algeria).<ref>Michael Grant, ''The Roman Emperors. A biographical guide to the rulers of Imperial Rome, 31 B.C. to A.D. 476'' (New York: Scribner's 1985) pp. 108–113, 117–136.</ref><ref>Diana Bowder (editor), ''Who was who in the Roman World'' (Cornell Univ. 1980).</ref>

There were also Roman emperors from the [[Africa Province|Province of Africa]]. In 238 local proprietors rose in revolt, arming their clients and agricultural tenants who entered [[Thysdrus]] (modern El Djem) where they killed their target, a rapacious official and his bodyguards. In open revolt, they then proclaimed as co-emperors the aged Governor of the province of Africa, [[Gordian I]] (c.159–238), and his son, [[Gordian II]] (192–238). Gordian I had served at Rome in the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] and as consul, and had been the governor of various provinces. The very unpopular current Emperor [[Maximinus Thrax]] (who had succeeded the dynasty of Severus) was campaigning on the middle [[Danube River|Danube]]. In Rome the Senate sided with the insurgents of Thysdrus. When the African revolt collapsed under an assault by local forces still loyal to the emperor, the Senate elected two of their number, Balbinus and Pupienus, as co-emperors. Then Maximus Thrax was killed by his disaffected soldiers. Eventually the grandson of Gordian I, [[Gordian III]] (225–244), of the province of Africa, became the emperor of the Romans, 238–244.  He died on the [[Sasanid|Persian]] frontier. His successor was [[Philip the Arab]].<ref>Grant, ''The Roman Emperors'' pp. 140–155.</ref><ref>Bowder, editor, ''Who was Who in the Roman World''.</ref>

===Christianity, its Donatist schism===
[[Image:Sandro Botticelli 050.jpg|thumb|left|125px|St. Augustine, by Botticelli (1480)]]
Two significant theologians arose in the province of Africa. [[Tertullian]] (160–230) was born, lived, and died at Carthage; a convert and a priest, his Latin books were at one time widely known, although he later came to espouse an unforgiving puritanism, after [[Montanus]].<ref>Dom Charles Poulet, ''Histoire de l'Eglise'' (Paris: Gabriel Beauchesne et ses Fils 1926, 1930), fourth edition edited and translated by Sidney A. Raemers as ''Church History'' (St. Louis: B. Herder 1934, 1951) at vol. I, 83–84, 108–110.</ref><ref>Tilley discusses Tertullian as a predecessor to the Donatists, in her ''The Bible in Christian North Africa. The Donatist World'' (Minneapolis: Fortress 1997) pp. 20–28.</ref>

[[Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine]] (354–430), [[Bishop (Catholic Church)|Bishop]] of Hippo (modern [[Annaba]]), was born at Tagaste in Numidia (modern [[Souk Ahras]]), his mother being [[St. Monica]] (who evidently was of Berber heritage).<ref>Cf., William M. Green, "Augustine's Use of Punic" pp. 179–190, in ''Semitic and Oriental Studies'' presented to Prof. Wm. Popper (Univ.of California 1951).</ref> At Carthage, Augustine received his higher education. While professor of [[Rhetoric]] at [[Milan]]o (then the Roman imperial capital) he followed [[Manichaean]] teachings. Following his conversion from [[Manichaeism]] to Christianity he returned to Africa, where he became a church leader and the author of many works. Augustine remains one of the most prominent and most admired of all [[Christian theology|Christian theologians]]. His moral philosophy remains influential, e.g., his contribution to the further evolved doctrine of the [[Just War]], used to test whether or not a military action may be considered just and ethical. His books (e.g., ''[[The City of God]]'', and ''[[Confessions of St. Augustine|Confessions]]'') are still today widely read and discussed.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|pp=38, 43–44, 46}}<ref>Bowder, editor, ''Who was who in the Roman World'' (Cornell Univ. 1980).</ref><ref>Cf., Brown, ''Augustine of Hippo'' (Univ. of California 1967).</ref><ref>Charles Poulet, ''Church History'' (1934, 1951), edited and translated by Raemers, in vol. I, 218–228.</ref>

The [[Donatist]] [[Schism (religion)|schism]] was a major disruption;{{efn|Named after the Berber Bishop Donatus or [[Donatus Magnus]], there being some confusion. [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05121a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Donatists]}}<ref>Concerning Donatus or Donatus Magnes, compare Tilly, ''The Bible in Christian North Africa. The Donatist World'' (Minneapolis: Fortress Press 1997) pp. 61, n18 (194, n18) & 131, with 69–70.</ref> it followed a severe Roman persecution of Christians ordered by the Emperor [[Diocletian]] (r.284–305). An earlier persecution had caused divisions over whether or how to accept back into the church contrite Christians who had apostatized under state threats, abuse, or torture. Donatists believed that to receive them back would be immoral.

Then, in 313, the new Emperor [[Constantine I|Constantine]] by the [[Edict of Milan]] had granted tolerance to Christianity, himself becoming a Christian. This turnabout led to confusion in the Church, which in Northwest Africa accentuated the divide between wealthy urban members aligned with the Empire, and the local rural poor whose beliefs included social and political dissidence.

Christian Berbers tended to be Donatists, although some more assimilated Berbers were Catholic.{{efn|Maureen A. Tilley has questioned many traditional assumptions about the Donatists, in her ''The Bible in Christian North Africa. The Donatist World'' (Minneapolis: Fortress Press 1997).}} The Donatists became centered in southern [[Numidia]], the Catholics in Carthage. One issue was whether a priest could perform his spiritual office if not personally worthy. The Donatist schismatics set up parallel churches in order to practice a ritual purity not required by the Catholic Church.{{efn|It has been commonly remarked that the more rigorous quest for religious purity made by the rural Berbers, when compared to the more relaxed attitude of mainstream civilization, has led not only to Donatism with regard to Christianity, but also as regards Islam to the Berber attraction for the [[Kharijites]], for the [[Fatimid]] [[Ismaili]] Shia, and for both the [[Almoravide]] and the [[Almohad]] movements. On another level, one could compare and contrast this Christian schism in Northwest Africa with the [[Monophysite]] schism in [[Coptic Egypt]] and elsewhere.}} Augustine came to condemn the Donatists throngs for rioting; at one point, there were imperial persecutions. Long negotiations lasted until finally the Catholics declared Donatism a [[heresy]] in 405, though general tolerance persisted until the ban became enforced late in the 6th century.<ref>Johnson, ''A History of Christianity'' (New York: Atheneum 1979) pp. 83–85, 88, 115.</ref><ref>Brown, ''Augustine of Hippo'' pp. 215–225, 240–241.</ref>{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|pp=38–44, 62}}

==Fall of the Roman Empire in the West==

===Vandal Kingdom===
[[Image:Invasions of the Roman Empire 1.png|200px|right|thumb|Migrations of the [[Vandals]] in ''blue'' (circa 270 to 530) from the [[Vistula]] river, southeast into [[Pannonia]], westward to [[Gaul]], south into [[Hispania]], across to Africa and Carthage; raids by sea<ref>Wolfram, ''The Roman Empire and Its Germanic Peoples'' (Berlin 1990; Univ.of California 1997) pp. xi–xiii.</ref>]]
In the fifth century the western Roman Empire was in a steep decline. Carthage and the Roman province of Africa were [[Battle of Carthage (439)|captured]] in 439 by the [[Vandals]] under [[Gaiseric]] (r. 428–477), becoming the center of their Germanic kingdom. The western imperial capital at [[Ravenna]] recognized his rule in 442. In 455 the Vandals sailed with an army to the city of Rome, which was occupied without resistance and looted. Yet in governing [[Vandal Kingdom|their kingdom]] the Vandals did not fully maintain their martial culture, having made alliances with Berber forces upon entering the region.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|pp=45–47, 50}}<ref>Herwig Wolfram, ''Das Reich und die Germanen'' (Berlin: Wolf Jobst Siedler 1990) translated as ''The Roman Empire and Its Germanic Peoples'' (Univ.of California 1997), chap. 7, "The Vandals" pp. 159–182, 166–171. In 429 the Vandals and [[Alans]] traveled the 2000 km. from Iulia Traducta in southern Spain to Carthage with about eighty thousand people. ''Ibid.'' pp. 163, 166, 169–170.</ref>{{efn|In 430 [[St. Augustine]] died at [[Hippo Regius]] while the Vandals besieged the city.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|p=46}}}}

In religious policy, the Vandals tried to convert the urban Catholic Christians of Africa to their [[Arianism|Arian]] heresy (named after the Christian priest [[Arius]], who taught that the [[God the Father|Father]] is greater than the [[Jesus|Son]] and the [[Holy Spirit|Spirit]]), e.g., by sending the clergy into exile and by expropriating churches; in the 520s their efforts turned to persecution, including martyrdom, all without success. The Berbers remained aloof. In all, Vandal rule would last 94 years.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|pp=49–51}}<ref>Wolfram, ''The Roman Empire and Its Germanic Peoples'' (1990, 1997) pp. 174–175.</ref>

The Vandals did provide functional security and governed with a light hand, so that the former Roman province prospered at first. Roman officials and Roman law continued, and Latin was used for government business. Agriculture provided more than enough to feed the region and trade flourished in the towns. Yet because of their desire to maintain a superiority in status, the Vandals refused to intermarry or agreeably assimilate to the advanced culture of the Romans. Consequently, finer points were overlooked; they failed to sustain a functional and effective social order. The Berber confederacies beyond the frontier grew increasingly powerful and troublesome.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|pp=48–49, 52–53}}{{Sfn|Perkins|1986|pp=23–24}}

===Byzantine Empire===

{{Main|Byzantine North Africa}}
The Eastern Romans or [[Byzantine Empire]] eventually recaptured Northwest Africa in 534, under their celebrated general [[Belisarius]]. The Byzantines rebuilt fortifications and border defenses (the ''limes''), and entered into treaties with the Berbers.  Nevertheless, for many decades security and prosperity were precarious and never fully returned. Direct Byzantine rule did not extend far beyond the coastal cities; the interior remained under the control of various Berber tribal confederacies. Further west (in modern Algeria) was the [[Praetorian prefecture of Africa#Conflict with the kingdom of Garmul|Romano-Moor Kingdom of Garmul]].

Early in the seventh century, several Berber groups (the [[Jarid]] and [[Zenata|Zanata]] of the Auruba) converted to Catholicism, although other Berbers remained attached to their gods.{{efn|It is uncertain how many Berbers professed Christianity, Catholic or [[Donatist]]. Cf., H. Mones, "The conquest of North Africa and the Berber resistance" in ''General History of Africa'' (Univ.of California/UNESCO 1992) pp. 119–120, who opines at only a "marginal" few (called ''al-Afarika'' by Arabs) of Romanized Berbers and Punics, as well as Romans and Greeks, were Christians.}} In the 540s the restored Catholic Church in Africa was disrupted by the Emperor [[Justinian]]'s position in favor of the [[Monophysite]] doctrine.

In the early 600s AD, the Byzantine Empire entered a period of serious crises that would alter the future of Tunisia. For centuries Rome/Byzantium's greatest enemy had been the [[Sassanid]] Persians, and the two powers were chronically atwar with each other. The warfare was often intense but usually resulted in small border changes. By the 7th century however, the situation changed dramatically. Persistent religious discord within the Empire, followed by the overthrow of Emperor [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]] by the tyrant [[Phocas]], severely weakened the Byzantines. The Persians invaded the Byzantine Empire, in alliance with the [[Pannonian Avars|Eurasian Avars]] and [[Slavs]] from the north. Much of the Empire was overrun and it seemed the end was near.

It was a son of Carthage, so-to-speak, who managed to play a crucial role in restoring the imperial destiny.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|pp=53–56, 58, 62–63}}{{Sfn|Perkins|1986|pp=24–26}} The son of the [[Exarchate of Africa|Exarch of Carthage]], [[Heraclius|Flavius Heraclius Augustus]],<ref>M. Chahin (1987) p. 270.</ref> sailed east with an African fleet to the Byzantine capital city of [[Constantinople]] and overthrew the usurper [[Phocas]]; Heraclius became the Byzantine Emperor in 610. He began reorganizing the government and erecting defenses to counter the threats to the capital. Yet the Persians continued their invasion, meeting little resistance, taking [[Antioch]] in 611, [[Jerusalem]] in 614, and [[Alexandria]] in 619, in astonishing victories. His forces soon stood before Constantinople. In response, Heraclius took a great risk and moved an army by ship over the [[Black Sea]], landing near his [[Byzantine Armenia|Armenian]] allies, and in the fighting managed to out-flank the Persians. By 627 Heraclius was marching on their capital [[Ctesiphon]], a complete reversal of fortune. Then in 628 Chosroes II was killed in a revolt by his generals.

[[Image:Byzantiumby650AD.JPG|thumb|right|200px|[[Byzantine Empire]], 650 AD, still with its [[Exarchate of Carthage]], yet after its recent loss of Syria (634–636) and of Egypt (639–641) to the Arabs]]

As a result of these dramatic and tumultuous events, [[Sassanid]] Persia was in disarray and confusion, and Byzantines soon retook their provinces of [[Byzantine Egypt|Egypt]] and [[Byzantine Syria|Syria]], but the religious discord between the local [[Monophysite]] and [[Eastern Orthodox]] Christians returned. Eastern Orthodox [[Emperor Heraclius]] (575–641), the former Exarch of Africa (Carthage), attempted to work out a theological compromise, [[Monothelitism]], but without any success.

Yet events did not rest. To the south, Arab Islamic armies began to stir, unified and energized by the teachings of the Prophet, [[Muhammad]] (570–632). In 636 at the [[Battle of Yarmuk]] to the east of the [[Sea of Galilee]], the Arabs decisively defeated the Byzantine forces.<ref>A. A. Vasiliev, ''History of the Byzantine Empire'' (1917, 1923–25; Univ.of Wisconsin 1928–29, 1964) in vol. I, 176, 194–200, 211.</ref><ref>Percy Sykes, ''A History of Persia'' (London: Macmillan 1915, 1921, 1930, reprinted New York: St. Martin's 1951) in vol. I, pp. 480–486.</ref>

Following the Arab invasion of Egypt in 640, Christian refugees came west into the Exarchate of Africa (Carthage). There serious disputes arose within the Catholic churches pp.&nbsp;Carthage over [[Council of Chalcedon|Monophysite]] doctrines and Monothelitism, with [[St. Maximus the Confessor]] leading the orthodox Catholics.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|pp=63–65}}

==Umayyad Caliphate in Ifriqiya==
{{Main|History of early Islamic Tunisia }}

By 661 the [[Umayyad]]s had taken firm control of the new Muslim state, which it ruled from Damascus. The Caliph [[Mu'awiya]] could see the foreign lands west of Egypt in terms of the Muslim contest with the [[Byzantine Empire]].

===Islamic conquest===
[[Image:Age-of-caliphs.png|225px|thumb|left|The Age of the early Caliphs {{legend|#a1584e|Muhammad, 622–632}} {{legend|#ef9070|Patriarchal Caliphate, 632–661}} {{legend|#fad07d|Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750}}]]

In 670 an [[Arab]] [[Muslim]] army under [[Uqba ibn Nafi]], who had commanded an earlier incursion in 666, entered the region of [[Ifriqiya]] (Arabic for the province of Africa). Arriving by land the Arabs passed by Byzantine fortified positions along the Mediterranean coast. In the more arid south, the city of [[Kairouan]] [''stronghold'' in Arabic] was established as their base, and the building of its famous Mosque begun. From 675 to 682 Dinar ibn Abu al-Muhadjir took command of the Arab Muslim army.<ref>H. Mones, "The Conquest of North Africa and Berber resistance" in I. Hrbek (ed.), ''General History of Africa'' (Univ.of California/UNESCO 1992) pp. 118–129, 122–123. Prof. Mones provides a description of the various Berber tribes of this era, their locations and alliances, pp. 118–120.</ref> In the late 670s, this army defeated the [[Berber people|Berber]] forces (apparently composed of sedentary Christians mainly from the Awreba tribe and perhaps the [[Senhaja|Sanhadja]] confederation) led by [[Kusaila]], who was taken prisoner.

In 682, Uqba ibn Nafi reassumed command. He defeated an alliance of Berber forces near [[Tiaret|Tahirt]] (Algeria), then proceeded westward in military triumph, eventually reaching the Atlantic coast, where he lamented at before him there was no more land to conquer for Islam. Episodes from his campaigns became legend throughout the [[Maghreb|Maghrib]]. Yet the Berber leader held prisoner, [[Kusaila]], escaped. Later Kusaila led a fresh Berber uprising, which interrupted the conquest and claimed the Arab leader's life. Kusaila then formed an enlarged Berber kingdom. Yet Zuhair b. Qais, the deputy of the fallen Arab leader, enlisted [[Zenata|Zanata]] tribes from [[Cyrenaica]] to fight for the cause of Islam, and in 686 managed to overturn Kusaila's newly formed kingdom.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|pp=67–69}}<ref>John K. Cooley, ''Baal, Christ, and Mohammed'' (New York 1965) pp. 64–69.</ref>{{efn|A slightly different view of Kusaila (Kusayla) is given by H. Mones, in his "The Conquest of North Africa and Berber resistance" in I. Hrbek (ed.), ''General History of Africa'' (Univ.of California/UNESCO 1992) pp. 118–129, 123–124; Mones relates at Kusayla converted to Islam at first but turned against Islam due to a perceived injustice (Arabs marching against Berber converts).}}

Under the Caliph [[Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan|'Abd al-Malik]] (685–705), the [[Umayyad conquest of North Africa]] was to advance close to completion. In Egypt a new army of forty thousand was assembled, to be commanded by Hassan ibn al-Nu'man (known to Arabs as "the honest old man"). Meanwhile, the Byzantines had been reinforced. The Arab Muslim army crossed the Cyrene and Tripoli without opposition, then quickly attacked and captured Carthage.

