View source for History of Thessaly

The '''history of Thessaly''' covers the history of the region of [[Thessaly]] in north-central [[Greece]] from antiquity to the present day.

==Topography==
Thessaly is characterized by the large [[Thessalian plain]], formed by the [[Pineios (Thessaly)|Pineios River]], which is surrounded by mountains, most notably the [[Pindus]] mountain range to the west, which separates Thessaly from [[Epirus]].{{sfn|ODB|loc="Thessaly" (T. E. Gregory), pp. 2073–2074}} Only two passes, the [[Porta, Thessaly|Porta]] pass and, in the summer, the pass of [[Metsovo]], connect the two regions. From the south, the narrow coastal pass of [[Thermopylae]] connects Thessaly with southern Greece.{{sfn|ODB|loc="Thessaly" (T. E. Gregory), pp. 2073–2074}} In the north Thessaly borders on [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]], either through the coast or the pass of [[Servia, Greece|Servia]] towards [[Thessalonica]], or in the northwest towards western Macedonia.{{sfn|ODB|loc="Thessaly" (T. E. Gregory), pp. 2073–2074}}

==Antiquity==
{{Main|Ancient Thessaly}}
The first evidence of human habitation in [[Thessaly]] dates to the late [[Paleolithic]], but in the early [[Neolithic]] this expanded rapidly. Over 400 archaeological sites dating to the period are known, including fortified ones. The most notable of these is at [[Sesklo]].<ref name="NP">{{harvnb|Beck|2006}}</ref> During the [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean period]], the main settlement was at [[Iolcos]], as attested in the later legends of [[Jason]] and the [[Argonauts]].<ref name="NP"/>

===Archaic period===
{{see|Archaic Greece}}
A distinct Thessalian tribal identity and culture first began to form from the 9th century BC on as a mixture of the local population and immigrants from Epirus, first in the region of the [[Pelasgiotis]], with [[Pherae]] as its main centre.<ref name="NP"/> From there they quickly expanded inland to the plain of the Pineios and towards the [[Malian Gulf]].<ref name="NP"/> The Thessalians spoke a distinct form of [[Aeolic Greek]].<ref name="NP"/> In the late 7th century BC, the Thessalians conquered the so-called ''perioikoi''. In this process the Thessalians captured [[Anthela (Thessaly)|Anthela]] and came to control the local [[amphictyony]]. By assuming the former share of the ''perioikoi'' in the [[Delphic Amphictyony]], the Thessalians also came to play a leading role in the latter, providing 14 of the 24 ''hieromnemones'' and presiding over the [[Pythian Games]].<ref name="NP"/> As a result of the [[First Sacred War]] (595–585 BC), the Thessalians briefly extended their sway over [[Ancient Phocis|Phocis]] as well, but the Boeotians drove them back after the battles of [[Hyampolis]] and [[Ceressus]] in the mid-6th century.<ref name="NP"/>

In the second half of the 7th century, Thessaly became the home of large aristocratic families, controlling huge tracts of land and working them with [[serfs]] (''[[Penestai|penestae]]''), which became a characteristic of Thessaly. The most important were the [[Aleuadae]] of [[Larissa]], the [[Echecratidae]] of [[Farsala|Pharsalus]], and the [[Scopadae]] of [[Crannon]]. Their clan chiefs were often called ''[[basileus|basileis]]'' ("kings").<ref name="NP"/> It was Aleuas Pyrrhos ("the Red") who cemented the aristocracy's predominance by reforming the Thessalian League on the basis of the "tetrads" (quadripartite division), linking it with the noble-controlled ''kleroi'' ("land lots") obliged to supply 40 horsemen and 80 infantrymen each.<ref name="NP"/> Traditionally, the office of ''[[tagus (title)|tagus]]'' has been regarded as the senior magistrate of the Thessalian League; more recent studies however regard the ''tagus'' as a purely local official, and suggest the ''tetrarches'' as the head of the League.<ref name="NP"/>

===Classical period===
{{see|Classical Greece}}
[[File:Thessaly.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|Thessaly in Antiquity]]
In the summer of 480 BC, the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persians]] [[Second Persian invasion of Greece|invaded Thessaly]]. The Greek army that guarded the [[Vale of Tempe]] evacuated the road before the enemy arrived. Not much later, Thessaly surrendered. The Thessalian family of [[Aleuadae]] joined the Persians. In the [[Peloponnesian War]] the Thessalians tended to side with [[Athens]] and usually prevented [[Spartan Army|Spartan]] troops from crossing through their territory with the exception of the army of [[Brasidas]]. In the 4th century BC Thessaly became dependent on [[Macedon]]. In the 2nd century BC, as with the rest of Greece, Thessaly came under the control of the [[Roman Republic]].{{fact|date=December 2022}}

===Roman period===
From 27 BC it formed part of the [[Roman province]] of [[Achaea (Roman province)|Achaea]], with capital at [[Ancient Corinth|Corinth]].{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=50}} In the reign of Emperor [[Antoninus Pius]] ({{reign|138|161}}), Thessaly was separated from Achaea and given to the province of [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]]; eventually it became a separate province.{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=51}} In the new administrative system as it evolved under [[Diocletian]] ({{reign|284|305}}) and his successors, Thessaly was a separate province within the [[Diocese of Macedonia]], in the [[praetorian prefecture of Illyricum]].{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=51}} With the division of the Roman Empire in 395, Thessaly remained as a part of the [[Byzantine Empire|East Roman (Byzantine) Empire]].{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=51}}

