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{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{History of Mali}}

The '''history of Mali''' can be divided into several major periods:

* Pre-Imperial Mali (before the 13th century)
* The [[Mali Empire]] (13th–17th centuries)
* The  [[Songhai Empire]] (15th–16th centuries)

Mali's present-day borders largely follow those of [[French Sudan]], established in 1891. These colonial boundaries brought together diverse [[Sudanian region|Sudanian]] and Saharan regions into a single political unit. As a result, Mali developed into a multi-ethnic society, with the [[Mandé peoples|Mandé]] peoples forming a significant part of its cultural and historical identity.

Throughout its history, Mali's position at the crossroads of [[Trans-Saharan trade]] routes played a crucial role in its development. The city of [[Timbuktu]], situated near the Niger River on the southern edge of the Sahara, became an important center of commerce, Islamic scholarship, and culture from the 13th century onward.

This prosperity peaked during the rise of the Mali Empire, followed by the expansion of the [[Songhai Empire]], both of which established Mali as a major power in West African history.

==Prehistory==

===Paleolithic===

The [[Sahara]] has experienced [[African humid period|significant climatic fluctuations]] throughout its history, with periods of both drier and wetter climates than today. It was inhospitable to human life between 325,000 and 290,000 years ago and again between 280,000 and 225,000 years ago, except for a few favorable refuges like Lake Tihodaïne in the water-retaining [[Tassili n'Ajjer]] region.<ref name=":3">Ouardia Oussedik: Les bifaces acheuléens de l'Erg Tihodaine (Sahara Central Algérien): analyse typométrique, in: Libyca 20 (1972) 153–161.</ref> During these arid phases, the desert expanded far beyond its present-day boundaries, leaving behind sand dunes that stretch well beyond the modern Sahara. Human occupation is primarily linked to the wetter "green" phases when ecological conditions were more suitable for settlement and migration.

It is possible that anatomically modern humans, who may have emerged in isolation south of the Sahara between 300,000 and 200,000 years ago, already inhabited the humid, water-rich regions during a prolonged green phase over 200,000 years ago. Around 125,000 to 110,000 years ago, an extensive network of rivers and lakes enabled the northward spread of fauna, followed by human hunter-gatherer groups. Among these water systems was [[Lake Chad|Mega Lake Chad]], which, at its largest extent, covered over 360,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>.<ref name=":4">S. J. Armitage, N. A. Drake, S. Stokes, A. El-Hawat, M. J. Salem, K. White, P. Turner, S. J. McLaren: ''Multiple phases of North African humidity recorded in lacustrine sediments from the Fazzan Basin, Libyan Sahara'', in: Quaternary Geochronology 2,1–4 (2007) 181–186.</ref> However, during a subsequent arid phase between 70,000 and 58,000 years ago, the Sahara once again became a formidable barrier to migration. Another green period followed between 50,000 and 45,000 years ago.<ref name=":5">Isla S. Castañeda et al.: ''Wet phases in the Sahara/Sahel region and human migration patterns in North Africa.'' In: ''[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] '' 106,48 (2009) 20159–20163, [[doi:10.1073/pnas.0905771106]].</ref>

In present-day Mali, archaeological evidence is less abundant than in northern neighboring regions. However, excavations at the [[Ounjougou]] complex<ref>Das Projekt ''Peuplement humain et paléoenvironnement en Afrique'' began in 1997 in Ounjougou ([http://www.ounjougou.org/fr/projets/mali/ ''Pays dogon – Mali'']).</ref> on the [[Dogon people|Dogon]] Plateau, near [[Bandiagara]], have revealed signs of human presence dating back over 150,000 years. Evidence of continuous habitation is firmly established for the period between 70,000 and 25,000 years ago. The [[Paleolithic]] period in Mali ended relatively early, likely due to the onset of another extremely arid phase – the Ogolia – around 25,000 to 20,000 years ago, which transformed the region back into a dry savannah landscape.<ref name=":6">Stefan Kröpelin et al.: ''Climate-Driven Ecosystem Succession in the Sahara: The Past 6000 Years.'' In: '' Science'', 320,5877 (2008) 765–768, [[doi:10.1126/science.1154913]].</ref>

===Neolithic===
{{More citations needed section|date=March 2025}}
Following the [[Last Glacial Maximum]] and the retreat of northern ice sheets, the climate in the Sahara region was significantly more humid than it is today. The Niger River formed a vast inland lake near Timbuktu and [[Araouane]], while a similarly large body of water developed in the [[Chad Basin|Lake Chad basin]]. During this period, which began around 9500 BCE, the landscape of northern Mali resembled the [[savanna]]h ecosystems found in southern Mali today. The humid phase that followed the [[Younger Dryas]] (a cold climatic episode) was eventually replaced by increasing aridity around 5000 BCE.