The Berbers, however, continued to offer stiff resistance, then being led by a woman of the Jarawa tribe, whom the Arabs called ''the prophetess'' ["al-Kahina" in Arabic]; her actual name was approximately [[Kahina|"Damiya"]].<ref>Three citations may be given as follows: Muhammed Talbi, "Un nouveau fragment de l'histoire de l'Occident musulman: l'épopée d'al Kahina" in ''Cahiers de Tunisie'' 19: 19–52 (1971);</ref><ref>Abdelmajid Hannoum, ''Post-Colonial Memories. The Legend of Kahina, a North African heroine'' (2001);</ref><ref>[[Yves Modéran]], "Kahena" in ''Encyclopédie Berbère'' 27: 4102–4111.</ref>{{efn|By a prior interpretation of [[Ibn Khaldun]] (1332–1406), al-Kahina was seen as Jewish; yet this is now being understood as a misreading of his text. ''Contra'': André Chouraqui presents Kahina as Jewish in his ''Les Juifs d'Afrique du Nord. Entre l'Orient et l'Occident'' (Paris: Foundation Nat. de Sciences Politiques 1965), translated as ''Between East and West. A History of the Jews of North Africa'' (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society 1968; reprint New York: Atheneum 1973) pp. 34–37. "[T]he warrior-priestess Kahena... was the chief of the Jewara tribe." "Later historians [were] unanimous in regarding them as Jews." Chouraqui cites Ibn Khaldun, other and modern authors. ''Ibid.'' and notes 2–10 (pp. 328–329).}} On the river Nini, an alliance of Berbers under ''Damiya'' defeated the Muslim armies under al-Nu'man, who escaped returning to Cyrenaica. Thereupon, the Byzantines took advantage of the Berber victory by reoccupying [[Carthage]]. Unlike the Berber [[Kusaila]] ten years earlier, ''Damiya'' did not establish a larger state, evidently being content to rule merely her own tribe. Some commentators speculate as to ''Damiya'' the Arabs appeared interested in booty primarily, because she then commenced to ravage and disrupt the region, making it unattractive to raiders looking for spoils of war; of course, it also made her unpopular to the residents. Yet she did not attack the Muslim base at [[Kairouan]]. From Egypt the Caliph [[Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan|'Abdul-Malik]] had reinforced al-Nu'man in 698, who then reentered Ifriqiya. Although she told her two sons to go over to the Arabs, she herself again gave battle. She lost;al-Nu'man won. It is said at ''Bir al-Kahina'' [well of the prophetess] in the Auras, ''Damiya'' was killed.<ref name="BrettFentress1997" />{{rp|85}}<ref>Cooley, ''Baal, Christ, and Mohammed'' (1965) pp. 69–72.</ref><ref>Welch, ''North African Prelude'' (1949) pp. 189–194.</ref><ref>Chouraqui, ''Between East and West. A History of the Jews of North Africa'' (Atheneum 1973) pp. 34–37.</ref>

In 705 Hassan b.al-Nu'man stormed Carthage, overcame and sacked it, leaving it destroyed. A similar fate befell the city of [[Utica, Tunisia|Utica]]. Near the ruins of Carthage he founded [[Tunis]] as a naval base. Muslim ships began to dominate the Mediterranean coast; hence the Byzantines made their final withdrawal from [[Maghreb|al-Maghrib]]. Then al-Nu'man was replaced as Muslim military leader by [[Musa ibn Nusair]], who substantially completed the conquest of al-Maghrib.  He soon took the city of [[Tangier]] and appointed as its governor the Berber [[Tariq ibn Ziyad]].{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|pp=69–70}}

===Berber role===
The [[Berber people]], also known as the [[List of Berbers|''Amazigh'']], "converted en masse as tribes and assimilated juridically to the Arabs," writes Prof. Hodgson; he then comments that the Berbers were to play a rôle in the west parallel to at played by the Arabs elsewhere in Islam.<ref name="Hodgson1974">{{cite book|author=Marshall G. S. Hodgson|title=The Venture of Islam, Volume 1: The Classical Age of Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=18b-K9AMLlwC&pg=PA308|year=1974|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|isbn=9780226346786|page=308ff}}</ref> For centuries the Berbers lived as semi-pastoralists in or near arid lands at the fringes of civilization, sustaining their isolated identity somewhat. like the Arabs. "The Maghrib, islanded between [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] and [[Sahara desert|Sahara]], was to the Berbers what [[Arabian peninsula|Arabia]]... was to the Arabs."<ref name="Hodgson1974"/> Hodgson explains: although the Berbers enjoyed more rainfall than the Arabs, their higher mountains made their settlements likewise difficult to access; and though the Imperial cities were more proximous, those cities never incorporated the countryside with a network of market towns, but instead remained aloof from the indigenous rural Berbers.<ref name="Hodgson1974"/>

[[Image:GM Massinissa.png|thumb|150px|[[Masinissa]], King of Numidia (circa 238–145)]]

A counter argument would be that the Berbers merely imitated the success of the Arab Muslims; the better historical choice would be more uniquely ethnic and authentic, i.e., to articulate their own inner character and fate.{{Efn|Cf., ,{{Sfn|Laroui|1977|pp=98–101}} who distills this argument from modern French academics, e.g., Stephane Gsell, Charles-Andres Julien, and Gabriel Camps. Laroui presents this argument, then mocks it and penetrates it, taking the discussion through various points of view: positive, negative, neutral, other. "If a Maghribi were to rewrite the history of France and England from the point of view of the Celts, stressing their negativity and inauthenticity... ." {{Sfn|Laroui|1977|p=101}}}}{{efn|Perkins pointedly discusses the seeming preference of earlier French historians for the Berbers over the Arabs because it was considered at a Berber ascendancy was good for French interests. Perkins, ''Tunisia: Crossroads of the Islamic and European Worlds'' (1986) p. 54, n1 (to text at 41), discussing the Arab [[Bani Hilal]].}} Prof. Abdallah Laroui interprets the [[Northwest Africa]]n panorama as indicating that the Berbers did in fact carve out for themselves an independent rôle. "From the first century B.C. to the eighth century A.D. the will of the Berbers to be themselves is revealed by the continuity of their efforts to reconstitute the [[List of Kings of Numidia|kingdoms]] of the Carthaginian period, and in this sense the movement was crowned with success."{{Sfn|Laroui|1977|p=100}} By choosing to ally ''not'' with nearby Europe, familiar in memory by the Roman past,{{efn|Although then it was the Byzantines who were rivals of the Arabs, both foreign powers coming from the east. Yet, of course, the Byzantines shared with the Romans their civil traditions and the Christian religion.}} but rather with the newcomers from distant Arabia, the Berbers knowingly decided their future and historical path. "Their hearts opened to the call of Islam because in it they saw a means of national liberation and territorial independence."<ref>{{cite book|last=Allalal-Fasi|title=Al-Harakat al-Istiqlaliya|pages=introduction}}, cited by Laroui (1970, 1977) pp. 101, n.19.</ref>

Environmental and geographic parallels between Berber and Arab are notable, as Hodgeson adumbrates. In addition, the languages spoken by the [[Semitic languages|semitic]] [[Arabic language|Arabs]] and by the [[Berber languages|Berbers]]<ref>See above, "Early History" section.</ref> are both members of the same world language family, the [[Afro-Asiatic]], although from two of its different branches.<ref>Joseph Greenberg, ''The Languages of Africa'' (Indiana Univ. 1966) pp. 42, 50.</ref><ref>David Crystal, ''Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language'' (1987) p. 316.</ref><ref>I. M. Diakonoff, ''Semito-Hamitic Languages'' (Moscow: Nauka Publishing House 1965).</ref> Perhaps this linguistic kinship shares a further resonance, e.g., in mythic explanations, popular symbols, and religious preference.<ref>As to such possible linkages, cf. Julian Baldick, ''Black God. Afro-Asiatic roots of Jewish, Christian, and Muslim religions'' (1998).</ref><ref>Cf., H.T.Norris, ''Saharan Myth and Saga'' (Oxford Univ. 1972).</ref><ref>Cf., ''Moorish Literature'', introduction by René Basset (New York: Collier 1901).</ref>

Evidently, long before and after the Islamic conquest, there was some popular sense of a strong and long-standing cultural connection between the Berbers{{efn|See above, ''Early History'' section.}} and the Semites of the Levant, naturally with regard to Carthage{{efn|The Phoenicians of [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] who founded and settled in [[Carthage]] spoke and wrote in a [[Canaanite language]], a division of [[Northwest Semitic]], called [[Punic language|Punic]]{{sfn|Lancel|1995|pp=351–360}} and transplanted their [[Punic|culture to Africa]].}}{{efn|See above ''Carthage'' section.}} and in addition with regard to links yet more ancient and genetic.<ref>Chouraqui, ''Between East and West'' (1952, 1968) pp. 3–5, who cites a variety of sources, e.g., [[Flavius Josephus]] (37–c.100), ''Antiquities of the Jews'' I:15 (at the [[Libyans]] were invaded by Ophren, grandson of [[Moses]], whose descendants multiplied in Africa); [[Tacitus]] (56–c.117), ''Annals'' V,2 (at the Jews were originally Libyans, i.e., Berbers); [[St. Augustine]] (354–430), ''Epistolae ad Romanos Inchoata Exposition'' 13 (P.L. 34, 2096), who reported a widespread belief by local Berbers (or mixed Punic-Berbers) of their [[Canaan]]ite origins; [[Ibn Khaldun]] (1332–1406), ''Histoire des Berberes'', as translated by Slane (Algiers 1852–1856) p. 177, who stated that the Berbers are descendants of [[Canaan]], yet which he contradicts later, p. 183; and a pilgrimage site at Nedromah (near [[Tlemcen]], Algeria), believed to be the tomb of [[Joshua]] the [[Bible|biblical]] conqueror, successor to Moses.</ref> These claims of a remote ancestral relationship perhaps facilitated the Berber demand for equal footing with the Arab invaders within the religion of Islam following the conquest.<ref>Cf., H. Mones, "The conquest of North Africa and the Berber resistance" pp. 118–129, 128–129, in ''General History of Africa'', volume III, edited by I. Hrbek (Univ.of California/UNESCO 1992).</ref>

From [[Cyrenaica]] to [[al-Andalus]], the somewhat Arabized Berbers continuously remained in communication with each other throughout the following centuries. As a group their distinguishing features are easy to discern within Islam; e.g., while the [[ulama]] in the rest of Islam adopted for the most part either the [[Hanafi]] or the [[Shafi'i]] school of law, the Berbers in the west chose the [[Maliki]] [[madhhab]], developing it in the course of time after their own fashion.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|p=71}}<ref>Marshall G. S. Hodgson, ''The Venture of Islam'', im volume I: 226, and 308–312.</ref>

Also inducing the Berbers to convert was the early lack of rigor in religious obligations, as well as the prospect of inclusion as warriors in the armies of conquest, with a corresponding share in booty and tribute. A few years later, in 711, the Berber [[Tariq ibn Ziyad]] would lead the [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|Muslim invasion]] of the [[Visigoths|Visigothic Kingdom]] in [[Hispania]]. Additionally, many of the Arabs who came to settle in al-Maghrib were religious and political dissidents, often [[Kharijites]] who opposed the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] rulers in [[Damascus]] and embraced egalitarian doctrines, both popular positions among the Berbers of Northwest Africa.<ref>H. Mones, "The Conquest of North Africa and Berber resistance" in I. Hrbek (ed.), ''General History of Africa'' (Univ. of California/UNESCO 1992) pp. 118–129, 127–129. The Berbers particularly resented Arab ethnic discrimination against Berber converts to Islam.</ref> Also, to locate its historical and religious context, the Arab conquest and Berber conversion to Islam followed a long period of polarization of society in the old province of Africa, in which the [[Donatist]] schism within Christianity proved instrumental, with the rural Berbers prominent in their dissent from the urban orthodoxy of the Roman church.{{efn| Cf., .{{Sfn|Laroui|1977|pp=54–57}} See above, ''Roman Province of Africa'', per ''Christianity, its Donatist schism''. Too, the Vandals (see above, ''Vandal Kingdom'') also religiously polarized the society by the forcing on the urban centers their [[Arianism|Arian]] Christianity (which did parallel at least to some extent Islamic theology about the role of Jesus).}} The Berbers were initially attracted to the Arabs because of their "proclivity for the desert and the steppes".{{Sfn|Perkins|1986|pp=29–30}}{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|pp=65–66}}

After the conquest and following the popular conversion, [[Ifriqiya]] constituted a natural and proximous center for an Arab-Islamic regime in Northwest Africa, the focus of culture and society. It was then the region with the most developed urban, commercial and agricultural infrastructure, essential for such a comprehensive project as Islam.

==Aghlabid Dynasty under the Abbasids==
{{Main|Aghlabid Dynasty}}
During the years immediately preceding the fall of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] of Damascus (661–750),{{efn|One of the few surviving members of the Umayyad family, [[Abd-ar-Rahman I]] fled Syria as a fugitive, made his way west, hiding for a time in a Berber camp near Ifriqiya; later, he became the Emir of Cordoba (756–786) and founder of another Umayyad dynasty there in al-Andalus(756–1031). Richard Fletcher, ''Moorish Spain'' (New York: Henry Holt 1992) pp. 28.}} revolts arose among the [[Kharijite]] Berbers in [[Morocco]] which eventually disrupted the stability of the entire [[Maghreb|Maghrib]]. Although the Kharijites failed to establish lasting institutions, the results of their revolt persisted. Direct rule by the Caliphs over Ifriqiya became untenable, even following the rapid establishment of the new [[Abbasid Caliphate]] of Baghdad in 750. Also, after several generations a local Arabic-speaking aristocracy emerged, which became resentful of the distant caliphate's interference in local matters.{{efn|Especially after the rise of the Persianizing 'Abbasids and the move of the capital further to the east, to Baghdad.}}

===Political culture===
[[File:Aghlabids Dynasty 800 - 909 (AD).svg|thumb|The Aghlabid Emirate at its greatest extent during the 9th century]]
The [[Muhallabids]] (771–793) negotiated with the 'Abbasids a wide discretion in the exercise of their governorship of Ifriqiya. One such governor was al-Aghlab ibn Salim (r. 765–767), a forefather of the Aghlabids. Eventually Muhallabid rule weakened: a minor rebellion in [[Tunis]] took on a more ominous turn when it spread to Kairouan. The Caliph's governor was unable to restore order.

[[Ibrahim I ibn al-Aghlab]], a provincial leader (and son of al-Aghlab ibn Salim), was in command of a disciplined army; he managed to reestablish stability in 797. Later he proposed to the '[[Abbasid]] caliph [[Harun al-Rashid]], that he be granted Ifriqiya (as the Arabs called the former province of Africa) as a hereditary fief, with the title of ''amir''; the caliph acquiesced in 800.{{Sfn|Perkins|1986|p=30}} Thereafter, the 'Abbasids received an annual tribute and their suzerainty was named in the ''khutba'' at Friday prayers,{{Sfn|Laroui|1977|p=116}} but their control was largely symbolic, e.g., in 864 the Caliph [[al-Mu'tasim]] "required" at a new wing be added to the [[Zaytuna Mosque]] in Tunis.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|p=77}}

From 800 to 909, Ibrahim ibn-al-Aghlab (800–812) and his descendants, known as the [[Aghlabids]], ruled in Ifriqiya, as well as in Algeria (to the west) and in Tripolitania (to the east), yet in theory their rule was on behalf of the 'Abbasid Caliphate. The Aghlabids were predominantly of an Arab tribe the [[Bani Tamim]]. Their military forces were drawn from: (a) Arab immigrant warriors (those recently sent against the [[Kharajite]] revolts, and descendants of earlier Arab invasions), (b) Islamized and bilingual natives (''Afariq''), and (c) black slave soldiers. It was on their black soldiery that the rulers often relied.{{Sfn|Laroui|1977|p=118}}{{efn|Julien defines ''Afariq'' as Christians of Ifriqiya, including Berbers and Romans.{{Sfn|Julien|1970|p=43}}}}

Despite the political peace and stability, followed by an economic expansion and prosperity, and despite a developing culture and grand construction projects, many in the Arabic-speaking elite developed an increasingly critical attitude toward the Aghlabid regime.

First, the Arab military officer class was dissatisfied with the legitimacy of the regime and often fell to internal quarreling which could spill over into violent struggles. Their latent hostility surfaced when they began making extortionist demands on the population, as well as by their general insubordination.  A dangerous revolt from within the Arab army (the ''jund'') broke out near Tunis and lasted from 824 until 826. The Aghlabids retreated to the south and were saved only by enlisting the aid of Berbers of the Kharajite [[Jarid]]. (Another revolt of 893, provoked by the cruelty of the ninth Aghlabid amir, [[Ibrahim II of Aghlabids|Ibrahim II Ibn Ahmad]] (r. 875–902), was put down by the black soldiery.){{Sfn|Laroui|1977|p=118}}

Second, the Muslim [[ulema]] looked with reproach on the ruling Aghlabids. Aggravation in religious circles arose primarily from the un-Islamic lifestyle of the rulers. Disregarding the strong religious sentiments held by the many in the community, often the Aghlabids led lives of pleasure and, e.g., were seen drinking wine (against Islamic law). Another issue was Aghlabid taxation not sanctioned by the Maliki school of Islamic law. Other opponents criticized their contemptuous treatment of [[mawali]] Berbers who had embraced Islam. The Islamic doctrine of equality regardless of race was a cornerstone of the Sunni movement in the Maghrib, and also of the [[Maliki]] school of law as developed in [[Kairouan]]; these principles formed the core of the hostility of Ifriqiya toward rule from the east by the [[Caliph]].{{efn|Cf. {{Sfn|Perkins|1986|pp=30–31}}}}

As recompense, the Aghlabid rulers saw at mosques were constructed or augmented, e.g., at Tunis (the Olive Tree [''Zaituna''] Mosque, as well as its famous university, [[University of Ez-Zitouna|Ez-Zitouna]]); at. Kairouan (Mosque of the Three Doors), and at Sfax.  Also a well known [[ribat]] or fortified monastery was built at [[Monastir, Tunisia|Monastir]], and at [[Susa]] (in 821 by Ziyadat Allah I); here Islamic warriors trained.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|p=77}}

In 831 the son of Ibrahim, [[Ziyadat Allah I]] (r. 817–838), launched an invasion of [[Sicily]]. Placed in command was [[Asad ibn-al-Furat]], the [[qadi]] or religious judge; the military adventure was termed a ''jihad''.{{Sfn|Perkins|1986|pp=31–32}} This expedition proved successful; [[Palermo]] was made the capitol of the region captured. Later raids were made against the Italian peninsula; in 846 [[Rome]] was attacked and the Basilica of St. Peter sacked. In orchestrating the invasion of Sicily, the Aghlabid rulers had managed to unite two rebellious factions (the army and the clergy) in a common effort against outsiders.{{Sfn|Julien|1970|pp=49–50}}<!-- Unclear if this is a quote from Julien 1970: The observer may recognize this social pattern as being all too common among human societies no matter the time nor the place.--> Later [[History of Islam in southern Italy|Islamic rulers in Sicily]] severed connections with Ifriqiyah, and their own Sicilian [[Kalbid]] dynasty (948–1053) governed the Emirate.{{efn|In 1061 the Normans under [[Roger I of Sicily]] arrived on the island and eventually brought it under their rule. Charles Homer Haskins, ''The Normans in European History'' (Houghton Mifflin 1915, reprint Norton 1966) pp. 208–211.}} The invasion of Sicily had worked to stabilize the political order in Ifriqiya, which progressed in relative tranquility during its middle period. In its final decline, however, the dynasty self-destructed, when its eleventh and last amir, [[Ziyadat Allah III of Aghlabids|Ziyadat Allah III]] (r. 902–909) (d. 916), due to insecurity stemming from his father's assassination, ordered his rival brothers and uncles executed. This occurred during the assaults made by the [[Fatimids]] against the Aghlabid domains.{{Sfn|Perkins|1986|p=33}}

===Institutions and Society===

In the Aghlabid government generally, the high positions were filled by "princes of the blood, whose loyalty could be relied on." The judicial post of [[Qadi]] of Kairouan was said to be given "only to outstanding personalities notable for their conscientiousness even more than their knowledge."{{Sfn|Julien|1970|pp=48–49}} On the other hand, the administrative staffs were composed of dependent clients (mostly recent Arab and [[Persian people|Persian]] immigrants), and the local bilingual ''Afariq'' (mostly Berber, and which included many Christians). The Islamic state in Ifriqiya paralleled in many respects the government structure formed in Abbasid Baghdad,{{efn|In turn, the 'Abbasids owed much to antecedent [[Sasanian]] Persian institutions.}} There was the ''[[vizier]]'' [prime minister], the ''[[hajib]]'' [chamberlain], the ''sahib al-barid'' [master of posts and intelligence], and numerous ''kuttab'' [secretaries] (e.g., of taxation, of the mint, of the army, of correspondence). Leading [[History of the Jews in Tunisia|Jews]] formed a small elite group. As in an earlier periods (e.g., under Byzantine rule), the majority of the population consisted of rural [[Berbers]], distrusted now because of [[Kharajite]] or similar tendencies.{{Sfn|Laroui|1977|p=117}}

[[Kairouan]] (or Qayrawan) had become the cultural center of not only of Ifriqiya but of the entire Maghrib. A type of volume then current, the ''tabaqat'' (concerning the handling of documents), indirectly illuminates elite life in Aghlabid Ifriqiya. One such work was the ''Tabaqat 'ulama' Ifriqiya'' [''Classes of Scholars of Ifriqiya''] written by Abu al-'Arab.<ref>Muhammad Ben Cheneb (ed. & transl.), ''Classes des savants de l'Ifriqiya'' (Alger: Publications de la Faculte de lettres d'Alger 1914–1920), cited by Julien (1970) pp. 43 n.12 and 75.</ref><ref>Cf. Laroui (1977) p. 119 n.19.</ref> Among the [[Sunni]] Muslim [[ulema]], two learned professions then came to the fore: (a) the ''faqih'' (plural ''fuqaha'') or the jurist; and (b) the '''ābid'' or the ascetics.