Being far from the Empire's frontiers, and of little strategic importance, Greece lacked any serious fortifications or permanently stationed garrisons, a situation that lasted until the 6th century and led to much devastation by barbarian raids.{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=51}} Thus in 395–397, as most of Greece, Thessaly was occupied by the [[Visigoths]] under [[Alaric I|Alaric]], until they were driven out by [[Stilicho]].{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=51}}{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|pp=79–82}} The [[Vandals]] under [[Geiseric]] raided the coasts of Greece in the period 466–475, and in 473 the [[Ostrogoths]] under [[Theodemir (Ostrogothic king)|Theodemir]] advanced into Thessaly and captured Larissa before Emperor [[Leo I (emperor)|Leo I]] gave in and allowed him and his people to settle in Macedonia.{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=52}} Under Theodemir's son, [[Theodoric the Great]], the Ostrogoths once more invaded Thessaly in 482, until they left for Italy in 488.{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=52}} According to the ''[[Synecdemus]]'', in the 6th century the province included 16 cities along the capital, Larissa: [[Demetrias]], [[Phthiotic Thebes]], [[Echinos]], [[Lamia (city)|Lamia]], [[Ypati|Hypata]], Metropolis, [[Trikke]], [[Gomphoi]], [[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]], [[Diocletianopolis in Thracia|Diocletianopolis]], [[Farsala|Pharsalus]], [[Saltos Bouramesios]], [[Saltos Iovios]], and the islands of [[Skiathos]], [[Skopelos]] and [[Peparisthos]].{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=52}}{{sfn|ODB|loc="Thessaly" (T. E. Gregory), pp. 2073–2074}}

From the reign of [[Justin I]] ({{reign|518|527}}) on, attacks on the imperial frontier on the [[Danube]] became more and more frequent, and the Balkan provinces were heavily raided, although Greece was less affected. In 539, however, a large [[Huns|Hunnic]] raid plundered Thessaly and, bypassing the fortified [[Thermopylae]] pass, devastated [[Central Greece (geographic region)|Central Greece]].{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=53}} This led to a serious fortification effort under [[Justinian I]] ({{reign|527|565}}), and the establishment of a permanent garrison at Thermopylae. The area was once more invaded in 558 by the [[Kotrigurs]], but they were stopped at the Thermopylae.{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=53}} Despite the devastation caused by these raids, in Thessaly, and southern Greece in general, the imperial administration seems to have continued to function, and traditional public life to have continued, for much of the century, possibly up to the end of the reign of [[Justin II]] ({{reign|565|578}}).{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|pp=53–54}} Nevertheless, the barbarian raids, the two great earthquakes of 522 and 552, and the arrival of the [[Plague of Justinian]] in 541–544, led to a drop in population.{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|pp=53, 55}}

==Middle Ages==
===Slavic invasions and restoration of Byzantine control===
The [[late antique]] order on Greece was irrevocably shattered with the [[Slavs|Slavic]] incursions that began after 578. The first large-scale raid was in 581, and the Slavs appear to have remained in Greece until 584. Byzantium, confronted by [[Byzantine–Sasanian wars|long and bloody wars]] with [[Sassanid Persia]] in the east, and with the [[Pannonian Avars|Avar Khaganate]] in the north, was largely unable to stop these raids. After the murder of Emperor [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]] in 602 and the outbreak of the great [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628]], the [[Danube]] frontier, somewhat stabilized under Maurice, collapsed entirely, leaving the Balkans defenceless for the Slavs to raid and settle.{{sfn|Fine|1991|pp=31–35}} The Slavic settlement that followed the raids in the late 6th and early 7th centuries affected the [[Peloponnese]] in the south and Macedonia in the north far more than Thessaly or Central Greece, with the fortified towns largely remaining in the hands of the native Greek population.{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|pp=54–55}} Nevertheless, in the first decades of the 7th century the Slavs were free to raid Thessaly and further south relatively unhindered; according to the ''[[Miracles of Saint Demetrius]]'', in {{circa|615}} the Slavic tribes even built [[monoxyla]] and raided the coasts of Thessaly and many Aegean islands, depopulating many of them.{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|pp=55–56}} Five of Thessaly's cities disappear from the sources during the 7th century, and Slavs settled in the northern and northeastern parts of the country.{{sfn|ODB|loc="Thessaly" (T. E. Gregory), pp. 2073–2074}} Emperor [[Constans II]] ({{reign|641|668}}) undertook in 658 the first attempt to restore imperial rule, and although his campaign was mostly carried out in the northern Aegean coast, it seems to have led to a relative pacification of the Slavic tribes in southern Greece as well, at least for a few years.{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=56}} Thus during the great Slavic [[siege of Thessalonica (676–678)|siege of Thessalonica]] in {{circa|676–678}} the tribe of the [[Belegezitai]], who according to the ''Miracles of Saint Demetrius'' were settled around Demetrias and Phthiotic Thebes, provided the besieged city with grain.{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=56}}

The parts of Thessaly that remained in imperial hands after the Slavic invasions—apparently the Aegean coast and the area around the [[Pagasetic Gulf]]—came under the [[theme (Byzantine district)|theme]] of [[Hellas (theme)|Hellas]]. This was established between 687 and 695, and comprised the eastern coasts of mainland Greece, and possibly the Peloponnese, as well as [[Euboea]] and a few other islands. Its ''[[strategos]]'' was probably based in (Boeotian) [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]].{{sfn|Fine|1991|p=71}}{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=57}} Given its lack of depth into the [[hinterland]], the theme was originally probably oriented mostly towards the sea and was of a mostly maritime character, as seen during the anti-[[Byzantine Iconoclasm|iconoclast]] [[Agallianos Kontoskeles|revolt of 726/7]].{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|pp=57–58}} Some time between 730 and 751, the Church in Thessaly, along with the rest of the Illyricum, were transferred from the jurisdiction of the [[Pope]] in [[Rome]] to that of the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople|Patriarch of Constantinople]].{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=58}}