The [[Neolithic|Neolithic period]], marked by a transition from foraging to food production, developed during this wetter era. It is usually divided into three phases, separated by distinct dry intervals. [[Sorghum]] and [[millet]] were among the earliest cultivated crops, and by 8000 BCE, large herds of cattle – closely related to modern [[zebu]]s – grazed across what is now the Sahara. Sheep and [[goat]]s were introduced much later from West Asia, whereas cattle were likely first domesticated within Africa.

[[Pottery]] appeared independently at several sites, including [[Ounjougou]] in central Mali, with [[ceramic]]s dated to around 9400 BCE – one of the earliest known examples in West Africa.<ref name=":3" /> Some of the earliest Neolithic cultures practiced a productive way of life without fully developed agriculture or [[animal husbandry]]. At the Ravin de la Mouche site (part of the Ounjougou complex), origin dates between 11,400 and 10,200 years ago have been recorded. Other nearby sites, such as Ravin du Hibou 2, date to between 8000 and 7000 BCE. However, a hiatus in occupation is evident between 7000 and 3500 BCE, likely due to unfavorable climatic conditions that hunter-gatherers could not withstand.

Archaeological and paleoenvironmental data suggest a return of [[Nomadic pastoralism|nomadic pastoralists]] around 4000 BCE, just prior to the end of the last humid phase, which waned around 3500 BCE. Sites like [[Karkarichinkat]] (ca. 2500–1600 BCE) and possibly Village de la Frontière (3590 BCE), along with sediment layers at Lake Fati, illustrate this period of climatic transition. Lake Fati existed between 10,430 and 4660 BP, with a 16-centimeter sand layer indicating a desiccation event around 4500 BP – approximately 1,000 years later than comparable changes on the [[Mauritania|Mauritanian coast]]. Increasing aridity peaked about a millennium later, prompting southward migrations of cattle-herding populations into Mali as northern lakes dried up.<ref name=":4" />

This late Neolithic period also saw further immigration from the Sahara around 2500 BCE, as the region transitioned into an increasingly arid desert. Archaeological surveys based on ceramic typology identified three cultural groups living around [[Méma]], the [[:ceb:Canal de Sonni Ali|Canal de Sonni Ali]], and Windé Koroji (near the Mauritanian border) around 2000 BCE. Key excavation sites include Kobadi (1700–1400 BCE), MN25 (near Hassi el Abiod), and Kirkissoy near [[Niamey]], Niger (1500–1000 BCE). These suggest a southward movement of populations, culminating in the introduction of agriculture, including the cultivation of [[pearl millet]] (Pennisetum glaucum) and possibly wheat and [[emmer]] – grains domesticated much earlier in eastern Sahara, now reaching Mali. Ecological evidence implies [[tillage]] began as early as the 3rd millennium BCE, though this phase ended abruptly around 400 BCE due to severe drought.

The use of [[ochre]] in funerary practices – sometimes extending to animals – persisted into the 1st millennium BCE. A striking example is the burial of a horse at Tel Matamata, west of the [[Inner Niger Delta|Inland Niger Delta]] near Thial in the [[Ténenkou|Tenenkou]] Cercle, where the remains were covered with ochre. Rock art, including both symbolic and anthropomorphic depictions, is found across Mali in areas such as [[Boucle du Baoulé National Park]] (Fanfannyégèné), the Dogon Plateau, and along the [[Niger Delta|Niger River Delta]] (Aire Soroba).