[[Image:MuslimDistribution3b.JPG|thumb|right|200px|[[Maliki]], [[Hanafi]], [[Shafi'i]], and [[Hanbali]] schools of law: their core areas]]

The ''[[faqih|fuqaha]]'' congregated at Kairouan, then the legal center of al-Maghrib.{{Sfn|Perkins|1986|pp=30–31}} The more liberal [[Hanafi]] school of law at first predominated in Ifriqiyah, but soon a strict form of the [[Maliki]] school came to prevail, becoming in fact the only widespread [[madhhab]], not only in Tunisia but throughout Northwest Africa, a situation which continues (despite several interruptions) to be the norm today. The Maliki school was introduced to Ifriqiya by the jurist [[Asad ibn al-Furat,]] (759–829), who nonetheless wavered between these two schools of law. The ''Mudawanna'', written by his disciple Sahnun ('Abd al-Salam b. Sa'id) (776–854), provided a "vulgate of North-African Malikism" during the period in which this madhhab won the field against its rival, the Hanafi.{{Sfn|Laroui|1977|pp=120–121}}{{efn|Laroui suggests that the Ifriqiya victory by the Maliki partisans was aided by linking the Hanafi school to the rationalist doctrines of the [[Mu'tazili]], which later became discredited.{{Sfn|Laroui|1977|p=120}}}} [[Abu Hanifa]] (700–767) drew out [[fiqh]] at was perhaps better suited to its origin in [[Baghdad]], the sophisticated imperial capital; [[Malik ibn Anas]] (716–795) initiated the school bearing his name in [[Medina]].<ref>Knut S. Vikor, ''Between God and the Sultan. A History of Islamic Law'' (Oxford Univ. 2005) pp. 94–100.</ref>{{Sfn|Laroui|1977|p=120}} By choosing the Maliki school, Ifriqiya obtained more discretion in defining its legal culture. The Maliki jurists were often at odds with the Aghlabids, e.g., over their personal immorality, and over issues of taxation regarding agriculture (i.e., of a fixed cash levy instead of a [[tithe]] in kind).{{efn|The offending tax on crops payable in cash being the act of the second amir, 'Abdullah ibn Ibrahim (812–817).{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|p=77}}}} Also the Maliki fuqaha was understood to act in the interests of the Berbers for a local autonomy, by filtering out potential intrusions into Ifriqiya by Arab power and influence from the east.{{Sfn|Perkins|1986|pp=30–31}}{{Sfn|Julien|1970|pp=45–46}}

Foremost of the '''ābid'' scholars or ascetics was Buhlul b. Rashid (d. 799), who reputedly despised money and refused the post of grand judge; his fame spread throughout the Islamic world. By virtue of their piety and independence, the ''abid'' won social prestige and a voice in politics, speaking especially for the cities, criticizing the regime's finance and trade decisions.{{Sfn|Laroui|1977|p=121}} Although substantially different, the status of the 'ābid relates somewhat to the much later figure of the Maghribi saint, the ''[[wali]]'', who as keeper of ''[[barakah|baraka]]'' (spiritual charisma) became the object of veneration by religious believers, and whose tomb would be the destination of pilgrimage.{{Sfn|Julien|1970|pp=43, 338}}

[[Ifriqiya]] flourished under [[Aghlabid Dynasty|Aghlabid]] rule. Extensive improvements were made to the pre-existing water works in order to promote olive groves and other agriculture (oils and cereals were exported), to irrigate the royal gardens, and for livestock. Roman aqueducts to supply the towns with water were rebuilt under Abu Ibrahim Ahmad, the sixth amir. In the [[Kairouan]] region hundreds of basins were constructed to store water for the raising of horses.{{Sfn|Laroui|1977|pp=121–125}}

Commercial trade resumed under the new Islamic regime, e.g., by sea, particularly to the east with the Egyptian port of [[Alexandria, Egypt|Alexandria]]. Also, improved trade routes linked Ifriqiya with the continental interior, the [[Sahara]] and the [[Sudan (region)|Sudan]], regions regularly incorporated into the Mediterranean commerce for the first time during this period. Evidently [[camels]] on a large scale had not been common to the region until the fourth century, and it was not until several centuries later at their use in the [[Trans-Saharan trade|Saharan trade]] became generally recognized.<ref name="Richard W. Bulliet 1975"/><ref name="A. Bathily 1992"/> The trade began in earnest. The desert city of [[Sijilmasa]] near the Atlas mountains in the far west [maghrib al-aqsa] served as one of the primary trading junctions and entrepôts, e.g., for salt and gold. Yet [[Mzab-Wargla languages|Wargla]] was the primary desert link to [[Gafsa]] and [[Kairouan]]. Also [[Ghadames]], [[Ghat Municipality|Ghat]], and [[Tuat]] served the Saharan trade to Ifriqiya.<ref>E. W. Bovill, ''The Golden Trade of the Moors'' (Oxford Univ. 1958, 1968) pp. 68–74, 87, 239.</ref>

A prosperous economy permitted a refined and luxurious court life and the construction of the new palace cities of al-'Abbasiya (809), and Raqada (877) for the residences of the ruling [[amir]]. The architecture was later imitated in [[Fez, Morocco|Fez]], [[Tlemcen]], and [[Bougie]]. The location of these Aghlabid government centers was outside of Kairouan, a city dominated by Muslim clerical institutions.

Ifriqiyah during the era under the Aghlabid Dynasty (799–909) for the most part continued its leading rôle in the Maghrib, due generally to its peace and stability, recognized cultural achievements, and material prosperity.{{Sfn|Laroui|1977|pp=115–121}}{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|pp=76–78}}{{Sfn|Julien|1970|pp=41–50}}

==Fatimids: Shi'a Caliphate, and the Zirids==
As the [[Fatimids]] grew in strength and numbers nearby to the west, they began to launch frequent attacks on the Aghlabid regime in Ifriqiya, which of course contributed to its political instability and general unrest.{{efn|Ifriqiya continued to endure strife between the orthodox Sunnis of the [[Maliki]]te [[madhhab]], and the remnants of the [[Kharijite]] Berbers to south and east. I. Hrbek, "The emergence of the Fatimids" in ''General History of Africa,'' volume III, p. 163 (Paris: UNESCO; Berkeley: Univ.of California 1992, abridged edition).}} The Fatimids eventually managed to capture Kairouan in 909, forcing the last of the Aghlabid line, [[Ziyadat Allah III]], to evacuate the palace at Raqadda. On the east coast of Ifriqiaya facing Egypt, the Fatimids built a new capital on top of ancient ruins, calling the seaport [[Mahdia|Mahdiya]] after their ''mahdi''.{{Sfn|Laroui|1977|pp=130–132}}

===Maghribi Origin of the Fatimids===
The Fatimid movement had originated locally in al-Maghrib, among the [[Kotama]] Berbers in [[Kabylia]] (Setif, south of [[Bougie]], eastern Algeria).  However, both founders of the movement were recent immigrants from the Islamic east, religious dissidents: Abu 'Abdulla ash-Shi'i, originally from [[San'a]] in [[Yemen|al-Yemen]]; and, coming from [[Salamiyah]] in [[Syria]], 'Ubaidalla Sa'id (who claimed descent from [[Fatimah|Fatima]] the daughter of the prophet [[Muhammad]], and who was to proclaim himself the Fatimid [[Mahdi]]). Their religious affiliation was the [[Ismaili]] branch of the [[Shia]].

By agreement, the first founder to arrive (circa 893) was Abu 'Abdulla, the Ismaili ''[[Da'i]]'' or propagandist, who found welcome in the hostility against the [[Caliphate]] in [[Baghdad]] freely expressed by the Kotama Berbers.{{efn|Glasse, ''The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam'' re "Fatimid" pp. 123–125, remarks on the pre-Islamic Berber connections to [[Gnostic]] doctrines, and to [[Manichaeism|Manichaean]] leadership near Baghdad, as further reasons for their resonance with the Ismaili ''Da'i'', p. 124.}} After his success in recruitment and in building the organization, Abu 'Abdulla was ready in 902 to send for 'Ubaidalla Sa'ed, who (after adventures and imprisonment) arrived in 910, proclaimed himself Mahdi, and took control of the movement. Abu 'Abdulla was killed in a dispute over leadership.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|pp=80–81}}
[[File:Fatimid Caliphate.PNG|thumb|Evolution of the Fatimid Caliphate]]
From the start the Mahdi was focused on expansion eastward, and he soon attacked [[Egypt]] with a Fatimid army of Kotama Berbers led by his son, once in 914, and again in 919, both times quickly taking Alexandria but then losing to the [[Abbasids]]. Probing for weakness, the Mahdi then sent an invasion ''westward'', but his forces met with mixed results. Many Sunnis, including the [[Caliphate of Cordoba|Umayyad Caliph of al-Andalus]] and the [[Maghrawa|Zenata Berber kingdom]] in [[Morocco]], effectively opposed him because of his Ismaili Shi'a affiliation. The Mahdi did not follow [[Maliki]] law, but taxed harshly, incurring further resentment. His capital [[Mahdiya]] was more a fort than a princely city. The Maghrib was disrupted, being contested between the [[Zenata]] and the [[Sanhaja]] favoring the Fatimids.{{Sfn|Julien|1970|pp=56–60}}{{efn|The Sanhaja Berbers were associated with the Kotama. H. Mones, "The conquest of North Africa and the Berber resistance" in ''General History of Africa'' (1992), volume III, pp. 118–119.}}

After the death of the Mahdi, there came the [[Kharijite]] revolt of 935, which under [[Abu Yazid]] (nicknamed "the man on a donkey") was said by 943 to be spreading chaos far and wide.{{efn|This view of the revolt has been questioned. Cf., Aziz al-Azmeh, ''Ibn Khaldun in Modern Scholarship'' pp. 215–218.}} The Mahdi's son, the Fatimid caliph al-Qa'im, became besieged in Mahdiya. Eventually Abu Yazid was defeated by the next Fatimid caliph, Ishmail, who then moved his residence to [[Kairouan]]. Fatimid rule continued to be under attack from Sunni Islamic states to the west, e.g., the Umayyad Caliphate in Al Andalus.{{Sfn|Perkins|1986|pp=36, 39}}{{Sfn|Julien|1970|pp=66–67}}

In 969 the Fatimid caliph [[al-Mu'izz]] sent his best general Jawhar al-Rumi leading a [[Kotama]] Berber army against Egypt. He managed the conquest without great difficulty. The Shi'a Fatimids founded al-Qahira ([[Cairo]]) ["the victorious" or the "city of Mars"]. In 970 the Fatimids also founded the world-famous [[al-Azhar mosque]], which later became the leading Sunni theological center.<ref>I. Hrbek, "The emergence of the Fatimids" in ''General History of Africa,'' volume III, pp. 163–175, 171 (Paris: UNESCO; Berkeley: Univ.of California 1992, abridged edition).</ref> Three years later al-Mu'izz the caliph left Ifriqiyah for Egypt, taking everything, "his treasures, his administrative staff, and the coffins of his predecessors."{{Sfn|Laroui|1977|p=133}} Once centered in Egypt the Fatimids expanded their possessions further, northeast to [[Syria]] and southeast to [[Mecca]], while retaining control of Northwest Africa. From Cairo they were to enjoy relative success; they never returned to Ifriqiyah.{{efn|Meanwhile, the Kotama Berbers, worn out from their conflicts on behalf of the Fatimids, disappeared from the life of al-Maghrib.{{Sfn|Julien|1970|pp=54–55}}}}

===Zirid succession===
[[File:Zirid control circa 980 (version 2).png|thumb|Maximum extent of the Zirid Kingdom]]
After removing their capital to Cairo, the Fatimids withdrew from direct governance of al-Maghrib, which they delegated to a local vassal, namely [[Buluggin ibn Ziri]] a Sanhaja Berber of the central Maghrib. As a result of civil war following his death, the Fatimid vassalage split in two: for Ifriqiya the [[Zirid]] (972–1148); and for the western lands [present day Algeria]: the [[Hammadid]] (1015–1152).{{Sfn|Perkins|1986|pp=36, 39}}{{efn|The Hammadids were named for Hammad, Buluggin's son.}} Civic security was chronically poor, due to political quarrels between the Zirids and the Hammadids, and attacks from Sunni states to the west.

Although the Maghrib remained submerged in political confusion, at first the Fatimid province of Ifriqiya continued relatively prosperous under the Zirids. Soon however the [[Trans-Saharan trade|Saharan trade]] began to decline, caused by changing consumer demand, as well as by encroachments by rival traders from the Fatimids to the east and from the rising power of the [[Almoravid|al-Murabit]] movement to the west. This decline in the Saharan trade caused a rapid deterioration to the city of [[Kairouan]], the political and cultural center of the Zirid state. To compensate, the Zirids encouraged the commerce of their coastal cities, which did begin to quicken; however, they faced tough challenges from [[History of the Mediterranean region|Mediterranean]] traders of the rising city-states of [[Genoa]] and [[Pisa]].{{Sfn|Perkins|1986|pp=40–41, 42}}{{efn|Later, Normans from Sicily invaded coastal Ifriqiya. {{Sfn|Perkins|1986|p=43}}}}

In 1048, for economic and popular reasons, the Zirids dramatically broke with the [[Shia|Shi'a]] Fatimid suzerainty from Cairo; instead the Zirids chose to become [[Sunni]] (always favored by most Maghribi Muslims) and declaring their allegiance to the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] of [[Baghdad]]. Many shia were killed in disturbances throughout Ifriqiya. The Zirid state seized Fatimid coinage. Sunni Maliki jurists were reestablished as the prevailing school of law.{{Sfn|Perkins|1986|pp=39–40, 41}} In retaliation, the Fatimids sent against the Zirids an invasion of nomadic Arabians who had already migrated into Egypt; these bedouins were induced by the Fatimids to continue westward into Ifriqiya.{{Sfn|Julien|1970|pp=72–74}}<ref>The Arabian tribe Banu Hilal, as well as the Banu Sulaym, both then residing in upper Egypt. I. Hrbek, "The emergence of the Fatimids" in ''General History of Africa,'' volume III, pp. 163–175, 173–174 (Paris: UNESCO; Berkeley: Univ.of California 1992, abridged edition).</ref>

[[Image:Banu Amir Branches.JPG|thumb|right|150px|[[Banu Hilal]] in genealogical scheme of the [[Banu Amir|Banu 'Amir]].]]

The arriving [[Bedouin]]s of the [[Banu Hilal]] defeated in battle Zirid and Hammadid armies and sacked Kairouan in 1057. It has been said at much of the Maghrib's misfortunes to follow could be traced to the chaos and regression occasioned by their arrival, although opinion is not unanimous.{{efn|Negative view of the Banu Hilal has been challenged; cf., Aziz al-Azmeh, ''Ibn Khaldun in Modern Scholarship'' pp. 218–222.}} In Arab lore [[Abu Zayd al-Hilali]] the leader of the Banu Hilal is a hero, as in the folk epic [[Taghribat Bani Hilal]]. The Banu Hilal originated from the tribal confederacy of the [[Banu Amir|Banu 'Amir]], located generally in southwest Arabia.{{Sfn|Laroui|1977|pp=147–156}} As the Banu Halali tribes took control of the plains, the local sedentary people were forced to take refuge in the mountains; in prosperous central and northern Ifriqiya farming gave way to pastoralism. Even after the fall of the Zirids the Banu Hilal were a source of disorder, as in the 1184 insurrection of the [[Banu Ghaniya]].{{Sfn|Julien|1970|p=116}}{{efn|[[Ibn Khaldun]] viewed the Banu Hilal as destroying locust.{{Sfn|Perkins|1986|pp=41–42}}}} These rough Arab newcomers did constitute a second large Arab immigration into Ifriqiya, and accelerated the process of Arabization, with the [[Berber languages]] decreasing in use in rural areas as a result of this Bedouin ascendancy.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|pp=80–86}}

Substantially weakened, the Zirids lingered on, while the regional economy declined, with civil society adrift.