Like much of northern Greece, Thessaly suffered from raids by the [[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarians]], beginning in 773.{{sfn|Fine|1991|p=77}} At the same time, due to conflict between the Bulgarian ruling class and the Slavic population which led to an exodus from the latter, a second wave of Slavic settlement engulfed Greece from {{circa|746/7}} on. Unlike the first wave of settlement, this does not seem to have disrupted imperial control in the areas where it had been (re-)established.{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|pp=58–59}} In 783, however, the eunuch minister [[Staurakios (eunuch)|Staurakios]] led a large-scale campaign across Greece from [[Thessalonica]] to the Peloponnese, subduing the local Slavs and forcing them to acknowledge imperial overlordship.{{sfn|Fine|1991|p=79}}{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=59}} Despite continued raids by the Bulgarians and [[Saracen]] pirates—Demetrias was sacked by [[Damian of Tarsus]] in 902 and Thessaly and much of Central Greece devastated by Bulgarian raids in 918 and 923–926{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|pp=60–61}}—Thessaly, and Greece in general, recovered gradually after Byzantine control was firmly re-established, and there are signs of renewed prosperity and economic activity.{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=61}} Especially in Thessaly, this process manifested itself in the appearance of at least nine new cities, including [[Halmyros]] and [[Stagoi]], and the resettlement of older ones, such as Zetounion (ancient Lamia).{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=61}}{{sfn|ODB|loc="Thessaly" (T. E. Gregory), p. 2073}}{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=539}}

===Byzantine rule in the 10th–12th centuries===
{{see|Great Vlachia}}
[[File:Byzantine_Greece_ca_900_AD.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|Map of Byzantine Greece in the early 10th century]]
During the course of the 10th century, the Saracen threat receded and was practically ended as the result of the [[Byzantine reconquest of Crete]] in 960–961.{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=62}} The threat from Bulgaria remained, however, and in 986, during his wars with [[Basil II]] ({{reign|976|1025}}), the Bulgarian tsar [[Samuel of Bulgaria|Samuel]] sacked the city of Larissa and occupied Thessaly. The Bulgarian ruler undertook another large-scale expedition through the province and into the Peloponnese in 997, but on his return he suffered a devastating defeat at the [[Battle of Spercheios]].{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|pp=516, 522}}{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=63}} In the early 11th century, Thessaly was separated from Hellas and joined to the [[theme of Thessalonica]]. The [[Spercheios]] valley however remained part of Hellas, with the new border running along the [[Othrys]]–[[Agrafa]] line.{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=62}} The region enjoyed a long period of peace at this time, interrupted only by raids during the [[uprising of Petar Delyan]] (1040–1041), plundering by the [[Uzès]] in 1064, and the brief [[Battle of Larissa|Norman attack]] into Thessaly in 1082–1083, which was beaten back by Emperor [[Alexios I Komnenos]] ({{reign|1081|1118}}).{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=63}} The [[Vlachs]] are first mentioned in Thessaly during the 11th century, in the ''[[Strategikon of Kekaumenos]]'' and [[Anna Komnene]]'s ''[[Alexiad]]''.{{sfn|ODB|loc="Vlachs" (A. Kazhdan), pp. 2183–2184}} In the 12th century, the Jewish traveler [[Benjamin of Tudela]] recorded the existence of the district of "Vlachia" near Halmyros, while the Byzantine historian [[Niketas Choniates]] placed a "[[Great Vlachia]]" near [[Meteora]]. The term is also used by the 13th-century scholar [[George Pachymeres]], and it appears as a distinct administrative unit in 1276, when the ''[[pinkernes]]'' Raoul Komnenos was its governor (''[[kephale (Byzantine Empire)|kephale]]''). Thessalian Vlachia was apparently also known as "Vlachia in Hellas".{{sfn|ODB|loc="Vlachia" (A. Kazhdan), p. 2183}}

In the aftermath of the failed Norman invasion, Alexios I granted the first trading privileges to the [[Republic of Venice]], including immunity from taxation and the right to establish trade colonies in certain towns; in Thessaly, this was Demetrias. These concessions signalled the beginning of the ascendancy of the [[Italian maritime republics]] in maritime commerce and their gradual takeover of the Byzantine economy. Alexios' successors tried to curb these privileges with mixed success, but in 1198 [[Alexios III Angelos]] ({{reign|1195|1203}}) was forced to concede even more extensive ones, allowing the Venetians to create trade stations at Vlachia, the "two Halmyroi", Grebenikon, Pharsalus, Domokos, Vesaina, [[Ezeros (Thessaly)|Ezeros]], [[Dobrochouvista]], Trikala, Larissa, and [[Platamon]].{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=64}}{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=65}}

Sometime in the 12th century, Thessaly reverted to Hellas, with the exception of the northwestern portion around Stagoi and Trikala, which was included in the new theme of [[Servia, Greece|Servia]].{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|pp=66–67}} Benjamin of Tudela, who visited the area in 1165, also recorded the presence of Jewish communities at Halmyros, Zetounion, Vesaina, and [[Gardiki, Trikala|Gardiki]].{{sfn|ODB|loc="Thessaly" (T. E. Gregory), pp. 2073–2074}}{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=65}} Both Benjamin and the Arab geographer [[al-Idrisi]] describe Greece during the middle of the 12th century as densely populated and prosperous.{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=65}} The situation began to change towards the end of the reign of [[Manuel I Komnenos]] ({{reign|1143|1180}}), whose costly military ventures led to a hike in taxation. Coupled with the corruption and autocratic behaviour of officials, this led to a decline in industry and the impoverishment of the peasantry, eloquently lamented by the [[Metropolitan of Athens]], [[Michael Choniates]]. This decline was temporarily halted under [[Andronikos I Komnenos]] ({{reign|1182|1185}}), who sent the capable [[Nikephoros Prosouch]] as governor to Greece, but resumed after Andronikos' fall.{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|pp=65–66}} In 1199–1201 [[Manuel Kamytzes]], the rebellious son-in-law of Byzantine emperor [[Alexios III Angelos]] ({{reign|1195|1203}}), with the support of [[Dobromir Chrysos]], the autonomous ruler of [[Prosek, North Macedonia|Prosek]], established a short-lived principality in northern Thessaly, before he was overcome by an imperial expedition.{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=32}}{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=68}}