Further excavations at Karkarichinkat Nord (KN05) and Karkarichinkat Sud (KS05) – located in a fossil riverbed roughly 70&nbsp;km north of [[Gao]] – revealed the earliest known evidence in West Africa south of the Sahara for ritual tooth modification among women, dating to ca. 4500–4200 BP. These practices, which included tooth filing and extractions resulting in pointed teeth, resemble similar customs documented in the Maghreb. The modification was predominantly observed in female remains, and similar traditions continued in the region into the 19th century.<ref name=":5" />

[[Isotope analysis|Isotopic analysis]] from these sites showed that 85% of dietary [[carbon]] came from [[C4 carbon fixation|C4 plants]], particularly grasses, indicating either the consumption of wild cereals (like wild millet) or early domesticated species.<ref name=":6" /> These results offer some of the earliest evidence of agriculture and cattle herding in West Africa, around 2200 cal BP.

The Dhar Tichitt tradition (1800–800/400 BCE), centered in the Méma region – a former river delta west of today's Inland Niger Delta (sometimes called the "dead delta") – represents another major cultural development. Settlements ranged from 1 to 8 hectares but were not continuously occupied, likely due to environmental limitations. The [[tsetse fly]], prevalent during the rainy season, posed a significant obstacle to cattle rearing and limited expansion to the south.

By contrast, the Kobadi tradition, which developed in the mid-2nd millennium BCE, relied primarily on fishing, gathering wild grasses, and hunting, and remained relatively sedentary. Both traditions used copper sourced from Mauritania and maintained interregional exchanges, as evidenced by material culture and stylistic similarities in ceramics.

===Earlier Iron Age===
A number of early towns and cities were established by Mandé-speaking peoples related to the [[Soninke people|Soninke]], along the middle Niger River in what is now Mali. Among the earliest was Dia, which was settled around 900 BCE and reached its peak around 600 BCE.<ref name="Arazi">{{cite web |last1=Arazi |first1=Noemie |title=Tracing History in Dia, in the Inland Niger Delta of Mali -Archaeology, Oral Traditions and Written Sources |url=http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1444342/1/U591645.pdf |website=University College London |publisher=Institute of Archaeology}}</ref> Another major site was [[Djenné-Djenno]], occupied from approximately 250 BCE to 800 CE.<ref name="sub">{{cite journal |last1=Mcintosh |first1=Susan Keech |last2=Mcintosh |first2=Roderick J. |date=Oct 1979 |title=Initial Perspectives on Prehistoric Subsistence in the Inland Niger Delta (Mail) |journal=World Archaeology |volume=11 |issue=2 Food and Nutrition |pages=227–243 |doi=10.1080/00438243.1979.9979762 |pmid=16470987}}</ref> Djenné-Djenno formed a substantial urban complex, consisting of 40 mounds spread across a 4-kilometer radius.<ref>{{cite book |last1=McIntosh |first1=Roderick J. |title=The Social Construction of Ancient Cities |last2=McIntosh |first2=Susan Keech |publisher=Smithsonian Books |year=2003 |isbn=9781588340986 |editor-last=Smith |editor-first=Monica L. |editor-link1=Monica L. Smith |place=Washington, DC |pages=103–120 |chapter=Early urban configurations on the Middle Niger: Clustered cities and landscapes of power}}</ref> The site itself likely extended over 33 hectares (82 acres) and participated in both local and long-distance trade networks.<ref name="AAC">{{cite journal |last1=Mcintosh |first1=Susan Keech |last2=Mcintosh |first2=Roderick J. |date=February 1980 |title=Jenne-Jeno: An Ancient African City |journal=Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=8–14}}</ref>

During Djenné-Djenno's second phase – which occurred during the first millennium CE – the site expanded significantly, possibly covering over 100,000 square meters. This period also saw the emergence of permanent mud-brick architecture, including the construction of a city wall. The wall, built using cylindrical mud-brick technology, was approximately 3.7 meters wide at its base and extended for nearly two kilometers around the town.<ref name="AAC" /><ref>Shaw, Thurstan. ''The Archaeology of Africa: Food, Metals and Towns''. Routledge, 1993, pp.&nbsp;632.</ref>