===Perspectives and trends===
The Fatimids were [[Shi'a]] (specifically, of the more controversial [[Isma'ilis]] branch), whose leadership came from the then unpopular east. Today, of course, the majority of Tunisians now identify as members of the opposing [[Sunni]]. The Fatimids did initially inspire the allegiance of Berber elements. Yet once installed Fatimid rule greatly disrupted social harmony in Ifriqiya; they imposed high, unorthodox taxes, leading to the [[Kharijite]] revolt.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|pp=83–84}} Later, the Fatimids relocated to [[Cairo]]. Although originally a client of the Fatimid Shi'a Caliphate in Egypt, eventually the Zirids expelled the Fatimids from Ifriqiya. In return, the Fatimids managed to send the destructive [[Banu Hilal]] to Ifriqiya, which led to chaotic, ragged social conditions, during a period of economic decline. The Zirid dynasty has been viewed historically as a Berber kingdom, essentially founded by a [[Sanhaja]] Berber leader.{{Sfn|Perkins|1986|pp=39–}} Also, from the far west of [[al-Maghrib]], the Sunni Umayyad [[Caliphate of Cordoba|Caliphate of Córdoba]] long opposed and battled against the Shi'a Fatimids, whether based in Ifriqiya or in Egypt.{{Sfn|Laroui|1977|pp=134, 138, 141, 147}} Accordingly, Tunisians may evidence faint pride in the great extent and relative endurance, the peace and prosperity at Fatimid rule brought to Egypt, and in the [[Fatimid Caliphate]] in Islamic history.

During the interval of Shi'a rule, the Berber people appear to have moved ideologically, from a popular antagonism to the Sunni east, toward an acquiescence to its orthodoxy, though of course mediated by their own [[Maliki]] law (viewed as one of the four orthodox [[madhhab]] by the Sunni). In addition to the above grievances against the Fatimids, during the Fatimid era the prestige of exercising cultural leadership within al-Maghrib shifted decisively away from [[Ifriqiya]] and instead came to be the prize of [[al-Andalus]].{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|p=90}}

==Norman Africa==
{{Main|Kingdom of Africa}}
[[File:Regnonormanno1160.jpg|thumb|right|400px|The "Kingdom of Africa" (''Regno d'Africa'') pinpointed in red]]
Anarchy in Ifriqiya (Modern day [[Tunisia]]) made it a target for the Norman kingdom in [[Sicily]],<ref>The Normans ruled Sicily for over one hundred years, until in 1197 and the [[Hohenstaufens]]. Hearder, ''Italy. A Short History'' pp. 55, 58.</ref> which between 1134 and 1148 seized [[Mahdia]], [[Gabes]], [[Sfax]], and the island of [[Jerba]].

The Kingdom of Africa was an extension of the frontier zone of the [[Siculo-Norman]] state in the former [[Roman province of Africa]]{{efn|Before it was finally conquered by the Muslims, this province was reorganised as the [[Exarchate of Africa|Byzantine exarchate of Africa]].}} (''[[Ifrīqiya]]'' in [[Tunisian Arabic]]), corresponding to [[Tunisia]] and parts of [[Algeria]] and [[Libya]] today.  The main primary sources for the kingdom are Arabic (Muslim);<ref>All the Arabic sources can be found in Michele Amari, ''Biblioteca arabo-sicula'' (Rome and Turin: 1880).</ref> the Latin (Christian) sources are scanter. According to Hubert Houben, since "Africa" was never mentioned in the royal title of the kings of Sicily, "one ought not to speak of a 'Norman kingdom of Africa'."<ref>Houben, ''Roger II'', 83.</ref> Rather, "[Norman Africa] really amounted to a constellation of Norman-held towns along coastal Ifrīqiya."<ref name=dalli79>Dalli, "Bridging Europe and Africa", 79.</ref>

The Sicilian conquest of Africa began under [[Roger II]] in 1146–48. Sicilian rule consisted of military garrisons in the major towns, exactions on the local Muslim population, protection of Christians and the minting of coin. The local aristocracy was largely left in place, and Muslim princes controlled the civil government under Sicilian oversight. Economic connections between Sicily and Africa, which were strong before the conquest, were strengthened, while ties between Africa and northern Italy were expanded.  Early in the reign of [[William I of Sicily|William I]], the "kingdom" of Africa fell to the [[Almohads]] (1158–60). Its most enduring legacy was the realignment of Mediterranean powers brought about by its demise and the Siculo-Almohad peace finalised in 1180.

===Conquest of Tripoli and Mahdia===
In 1142/3, Roger II attacked [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]], further south down the coast from Mahdia. In 1146 he besieged it and took it. The city had already been depleted by a series of famines and was practically in a state of civil war when Roger's troops assaulted it. It was still an important port on the sea route from the Maghreb to Egypt.{{sfn|Abulafia|1985|pp=32–33}} Several of the minor emirs in the vicinity of Tripoli sought Sicilian overlordship after this. Yūsuf, the ruler of Gabès, wrote to Roger requesting "the robes and letter of appointment making me ''[[Wali (administrative title)|wāli]]'' of Gabès, and I shall be your deputy there, as are the [[Banū Matrūh]] who hold Tripoli from you."{{Sfn|Abulafia|1985|p=34}}<!--quoting Ibn al-Athīr, ''[[The Complete History]]''.--> Roger complied and Yūsuf, in his new robes, read out the letter of appointment to an assemblage of notables. Gabès had long been an irritant to Mahdia, and al-Hasan of Mahdia attacked it and brought back Yūsuf to Mahdia, and stoned him to death. It is possible that Roger's attack on Mahdia in 1148 was a response to this insubordination on the part of its emir, but Ibn al-Athīr suggested that Roger was merely taking advantage of a famine in Africa, despite the fact that he had a treaty with al-Hasan until 1150.

In June 1148 Roger sent his admiral [[George of Antioch]], a former Mahdian officer, against al-Hasan. Off the island of [[Pantelleria]] the Sicilian fleet encountered a Mahdia ship bearing some carrier pigeons. George had the birds sent home with false messages that the fleet was headed for [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantium]]. When the Sicilians reached Mahdia on 22 June, the emir and his court fled the unprepared city leaving their treasure behind. This was seized as booty, but the Sicilians were given only two hours to plunder the city while its Muslim inhabitants took refuge in Christian homes and churches. Roger quickly issued a royal protection, or ''amān'', to all the city's inhabitants. According to [[Ibn abī-Dīnār]], George "restored both cities of Zawīla and Mahdiyya; lent money to the merchants; gave alms to the poor; placed the administration of justice in the hands of ''[[qadi]]'' acceptable to the population; and arranged well the government of these two cities."{{Sfn|Abulafia|1985|p=34}}<!--quoted.--> Food was released to encourage refugees to return.

On 1 July the city of [[Sousse]] (Susa), ruled by al-Hasan's son 'Ali, surrendered without a fight, and 'Ali fled to his father in [[Almohad Morocco]]. On 12 July [[Sfax]] fell after a short resistance. The Africans "were treated humanely" and an ''amān'' full of "fine promises" was granted for the entire province, according to Ibn al-Athīr.{{sfn|Abulafia|1985|p=35}} [[Ibn Khaldun]], in his ''Kitab al-Ibar'', records the abuse the Christians of Sfax heaped on their Muslim neighbours.{{sfn|Abulafia|1985|p=42}} The Banū Matrūh were left in power in Tripoli, and in Sfax Roger appointed Umar ibn al-Husayn al-Furrīānī, whose father was brought to Sicily as a hostage for his son's good behaviour. The Arabic sources are unanimous in presenting Umar's father as encouraging his son to rebel nonetheless.{{sfn|Abulafia|1985|pp=37–38}} The town of Barasht (Bresk) and the isles of [[Kerkennah]] fell to Roger, as did the unruly desert tribes. After the brief period of conquest and acquisition, "the dominion of the Franks [Normans] extended from Tripoli to the borders of Tunis, and from the western Maghrib to Qayrawan".{{Sfn|Abulafia|1985|p=35}}<!--quoting Ibn al-Athīr.-->

===Submission of Tunis and internal unrest===

Roger became involved in a war with Byzantium after 1148, and so was unable to follow up his conquests with an attack on [[Tunis]]. In fear, the Tunisians sent grain to Sicily in hopes of averting an attack, according to Ibn Idhari. This should probably be seen as tribute and submission, since Ibn Idhar writes that Roger was still in power in the city when the Almohads attacked it in 1159, although he was in fact dead.{{Sfn|Abulafia|1985|p=35}}<!--quoting Ibn Idhari.--> The Venetian chronicler [[Andrea Dandolo]] is probably correct in asserting: "and the kings of Tunis paid him [Roger] tribute" (''regemque Tunixii sibi tributarium fecit'').{{sfn|Abulafia|1985|p=35}} Roger died in 1154, and was succeeded by his son [[William I of Sicily|William I]], who continued to rule Africa. His accession was taken for an opportunity by the native officials, who clamoured for more powers to tax. The Arabic historians Ibn al-Athīr and Ibn Khaldun, both hoped that Roger would defend his African lands against Almohad extremism and intolerance. After his death, some Muslim officials demanded that sermons be preached against the Almohads in the mosques.{{sfn|Abulafia|1985|pp=42–43}}

==Almohads (al-Muwahiddin)==
{{Main|History of medieval Tunisia}}
{{See also|Almohad conquest of Norman Africa}}

The only strong Muslim power then in the [[Maghreb]] was at the newly emerging Almohads, led by their caliph a Berber [[Abd al-Mu'min]]. He responded in several military campaigns which by 1160 compelled the Normans to retreat back to Sicily.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|p=109}}<ref>Cf., Haskins, ''The Normans in European History'' (New York 1915, reprint Norton Library 1966) p. 192.</ref> The Almohads were also successful in driving off incursions by the [[Ayyubids]] in the 1180s, although they managed to occupy southern coastal areas intermittently during this period.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baadj |first1=Amar |title=Saladino y las campañas ayyubíes en el Magreb |journal=Al-Qanṭara |date=30 December 2013 |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=267–295 |doi=10.3989/alqantara.2013.010 |url=https://al-qantara.revistas.csic.es/index.php/al-qantara/article/view/303 |trans-title=Saladin and the Ayyubid Campaigns in the Maghrib |location=University of Toronto, Canada|doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Movement and Empire===
[[File:Empire almohade.PNG|thumb|Almohad Empire (1147–1269) at it greatest extent]]
The [[Almohad]] movement [Arabic ''al-Muwahhidun'', "the Unitarians"] ruled variously in the Maghrib starting about 1130 until 1248 (locally until 1275).<ref>Cyril Glassé, ''The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam'' (San Francisco: HarperCollins 1989) pp. 38–39.</ref>{{Sfn|Le Tourneau|1969|pp=3, 41, 48–49, 92}}{{efn|"Almohad" is from the Spanish for the Arabic ''al-Muwahhidun''.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|p=105}}}} This movement had been founded by [[Ibn Tumart]] (1077–1130), a [[Masmuda]] Berber from the [[Atlas mountains]] of Morocco, who became the [[mahdi]]. After a pilgrimage to Mecca followed by study, he had returned to the Maghrib about 1218 inspired by the teachings of [[al-Ash'ari]] and [[al-Ghazali]].{{efn|,{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|p=103}} stating at although Ibn Tumart was clearly influenced by al-Ghazali, the two never personally met (citing Goldziher).}} A charismatic leader, he preached an interior awareness of the Unity of God.{{Sfn|Le Tourneau|1969|pp=3–11, 25–26}} A puritan and a hard-edged reformer, he gathered a strict following among the Berbers in the Atlas, founded a radical community, and eventually began an armed challenge to the current rulers, the [[Almoravids]] (1056–1147).{{efn|Le Tourneau reports (and criticizes) the story that the Almoravids (with Maliki legal backing) burned the book ''Revival of Religious Sciences'' by Al-Ghazali (1058–1111), which was said to have antagonized Ibn Tumart. {{Sfn|Le Tourneau|1969|pp=6–8, 14}} }} These Almoravids [Arabic ''al-Murabitun'', from ''Ribat'', e.g., "defenders"] had also been a Berber Islamic movement of the Maghrib,{{efn|Predominantly of the [[Sanhaja]] confederacy of Berbers (then located across the far west Sahara), led particularly by the [[Lamtuna]] tribe.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|pp=92–96, 101}}}}{{efn|Abun-Nasr compares the earlier [[Kharijites]] (since localized near [[Jerba]] in southern Tunisia), the [[Almoravids]], and the [[Almohads]], each a Berber movement rebellious against a lax Arab orthodoxy, each movement seeking to achieve "leading the Muslim good life [as] the professed aim of politics". {{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|p=119}}}} which had run its course and since become decadent and weak.<ref>Cyril Glassé, ''The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam'' (San Francisco: HarperCollins 1989) pp. 39–40.</ref> Although the Almoravids had once ruled from [[Mauritania]] (south of Morocco) to al-Andalus (southern Spain), Almoravid rule had never reached to Ifriqiya.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|p=94}}

Following Ibn Tumart's death, [[Abd al-Mu'min]] al-Kumi (c.1090–1163) became the Almohad caliph, circa 1130.{{efn|Abd al-Mu'min was the first non–Arab to take the caliphal title ''amiral-mu'minin'' [commander of the faithful].{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|p=111}}}} Abd al-Mu'min had been one of the original "Ten" followers of Ibn Tumart.{{Sfn|Le Tourneau|1969|pp=25–26}} He immediately had attacked the ruling [[Almoravids]] and had wrestled Morocco away from them by 1147, suppressing subsequent revolts there. Then he crossed the straits, occupying [[al-Andalus]] (in Spain).{{efn|Unfortunately, as a result of the Almohad invasion, whose zealots forced many of the conquered to choose between conversion or flight, the family of the Jewish philosopher and [[Talmud]]ist, [[Maimonides|Moshe ben Maimon]], then thirteen, had to flee [[Córdoba, Andalusia|Córdoba]] in 1148, eventually finding safety in [[Fatimid]] Egypt. Isaac Husik, ''A History of Medieval Jewish Philosophy'' (Macmillan 1916, reprint Philadelphia 1940) p. 238.}}<ref>Many Jews eventually entered España. Yitzhak Baer, ''A History of the Jews in Christian Spain'' translated from Hebrew (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society 1961) pp. I:46–49.</ref>{{efn|Seventy years later in 1212 defeat at the [[Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa]] proved to be a turning point not only for the Almohads (then under [[Muhammad an-Nasir]]), but also for Muslim rule in [[Andalucia]], España. Joseph Callaghan, ''A History of Medieval Spain'' (Cornell Univ. 1975) pp. 234, 245–249.}} In 1152 he successfully invaded the [[Hammadid]]s of [[Bougie]] (in Algeria). His armies intervened in [[Zirid]] Ifriqiya, removing the Christian [[Sicily|Sicilians]] by 1160.{{Sfn|Le Tourneau|1969|pp=48–57, 92}} Yet Italian merchants from [[Genoa]] and [[Pisa]] had already arrived, continuing the foreign presence.{{Sfn|Laroui|1977|pp=186–187}}{{efn|Italian merchants, as well as those of [[Aragon]], came to predominate in the western Mediterranean trade of the Maghrib starting in the Almohad era. {{Sfn|Laroui|1977|pp=201, 217}}}}

"Abd al-Mu'min briefly presided over a unified Northwest African empire––the first and last in its history under indigenous rule". {{Sfn|Perkins|1986|p=44}} It would be the high point of Maghribi political unity. Yet twenty years later, by 1184, the revolt by the [[Banu Ghaniya]] had spread from the [[Balearic Islands]] to Ifriqiya ([[Tunisia]]), causing problems for the Almohad regime for the next fifty years.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|pp=114-118}}

===Rule of the Maghrib===

[[Ibn Tumart]], the Almohad founder, left writings in which his theological ideas mix with the political. Therein he claimed that the leader, the mahdi, is infallible.{{efn|An idea some [[sunni]] condemn as unorthodox, i.e., as similar to the [[shi'ite|shi'a]]. {{Sfn|Le Tourneau|1969|pp=28–29}}}}<ref>His writing are contained in ''Le Livre de Mohammed Ibn Toumert'' [The Book of M. ibn Tumart], edited by Jean–Dominique Luciani (Algiers 1903), introduced by [[Ignaz Goldziher]].</ref> Ibn Tumart created a hierarchy from among his followers which persisted long after the Almohad era (i.e., in Tunisia under the [[Hafsids]]), based not only on a specie of ethnic loyalty,{{efn|"Every member of the community had to belong to a tribe" under the control of their chief. Too, only Berbers of the Masmuda tribe could claim the title ''muwahiddin'' (Almohad).{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|pp=105, 110}}}} such as the "Council of Fifty" [''ahl al-Khamsin''], and the assembly of "Seventy" [''ahl al-Saqa''], but more significantly based on a formal structure for an inner circle of governance at would transcend tribal loyalties, namely, (a) his ''ahl al-dar'' or "people of the house", a sort of privy council, (b) his ''ahl al-'Ashra'' or the "Ten", originally composed of his first ten followers, and (c) a variety of offices. Ibn Tumart trained his own ''talaba'' or ideologists, as well as his ''huffaz'', who function was both religious and military. There is lack of certainty about some details, but general agreement at Ibn Tumart sought to reduce the "influence of the traditional tribal framework." Later historical developments "were greatly facilitated by his original reorganization because it made possible collaboration among tribes" not likely to otherwise coalesce.{{Sfn|Le Tourneau|1969|pp=31–34}}{{Sfn|Laroui|1977|pp=178–179}} These organizing and group solidarity preparations made by Ibn Tumart were "most methodical and efficient" and a "conscious replica" of the Medina period of the prophet Muhammad.{{Sfn|Laroui|1977|pp=179–180}}{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|pp=105-106}}

The mahdi Ibn Tumart also had championed the idea of strict Islamic law and morals displacing unorthodox aspects of Berber custom.{{Sfn|Le Tourneau|1969|p=20}}{{efn|E.g., Ibn Tumart condemned unveiled women and musical instruments.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|p=104}}}} At his early base at Tinmal, Ibn Tumart functioned as "the custodian of the faith, the arbiter of moral questions, and the chief judge."{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|p=106}} Yet because of the narrow legalism then common among [[Maliki]] jurists and because of their influence in the Almoravid regime,{{efn|In al-Andalus the Maliki school had turned inward to develop only those issues already present in its own [[fiqh]]; this had led to the burning of al-Ghazali's book{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|p=99}}}}{{Sfn|Laroui|1977|p=169}}{{Sfn|Le Tourneau|1969|p=14}} Ibn Tumart did not favor the Maliki school of law; nor did he favor any of the four recognized [[madhhab]]s.<ref>Abun-Nasr, ''A History of the Maghrib'' (1971) p. 104.</ref>{{efn|Compare: Marshall Hodgson states that the Almohads did follow the [[Zahiri]] [[madhhab]]. ''The Venture of Islam'' in II:269. The Zahiris, not one of the recognized four, taught a "literal" interpretation of the sources of law.}} In practice, however, the Maliki school of law survived and by default eventually functioned in an official fashion (except during the reign of [[Abu Yusuf Ya'qub]]al-Mansur (1184–1199) who was loyal to Ibn Tumart's teachings). After of century of oscillation, the caliph Abu al-'Ala Idris al-Ma'mun broke with the narrow ideology of prior Almohad regimes (first articulated by the mahdi Ibn Tumart) at had continued to function on and off, and for the most part, at the end, poorly; circa 1230, he affirmed the reinstitution of the then-reviving Malikite rite, perennially popular in al-Maghrib.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|pp=111, 114}}{{Sfn|Le Tourneau|1969|pp=94–96}}{{Sfn|Laroui|1977|pp=188–189}}