By the end of the 12th century, the theme of Hellas had been superseded by a collection of smaller districts variously termed ''horia'' (sing. ''horion''), ''chartoularata'' (sing. ''chartoularaton''), and ''[[episkepsis|episkepseis]]'' (sing. ''episkepsis''). This division is reflected in the 1198 [[chrysobull]] of Alexios III to the Venetians, and in the ''[[Partitio Romaniae]]'' of 1204. These documents mention the ''episkepseis'' (domains of the imperial family) of Platamon, Demetrias, the "two Halmyroi", Krevennika and Pharsalus, Domokos and Vesaina, the ''horion'' of Larissa and the "provinces" of Vlachia, Servia, and [[Velechativa]], and the ''chartoularata'' of Dobrochouvista and Ezeros (Sthlanitsa in the ''Partitio''), the latter evidently Slavic settlements.{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=67}}

===Latin and Epirote rule===
[[File:Seal of Bartholomew, Latin Bishop of Karditsa and Velestino (Schlumberger, 1897).jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Seal of Bartholomew, Latin Bishop of [[Karditsa]] and [[Velestino]] in 1208–1214]]
Following the [[Siege of Constantinople (1204)|sack]] of Constantinople and the dissolution of the Byzantine Empire by the [[Fourth Crusade]] in April 1204, [[Leo Sgouros]], the Greek ruler of [[Nauplia]], marched into central Greece. At Larissa he met the deposed Alexios III, and concluded a marriage alliance with him. Both were soon confronted by the Crusaders under [[Boniface I, Marquis of Montferrat|Boniface of Montferrat]], who sought to expand his newly established [[Kingdom of Thessalonica]] into southern Greece. Unable to challenge the Crusaders in open battle, Sgouros gave up Thessaly without a fight, and withdrew to his bases in the Peloponnese.{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=68}}{{sfn|Fine|1994|pp=63–64}} Boniface divided the captured lands among his followers: Platamon went to Rolando Piscia, Larissa and Halmyros to the Lombard Guglielmo, and [[Velestino]] to [[Berthold II, Count of Katzenelnbogen|Berthold of Katzenellenbogen]], while further south in Central Greece [[Marquisate of Bodonitza|Bodonitza]] went to [[Guido Pallavicini]], [[Gravia]] to [[Jacques de Saint Omer]], [[Lordship of Salona|Salona]] to [[Thomas I d'Autremencourt|Thomas d'Autremencourt]], Thebes to the brothers Albertino and Rolando Canossa, [[Duchy of Athens|Athens]] to [[Othon de la Roche]], and Euboea ([[Triarchy of Negroponte|Negroponte]]) to [[Jacques d'Avesnes]].{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=69}} The boundaries of the actual Kingdom of Thessalonica seem to have extended only up to Domokos, Pharsalus, and Velestino: the Spercheios valley in southern Thessaly, with the towns of Zetounion and [[Ravennika]], was under governors appointed by the [[Latin Emperor]].{{sfn|Van Tricht|2011|pp=161–162}}

[[File:Trachy of Theodore Komnenos Doukas.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|[[Billon (alloy)|Billon]] ''[[trachy (currency)|trachy]]'' coin of Theodore Komnenos Doukas as Emperor of Thessalonica]]
In 1212, however, [[Michael I Komnenos Doukas]] ({{reign|1205|1214/5}}), ruler of the independent Greek state of [[Despotate of Epirus|Epirus]], led his troops into Thessaly, overrunning the resistance of the local Lombard nobles. Larissa and much of central Thessaly came under Epirote rule, thereby separating Thessalonica from the Crusader principalities in southern Greece.{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=68}} Michael's work was completed by his half-brother and successor, [[Theodore Komnenos Doukas]] ({{reign|1215|1230}}), who by {{circa|1222/3}} completed the recovery of the entire region except for Halmyros, which remained in Latin hands until 1246.{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=114}}{{sfn|Savvides|1998|p=409}} Eventually, in December 1224, Theodore conquered Thessalonica as well. Soon thereafter he declared himself emperor, founding the [[Empire of Thessalonica]].{{sfn|Fine|1994|pp=119–120}} The region remained attached to Thessalonica until 1239, when the deposed ruler of Thessalonica [[Manuel Komnenos Doukas]] captured it from his nephew [[John Komnenos Doukas]] and secured its status as a separate section of the family holdings.{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=133}} Upon his death in 1241, the area quickly, and apparently without resistance, came under the control of the ruler of Epirus, [[Michael II Komnenos Doukas]] ({{reign|1230|1268}}).{{sfn|Fine|1994|pp=133–134}} Following the [[Battle of Pelagonia]] in 1259, Thessaly was occupied by the [[Empire of Nicaea]], but an Epirote counter-offensive in spring 1260 under [[Nikephoros I Komnenos Doukas]] defeated the Nicaean general [[Alexios Strategopoulos]] and recovered most of the province, except perhaps for part of the Aegean coast around [[Volos]], which possibly remained in Nicaean hands for several years thereafter.{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=164}}