References to Mali appear sporadically in early [[Islamic literature]]. The 11th-century geographer [[al-Bakri]] (writing in 1068 CE) mentions the regions of "Pene" and "Malal," which may correspond to areas within early Mali.<ref>al-Bakri in Nehemiah Levtzion and J. F. Pl Hopkins, eds and trans., ''Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West African History'' (New York and London: Cambridge University Press, 1981, reprint edn Princeton, New Jersey,: Marcus Wiener, 2000), pp. 82–83.</ref> The historian [[Ibn Khaldun]], writing in the late 14th century, recounts the conversion to Islam of an early Malian ruler known as Barmandana.<ref>ibn Khaldun in Levtzion and Hopkins, eds, and transl. ''Corpus'', p. 333.</ref> Additional geographical details are found in the 12th-century works of [[Muhammad al-Idrisi|al-Idrisi]].<ref>al-Idrisi in Levtzion and Hopkins, eds. and transl, ''Corpus'', p. 108.</ref>

==Empires==
===Ghana Empire===
{{Further|Ghana Empire}}
After [[Soumaoro Kanté]]'s defeat in the [[Battle of Kirina]] in 1235, the Ghana Empire became permanent allies with the Mali Empire. The Ghana Empire later submitted to the Mali Empire's increasing dominance and became a submissive state.<ref>{{cite book |title=Peoples and empires of West Africa: West Africa in history, 1000–1800 |first1=G. T |last1=Stride |first2=Caroline |last2=Ifeka |publisher=Africana Pub. Corp. |date=1971 |page=49}}</ref>

===Mali Empire===
Beginning in 1230, the [[Mali Empire]] was the largest empire in West Africa and profoundly influenced the culture of the region through the spread of its language, laws, and customs along the [[Niger River]].<ref>"The Empire of Mali, In Our Time – BBC Radio 4". BBC. Retrieved October 29, 2015.</ref>
The empire was founded by [[Sundiata Keita|Sundiata Keïta]] and became known for the wealth of its rulers, especially [[Mansa (title)|Mansa]] [[Mansa Musa|Musa I]]. It extended over a large area and consisted of numerous [[vassal kingdom]]s and provinces. Until the 19th century, the city of Timbuktu remained important as an outpost at the southwestern fringe of the Muslim world and a hub of the [[trans-Saharan slave trade]].<ref name=":1">{{citation-attribution|1={{Cite web|date=January 2005|title=Country Profile: Mali|url=https://www.loc.gov/item/copr/7797108/|publisher=[[Federal Research Division]], [[Library of Congress]]}}}}</ref> <!-- needs expansion -->

The empire was known for its abundant gold resources, which were used to finance the construction of impressive architecture, such as the famous Great Mosque of Djenné. The Mali Empire was also known for its thriving trade network, which stretched across the Sahara Desert and into North Africa and the Middle East.

The modern countries included are Mali, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea, Mauritania, and parts of Niger and Burkina Faso, with Mali itself being the centre of the empire.

===Songhai Empire===
In the fifteenth century, with the Mali Empire weakening, the [[Songhai people|Songhai]], led by [[Sonni Ali|Sunni Ali Ber]] asserted their independence. The Songhai made [[Gao]] their capital and began an imperial expansion across the Niger River valley, west to [[Senegal]] and east to [[Niger|Agades]]. At this time, the Songhai also seized control of [[Timbuktu]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/4chapter4.shtml |title=Songhay |access-date=March 10, 2025 |website=bbc.co.uk}}</ref>

== After the empires (1591–1892) ==
{{Unreferenced section|date=August 2020}}
The Songhai empire eventually collapsed under pressure from the Moroccan [[Saadi dynasty]]. The turning point was the [[Battle of Tondibi]] of March 13, 1591. Morocco subsequently controlled [[Gao]], [[Pashalik of Timbuktu|Timbuktu]], [[Djenné]] (also seen as Jenne), and related trade routes with much difficulty until around the end of the 17th century.