[[Image:Averroes closeup.jpg|thumb|right|100px|Ibn Rushd of Córdoba in detail from fresco ''[[The School of Athens]]'' by [[Raphael]]]]

The Muslim philosophers [[Ibn Tufayl]] (Abubacer to the Latins) of Granada (d.1185), and [[Ibn Rushd]] (Averroës) of Córdoba (1126–1198), who was also appointed a Maliki judge, were dignitaries known to the Almohad court, whose capital became fixed at [[Marrakesh]]. The sufi master theologian [[Ibn 'Arabi]] was born in Murcia in 1165. Under the Almohads architecture flourished, the Giralda being built in Seville and the pointed arch being introduced.<ref>Cyril Grasse, ''A Concise Enciclopedia of Islam'' (San Francisco 1991) pp. 174–175, 176–177, and 38–39.</ref>

"There is no better indication of the importance of the Almohad empire than the fascination it has exerted on all subsequent rulers in the Maghrib."{{Sfn|Laroui|1977|p=201}} It was an empire Berber in its inspiration, and whose imperial fortunes were under the direction of Berber leaders. The unitarian Almohads had gradually modified the original ambition of strictly implementing their founder's designs; in this way the Almohads were similar to the preceding Almoravids (also Berber). Yet their movement probably worked to deepen the religious awareness of the Muslim people across the Maghrib. Nonetheless, it could not suppress other traditions and teachings, and alternative expressions of Islam, including the popular cult of saints, the [[sufis]], as well as the Maliki jurists, survived.{{efn|Cf., {{Sfn|Laroui|1977|pp=186–192}}}}{{efn|Sufis mystical orders spread after the collapse of the Almohad regime. {{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|p=119}}}}

The Almohad empire (like its predecessor the Almoravid) eventually weakened and dissolved. Except for the Muslim Kingdom of Granada, Spain was lost. In Morocco, the Almohads were to be followed by the [[Merinids]]; in Ifriqiya (Tunisia), by the [[Hafsids]] (who claimed to be the heirs of the unitarian Almohads).<ref>Cyril Grasse, ''A Concise Enciclopedia of Islam'' (San Francisco 1989, 1991) pp. 38–39.</ref>

==Hafsid dynasty of Tunis==
[[File:Hafsid1400.png|thumb|Realm of the Hafsid dynasty in 1400 (orange)]]
The [[Hafsid dynasty]] (1230–1574) succeeded [[Almohad Empire|Almohad]] rule in Ifriqiya, with the Hafsids claiming to represent the true spiritual heritage of its founder, the Mahdi [[Ibn Tumart]] (c.1077–1130). Under the Hafsids, Tunisia would eventually regain for a time cultural primacy in the Maghrib.

===Political chronology===
Abu Hafs 'Umar Inti (or:al-Hintati){{efn|Not to be confused with Abu Hafs 'Umar, son of the first Almohad caliph [['Abd al-Mu'min]] (r.1132–1163), his [[vizier]], and brother of the next caliph Abu Ya'qub Yusuf (r.1163–1184).{{Sfn|Le Tourneau|1969|pp=67–68}} cf., {{Sfn|Julien|1970|pp=114–115}}}} was one of the ''Ten'', the crucial early adherents of the ''Almohad'' movement [''al-Muwahhidun''], circa 1121. These ''Ten'' were companions of Ibn Tumart the Mahdi, and formed an inner circle consulted on all important matters. Abu Hafs 'Umar Inti, wounded in battle near [[Marrakesh]] in 1130, was for a long time a powerful figure within the Almohad movement. His son 'Umar al-Hintati was appointed by the Almohad caliph [[Muhammad an-Nasir]] as governor of Ifriqiya in 1207 and served until his death in 1221. His son, the grandson of Abu Hafs, was Abu Zakariya.{{Sfn|Le Tourneau|1969|pp=24, 27, 32–33, 41, 65–66}}{{Sfn|Julien|1970|pp=102, 108, 115, 120, 141}}{{Sfn|Laroui|1977|pp=179–180, 183–184, 188}}

[[Abu Zakariya]]<ref>Abu Zakariya later was also known as Yahya I.</ref> (1203–1249) served the Almohads in Ifriqiya as governor of [[Gabès]], then in 1226 as governor of [[Tunis]]. In 1229 during disturbances within the Almohad movement, Abu Zakariya declared his independence: hence, the start of the Hafsid dynasty. In the next few years he secured his hold on the cities of Ifriqiya, then captured [[Tripolitania]] (1234) to the east, and [[Algiers]] (1235) to the west and later added [[Tlemcen]] (1242). He solidified his rule among the Berber confederacies. Government structure of the Hafsid state followed the Almohad model, a rather strict centralization. Abu Zakariya's succession to the Almohads was briefly acknowledged in Friday prayer by several states in al-Andalus and in Morocco. Diplomatic relations were opened with Venice, Genoa, Sicily, and [[Aragon]]. Abu Zakariya became the foremost ruler in [[the Maghrib]].{{Sfn|Laroui|1977|pp=178, 182, 195}} {{Sfn|Julien|1970|pp=141–142, 154}}

For an historic moment, the son of Abu Zakariya and self-declared caliph of the Hafsids, al-Mustansir{{efn|The honorific surname of al-Mustansir was given to Abu 'Abd Allah, son of Au Zakariya. (In Tunisian history there was earlier another Abu 'Abd Allah, namely the Isma'ili ''dai'' who prepared the way for the Fatimid Mahdi; and there was also another Fatimid caliph known as al-Mustansir.)}} (r.1249–1277), was recognised as caliph by Mecca and the Islamic world (1259–1261), following termination of the Abbasid caliphate by the Mongols (in 1258). Yet the moment passed; the Hafsids remained a local sovereignty.<ref>Hodgson, ''The Venture of Islam'' 2: 291–292, 477. In 1261 Baybars had become sultan of Egypt and he revived the Abbasid Caliphate.</ref>{{Sfn|Julien|1970|pp=142–143}}

In 1270 King [[Louis IX of France]], whose brother was the king of Sicily, landed an army near Tunis; disease devastated their camp.<ref>Steven Runciman, ''History of the Crusades'' (Cambridge Univ. 1954; Harper reprint 1967) pp. 291–292.</ref> Later, Hafsid influence was reduced by the rise of the Moroccan [[Marinids]] of [[Fez, Morocco|Fez]], who captured and lost Tunis twice (1347, and 1357).{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|pp=229–231}} Yet Hafsid fortunes would recover; two notable rulers being Abu Faris (1394–1434) and his grandson Abu 'Amr 'Uthman (r. 1435–1488).{{Sfn|Julien|1970|pp=147–151}}

Toward the end, internal disarray within the Hafsid dynasty created vulnerabilities, while a great power struggle arose between Spaniard and Turk over control of the Mediterranean. The Hafsid dynasts became pawns, subject to the rival strategies of the combatants. By 1574 Ifriqiya had been incorporated into the [[Ottoman Empire]].{{Sfn|Perkins|1986|pp=48–52}}

===Commerce and Trade===
[[Image:Millobacinomed.JPG|thumb|200px|Bacino del Mediterraneo, dall'Atlante manoscritto del 1582–1584 ca. Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale Vittorio Emanuele II, Roma (cart. naut. 2 – cart. naut 6/1–2)]]
The entire Maghrib, as well as Tunisia under the early Hafsids, enjoyed an era of prosperity due to the rise of Saharan-Sudanese as well as the Mediterranean trade, the latter including trade with Europe.<ref>Cf., E. Ashtor, ''A Social and Economic History of the Near East in the Middle Ages'' (London: Collins 1976). Trade had quickened in the Mediterranean after the [[Fatimids]] in Egypt took over the trade to [[India]] from the [[Persian Gulf]] ports. In 996 there were said to be at least 160 Italian merchants in [[Cairo]]. Tunis was a major center of this east–west Mediterranean trade, which continued for four hundred years. ''Ibid.'' pp. 195–196. While Cairo sent west the spices of India and raw flax, Tunis chiefly sent silk, olive oil, and soap east. Ibid. pp. 197–198.</ref> Across the region, repeated buy and sell dealings with Christians led to the development of practices and structured arrangements at were crafted to ensure security, customs revenue, and commercial profit.{{efn|Two commercial letters originally in Arabic sent from Tunis and addressed to merchants of Pisa, dated 1201, can be found in Robert S. Lopez and Irving W. Raymond, ''Medieval Trade in the Mediterranean World. Illustrative documents translated with introductions and notes'' (Columbia Univ. 1955, 2001) pp. 384–388 'Solidarity of Muslim and Christian Merchants,' docs. no. 190 and no. 191.}} The principal customs ports were then: [[Tunis]], [[Sfax]], [[Mahdia]], [[Jerba]], and [[Gabes|Gabés]] (in modern Tunisia); [[Oran]], [[Bougie]] (Bejaia), and [[Bône]] (Annaba) (in modern Algeria); and [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]] (in modern Libya). Generally at such ports, the imports were off loaded and transferred to a customs area from where they were deposited in a sealed warehouse, or ''funduq'', until the duties and fees were paid. The Tunis [[customs|customs service]] was a stratified bureaucracy. At its head was often a member of the ruling nobility or ''[[sharif|musharif]]'', called ''al-Caid'', who not only managed the staff collecting [[Duty (economics)|duties]] but also might negotiate [[contracts|commercial agreements]], conclude [[treaties]], and would act as [[judge]] in legal disputes involving foreigners. The amount of the duties varied, usually five or ten percent. It was possible for an arriving ship to deliver its goods and pick up the return cargo in several days time. Christian merchants of the Mediterranean, usually organized by their city–of–origin, set up and maintained their own trading facilities in these North African customs ports to handle the flow of merchandise and marketing.<ref>Wm. Spencer, ''Algiers in the Age of the Corsairs'' (1976) pp. 8–11.</ref>

[[Qanun (law)|Islamic law]] during this era had developed a specific institution to regulate community morals, or ''[[hisbah|hisba]]'', which included the order and security of [[Market (place)|public markets]], the supervision of market transactions, and related matters. The urban marketplace [Arabic ''souk'', pl. ''iswak''] was generally a street of shops selling the same or similar commodities (vegetables, cloth, metalware, lumber, etc.).{{efn|In the villages and rural areas, there was generally a market day each week at a fixed location for trading and [[bartering]]}} The city official charged with these responsibilities was called the ''[[muhtasib]]''.<ref>Knut S. Vikor, ''Between God and the Sultan. A History of Islamic Law'' (Oxford Univ. 2004) pp. 195–198. Vikor points out at ''[[hisbah|hisba]]'', which means "balance" in Arabic, also has the sense of ''achieving the common good and acting against evil,'' duties required of all Muslims, but especially of the Sultan. In some current Islamist movements, it can be viewed as license to [[vigilante]] action, e.g., breaking into homes to smash bottles of alcohol. Such private initiative also challenges the legitimacy of the government to keep public order.</ref><ref>John L. Esposito, ''The Oxford Dictionary of Islam'' (Oxford Univ. 2003) pp. 114, 213.</ref> In effecting public order in the urban markets, the ''muhtasib'' enforced fair commercial dealing (merchants truthfully quoting the local [[price]] to rural people, honest [[weights and measures]], but not quality of goods nor price ''per se''), keeping roadways open, regulating the safety of building construction, ensuring the metal value of existing [[coin]]age and minting new coin. The authority of the ''muhtasib'', with his group of assistants, was somewhere between a ''[[qadi]]'' (judge) and the police, or on other occasions perhaps between a public prosecutor or trade commissioner and the mayor or a high city official. Often a leading judge or ''[[mufti]]'' held the position. The ''muhtasib'' did not hear contested [[litigation]], but nonetheless could order the pain and humiliation of up to 40 lashes, remand to [[debtor's prison]], order a shop closed, and expel from the city. The authority of the ''muhtasib'' did not extend into the countryside.<ref>Knut S. Vikor, ''Between God and the Sultan. A History of Islamic Law'' (Oxford Univ. 2004) pp. 197–198.</ref>

During this period from al-Andalus came Muslim and Jewish immigrants with appreciated talents, e.g., trade connections, crafts, and agricultural techniques. Regarding general prosperity, however, there was a sharp economic decline starting in the fourteenth century due to a variety of factors.{{Efn|E.g. {{Sfn|Laroui|1977|p=221}}}}
Later, Mediterranean trade gave way to corsair raiding activity. {IN PROGRESS}

===Society and culture===

As a result of the initial prosperity, al-Mustansir transformed his capital [[Tunis]], constructing a palace and the Abu Fihr park; he also created an estate near [[Bizerte]] (said by [[Ibn Khaldun]] to be without equal in the world).{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|p=141}} An unfortunate divide, however, developed between the governance of the cities and of the countryside; at times the city-based rulers would grant rural tribes autonomy ('iqta') in exchange for their support in intra-maghribi struggles.{{Sfn|Laroui|1977|p=211–212|postscript=(Banu Hilal), cf. 216.}}{{Sfn|Julien|1970|pp=145–146}} This tribal independence of the central authority meant also at when the center grew weak, the periphery might still remain strong and resilient.{{efn|Cf., {{Sfn|Perkins|1986|p=53}}}} {IN PROGRESS}

Bedouin Arabs{{efn|Here, the Banu Suaim. Most of the Banu Hilal had by this period moved on to Morocco.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|pp=129, 144–145}}}} continued to arrive into the 13th century; with their tribal ability to raid and war still intact, they remained influential. The Arab language came to be predominant, except for a few Berber-speaking areas, e.g., [[Kharijite]] Djerba, and the desert south. Also, Arab Muslim and Jewish migration continued to come into Ifriqiya from al-Andalus, especially after the fall of [[Granada]] in 1492, the last Muslim state ruling on the Iberian peninsula. These newly arriving immigrants brought infusions of the developed arts of [[al-Andalus]].{{Sfn|Julien|1970|p=151–153}} The Andalusian tradition of music and poetry was discussed by [[Ahmad al-Tifashi]] (1184–1253) of Tunis, in his ''Muta'at al-Asma' fi 'ilm al-sama' '' [Pleasure to the Ears, on the Art of Music], in volume 41 of his enciclopedia.<ref>Benjamin M. Liu and [[James T. Monroe]], ''Ten Hispano-Arabic Strophic Songs in the Modern Oral Tradition'' (Univ.of California 1989) pp. 2 & 35; al-Tifasi's text translated pp. 36–69.</ref>

After a hiatus under the [[Almohad Empire|Almohads]],{{efn|Ibn Tumart is said not to have followed any recognized [[madhhab]] [see the ''Almohads or al-Muwahiddin'' era, the ''Rule over the Maghrib'' section, above]; yet the Almohads may have followed the Zahiri school of law (Hodgson, ''Venture of Islam'' in II:269), which is now extinct.}} the [[Maliki]] school of law resumed its full traditional jurisdiction over the Maghrib. During the 13th century, the Maliki school had undergone substantial liberalizing changes due in part to Iraqi influence.{{efn|Maghribi students were drawn to Iraq by the teachings left by Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (d.1209). By the end of the 13th century, Ibn Zaytun Haskuni Mishaddali had introduced transformations in Maliki fiqh which were incorporated in the Hafsid restoration.{{Sfn|Mahdi|1957|pp=30–31}}}} Under Hafsid jurisprudents the concept of ''maslahah'' or "public interest" developed in the operation of their [[madhhab]]. This opened up Maliki [[fiqh]] to considerations of necessity and circumstance with regard to the general welfare of the community. By this means, local ''custom'' was admitted in the [[Sharia]] of Malik, to become an integral part of the legal discipline.<ref>Hodgson, ''Venture of Islam'' in II:478.</ref> Later, the Maliki theologian Muhammad ibn 'Arafa (1316–1401) of Tunis studied at the Zaituna library, said to contain 60,000 volumes.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|p=150}}

Education was improved by the institution of a system of [[madrasah]]. Sufism, e.g., Sidi Bin 'Arus (d. 1463 Tunis) founder of the ''Arusiyya'' [[tariqah]], became increasingly established, linking city and countryside.<ref>Trimingham, ''The Sufi Orders in Islam'' (Oxford Univ. 1971) p. 87</ref>{{efn|The sufi ''shaikhs'' assumed the religious authority once held by the unitarian Almohads, according to {{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|p=119}}}} Poetry blossomed, as did architecture. For the moment, Tunisia had regained cultural leadership of the Maghrib.{{Sfn|Julien|1970|pp=159–161}}

===Ibn Khaldun===
{{Main|Ibn Khaldun}}

A major social philosopher, [[Ibn Khaldun]] (1332–1406) is recognized as a pioneer in sociology, historiography, and related disciplines. Although having Yemeni ancestry, his family enjoyed centuries-long residency in [[al-Andalus]] before leaving in the 13th century for Ifriqiyah. As a native of Tunis, he spent much of his life under the Hafsids, whose regime he served on occasion.