===Thessaly as an autonomous principality===
On the death of Michael II in 1267/8, his dominions were divided between Nikephoros, who received Epirus proper, and Michael's illegitimate son [[John I Doukas of Thessaly|John Doukas]] ({{reign|1267/8|1289}}), who was married to a Thessalian Vlach princess, received Thessaly.{{sfn|Savvides|1998|p=410}}{{sfn|Nicol|2010|pp=9–10}}{{sfn|Fine|1994|pp=162, 169}} Although separated politically, Thessaly continued to share many similarities with the parent state of Epirus: both were reluctant to acknowledge the revived [[Palaiologos]]-led Byzantine Empire and its imperial pretensions, both established close ties with the Latin states of southern Greece in an attempt to maintain their independence, while at the same time being threatened by them and forced to cede territory to them. Both were eventually reunified under the Byzantines in the 1330s and the Serbians shortly after.{{sfn|Magdalino|1989|pp=87–88, 92–94}}

[[File:Greece in 1278.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|Map of the Greek and Latin states in southern Greece {{circa|1278}}]]
From his capital at Neopatras, John I Doukas governed Thessaly as a virtually independent state.{{sfn|Savvides|1998|pp=410–411}}{{efn|This state is frequently, but inaccurately, called "Great Wallachia" or "Duchy of Neopatras" in older scholarly literature.{{sfn|NID 1944|p=173}}{{sfn|Heurtley|Darby|Crawley|Woodhouse|1967|pp=59–60}} Both titles arise from contemporary usage by Western authors, who extended the use of the term "[Great] Vlachia" to the entirety of the realm governed by John Doukas and his heirs,{{sfn|Soulis|1963|p=272}} and confused John's family name of [[Doukas]] with the title of "duke" (both ultimately deriving from Latin ''[[dux]]'').{{sfn|Polemis|1968|p=97, esp. note 2}}}} Although he recognized the suzerainty of the Byzantine emperor [[Michael VIII Palaiologos]] ({{reign|1259|1282}}), receiving the title of ''[[sebastokrator]]'' in exchange, John I Doukas maintained a consistent anti-Palaiologan stance. In this conflict he allied himself with Latin powers, namely [[Charles of Anjou]] and the [[Duchy of Athens]].{{sfn|ODB|loc="Thessaly" (T. E. Gregory), pp. 2073–2074}}{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=72}} Michael VIII's attempts to form a union of the Orthodox and Catholic Churches, culminating in the [[Second Council of Lyon]] in 1274, were another point of friction. John portrayed himself as a champion of Orthodoxy, offering refuge to pro-Unionists and convoking a synod at his capital [[Neopatras]] in 1276/7 to condemn the Union.{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=72}}{{sfn|Nicol|1993|p=59}}{{sfn|Geanakoplos|1959|pp=275, 309}} Sometime in 1273–75 (the date is disputed by scholars) Michael VIII dispatched a large army against John under his own brother, [[John Palaiologos (brother of Michael VIII)|John Palaiologos]]. The Byzantine army advanced rapidly through Thessaly and blockaded John with a few of his men at Neopatras, which was placed under siege. John managed to evade the Byzantines and secure aid from Athens, with which he routed the Byzantine army at the [[Battle of Neopatras]].{{sfn|Nicol|1993|p=59}}{{sfn|Geanakoplos|1959|pp=282–283}}{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=188}} In exchange for this aid, however, John gave his daughter [[Helena Angelina Komnene|Helena]] to the future Duke of Athens [[William de la Roche]] ({{reign|1280|1287}}), with the towns of Zetounion, Gardiki, Gravia, and [[Siderokastron]] as a dowry.{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=72}}{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=188}} In addition, the fleeing Byzantine troops were able to reach Demetrias and help their fleet secure a [[Battle of Demetrias|devastating victory]] against the Lombard lords of Euboea.{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=190}}{{sfn|Geanakoplos|1959|pp=283–284}} A further Byzantine expedition in 1277 against John was [[Battle of Pharsalus (1277)|equally unsuccessful]].{{sfn|Geanakoplos|1959|p=297}} Finally, in 1282 Michael VIII in person campaigned against John, but fell ill and died on the way.{{sfn|Savvides|1998|p=411}}

Nevertheless, after John's death, his widow was compelled to recognize the suzerainty of Michael VIII's successor, [[Andronikos II Palaiologos]] ({{reign|1282|1328}}) to safeguard the position of her underage sons [[Constantine Doukas of Thessaly|Constantine]] and [[Theodore Angelos|Theodore]].{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=72}} Thus the Byzantines were allowed passage through Thessaly to invade Epirus in 1290, but soon after the two princes started conspiring with the Serbians of King [[Milutin]] against Byzantium. In 1295 the brothers invaded Epirus themselves and seized [[Naupaktos]], but no further gains appear to have been made.{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=72}}{{sfn|Savvides|1998|p=412}} Both Constantine and Theodore died in 1303, leaving Thessaly to the young son of Constantine, [[John II Doukas]]. As he too was underage, Constantine had named the Duke of Athens, [[Guy II de la Roche]] ({{reign|1287|1308}}), as his regent and guardian.{{sfn|Savvides|1998|p=412}}{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|pp=72–73}} John II continued his grandfather's pro-Latin policy, maintaining particularly close relations with the [[Republic of Venice|Venetians]], who imported agricultural produce from Thessaly.{{sfn|ODB|loc="Thessaly" (T. E. Gregory), pp. 2073–2074}}