[[File:TombouctouPachalik 4.png|thumb|[[Pashalik of Timbuktu]] (yellow-striped) as part of the [[Saadi dynasty|Saadi dynasty of Morocco]], c. 1591]]
After the collapse of the Songhai Empire, no single state controlled the region. The Moroccans only succeeded in occupying a few portions of the country, and even in those locations where they did attempt to rule, their hold was weak and challenged by rivals. Several small successor kingdoms arose. The most notable in what is now Mali were the following:

=== Bambara Empire or the Kingdom of Segou ===
{{main|Bambara Empire}}
[[Image: Mali historic places.PNG|thumb|Places which were under the control of the Bambara Empire]]
The Bambara Empire existed as a centralized state from 1712 to 1861. It was based at [[Ségou]] and Timbuktu (also seen as Segu), and ruled parts of central and southern Mali. It existed until El Hadj [[Umar Tall]], a [[Toucouleur people|Toucouleur]] conqueror swept across West Africa from [[Futa Tooro]]. Umar Tall's mujahideen readily defeated the Bambara, seizing Ségou itself on March 10, 1861, and declaring an end to the empire.

=== Kingdom of Kaarta ===
{{main|Kaarta}}
A split in the Coulibaly dynasty in Ségou led to the establishment of a second Bambara state, the kingdom of Kaarta, in what is now western Mali, in 1753. It was defeated in 1854 by [[Umar Tall]], leader of [[Toucouleur Empire]], before his war with Ségou.

=== Kenedougou Kingdom ===
{{main|Kénédougou Kingdom}}
The [[Senufo people|Senufo]] Kenedugu Kingdom originated in the 17th century in the area around what is now the border of Mali and [[Burkina Faso]]. In 1876 the capital was moved to [[Sikasso]]. It resisted the effort of [[Samori|Samori Ture]], leader of [[Wassoulou Empire]], in 1887, to conquer it, and was one of the last kingdoms in the area to fall to the French in 1898.

=== Maasina ===
{{main|Massina Empire}}
An Islamic-inspired uprising in the largely [[Fula people|Fula]] [[Inner Niger Delta]] region against rule by Ségou in 1818 led to the establishment of a separate state. It later allied with [[Bambara Empire]] against [[Umar Tall]]'s [[Toucouleur Empire]] and was also defeated by it in 1862.

=== Toucouleur Empire ===
{{main|Toucouleur Empire}}
This empire, founded by [[El Hadj Umar Tall]] of the [[Toucouleur people]]s, beginning in 1864, ruled eventually most of what is now Mali until the French conquest of the region in 1890. This was a turbulent period, with ongoing resistance in Messina and increasing pressure from the French.

=== Wassoulou Empire ===
{{Main|Wassoulou Empire}}
The Wassoulou or Wassulu Empire was a short-lived (1878–1898) empire, led by [[Samori|Samori Ture]] in the predominantly [[Mandinka people|Malinké]] area of what is now upper [[Guinea]] and southwestern Mali (Wassoulou). It later moved to [[Ivory Coast]] before being conquered by the French.

== French Sudan (1892–1960) ==
{{Further|French Sudan}}

Mali fell under French colonial rule in 1892.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Mali|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Africa South of the Sahara|volume=3|editor=John Middleton|year=1997|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons}}</ref> By 1893, the French appointed a civilian governor of the territory they called ''Soudan Français'' ([[French Sudan]]), but active resistance to French rule continued.<ref name=":1" /> By 1905, most of the area was under firm French control.<ref name=":1" />

French Sudan was administered as part of the Federation of [[French West Africa]] and supplied labor to France's colonies on the coast of West Africa.<ref name=":1" /> In 1958 the renamed Sudanese Republic obtained complete internal autonomy and joined the French Community.<ref name=":1" /> In early 1959, the Sudanese Republic and Senegal formed the Federation of Mali.<ref name=":1" /> On March 31, 1960, France agreed to the Federation of Mali becoming fully independent.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://select.nytimes.com/mem/archive/pdf?res=F6071EF6355C16738DDDA80894DC405B808AF1D3 | work=The New York Times | title=MALI GAINS PACT ON SOVEREIGNTY; Senegal-Sudan Federation Will Remain Closely Tied to France | date=April 1, 1960}}</ref> On June 20, 1960, the Federation of Mali became an independent country and [[Modibo Keïta]] became its first President.