Ibn Khaldun entered into a political career early on, working under a succession of different rulers of small states, whose designs unfolded amid shifting rivalries and alliances. at one point he rose to [[vizier]]; however, he also spent a year in prison. His career required several relocations, e.g., [[Fez, Morocco|Fez]], [[Granada]], eventually [[Cairo]] where he died. In order to write he retired for a while from active political life. Later, after his pilgrimage to Mecca, he served as Grand Qadi of the [[Maliki]] rite in Egypt (he was appointed and dismissed several times). While he was visiting [[Damascus]], [[Timur|Tamerlane]] took the city; the conqueror interviewed the elderly jurist and social philosopher, yet Ibn Khaldun managed to escape back to his life in Egypt.<ref>[[Muhsin Mahdi]], ''Ibn Khaldun's Philosophy of History'' (London: George Allen & Unwin 1957; reprint Univ. Chicago 1964) pp. 53–62 (in Egypt), pp. 58–60 (Timur); Cyril Glassé, ''The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam'' (HarperSanFrancisco 1991), "Ibn Khaldun" pp. 171–172. Ibn Khaldun lost his wife and children at sea (on their journey to Egypt) in 1384. Simon, ''Ibn Khaldun's Science of Human Nature'' p. 33.</ref>

The history and historiography written by Ibn Khaldun was informed in theory by his learning as a ''faylasuf'' [philosopher].{{Efn|[[Muhsin Mahdi]]{{Sfn|Mahdi|1957|pp=30–33}} understands that he was influenced directly by Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (d.1209) of Iraq, and at least indirectly by [[al-Farabi]], [[Ibn Sina]], and [[Ibn Rushd]]. [[Erwin Rosenthal]] (''Political Thought in Medieval Islam'' (1958) pp. 104–105) states that he favored and shared the views of [[al-Ghazali]].}} Yet it was his participation in the small unstable governments of the region at inspired many of his key insights. His history seeks to account for the apparent cyclical progression of historical states of the Maghrib, whereby: (a) a new ruling association comes to power with strong loyalties, (b) which over the course of several generations fall apart, (c) leading to the collapse of the ruling strata. The ''social cohesion'' necessary for the group's initial rise to power, and for the group's ability to maintain it and exercise it, Ibn Khaldun called ''[[Asabiyyah]]''.{{efn|Heinrich Simon, ''Ibn Khalduns Wissenschaft von der Menschlichen Kultur'' (Leipzig 1959), translated by Fuad Baali as ''Ibn Khaldun's Science of Human Culture'' (Lahore: Ashraf 1978) pp. 68–88, presents a discussion of this key concept, wherein ''asab'' means "to bind", ''asabatun'' means "the group", ''asabah'' means the "paternal relationship" in the law of inheritance [p. 68, 68n1], and ''asabiyah'' means "the nature of the group" [68–69].}}

His seven-volume ''Kitab al-'Ibar'' [Book of Examples]{{efn|[[Muhsin Mahdi]], in,{{Sfn|Mahdi|1957|pp=63–71}} discusses the subtleties of this title. ''Ibar'' can mean  "instructive examples" [64], "bridge" or medium of explanation [66], or "bridge between meanings" [71].}} (shortened title) is a telescoped "universal" history, which concentrates on the Persian, Arab, and Berber civilizations. Its lengthy prologue, called the ''[[Muqaddimah]]'' [Introduction], presents the development of long-term political trends and events as a field for the study, characterizing them as human phenomena, in quasi-sociological terms. It is widely considered to be a gem of sustained cultural analysis. Due to his downplaying (or denying) the role of the ethnic Arab people in the development of Islamic science, philosophy and politics, Ibn Khaldun did not attract sufficient interest among Arabs, his studies being neglected in Ifriqiyah—a trend that has lasted to the present day as his works are considered [[politically incorrect]] vis a vis [[Arab nationalism]]. However and naturally, in the Persian and Turkish worlds he acquired a sustained following.<ref>[[Muhsin Mahdi]], ''Ibn Khaldun's Philosophy of History. A study in the philosophic foundations of the science of culture'' (London: George Allen & Unwin 1957); Heinrich Simon, ''Ibn Khalduns Wissenschaft von der Menschlichen Kultur'' (Leipzig 1959), translated by Fuad Baali as ''Ibn Khaldun's Science of Human Culture'' (Lahore: Ashraf 1978); Erwin I. J. Rosenthal, ''Political Thought in Medieval Islam'' (Cambridge Univ. 1958), Chapter IV, "The Theory of the Power-State: Ibn Khaldun's study of civilization" pp. 84–109; Hodgson, ''The Venture of Islam'' in volume II: 476, 478–484 (p. 481 n.13, Hodgson criticizes the translation of the ''Maqaddimah'' by Franz Rosenthal); Cyril Glassé, ''The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam'' (HarperSanFrancisco 1991), "Ibn Khaldun" pp. 171–172; R. Idris, "Society in the Maghrib after the disappearance of the Almohad" in J. KiZerbo & D. T. Niane (editors), ''General History of Africa'' (Univ. of California/UNESCO 1997) volume IV: 44–49, 48–49.</ref>{{Sfn|Laroui|1977|pp=218–223}}

In the later books of the ''Kitab al-'Ibar'', he focuses especially on the history of the Berbers of the Maghrib. The perceptive Ibn Khaldun in his narration eventually arrives at historical events he himself witnessed or encountered.{{efn|There is said to be danger in contemporary use of his local histories, because Ibn Khaldun reluctantly employed highly nuanced "folk Maghribi archetypes" at conflate Berber and Arab tribal identities with static ''genres de vie'' (socio-economic lifestyles), creating "mythological entities" and a chaos of meaning. Aziz al-Azmeh, ''Ibn Khaldun in Modern Scholarship'' (London 1981) pp. 215–222. Compare: {{Sfn|Laroui|1977|pp=218–223}}}} As an official of the Hafsids, Ibn Khaldun experienced first hand the effects on the social structure of troubled regimes and the long-term decline in the region's fortunes.

==Ottoman Caliphate, and the Beys==
{{Main|Ottoman Tunisia}}

[[Image:Ottoman small animation.gif|thumb|left|[[Ottoman Empire]] (1299–1918), here to 1683]]
A long-term contest for the Mediterranean began in the sixteenth century, between Spaniards (who in 1492 completed the ''[[reconquista]]'') and Turks (who had captured [[Constantinople]] in 1453). Spain then occupied a series of ports in Northwest Africa, e.g., [[Oran]] (1505), [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]] (1510), [[Tunis]] (1534). Some Muslim rulers encouraged Turkish forces to enter the area in order to counter the Spanish presence. The [[Hafsids]] of Tunis, however, saw in the Muslim Turks a greater threat and arranged a Spanish alliance.{{efn|Cf., {{Sfn|Perkins|1986|pp=51–54}}}}{{efn|Spain also had a tacit alliance with the [[Saadi dynasty|Sa'dids]] of Morocco. {{Sfn|Laroui|1977|pp=250–251}}}}

The [[Ottoman Empire]] accepted many [[Barbary pirate|corsairs]] as their agents, who made [[Algiers]] their base, including Khair al-Din [Arabic name] and his brother Aruj (both known for red beards and called [[Barbarossa (Ottoman admiral)|Barbarossa]]),{{efn|The brothers hailed from the Greek island of Lesbos (Medelli). Wm. Spencer, ''Algiers in the Age of the Corsairs'' (Oklahoma Univ. 1976) p. 18.}} and [[Uluj Ali]].{{efn|Uluj Ali, also spelled Ochiali, was a [[renegade (betrayer)|renegade]] of Italian ([[Kingdom of Naples|Neapolitan]], [[Calabria]]n) origin. Later from the Sultan he received the name ''Kilij'' [Turkish for "sword"]. J.P.D.B.Kinross, ''The Ottoman Centuries. The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire'' (New York: Wm. Morrow, Quill 1977) p. 271.}} In 1551 the corsair [[Dragut]] was installed in Tripoli; he entered [[Kairouan]] in 1558.{{Sfn|Laroui|1977|p=251}} Then in 1569 Uluj Ali, advancing from Algiers, seized Tunis.<ref>Fernand Braudel in his ''''La Méditerranée et le Monde Méditerranéen à l'Epoque de Philip II'' (Librairie Armand Colin 1949, 2d ed. 1966), translated by Siân Reynolds as ''The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II'' (Wm. Collins/Harper & Row 1973, reprint 1976) in II: 1066–1068. Here Uluj Ali is called ''Euldj 'Ali''.</ref>{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|p=173}} After the Christian naval victory at [[Battle of Lepanto|Lepanto]] in 1571,{{efn|The combined fleets of various Christian powers, including Spain as well as [[Venice]] and [[Genoa]], under the leadership of Don Juan of Austria (half-brother of [[Philip II of Spain]]) met and defeated the Turkish fleet off the coast of western Greece. Algerian ships under Uluj Ali escaped. J.Beeching, ''The Galleys at Lepanto'' (New York: Scribner's 1982) pp. 184–187, 219, 233–234.}} [[Don John of Austria|Don Juan of Austria]] retook Tunis for Spain in 1573. Uluj Ali returned in 1574 with a large fleet and army to capture Tunis with finality, and then sent the last Hafsid to Constantinople.<ref>Rinehart, "Historical Setting" 1–70 p. 22, in ''Tunisia. A country study'' (3rd ed. 1986).</ref>

===Janissary Deys===
Following imposition in 1574 of permanent [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] imperial rule, government in Tunisia was put on a more stable footing after a long period of flux and chaos. The [[Sublime Porte|Porte]] in Constantinople appointed a [[Pasha]] as the civil and military authority in Tunisia, which was made a province of the empire. [[Turkish language|Turkish]] became the language of the state. The capital city of Tunis was originally garrisoned with 4,000 [[janissary|Janissaries]], recruited primarily from [[Anatolia]], commanded by an [[Agha (Ottoman Empire)|Agha]]. The Porte did not maintain the ranks of ''Janissaries'', rather the Pasha in Tunisia himself began to recruit such soldiery from many different regions. From 1574 to 1591 a council (the [[Divan|Diwan]]), composed of senior military (''buluk-bashis'') and local notables, advised the provincial government.

[[Image:Yenieri-aturkishjanissary-gentilebellini.jpg|thumb|right|150px|A [[Janissary]], drawing by [[Gentile Bellini]] (15th century)]]
The new energy of Turkish rule was welcome in Tunis, and by the [[ulama]]. Although the Ottomans preferred the [[Hanifi]] school of law, some Tunisian [[Maliki]] jurists were admitted into the administration. Yet the rule remained one of a foreign elite. In the countryside, efficient Turkish troops managed to control the tribes without compromising alliances, but their rule was unpopular. The rural economy was never brought under effective regulation by the central authority. For revenues the government continued to rely primarily on [[Barbary pirates|corsair]] raiding in the Mediterranean.

In 1591 Janissary junior officers (''deys'') who were not of Turkish origin forced the Pasha to acknowledge the authority of one of their own men, called the [[Dey]] (elected by his fellow deys). Relatively independent of the Ottomans, the Dey exercised control in the cities.
'Uthman Dey (1598–1610) and Yusuf Dey (1610–1637) managed well enough to establish peace and order in place of chronic social turbulence.

In the tribal rural areas, control and collection of taxes were assigned to a chieftain, called the [[Bey]] [Turkish]. Twice a year, armed expeditions (''mahallas'') patrolled the countryside, showing the arm of the central authority. As an auxiliary force, the Beys organized rural cavalry (''sipahis''), mostly Arab, recruited from what came to be called the "government" (''makhzan'') tribes.{{Sfn|Perkins|1986|pp=55–57}}{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|pp=177–178}}

===Muradid Beys===

The [[Corsica]]n Murad Curso{{efn|His second name "Curso" indicates his Corsican origin. A Spanish intelligence report of 1568 estimated there were 10,000 [[renegade (betrayer)|renegades]] in Algiers, of whom 6,000 were Corsicans. Fernand Braudel, ''The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World'' (1949, 1966, 1973) pp. I: 159–160.}} (d. 1631) had since his youth been sponsored by Ramdan Bey (d. 1613). Murad then followed his benefactor into the office of the [[Bey]], which he exercised effectively; later he was also named Pasha, although his position remained inferior to the Dey. His son Hamuda (1631–1666) inherited both titles, with the support of the local notables of Tunis. By virtue of his title as Pasha, the Bey came to enjoy the prestige of connection with the [[Sultan]]-[[Caliph]] in Constantinople. In 1640, upon the death of the Dey, Hamuda Bey maneuvered to establish his control over appointments to at office.

Under Murad II Bey (1666–1675), son of Hamuda, the ''Diwan'' again functioned as a council of notables. Yet in 1673 the janissary deys, seeing their power ebbing, rose in revolt. During the consequent fighting, the urban forces of the [[janissary]] deys fought against the Muradid Beys with their largely rural forces under the tribal [[shaykhs]], and with popular support from city notables. As the Beys secured victory, so did the rural [[Bedouins]] and the Tunisian notables, who also emerged triumphant. The [[Arabic language]] returned to local official use, although the Muradids continued to use [[Turkish language|Turkish]] in the central government, accentuating their elite status and Ottoman connection.

At Murad II Bey's death, internal discord with the Muradid family led to armed struggle. The Turkish rulers of [[Algeria]] later intervened on behalf of one side in a subsequent domestic conflict; the Algerian forces did not withdraw and proved unpopular. This unfortunate condition of civil discord and Algerian interference persisted. The last Muradid Bey was assassinated in 1702 by Ibrahim Sharif, who then ruled for several years with Algerian backing.{{Sfn|Laroui|1977|pp=255–256}}{{Sfn|Perkins|1986|pp=56–58, 60}}{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|pp=178–180}}

A gradual economic shift occurred during the Muradid era, as corsair raiding decreased due to pressure from [[Early modern Europe|Europe]], and commercial trading based on agricultural products (chiefly grains) increased due to an integration of the rural population into regional networks. Mediterranean trade, however, continued to be carried by European [[merchant marine|shipping concerns]]. The Beys, in order to derive the maximum advantage from the [[export]] trade, in addition to taxation instituted government [[monopoly|monopolies]] which mediated between the local producers and foreign merchants. As a result, the rulers and their business partners (drawn from foreign-dominated [[elites]] connected to the Ottomans) took a disproportionate share of Tunisia's trading [[profit (accounting)|profits]].{{efn|Government control of the economic wealth was evidently common in the region during the 16th century. Cf., Fernand Braudel, ''The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World'' (1949, 1966, 1973) pp. I: 449–451. From such systematic policy in practice would later emerge the [[Mercantilist]] economic theory.}} This precluded the development of local interests, whether rural [[landowners]] or a wealthy [[merchant]] strata. A social divide persisted, with the important families in Tunisia identified as a "Turkish" ruling [[caste]].{{Sfn|Perkins|1986|pp=58–61}}

===Husaynid Beys===
The [[Husainid Dynasty|Husaynid Beys]] ruled from 1705 to 1881, and reigned until 1957. In theory, Tunisia continued as a vassal of the Ottoman empire (the Friday prayer was pronounced in the name of the Ottoman Sultan, money was coined in his honor, and an annual ambassador brought gifts to Istanbul) but the Ottomans never were able to depend on, or exact, obedience.

[[Al-Husayn I ibn Ali at-Turki|Husayn ibn Ali]] (1669–1740), a cavalry officer of Greek [[Crete|Cretan]] origin, came into power in 1705, remaining in control until 1735. He had won backing from the Tunisian ulama and notables, as well as from the tribes, for his opposition to Algerian influence which was removed. Yet in a succession dispute, his nephew Ali and his son Muhammad fought a divisive civil war, which ended in 1740 with Ali's uncertain victory. This result was reversed in 1756 after ten more years of fighting, but not without meddling by Algeria.

[[Image:BainbridgeTribute.jpg|thumb|100px|Captain [[William Bainbridge]] (U.S.A.) with tribute for the Dey of [[Algiers]] in 1800; the Pasha of [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]] declared war in 1801.<ref>Clark, Stevens, Alden, Krafft, ''A Short History of the United States Navy'' (Philadelphia 1910, revised by Alden in 1927) p. 43 (1793), 61–92 (1800–1805), 204–206 (1807, 1812–1815).</ref>]]

Early Husaynid policy required a careful balance among several divergent parties: the Ottomans, the Turkish speaking elite in Tunisia, and local Tunisians, both urban and rural, notables and clerics, landowners and the more remote tribes. Entanglement with the Ottoman Empire was avoided due to its potential ability to take over the Bey's prerogatives; however, religious ties to the [[Caliph]] were fostered, adding prestige to the Beys and winning approval of the local [[ulama]] and deference from the notables. [[Janissaries]] were still recruited, but increasing reliance was placed on tribal forces. Turkish was spoken at the apex, but use of Arabic increased in government use. ''Kouloughlis'' (children of mixed Turkish and Tunisian parentage) and native Tunisians notables were given increased admittance into higher positions and deliberations. Yet the Husaynid Beys did not themselves intermarry with Tunisians; instead they often turned to the institution of [[mamluks]].{{efn|In Tunisian practice, non-Muslim slave youths were purchased in Ottoman markets, educated with royal scions in high government service and in Islam, converted, given high echelon positions, and often married to royal daughters. Mamluks would number about 100.{{Sfn|Perkins|1986|p=63}}}} The dynasty never ceased to identify as Ottoman, and therefore privileged. Nonetheless, the local ulama were courted, with funding for religious education and the clerics. [[Maliki]] jurist entered government service. Rural [[marabouts]] were mollified. Tribal shaykhs were recognized and invited to conferences. Especially favored were a handful of prominent families, Turkish speaking, who were given business and land opportunities, as well as important posts in the government, depending on their loyalty.

The French Revolution and reactions to it caused disruptions in European economic activity which provided opportunities for Tunisia to profit handsomely. Hammouda Pasha (1781–1813) was Bey during this period of prosperity; he also turned back an Algerian invasion in 1807, and quelled a janissary revolt in 1811.

After the [[Congress of Vienna]] in 1815, Britain and France secured the Bey's agreement to cease sponsoring or permitting corsair raids, which had resumed during the Napoleonic conflict. Then in the 1820s economic activity in Tunisia took a steep downturn. The Tunisian government was particularly affected due to its monopoly positions regarding many exports. Credit was obtained to weather the deficits, but eventually the debt would grow to unmanageable levels. Foreign business interests increasingly exercised control over domestic commerce. Foreign trade proved to be a [[Trojan Horse]].<ref>[[Lucette Valensi]], ''Le Magheb avang la prise d'Alger'' (Paris 1969), translated as ''On the Eve of Colonialism: North Africa before the French conquest'' (New York: Africana 1977); cited by Perkins (1986) {{p.|67}}.</ref>

Under the [[French Protectorate of Tunisia|French Protectorate]] (1881–1956) the Husaynid Beys continued in a largely ceremonial rôle. Following independence, a republic was declared in 1957; the Beylical office was terminated and the Husaynid dynasty came to an end.

===Era of Reform===
In the 19th century under the Husaynid Beyds, commerce with the Europeans increased, with permanent residences established by many foreign merchants. In 1819 the Bey agreed to quit corsair raids. In 1830 the Bey also agreed to enforce in Tunisia the capitulation treaties between the Ottomans and various European powers, under which European consuls would act as judges in legal cases involving their nationals. During 1830 the [[Military history of France|French royal army]] occupied neighboring [[Algeria]].