In 1308, Guy II de la Roche died. John II Doukas seized the opportunity to sever his dependency on Athens, and turned to Byzantium for support.{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=241}} In early 1309, the [[Catalan Company]], in conflict with the Byzantines, crossed from Macedonia into Thessaly. The arrival of the marauding Company, some 8,000 strong, alarmed John II Doukas. Defeated by the Greeks, the Catalans agreed to pass peacefully through Thessaly to the south, towards the Frankish principalities of southern Greece.{{sfn|Miller|1908|pp=221–223}} After seizing the Spercheios Valley and capturing Salona,{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=73}} the new Duke of Athens, [[Walter V, Count of Brienne|Walter of Brienne]], hired the Company for service against Thessaly. Turning back, the Catalans captured Zetounion, Halmyros, Domokos and some thirty other fortresses, and plundered the rich plain of Thessaly, forcing the John Doukas to come to terms with Walter.{{sfn|Miller|1908|pp=223–224}}{{sfn|Fine|1994|pp=241–242}} Walter however tried to backtrack on his deal with the Catalans, leading to open conflict. In the [[Battle of Halmyros]] on 15 March 1311, the Catalans crushed the Athenian army, killing Walter and most of the leading nobles of Frankish Greece. After the battle, the Catalan Company proceeded to occupy the defenceless duchy.{{sfn|Miller|1908|pp=223–228}}{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=242}}

===Thessaly in the 14th and 15th centuries===
[[File:Coat of Arms of the Duchy of Neopatria.svg|thumb|upright=0.65|Coat of arms of the [[Duchy of Neopatras]].]]
The Catalans continued for a while to hold the parts of southern Thessaly they had occupied and raided the region in the following years, while John Doukas' authority was increasingly enfeebled in Thessaly itself at the expense of the large landholders, who became virtually autonomous, maintaining their own, independent contacts with the Byzantine court. As a result, probably {{circa|1315}}, John too was forced to formalize his relations with the Byzantines, recognizing the Empire's suzerainty and marrying Irene Palaiologina, the illegitimate daughter of Emperor [[Andronikos II Palaiologos]].{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=243}} When John Doukas died in 1318, the southern part of Thessaly was quickly captured by the Catalans of Athens. Between 1318 and 1325, the Catalans took Neopatras, Zetounion, [[Loidoriki]], Siderokastron, and [[Vitrinitsa]], as well as—apparently briefly—Domokos, Gardiki, and Pharsalus. This territory formed the new, Catalan-dominated [[Duchy of Neopatras]].{{sfn|Nicol|2010|pp=80, 101}}{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=243}} Venice also took advantage of the anarchy in Thessaly to acquire the port of [[Pteleos]].{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=74}} The central and northern part of Thessaly remained in Greek hands. Lacking a central authority, however, the area fractured among competing rulers. The north came under control of the Byzantines from Thessalonica, while in the centre three rival magnates, [[Stephen Gabrielopoulos]] of Trikala, a certain Signorinos, and the Melissenos, or rather Maliasenos, family in the east around Volos, emerged. Gabrielopoulos was the most successful of the three, and soon managed to gain recognition of his rule by the Byzantine court, which granted him the title of ''[[sebastokrator]]''. The Maliasenoi on the other hand seem to have turned to the Catalans for support.{{sfn|Nicol|2010|pp=80, 101}}{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=246}} With the loss of Neopatras and the rise of Gabrielopoulos, Trikala became the new political centre of Thessaly.{{sfn|Magdalino|1989|p=94}} At about the same time, larger groups of Albanians, such as the tribes of the [[Malakasioi]], [[Bouoi]], and [[Mesaritai]], began to raid and settle in Thessaly, although smaller groups of Albanians may have been present in the region already from the late 12th century.{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=74}}

When Gabrielopoulos died in {{circa|1333}}, the Epirote ruler [[John II Orsini]] ({{reign|1323|1335}}) tried to take advantage of the situation and seize his lands, but the Byzantines under [[Andronikos III Palaiologos]] ({{reign|1328|1341}}) moved in and established direct control over the northern and western part of the region. Andronikos himself made agreements with the [[transhumant]] Albanian tribesmen of the [[Pindus]] mountains and appointed [[Michael Monomachos]] as governor of the region. It is unclear over which parts of Thessaly Byzantine control was restored: [[John Kantakouzenos]] claims that the campaign restored the old Epirote–Thessalian border (i.e. the Pindus mountains), while the modern researcher [[Božidar Ferjančić]] suggests that the Byzantines recovered eastern and central Thessaly, but that the western part remained under Epirote rule until Orsini's death three years later, when this area too came under Byzantine control.{{sfn|Nicol|2010|p=102}}{{sfn|Fine|1994|pp=252–253}}

The successful Byzantine reconquest was led by Andronikos III's friend and chief aide, John Kantakouzenos. Thus when the [[Byzantine civil war of 1341–47]] broke out between Kantakouzenos and the regency for the underage [[John V Palaiologos]], Thessaly and Epirus quickly rallied to his side. Kantakouzenos' cousin, [[John Angelos (sebastokrator)|John Angelos]], ruled the two regions until his death in 1348, whereupon they fell to the expanding [[Serbian Empire]] of [[Stefan Dushan]].{{sfn|Magdalino|1989|p=93}} Dushan appointed his general [[Gregory Preljub]] as governor of Thessaly, which he ruled, probably from Trikala, until his death in late 1355 or early 1356.{{sfn|Soulis|1984|pp=108–110}} In 1350, Kantakouzenos, now emperor, launched an attempt to reconquer Thessaly, but after capturing the towns of Lykostomion and Kastrion, he faltered before [[Servia, Greece|Servia]], which was defended by Preljub himself. Kantakouzenos withdrew, and Lykostomion and Kastrion were recovered by the Serbs soon after.{{sfn|Soulis|1984|p=111}} Preljub's rule is otherwise obscure, except for his reaching an agreement with the local Albanian tribes; an agreement that probably did not last long, for he was killed in a clash with them.{{sfn|Soulis|1984|p=111}}