== Independence (1960–present) ==
{{further|Mali Federation}}

Following the withdrawal of Senegal from the federation in August 1960, the former Sudanese Republic became the Republic of Mali on September 22, 1960, with Modibo Keïta as president.<ref name=":1" />

President [[Modibo Keïta]], whose [[Sudanese Union-African Democratic Rally]] (US/RDA) party had dominated pre-independence politics (as a member of the [[African Democratic Rally]]), moved quickly to declare a single-party state and to pursue a [[socialist]] policy based on extensive [[nationalization]].<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">{{citation-attribution|1={{Cite web|date=February 2005|title=Background Note: Mali|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2828.htm|url-status=deviated|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050216054839/http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2828.htm|archive-date=February 16, 2005|publisher=[[Bureau of African Affairs]], [[U.S. Department of State]]}}}}</ref> Keïta withdrew from the French Community and also had close ties to the [[Eastern bloc]].<ref name=":1" /> A continuously deteriorating economy led to a decision to rejoin the Franc Zone in 1967 and modify some of the economic excesses.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />

From 1962 to 1964, there was the [[Tuareg rebellion (1962–1964)|Tuareg insurgency]] in northern Mali, launched from the [[Kidal Region]]. However, this was violently suppressed by government forces, in ways that include poisoning wells and executing livestock.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-04-05 |title=A timeline of northern conflict |url=https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/report/95252/mali-timeline-northern-conflict |access-date=2025-08-17 |website=www.thenewhumanitarian.org |language=en}}</ref>

=== Under Moussa Traoré ===

On November 19, 1968, a group of young officers staged a bloodless coup and set up a 14-member Military Committee for National Liberation (CMLN), with Lt. [[Moussa Traoré]] as president.<ref name=":1" /> The military leaders attempted to pursue economic reforms, but for several years faced debilitating internal political struggles and the disastrous Sahelian drought.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />

A new constitution, approved in 1974, created a one-party state and was designed to move Mali toward civilian rule.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> However, the military leaders remained in power.<ref name=":2" /> In September 1976, a new political party was established, the [[Democratic Union of the Malian People]] (UDPM), based on the concept of [[democratic centralism]].<ref name=":2" /> Single-party presidential and legislative elections were held in June 1979, and Gen. Moussa Traoré received 99% of the votes.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> His efforts at consolidating the single-party government were challenged in 1980 by student-led anti-government demonstrations that led to three coup attempts, which were brutally quashed.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />

The political situation stabilized during 1981 and 1982 and remained generally calm throughout the 1980s.<ref name=":2" /> In late December 1985, however, a border dispute between Mali and [[Burkina Faso]] over the mineral-rich [[Agacher Strip War|Agacher strip]] erupted into a brief war.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Burkina Faso: A Small West African Country Struggles to Bring Peace to Mali |url=https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/burkina-faso-small-west-african-country-struggles-bring-peace-mali}}</ref> The UDPM spread its structure to [[Cercle (French colonial)|cercle]]s and arrondissements across the land.<ref name=":2" />

Shifting its attention to Mali's economic difficulties, the government approved plans for some reforms of the state enterprise system and attempted to control public corruption.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> It implemented cereal marketing liberalization,<ref>{{cite journal |title=Cereals Market Liberalization in Mali |journal=World Development|volume= 17 |issue=5 |pages=703–718 |year=1989 |first1=John M. |last1=Staatz |first2=Josue |last2=Dione |first3=N. |last3=Nango Dembele|doi=10.1016/0305-750X(89)90069-7 }}</ref> created new incentives to private enterprise, and worked out a new structural adjustment agreement with the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF).<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> But the populace became increasingly dissatisfied with the austerity measures imposed by the IMF plan as well as their perception that the ruling elite was not subject to the same strictures.<ref name=":1" /> In response to the growing demands for multiparty democracy then sweeping the continent, the Traoré regime did allow some limited political liberalization.<ref name=":1" /> In National Assembly elections in June 1988, multiple UDPM candidates were permitted to contest each seat, and the regime organized nationwide conferences to consider how to implement democracy within the one-party framework.<ref name=":1" /> Nevertheless, the regime refused to usher in a full-fledged democratic system.<ref name=":1" />