[[Ahmad I ibn Mustafa|Ahmad Bey]] (1837–1855) assumed the throne during this complex situation. Following the examples of the Ottoman Empire under sultan [[Mahmud II]], and of Egypt under [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]], he moved to intensify a program to update and upgrade the Tunisian armed forces. In pursuit of this policy, he instituted a military school and started industries in order to supply its more modern army and navy. In a major step, he initiated the recruitment and conscription of native Tunisians to serve in the army and navy, a step which would reduce the long division between the state and its citizens. Yet the resulting tax increases were not popular.{{Sfn|Perkins|1986|pp= 69-72}}

Although desiring Ottoman support, repeatedly Ahmad Bey refused to apply in Tunisia the Ottoman legal reforms regarding citizen rights, i.e., the [[Tanzimat]] of 1839. Instead, he instituted progressive laws of his own, showing native Tunisian authority in the modernizing project and hence the redundancy of importing any Ottoman reforms. The Slave trade was abolished in 1841, slavery in 1846. Yet these legal reforms had limited application to many Tunisians. Ahmad Bey continued the general Beylical policy, i.e., to decline or reject political attachment to the Ottoman state, but welcome religious ties to the [[Ottoman Caliphate]].{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1971|pp=259–275}}{{Sfn|Perkins|1986|p=72}}

As part of his maneuvering to maintain Tunisia's sovereignty, Ahmad Bey sent 4,000 Tunisian troops against the [[Russian Empire]] during the [[Crimean War]] (1854–1856). In doing so he allied Tunisia with the Ottoman Empire, France, and Great Britain.<ref>Robert Rinehart, "Historical Setting" 1–70, p. 27, in ''Tunisia. A country study'' (3rd ed., 1987).</ref>

==Modernity and the French Protectorate==
{{Main|History of French-era Tunisia|French protectorate of Tunisia}}

As the 19th century commenced, the country remained quasi-autonomous, although officially still an Ottoman province. Trade with Europe increased dramatically with western merchants arriving to establish businesses in the country. In 1861, Tunisia enacted the first constitution in the Arab world, but a move toward a modernizing [[republic]] was hampered by the poor economy and by political unrest. Loans made by foreigners to the government were becoming difficult to manage. In 1869, Tunisia declared itself bankrupt; an international financial commission, with representatives from [[France]], the [[United Kingdom]], and [[Italy]], took control over the economy.

Initially, Italy was the country that demonstrated the most desire to have Tunisia as a colony having investment, citizens and geographic proximity as motivation. However, this was rebuffed when Britain and France co-operated to prevent this during the years 1871 – 1878 ending in Britain supporting French influence in Tunisia in exchange for dominion over Cyprus. France still had the issue of Italian influence (related to the huge colony of [[Tunisian Italians]] emigrated to Tunisia<ref>[https://bjuniornewblog.blogspot.com/2019/06/italians-in-colonial-french-maghreb.html Italians in Tunisia (and Maghreb)]</ref>) and thus decided to find an excuse for a pre-emptive strike. In the spring of 1881, the [[French occupation of Tunisia|French army occupied Tunisia]], claiming that Tunisian troops had crossed the border to [[Algeria]], France's primary [[colony]] in [[Northern Africa]]. Italy, also interested in Tunisia, protested, but did not risk a war with France. On May 12 of that year, Tunisia was officially made a French [[protectorate]] with the signature of the [[treaty of Bardo]] (Al Qasr as Sa'id)by [[Muhammad III as-Sadiq]].<ref>Cooley, ''Baal, Christ, and Mohammed. Religion and Revolution in North Africa'' (New York 1965) pp. 193–196</ref>{{Sfn|Brace|1964|pp=36–37}} This gave France control of Tunisian governance and making it a de facto French protectorate.

[[Image:Empire colonial français (1920).png|thumb|left|France's colonial empire at the time of French rule in Tunisia]]

The French progressively assumed more of the important administrative positions, and by 1884 they supervised all Tunisian government bureaus dealing with finance, post, education, telegraph, public works and agriculture. They decided to guarantee the Tunisian debt, and then abolished the international finance commission. French settlements in the country were actively encouraged; the number of French colonists grew from 34,000 in 1906 to 144,000 in 1945, occupying approximately one-fifth of the cultivated land. Roads, ports, railroads, and mines were developed. In rural areas the French administration strengthened the local officials (''qa'ids'') and weakened the independent tribes. An additional judicial system was established for Europeans but available generally, set up without interfering with the existing [[Sharia]] courts, available as always for the legal matters of Tunisians.

[[File:Europeans in french protectorate of tunisia.svg|thumb|Share of Europeans during French rule in Tunisia]]

[[Image:Carte tunisie 1902.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Map of Tunisia in 1902 with numerous railroads]]

Many welcomed the progressive changes, but preferred to manage their own affairs. Kayr al-Din in the 1860s and 1870s had introduced modernizing reforms before the French occupation. Some of his companions later founded the weekly magazine ''al-Hadira'' in 1888. A more radical one ''al-Zahra'' ran from 1890 until suppressed in 1896; as was the ''Sabil al-Rashad'' of 'Abd al-'Aziz al-Tha'alibi, who was inspired by [[Muhammad 'Abduh]] of Cairo, among others. Bashir Sfar initiated the discussion group ''Khalduniya'' in 1896. [[Ali Bach Hamba|'Ali Bash Hamba]] founded the French-language journal ''Tunisien'' to inform the French public of the Tunisian complaints, but only increased unrest. Tha'alibi founded the Arabic language ''Tunisien'' in 1909, to challenge Hamba from a Tunisian view point. In 1911 there were civil disturbances started within the universities. Hamba and Tha'alibi came together. A political party was begun, ''al-Ittihad al-Islami'' [Islamic Unity], which had pro-Ottoman leanings. Issues concerning a Muslim cemetery, the Jallaz, sparked large demonstrations which ended with martial law and the killing of many Tunisians in late 1911. Further demonstrations in 1912 led to the closing of the nationalist newspapers and the exiling of nationalist leadership.{{Sfn|Laroui|1977|pp=314–315, 353, 357–361}}

Organized nationalist sentiment among Tunisians, driven underground in 1912, resurfaced after the great War. Encouragement came from many directions, e.g., the formation of the [[League of Nations]] in 1919. Nationalists established the Destour [Constitution] Party in 1920. [[Habib Bourguiba]] established and led its successor, the Neo-Destour Party, in 1934. French authorities later banned this new party, while the fascist organizations of the [[Tunisian Italians]] supported it ([[Mussolini]] obtained the liberation of Bourghiba from a [[Vichy France|Vichy]] jail in 1942).

During [[World War II]], the French authorities in Tunisia supported the [[Vichy France|Vichy]] government which ruled France after its capitulation to [[Germany]] in 1940. After initial victories to the east the German General [[Erwin Rommel]],{{efn|Rommel later joined the German military's plot to kill Hitler; Rommel's preference was to arrest him and try him for war crimes. Wm. L. Shirer, ''Rise and Fall of the Third Reich'' (New York 1960) pp. 1030–1032.}} lacking supplies and reinforcements, in 1942 lost the decisive battle of [[Second Battle of El Alamein|al-Alamein]] (near Alexandria in Egypt) to the British General [[Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein|Bernard Montgomery]]. After learning of Allied landings in the west ([[Operation Torch]]), the [[Axis powers of World War II|Axis]] army retreated westward to Tunisia and set up defensive positions. The British following on his heels eventually broke these lines, although Rommel did have some early success against the "green" [[United States|American]] troops advancing from the west, until the arrival of General [[George Patton]] who stopped Rommel in battle. The fighting ended in May 1943. The German Afrika Corps surrendered on May 11. Two days later, on May 13, after the collapse of the [[5th Panzer Army|5th German Tank Army]], the fall of Tunis and the surrounding of the [[First Army (Italy)|1st Italian Army]], still holding the line at Enfidaville, the Italian general [[Giovanni Messe|Messe]] formally surrendered to the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]].

General [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] (who earned trust by talking straight if not always clearly) stated at "far from governing a conquered country, we were attempting only to force a gradual widening of the base of government, with the final objective of turning all internal affairs over to popular control." Tunisia became a staging area for operations in the invasion of [[Sicily]] later at year.<ref>Dwight D. Eisenhower, ''Crusade in Europe'' (New York 1948) p. 137; Wm. L. Shirer, ''The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich'' pp. 912–913.</ref>

[[Image:Tunisia sm03.png|200px|thumb|Map of modern Tunisia]]

After World War II, the struggle for national independence continued and intensified. The Neo-Destour Party reemerged under Habib Bourguiba. Yet with a lack of progress, violent resistance to French rule began in the mountains during 1954.  The Tunisians coordinated with independence movements in Algeria and Morocco, although it was Tunisia that first became independent. Ultimately, the Neo-Destour Party managed to gain sovereignty for its people by maneuver and finesse.{{Sfn|Brace|1964|pp=39–52, 95–97}}

==Tunisian Republic==
{{Main|History of modern Tunisia}}

Independence from [[France]] was achieved on March 20, 1956. The State was established as a [[constitutional monarchy]] with the [[Bey of Tunis]], [[Muhammad VIII al-Amin]] Bey, as the king of [[Tunisia]].

===The Era of Habib Bourguiba===

In 1957, the Prime Minister [[Habib Bourguiba]] (Habib Abu Ruqaiba) abolished the monarchy and firmly established his [[Neo Destour]] (New Constitution) party. The regime sought to run a strictly structured regime with efficient and equitable state operations, but not democratic-style politics. Also terminated was the ''[[Beylik of Tunis|bey]]'', a quasi-monarchist institution dating back to [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] rule. Then Bourguiba commenced to dominate the country for the next 31 years, governing with thoughtful programs yielding stability and economic progress, repressing [[Islamic fundamentalism]], and establishing rights for women unmatched by any other Arab nation.{{Sfn|Brace|1964|p=142}} The vision at Bourguiba offered was of a Tunisian republic. The political culture would be secular, populist, and imbued with a kind of French rationalist vision of the state at was buoyant, touched with élan, ''Napoleonic'' in spirit. Bourguiba then saw an idiosyncratic, eclectic future combining tradition and innovation, Islam with a liberal prosperity.{{efn|Habib Bourguiba has been compared to [[Atatürk]] (Mustafa Kemal) of Turkey, as a unique national modernizing leader. Yet, what may be called an inclination to arbitrary methods when making government decisions, and to a specie of personality cult, detracted from Bourguiba's insight and substantial achievements.{{Sfn|Perkins|2014|pp=130, 204–209}}}}

"Bourguibism" was also resolutely nonmilitarist, arguing that Tunisia could never be a credible military power and that the building of a large military establishment would only consume scarce investment resources and perhaps thrust Tunisia into the cycles of military intervention in politics at had plagued the rest of the Middle East. In the name of economic development, Bourguiba nationalized various religious land holdings and dismantled several religious institutions.{{efn|On the other hand, Bourguiba also negotiated with the Catholic Church; as a result Tunisia received scores of churches and land parcels to be used for libraries or museums, and the right to be consulted in the naming of future Church leaders. John K. Cooley, ''Baal, Christ, and Mohammad. Religion and Revolution in North Africa'' (Holt Rinehart Winston 1965) pp. 3–5, 297–298.}}

Bourguiba's great asset was at "Tunisia possessed a mature nationalist organization, the Neo Destour Party, which on independence day held the nation's confidence in hand." It had made its case to the city workers in the modern economy and to country folk in the traditional economy; it had excellent leaders who commanded respect and who generally developed reasonable government programs.{{Sfn|Brace|1964|p=141}}

In July 1961, when Tunisia imposed a blockade on the French naval base at [[Bizerte]], hoping to force its evacuation, [[Bizerte crisis|the crisis]] culminated in a three-day battle between French and Tunisian forces that left some 630 Tunisians and 24 French dead and eventually led to France ceding the city and naval base to Tunisia in 1963.

One serious rival to [[Habib Bourguiba]] was Salah Ben Yusuf. Exiled in [[Cairo]] during the early 1950s he had absorbed the pan-Arab nationalism associated with the Egyptian leader [[Gamal Abdul Nasser]]. Yet as a result of his strong opposition to the Neo Destour leadership during their negotiations with France for autonomy prior to independence, Ben Youssef was removed from his position as secretary-general and expelled from the party. Nonetheless, he rallied disaffected union members, students, and others, enough to put 20,000 ''yusufists'' into the street during the next congress of the Neo Destour party. Eventually he left Tunisia for Cairo.{{Sfn|Perkins|2014|pp=117–118, 128–129}}{{efn|Ben Yusuf was assassinated in Egypt in 1961. {{Sfn|Brace|1964|pp=115–116, 142}}}}{{efn|After 1987, Ben Yusuf was gradually "rehabilitated" and his body returned to Tunisia for burial. {{Sfn|Perkins|2014|pp=199–201}}}}

Socialism was not initially a major part of the [[Neo Destour]] project, but the government had always held and implemented redistributive policies. A large public works program was launched in 1961.{{Sfn|Brace|1964|pp=146–147}} Nonetheless, in 1964, Tunisia entered a short lived socialist era. The Neo Destour party became the Socialist Destour (''Parti Socialiste Dusturien'' or PSD), and the new minister of planning, Ahmed Ben Salah, formulated a state-led plan for agricultural cooperatives and public-sector industrialization. The socialist experiment raised considerable opposition within Bourguiba's old coalition. Ahmed Ben Salah was eventually dismissed in 1970, and many socialized operations (e.g., the farm cooperatives) were returned to private ownership in the early 1970s.<ref name = "Khaddar, 849">Moncef M. Khaddar, "Tunisia" pp. 848–850, 849, in Joel Krieger (ed.), ''Oxford Companion to Politics of the World'' (2001).</ref> In 1978, a general strike was repressed by the government with its forces killing dozens; union leaders were jailed.

After independence, Tunisian economic policy had been primarily to promote light industry and tourism, and develop its phosphate deposits. The major sector remained agriculture with small farms prevailing, but these did not produce well. In the early 1960s the economy slowed down, but the socialist program did not prove to be the cure.

In the 1970s the economy of Tunisia expanded at a very healthy rate. Oil was discovered, and tourism continued. City and countryside populations drew roughly equal in number. Yet agricultural problems and urban unemployment led to increased migration to Europe.

===The Era of Ben Ali===

In the 1980s the economy performed poorly. In 1983 the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) forced the government to raise the price of bread and [[semolina]], causing severe hardship and protest riots. In this situation, the Islamic Tendency Movement (MTI) under [[Rached Ghannouchi]] provided popular leadership. Civil disturbances, including those by the Islamists, were repressed by government security forces under General [[Zine El Abidine Ben Ali]]. The government persisted in following its program; Ben Ali was named prime minister.

The 84-year-old president Bourguiba was overthrown and replaced by Ben Ali, his prime minister, on November 7, 1987.{{efn|John P. Entelis, "Tunisia" pp. 532–533 in ''The Americana Annual 1988'' (New York: Grolier). Ben Ali's background was said to be pro-Western, trained in military affairs by France and the U.S.; he had previously clamped down on both left and right opponents, especially Islamic fundamentalists. Ninety fundamentalists had been found guilty of bombing hotels earlier in 1987. Entelis (1987) pp. 532–533.}} The new president changed very little in the Bourguibist political support system, except to rename the party the Constitutional Democratic Rally ([[Constitutional Democratic Rally|RCD]] by its French acronym).

In 1988, [[Zine El Abidine Ben Ali|Ben Ali]] tried a new tack with reference to the government and Islam, by attempting to reaffirm the country's Islamic identity; several Islamist activists were released from prison. He also forged a national pact with the Tunisian party Harakat al-Ittijah al-Islami (Islamic Tendency Movement), which had been founded in 1981; later it changed its name to [[Ennahda Movement|an-Nahda]] (the Renaissance Party). But Ben Ali's innovative tack did not work out. Subsequently, An-Nahda claimed to have run strongly in the 1989 elections, which gave the appearance of being unfair; reports often described pro-government votes at over 90%. Ben Ali subsequently banned Islamist political parties and jailed as many as 8,000 activists.<ref name = "Khaddar, 849"/>

{{Main|2000s in Tunisia}}

In 2004, Ben Ali was re-elected President for a five-year term, with a reported 94.5% of the vote. Also elected were 189 members of the ''Majlis al-Nuwaab'' or Chamber of Deputies, with a five-year term. In addition, there was a Chamber of Advisors composed of 126 members with six-year terms, of whom 85 were elected by government subdivisions (e.g., municipalities), by professional associations, and by trade unions (14 union members boycotted the process); the remaining 41 members were appointed by the President. The court system remained a combination of French [[Civil law (legal system)|Civil Law]] and Islamic [[Sharia]] Law.<ref name = "CIA World Fact Book Tunisia"/>

A widely supported human rights movement emerged, which included not only Islamists but also trade unionists, lawyers and journalists. Tunisia's political institutions, however, remained fixed in the authoritarian past. As of 2001, the government's response to calls for reform Included house arrests and prison.<ref name = "Khaddar, 849"/> The government continued its refusal to recognize Muslim opposition parties, and governed the country in a political climate considered rigid, from time to time using objectionable military and police measures to repress dissent.

In foreign affairs, Tunisia continued to enjoy close ties to the West while broadly following a moderate, non-aligned stance. The [[Arab League]] was headquartered in Tunis from 1979 to 1991.

===2000s in Tunisia===
[[File:Zain Al-A'abdeen Bin Ali portrait.jpg|left|thumb|Large portrait of Ben Ali, 2008]]
Tunis, the capital, has a population of about 700,000, and the second city of [[Sfax]] approximately 250,000. The population growth rate measured as births per female has fallen from 7 (1960s) to 2 (2007). Life expectancy is female 75, male 72. The religion is [[Islam|Muslim]] (98%), with 1% Christian, and 1% Jewish and other. Required education is eight years. The official language is [[Arabic language|Arabic]], with [[French language|French]] also spoken particularly in commercial dealings, and with less than 2% [[Berber languages|Berber]]. Literacy by definition includes all over 15 years, and is overall 74%, male 83% and female 65%. In 2006, 7.3 million mobile phones were in use and 1.3 million were on the internet; there were 26 television stations and 29 radio stations.<ref name = "CIA World Fact Book Tunisia"/>  Over half the population is considered urban, with agricultural workers being about 30% of the total. Unemployment in 2000 was about 15.6%, and in 2006 about 13.9%. Over 300,000 Tunisians were reported to be residing in France during 1994.<ref>Alfred Hermida, "Tunisia" pp. 544–545 in ''The Americana Annual 1994'' (New York: Grolier); Rose Ryan, "Tunisia" p. 548 in ''The Americana Annual 2000'' (NY: Grolier).</ref> Left out of the recent prosperity were many rural and urban poor, including small businesses facing the world market.