The death of Preljub was preceded by that of Dushan himself, leaving a power vacuum in the wider Serbian Empire and in Thessaly in particular. In this context, [[Nikephoros II Orsini|Nikephoros Orsini]], the exiled son of John II Orsini, who had entered Byzantine service, tried to realize his ancestral claims over the region. From [[Aenus (Thrace)|Ainos]], he sailed to Thessaly, which he captured quickly, expelling Preljub's wife and son. He then conquered [[Aetolia]], [[Acarnania]], and [[Leukas]].{{sfn|Soulis|1984|pp=111–112}} Catalan control over southern Thessaly had ceased by this time.{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=75}} Nikephoros came into conflict with the Albanians, however, and was killed in the [[Battle of Achelous (1359)|Battle of Achelous]] in 1359.{{sfn|Soulis|1984|pp=112–115}} Following Nikephoros' death, Thessaly was taken over without resistance by Dushan's half-brother [[Simeon Uroš]]. Enjoying the support of the local Greek and Serbian nobility,  Simeon Uroš reigned as self-proclaimed emperor from Trikala until his death in 1370. He was particularly noted as a patron of the [[Meteora]] monasteries, who regarded him as their "second founder".{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|pp=75–76}} His son [[John Uroš]] succeeded him until 1373, when he retired to a monastery; Thessaly was then ruled by [[Alexios Angelos Philanthropenos]] and (from {{circa|1388}}) [[Manuel Angelos Philanthropenos]], who recognized Byzantine suzerainty until {{circa|1393}}, when the region was conquered by the [[Ottoman Empire]].{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=76}} In the south, the Florentine adventurer [[Nerio I Acciaioli|Nerio Acciaioli]] had managed to take over the Duchy of Athens from the Catalans, and in 1390 captured Neopatras as well. These territories were soon lost to the Ottoman Turks, at about the same time as the fall of Thessaly.{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|pp=76, 77}}

==Ottoman period==
{{see|Sanjak of Tirhala}}
[[File:SDUK - Turkey II. Containing the Northern Part of Greece.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|Ottoman Greece in the early 19th century]]
The Ottomans first invaded Thessaly in 1386, when [[Gazi Evrenos]] captured Larissa for a time, confining the Angeloi Philanthropenoi to their holdings in western Thessaly, around Trikala.  In ca. 1393, the second phase of the invasion began, again under Evrenos. The Ottomans defeated Manuel Angelos Philanthropenos, and reconquered Larissa. The conquest of Thessaly was completed during the next few years, from 1394 on under the personal supervision of Sultan [[Bayezid I]]. The fortresses of Volos, Pharsalus, Domokos and Neopatras were taken, and in 1395/6, Trikala too fell.

After the disastrous [[Battle of Ankara]] in 1402, the weakened Ottomans were [[Treaty of Gallipoli|forced to return]] the eastern coasts of Thessaly and the region of Zetounion to Byzantine rule.{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=77}} In 1423, renewed Ottoman pressure forced the local Byzantine commander to surrender the forts of [[Stylida]] and [[Avlaki]] to the Venetians. By 1444, the entire region had been finally conquered by the Turks. Pteleos alone remained in Venetian hands until 1470.{{sfn|Koder|Hild|1976|p=77}}

The newly conquered region was initially the patrimonial domain of the powerful [[uch bey|marcher-lord]] [[Turahan Bey]] (died 1456) and of his son [[Turahanoğlu Ömer Bey|Ömer Bey]] (died 1484) rather than a regular province.{{sfn|Yerolimpos|2000|pp=539–540}} Turahan and his heirs brought in settlers from Anatolia (the so-called "Konyalis" or "Koniarides" since most were from the region around [[Konya]]) to repopulate the sparsely inhabited area, and soon, Muslim settlers or converts dominated the lowlands, while the Christians held the mountains around the Thessalian plain.{{sfn|Savvides|2000|pp=420–422}} The area was generally peaceful, but banditry was endemic, and led to the creation of the first state-sanctioned Christian autonomies known as ''[[armatolik]]s'', the earliest and most notable of which was that of [[Agrafa]]. Failed Greek uprisings occurred in [[Thessaly Rebellion (1600)|1600/1]] and 1612, and during the [[Morean War]] (1684–1699) and the [[Orlov Revolt]] (1770).{{sfn|Savvides|2000|pp=420–422}}

After 1780, the ambitious [[Ali Pasha of Ioannina]] took over control of Thessaly, and consolidated his rule after 1808, when he suppressed a local uprising. His heavy taxation, however, ruined the province's commerce, and coupled with the outbreak of the plague in 1813, reduced the population to some 200,000 by 1820.{{sfn|Savvides|2000|pp=420–422}} When the [[Greek War of Independence]] broke out in 1821, Greek risings occurred in the [[Pelion]] and [[Mount Olympus|Olympus]] mountains as well as the western mountains around Fanari, but they were swiftly suppressed by the Ottoman armies under [[Reşid Mehmed Pasha|Mehmed Reshid Pasha]] and [[Mahmud Dramali Pasha]].{{sfn|Savvides|2000|pp=420–422}} After the establishment of the independent [[Kingdom of Greece]], Greek nationalist agitation continued, with further revolts in 1841, in 1854 during the [[Crimean War]], and again during the [[Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878]]. The uprising in the period of 1878 resulted simultaneously with other unrest, but despite this, the Ottoman government quickly and decisively suppressed it after the battle of Mount Pelion.<ref>{{cite book |last=Tsekhmisterenko |first=Sergei P. |date=2013 |lang=ru |script-title=ru:Греция, Россия и Восточный Кризис 1875-1878 гг. |trans-title=Greece, Russia, and the Eastern Crisis of 1875-1878 |place=[[Moscow]] |publisher=Stranitsy istorii |isbn=978-5-7576-0268-4 |pages=191-192 }}</ref> Thessaly remained in Ottoman hands until 1881, when it was handed over to Greece under the terms of the [[Convention of Constantinople (1881)|Convention of Constantinople]].{{sfn|Savvides|2000|pp=420–422}}