By 1990, cohesive opposition movements began to emerge, including the National Democratic Initiative Committee and the [[Alliance for Democracy in Mali]] (Alliance pour la Démocratie au Mali, ADEMA).<ref name=":1" /> The increasingly turbulent political situation was complicated by the rise of ethnic violence in the north in mid-1990.<ref name=":1" /> The return to Mali of large numbers of [[Tuareg people|Tuareg]] who had migrated to [[Algeria]] and [[Libya]] during the prolonged drought increased tensions in the region between the nomadic Tuareg and the sedentary population.<ref name=":1" /> Ostensibly fearing a Tuareg secessionist movement in the north, the Traoré regime imposed a state of emergency and harshly repressed Tuareg unrest.<ref name=":1" /> Despite the signing of a peace accord in January 1991, unrest and periodic armed clashes continued.<ref name=":1" />

=== 2000s ===
Konaré stepped down after his constitutionally mandated limit of two terms and did not run in the 2002 elections.<ref name=":1" /> Touré then reemerged, this time as a civilian.<ref name=":1" /> Running as an independent on a platform of national unity, Touré won the presidency in a runoff against the candidate of Adema, which had been divided by infighting and suffered from the creation of a spin-off party, the [[Rassemblement pour le Mali|Rally for Mali]]. Touré had retained great popularity because of his role in the transitional government in 1991–92.<ref name=":1" /> The 2002 election was a milestone, marking Mali's first successful transition from one democratically elected president to another, despite the persistence of electoral irregularities and low voter turnout.<ref name=":1" /> In the 2002 legislative elections, no party gained a majority; Touré then appointed a politically inclusive government and pledged to tackle Mali's pressing social and economic development problems.<ref name=":1" />

===2010s===
{{further|Mali War}}
In January 2012, the [[National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad]] (MNLA) [[2012 insurgency in the Azawad|began an insurgency]].<ref>[http://www.news24.com/Africa/News/Mali-clashes-force-120-000-from-homes-20120222 Mali clashes force 120 000 from homes]. News24 (February 22, 2012). Retrieved on: February 23, 2012.</ref> Rebel troops from the military appeared on state TV on March 22, 2012, announcing they had [[2012 Mali coup d'état attempt|seized control of the country]],<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-17462111 Post-coup Mali hit with sanctions by African neighbours – Globe and Mail]. Bbc.co.uk (March 22, 2012). Retrieved on May 4, 2012.</ref> citing unrest over the president's handling of the conflict with the rebels. The former president was forced into hiding.

However, due to the [[2012 insurgency in northern Mali]], the military government controlled only the southern third of the country, leaving the north of the country (known as [[Azawad]]) to MNLA rebels. The rebels controlled Timbuktu, 700&nbsp;km from the capital.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-17576725 BBC News – Mali Tuareg rebels control Timbuktu as troops flee]. Bbc.co.uk (April 2, 2012). Retrieved on May 4, 2012.</ref> In response, the [[Economic Community of West African States]] (ECOWAS) froze assets and imposed an embargo, leaving some with only days of fuel. Mali was dependent on fuel imports trucked overland from [[Senegal]] and [[Ivory Coast]].<ref>[https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/post-coup-mali-hit-with-sanctions-by-african-neighbours/article2390504/ Post-coup Mali hit with sanctions by African neighbours]. Theglobeandmail.com (April 3, 2012). Retrieved on May 4, 2012.</ref>

On July 17, 2012, the [[Tuareg Rebellion (2012)|Tuareg rebels]] were pushed out by their allies, the [[Islamists]], [[Ansar Dine]], and [[Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb|Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (A.Q.I.M.)]].<ref name="Nossiter">{{cite news|last=Nossiter|first=Adam|title=Jihadists' Fierce Justice Drives Thousands to Flee Mali|newspaper=The New York Times|date=July 18, 2012}}</ref> An extremist mini-state in northern Mali was the unexpected result from the collapse of the earlier coup d'état by the angry army officers.<ref name="Nossiter"/>

Refugees in the 92,000-person refugee camp at [[Mbera]], [[Mauritania]], described the Islamists as "intent on imposing an Islam of lash and gun on Malian Muslims."<ref name="Nossiter"/> The Islamists in Timbuktu destroyed about a half-dozen venerable above-ground tombs of revered holy men, proclaiming the tombs contrary to [[Shariah]].<ref name="Nossiter"/> One refugee in the camp spoke of encountering Afghans, Pakistanis and Nigerians.<ref name="Nossiter"/>