The monetary unit is the ''dinar'', at about 1.33 per dollar U.S.A. (recently a fairly constant rate), with inflation estimated pp.&nbsp;4.5% for 2006. Tunisia's per capita annual income was approximately 8,900 dollars (U.S.A.) in 2006.<ref name = "CIA World Fact Book Tunisia"/> Between 1988 and 1998 the economy more than doubled. The economy grew at 5% per year during the 1990s (the best in Northwest Africa), but hit a 15-year low of 1.9% in 2002 (due to drought and a decline in tourism), but it regained a 5% rate for 2003–2005; it was said to be 4%–5% for 2006.  Tunisia's economy is diverse. Its products are primarily from light industry (food processing, textiles, footwear, agribusiness, mining commodities, construction materials) and from agriculture (olives, olive oil, grains (wheat and barley), tomatoes, citrus, sugar beets, dates, almonds, figs, vegetables, grapes, beef dairy), as well as livestock (sheep, goats) and fishing. Other production comes from petroleum and mining (phosphates, iron, oil, lead, zinc, salt). Tunisia is self-sufficient in oil, but not in natural gas. A very significant portion of the economy derives from the tourist industry.<ref>Rose Ryan, "Tunisia" p. 548 in ''The Americana Annual 2000'' (NY: Grolier); by 2000 four million tourists were visiting each year, generating 4.7% of Tunisia's Gross Domestic Product (G.D.P.).</ref> Gross Domestic Product (G.D.P.) was composed of approximately 12.5% agriculture, 33.1% industry, and 54.4% services. Exports went to France 29%, Italy 20%, Germany 9%, Spain 6%, Libya 5%, U.S.A. 4%. Imports came from France 25%, Italy 22%, Germany 10%, Spain 5%.<ref name = "CIA World Fact Book Tunisia"/> An association agreement with the [[European Union]] will move Tunisia toward full free trade with the EU by 2008.

The face of the countryside changes markedly as one moves from north to south. In the north and central coast, orchards and fields predominate; while in the central plains, pasturage. Overall, arable land is 17%–19%, with forest and woodland 4%, permanent crops 13%, irrigated lands at 2.4%; about 20% is used for pasture. There are limited fresh water resources. In the south the environment grows increasingly arid, until the borderlands eventually reach into the Sahara desert. Roads total about 20,000&nbsp;km., two-thirds being paved, with most of the unpaved roads lying in the desert south.<ref name = "CIA World Fact Book Tunisia"/>

==The "Dignity Revolution"==
{{see also|Tunisian Revolution}}
[[File:Manif tunisie.JPG|thumb|Anti-government protests in 2011]]
The Ben Ali regime came to an end following nationwide demonstrations precipitated by high [[unemployment]], food [[inflation]], [[corruption]],<ref>{{cite web|title=A Snapshot of Corruption in Tunisia|url=http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/middle-east-north-africa/tunisia/snapshot.aspx|publisher=Business Anti-Corruption Portal|access-date=7 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160807082724/http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/middle-east-north-africa/tunisia/snapshot.aspx|archive-date=7 August 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Spencer |first=Richard |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/tunisia/8258077/Tunisia-riots-US-warns-Middle-East-to-reform-or-be-overthrown.html |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171010045358/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/tunisia/8258077/Tunisia-riots-Reform-or-be-overthrown-US-tells-Arab-states-amid-fresh-riots.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=October 10, 2017 |title=Tunisia riots: Reform or be overthrown, US tells Arab states amid fresh riots |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=13 January 2011|access-date=14 January 2011 |location=London}}</ref> a lack of [[political freedom]]s like [[freedom of speech]]<ref>{{cite web|last=Ryan|first=Yasmine |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/indepth/features/2011/01/20111614145839362.html |title=Tunisia's bitter cyberwar |publisher=Al Jazeera |access-date=14 January 2011}}</ref> and poor [[living conditions]]. The protests constituted the most dramatic wave of social and political unrest in Tunisia in three decades<ref name="protestwave">{{cite web |url=http://mideast.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2011/01/02/tunisia_s_protest_wave_where_it_comes_from_and_what_it_means_for_ben_ali |title=Tunisia's Protest Wave: Where It Comes From and What It Means for Ben Ali &#124; The Middle East Channel |publisher=Mideast.foreignpolicy.com |date=3 January 2011 |access-date=14 January 2011 |archive-date=15 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131115211351/http://mideast.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2011/01/02/tunisia_s_protest_wave_where_it_comes_from_and_what_it_means_for_ben_ali |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|author=Borger, Julian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/dec/29/tunisian-president-vows-punish-rioters|title=Tunisian president vows to punish rioters after worst unrest in a decade|date=29 December 2010|work=The Guardian |location=UK|access-date=29 December 2010}}</ref> and resulted in scores of deaths and injuries, most of which were the result of action by police and security forces against demonstrators. The protests were sparked by the [[self-immolation]] of [[Mohamed Bouazizi]] on 17 December 2010<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12120228 Tunisia suicide protester Mohammed Bouazizi dies], BBC, 5 January 2011.</ref><ref name="nytimes1">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/22/world/africa/22sidi.html?_r=1&pagewanted=2&src=twrhp|author=Fahim, Kareem|title=Slap to a Man's Pride Set Off Tumult in Tunisia|work=The New York Times|date=21 January 2011|page=2|access-date=23 January 2011}}</ref><ref name="nytimes2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/23/weekinreview/23worth.html?src=twrhp|title=How a Single Match Can Ignite a Revolution|author=Worth, Robert F.|work=The New York Times|date=21 January 2011|access-date=26 January 2011}}</ref> and led to the ousting of President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali 28 days later on 14 January 2011, when he officially resigned after fleeing to [[Saudi Arabia]], ending 23 years in power.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite news|author=Davies, Wyre |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12195025 |title=Tunisia: President Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali forced out |work=BBC News |date=15 December 2010 |access-date=14 January 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indybay.org/newsitems/2011/01/16/18669320.php |title=Uprising in Tunisia: People Power topples Ben Ali regime |publisher=Indybay |date=16 January 2011 |access-date=26 January 2011}}</ref>  In the Western media, these events were commonly named the ''Jasmine Revolution'',<ref>{{cite web|last=Carvin|first=Andy|title=Sidi Bou Zid: A Jasmine Revolution in Tunisia|url=http://storify.com/acarvin/sidi-bou-zid-a-jasmine-revolution-in-tunisia|publisher=Storify|access-date=7 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131211214152/http://storify.com/acarvin/sidi-bou-zid-a-jasmine-revolution-in-tunisia|archive-date=11 December 2013|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> but the name was not generally adopted in Tunisia itself.<ref>{{cite news|last=Carvin|first=Andy|title=Online Reports Detail Chaos, Deaths in Tunisia|url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2011/01/13/132888992/tunisia-protests-social-media|access-date=7 December 2013|publisher=NPR|date=13 January 2011|location=Washington DC}}</ref> where the name generally used is the ''Dignity Revolution'' ({{lang|aeb|ثورة الكرامة}}) (''{{transliteration|aeb|Thawrat el-Karāma}}'').

Following the overthrow of Ben Ali, Tunisians elected a [[Constituent Assembly of Tunisia|Constituent Assembly]] to draft a new constitution, and an interim government known as the [[Troika (Tunisia)|Troika]] because it was a coalition of three parties; the Islamist [[Ennahda Movement]] in the lead, with the centre-left [[Congress for the Republic]] and the left-leaning [[Ettakatol]] as minority partners.<ref name=ao17Jan>{{Citation|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/2/8/31906/World/Region/Tunisia-opposition-fear-Ennahda-power-grab-.aspx|title=Tunisia opposition fear Ennahda power grab|publisher=Ahram Online|date=17 January 2012|access-date=10 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2012/10/20121023195656868113.html|title=Tunisian politicians struggle to deliver|publisher=Al Jazeera English|date=23 October 2012|access-date=10 January 2014}}</ref> Widespread discontent remained however, leading to the [[2013–14 Tunisian political crisis]].<ref name="Crisis Talks">{{cite news|url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-tunisia-crisis-idUKBRE99M0ML20131023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201090644/http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-tunisia-crisis-idUKBRE99M0ML20131023|url-status=dead|archive-date=February 1, 2016|title=Thousands protest before Tunisia crisis talks|date=23 October 2013|work=Reuters}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-25908340|title=Tunisia assembly passes new constitution|date=January 27, 2014|publisher=BBC}}</ref> As a result of the efforts made by the [[Tunisian National Dialogue Quartet]], the Constituent Assembly completed its work, the interim government resigned, and [[Tunisian parliamentary election, 2014|new elections]] were held in 2014, completing the transition to a democratic state.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.jeuneafrique.com/Article/ARTJAWEB20140625141745/ |title=Tunisie : les législatives fixées au 26 octobre et la présidentielle au 23 novembre |newspaper=Jeune Afrique |date=25 June 2014}}</ref> The [[Tunisian National Dialogue Quartet]] was awarded the [[2015 Nobel Peace Prize]] for "its decisive contribution to the building of a pluralistic democracy in Tunisia in the wake of the Tunisian Revolution of 2011".<ref name="PressRelease">{{cite web|url=http://www.nobelprize.orgprizes/peace/laureates/2015/press.html|title=The Nobel Peace Prize 2015 - Press Release|publisher=Nobel Media AB 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222204725/http://nobelpeaceprize.org/en_GB/laureates/laureates-2015/announce-2015/|archive-date=December 22, 2015|access-date=9 October 2015}}</ref>

==Presidency of Kais Saied==
Tunisia's first democratically elected president,  [[Beji Caid Essebsi]], died in July 2019.<ref>{{cite news |title=Tunisian President Beji Caid Essebsi dies aged 92 |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20190725-tunisia-president-essebsi-dies-aged-92 |work=France 24 |date=25 July 2019 |language=en}}</ref> After him, [[Kais Saied]] became Tunisia's president after a landslide victory in the [[2019 Tunisian presidential election]] in October 2019.<ref>{{cite news |title=Conservative academic Kais Saied elected president of Tunisia, electoral commission confirms |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20191014-conservative-kais-saied-elected-president-of-tunisia-with-72-71-percent-of-vote |work=France 24 |date=14 October 2019 |language=en}}</ref> On 23 October 2019,  Kais Saied was sworn in as Tunisian president.<ref>{{cite news |title=Tunisia's new president sworn in after surprise election win |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20191023-tunisia-s-new-president-sworn-in-after-surprise-election-win |work=France 24 |date=23 October 2019 |language=en}}</ref>

On 25 July 2021 in light of [[2021 Tunisian protests|violent demonstrations against the government]] demanding the improvement of basic services and amid a growing [[COVID-19 pandemic in Tunisia|COVID-19 outbreak]], Saied [[2021 Tunisian political crisis|suspended parliament for thirty days]] and relieved the prime minister [[Hichem Mechichi]] from his duties,<ref>{{Cite news|last=Yee|first=Vivian|date=2021-07-26|title=Tunisia's President Suspends Parliament and Fires Prime Minister|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/26/world/middleeast/tunisia-government-dismissed-protests.html|access-date=2021-07-26|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-07-26|title=Ousted Tunisian PM not under house arrest: Sources|url=https://english.alarabiya.net/News/north-africa/2021/07/26/Ousted-Tunisian-PM-not-under-house-arrest-Sources-|access-date=2021-07-26|website=Al Arabiya English|language=en}}</ref> waiving the immunity of the parliament members and ordering the military to close the parliament house. Saied's actions, which included relieving the prime minister of his duties, assuming the executive authority, suspending the Parliament and closing the offices of some foreign news agencies, appeared to have been clear signs of a coup, as they disregard Article 80 of the Tunisian constitution which states that before raising an emergency state, the president must consult his prime minister and the head of the Parliament, and even then the Parliament cannot be suspended.<ref name="Al Jazeera">{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/7/26/kais-saied-the-political-outsider-accused-of-a-coup|title=Profile: Kais Saied, Tunisia's president accused of 'coup'|work=Al Jazeera|date=26 July 2021|access-date=26 July 2021}}</ref>

In September 2021, President Kaïs Saïed announced an upcoming reform of the [[Tunisian Constitution of 2014|2014 Constitution]] and the formation of a new government led by Najla Bouden Romdhane, first woman prime minister of Tunisia and the Arab world.<ref name="Al Jazeera"/> A [[2022 Tunisian constitutional referendum|constitutional referendum]] was scheduled for 25 July 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-13 |title=Tunisian president announces constitutional referendum, sets new election date |url=https://www.france24.com/en/africa/20211213-tunisian-president-calls-referendum-on-constitutional-change-sets-poll-date |access-date=2022-01-01 |website=France 24 |language=en}}</ref> After the referendum results indicated that 90% of voters supported Saied, he emerged as victorious and promised that Tunisia will enter the new phase after he got the unlimited power.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-62314305 | title=Tunisia referendum: Voters give president near unchecked power|publisher=BBC News|first1=Leo|last1=Sands|first2=Matt|last2=Murphy|date=27 July 2022  |access-date=27 July 2022 }}</ref> Critics said the new constitution has a risk of the return of authoritarian rule to the country.<ref>{{cite news |title=Tunisia referendum: Voters give president near unchecked power |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-62314305 |work=BBC News |date=27 July 2022}}</ref>

On 6 October 2024,  President Kais Saied won a second term with more than 90% of the vote in Tunisian [[2024 Tunisian presidential election|presidential election]]. Five political parties had urged people to boycott the elections.<ref>{{cite news |title=Tunisia election: Kais Saied secures second term with 91% of votes |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cx25ree1g18o |work=www.bbc.com}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Berber people]]
* [[Berber languages]]
* [[Phoenician languages]]
* [[Phoenicia]]
* [[Carthage]]
* [[History of the Jews in Tunisia]] 
* [[North Africa during the Classical Period]]
* [[Umayyad conquest of North Africa]]
* [[Ifriqiya]]
* [[Aghlabid Dynasty]]
* [[Almohad]]
* [[Hafsid]]
* [[Barbary Coast]]
* [[List of Beys of Tunis]]
* [[French occupation of Tunisia]]
* [[History of French-era Tunisia]]
* [[Tunisian naturalization issue]]
* [[Thala-Kasserine Disturbances]]
* {{interlanguage link|Timeline of Tunisia|fr|Chronologie de la Tunisie}}
* [[Tunisian Italians]]
* [[Tunisia]]
* [[History of modern Tunisia]] 
* Tunis [[Tunis#History|history]] and [[Timeline of Tunis|timeline]] (capital and largest city)
* [[History of Africa]]
* [[Tunisian Campaign]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==Citations==
{{ibid|date=October 2020}}
{{reflist|25em}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book| publisher = Avalon Publishing| isbn = 978-0-86531-591-4| last = Perkins| first = Kenneth J.| title = Tunisia: Crossroads Of The Islamic And European Worlds| date = 1986-08-26 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8cJyAAAAMAAJ| oclc=733428425 |location=Boulder, CO}}
* {{Cite book| publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 978-0-521-07981-5| last = Abun-Nasr| first = J. M.| title = A History of the Maghrib| location = London| date = 1971-09-02 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UbyHQgAACAAJ| oclc=431687966}}
* {{Cite book| edition = 2nd| publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 978-1-107-02407-6| last = Perkins| first = Kenneth J.| title = A history of modern Tunisia| location = Campridge New York, NY Melbourne New Delhi Singapore| date = 2014}}
* {{Cite book| publisher = Princeton University Press| isbn = 978-0-691-03109-5| last = Laroui| first = Abdallah| title = The history of the Maghrib: an interpretive essay| series = Princeton studies on the Near East| date = 1977| oclc=959756144}}
* {{Cite book| publisher = New York, Praeger| isbn = 978-0-7100-6614-5| last = Julien| first = Charles André| title = History of North Africa: Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco. From the Arab Conquest to 1830| access-date = 2025-08-26| date = 1970| orig-year=1931| url = http://archive.org/details/historyofnorthaf0000juli}}
* {{Cite book| publisher = Oxford, U.K. ; Cambridge, Mass., USA : Blackwell| isbn = 978-1-55786-468-0| last = Lancel| first = Serge| others = Antonia Nevill (trans.)| title = Carthage: a history| access-date = 2025-08-26| date = 1995| url = http://archive.org/details/carthagehistory0000lanc| oclc=605182066}}
* {{Cite book| publisher = Boydell & Brewer| isbn = 978-0-85115-416-9| editor1 = Reginald Allen Brown| last = Abulafia| first = David| title = Proceedings of the Battle Conference 1984| chapter = The Norman Kingdom of Africa and the Norman Expeditions to Majorca and the Muslim Mediterranean| series = Anglo-Norman Studies| date = 1985| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4DZf-RBtZ7IC| chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4DZf-RBtZ7IC&pg=PA26}}{{Unreliable source?|date=February 2023|reason=Unreachable source or author alongside with a nonsensical claim of reputable medieval Islamic scholars and historians favor being ruled by Christians over Muslims}}
* {{Cite book| publisher = Prentice-Hall| last = Brace| first = Richard M.| title = Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia| location = Englewood Cliffs, N.J.| series = A Spectrum book| date = 1964| oclc = 413515}}
* {{Cite book| publisher = Blackwell| isbn = 978-0-631-16852-2| last1 = Brett| first1 = Michael| last2 = Fentress| first2 = Elizabeth| title = The Berbers: Michael Brett and Elizabeth Fentress.| location = Oxford, UK, Cambridge, USA| date = 1996| oclc=782244287| url=https://archive.org/details/michael-brett-elizabeth-fentress-the-berbers}}
* {{Cite book| publisher = Sidgwick & Jackson| isbn = 978-0-283-35255-3| last = Charles-Picard| first = Gilbert| title = The life and death of Carthage: a survey of Punic history and culture from its birth to its final tragedy| location = London| date = 1968| oclc=4427}}
* {{Cite journal| doi = 10.1080/13629395.2016.1253685| issn = 1743-9418| volume = 23| issue = 2| pages = 197–222| last1 = Krüger| first1 = Laura-Theresa| last2 = Stahl| first2 = Bernhard| title = The French foreign policy U-turn in the Arab Spring – the case of Tunisia| journal = Mediterranean Politics| access-date = 2025-08-26| date = 2018-04-03| url = https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13629395.2016.1253685| url-access = subscription}}
* {{Cite book| publisher = Princeton University Press| last = Le Tourneau| first = Roger| title = The Almohad movement in North Africa in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries| location = Princeton, N.J.| series = Princeton studies on the Near East| date = 1969| oclc= 10645}}
* {{cite book|last=Mahdi|first=Muhsin |author-link=Muhsin Mahdi| title=Ibn Khaldûn's Philosophy of History: A Study in the Philosophic Foundation of the Science of Culture| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JIO9CgAAQBAJ| year=1957| publisher=George Allen & Unwin| location=London| isbn=9781317366348 }}
* {{cite book| last=Warmington| first= Brian Herbert | title=Carthage| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R8QXcgAACAAJ| year=1960| publisher=Penguin Books| location=UK| isbn=9780709109532}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5439.htm Background Note: Tunisia]
* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/tunisia/ ''The World Factbook'' on "Tunisia"]

{{Africa in topic|History of}}
{{Former French colonies}}

[[Category:History of Tunisia| ]]