==Modern era==
After union with Greece, Thessaly became divided into four [[Prefectures of Greece|prefectures]]: [[Larissa Prefecture]], [[Magnesia Prefecture]], [[Karditsa Prefecture]], and [[Trikala Prefecture]]. In 1897, the region was overrun by the Ottomans during the brief [[Greco-Turkish War of 1897]]. The Ottoman army withdrew after the war's end, but minor territorial adjustments were made to the frontier in the Ottomans' favour. The early decades of Greek rule in Thessaly were dominated by the agricultural issue, as the area retained its Ottoman-era large landholdings ([[chiflik]]s), and the landlords enjoyed great influence, essentially reducing their tenant farmers to serfdom. The tensions culminated in the [[Kileler uprising]] of March 1910. The problem was finally settled through the wide-ranging [[land redistribution]] campaign undertaken by the governments of [[Eleftherios Venizelos]].

During [[World War I]], during the [[National Schism]] in 1916–17, Thessaly served as a buffer zone between the pro-[[Allies of World War I|Entente]] [[Provisional Government of National Defence]], led by Venizelos in Thessaloniki, and the royal, pro-[[Central Powers]] government in Athens. During [[World War II]] the area was occupied by the Italian army in 1941–43, and by the Germans in 1943–44. It became a major centre of the [[Greek Resistance]], most famously seeing the desertion of the Italian [[Pinerolo Division]] to the guerrillas of [[EAM-ELAS]] in 1943.

==Notes==
{{notelist|group=notes}}

==References==
{{Reflist|20em}}

==Sources==
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Beck |first=Hans |year=2006 |title=Thessali, Thessalia |encyclopedia=Brill's New Pauly |isbn=978-9004122598 |doi=10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e1210930 |url=http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/brill-s-new-pauly/thessali-thessalia-e1210930 |access-date=9 September 2015 |url-access=subscription |via=Brill Online}}
* {{The Early Medieval Balkans}}
* {{The Late Medieval Balkans}}
* {{cite book |last=Ferjančić |first=Božidar |author-link=Božidar Ferjančić |title=Тесалија у XIII и XIV веку |trans-title=Thessaly in the 13th and 14th Centuries |language=sr |location=Belgrade |year=1974 |publisher=Византолошког институт САНУ}}
* {{Emperor Michael Palaeologus and the West}}
* {{cite book |last1=Heurtley |first1=W. A. |author-link=Walter Abel Heurtley |last2=Darby |first2=H. C. |last3=Crawley |first3=C. W. |last4=Woodhouse |first4=C. M. |title=A Short History of Greece: From Early Times to 1964 |year=1967 |orig-year=1965 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521094542 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TVE4AAAAIAAJ}}
* {{Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium|ref={{harvid|ODB}}}}
* {{Tabula Imperii Byzantini | volume = 1}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Arbel |editor1-first = Benjamin |editor2-last=Hamilton |editor2-first=Bernhard |editor3-last=Jacoby |editor3-first=David |title=Latins and Greeks in the Eastern Mediterranean After 1204 |year=1989 |publisher=Frank Cass & Co. |last=Magdalino |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Magdalino |chapter=Between Romaniae: Thessaly and Epirus in the Later Middle Ages |pages=87–110 |isbn=0-71463372-0 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kUzFBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA87}}
* {{The Latins in the Levant}}
* {{cite book |author=Naval Intelligence Division |author-link=Naval Intelligence Division (United Kingdom) |title=Greece: Physical Geography, History, Administration and Peoples |publisher=Naval Intelligence Division |series=Geographical handbook Series BR 516 |location=London |year=1944 |url=https://archive.org/details/greece0001grea |url-access=registration |ref={{harvid|NID 1944}}}}
* {{The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261–1453|edition=Second}}
* {{cite book |title=The Despotate of Epiros 1267–1479: A Contribution to the History of Greece in the Middle Ages |first=Donald MacGillivray |last=Nicol |author-link=Donald Nicol |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-521-13089-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XIj0FfKto9AC}}
* {{cite book|last=Polemis|first=Demetrios I.|title=The Doukai: A Contribution to Byzantine Prosopography |location=London|publisher=The Athlone Press|year=1968 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sx5dAAAAIAAJ}}
* {{cite journal |first=Alexis G. C. |last=Savvides |title=Splintered Medieval Hellenism: The Semi-Autonomous State of Thessaly (A.D. 1213/1222 to 1454/1470) and its Place in History |journal=Byzantion |volume=68 |year=1998 |pages=406–418}}
* {{EI2 | title = Tesalya | first = Alexis G. C. | last = Savvides | volume = 10 | pages = 420–422 |url=http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/tesalya-SIM_7499}}
* {{cite journal | first = George C. | last = Soulis | title = Thessalian Vlachia | journal = Zbornik Radova Vizantološkog Instituta | volume = 8 | issue = 1 | year = 1963 | pages = 271–273 }}
* {{cite book |last=Soulis |first=George C. |year=1984 |title=The Serbs and Byzantium during the reign of Emperor Stephen Dušan (1331–1355) and his successors |publisher=[[Dumbarton Oaks]] |isbn=0-88402-137-8}}
* {{A History of the Byzantine State and Society}}
* {{The Latin Renovatio of Byzantium}}
* {{EI2 | title = Tirḥāla | first = Alexandra | last = Yerolimpos | volume = 10 | pages = 539–540 |url=http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/tirhala-SIM_7566}}

[[Category:History of Thessaly| ]]