[[Ramtane Lamamra]], the [[African Union]]'s peace and security commissioner, said the African Union discussed sending a military force to reunify Mali and that negotiations with terrorists had been ruled out but negotiations with other armed factions were still open.<ref name="Nossiter"/>

On December 10, 2012, Prime Minister [[Cheick Modibo Diarra]] was arrested by soldiers and taken to a military base in [[Kati, Mali|Kati]].<ref name="AP 10">{{cite news|title=Mali's PM arrested by junta|url=http://www.bostonherald.com/news/international/asia_pacific/view/20121210malis_pm_arrested_by_junta/srvc=home&position=recent|access-date=December 11, 2012|agency=Associated Press|date=December 10, 2012}}</ref> Hours later, the Prime Minister announced his resignation and the resignation of his government on national television.<ref name="AFP 10">{{cite news|title=Mali PM resigns after being arrested by troops|url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hrZo4r-Mz8yfVDSIB1tYxWCFLupw?docId=CNG.924cb15c775e21276db5cd9e029672d3.a1|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103033435/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hrZo4r-Mz8yfVDSIB1tYxWCFLupw?docId=CNG.924cb15c775e21276db5cd9e029672d3.a1|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 3, 2013|access-date=December 11, 2012|agency=Agence France-Presse|date=December 10, 2012}}</ref>

On January 10, 2013, Islamist forces captured the strategic town of [[Konna]], located 600&nbsp;km from the capital, from the Malian army.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mali-rebels-idUSBRE90912Q20130110 | title=Mali Islamists capture strategic town, residents flee | work=Reuters | date=January 10, 2013 | access-date=January 10, 2013}}</ref> The following day, the French military launched [[Opération Serval]], intervening in the conflict.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2013/01/12/la-france-demande-une-acceleration-de-la-mise-en-place-de-la-force-internationale-au-mali_1816033_3212.html |title=Mali – la France a mené une série de raids contre les islamistes |date=January 12, 2013 |work=Le Monde |access-date=January 13, 2013}}</ref>

By February 8, the Islamist-held territory had been re-taken by the Malian military, with help from the international coalition. Tuareg separatists have continued to fight the Islamists as well, although the [[National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad|MNLA]] has also been accused of carrying out attacks against the Malian military.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/afp/130322/five-malians-killed-ambush-blamed-tuareg-army |title=Five Malians killed in ambush blamed on Tuareg: army |agency=AFP |date=March 22, 2013 |access-date=March 23, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525230652/http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/afp/130322/five-malians-killed-ambush-blamed-tuareg-army |archive-date=May 25, 2013 }}</ref>

A peace deal between the government and Tuareg rebels was signed on June 18, 2013.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mali and Tuareg rebels sign peace deal |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-22961519 |work=BBC News |date=June 18, 2013}}</ref>

[[Malian presidential election, 2013|Presidential elections]] were held in [[Mali]] on July 28, 2013, with a second round run-off held on August 11.<ref>[http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2013/05/201352814129579842.html Mali sets date for presidential election] Al Jazeera, May 28, 2013</ref> [[Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta]] defeated [[Soumaïla Cissé]] in the run-off to become the new [[President of Mali]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Ibrahim Boubacar Keita wins Mali presidential election |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-23677124 |work=BBC News |date=August 13, 2013}}</ref>

The peace deal between the Tuareg rebels and the Malian government was broken in late November 2013 because of clashes in the northern city of [[Kidal]].<ref name="http">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-25161049 |title=Tuareg separatist group in Mali 'ends ceasefire' |agency=BBC |date=November 29, 2013 |access-date=December 28, 2013 |work=BBC News |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202065114/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-25161049 |archive-date=December 2, 2013 }}</ref> A new ceasefire was agreed upon on February 20, 2015, between the Malian government and the northern rebels.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-31544438|title=Mali signs UN ceasefire to end conflict with northern rebels|newspaper=BBC News|date=February 20, 2015}}</ref>

In August 2018, President Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta was re-elected for a new five-year term after winning the second round of the [[2018 Malian presidential election|election]] against Soumaïla Cissé.<ref>{{cite news |title=Incumbent President Keita wins re-election in Mali |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20180816-mali-incumbent-president-ibraham-boubacar-keita-wins-election |work=France 24 |date=August 16, 2018 |language=en}}</ref>

===2020s===
On June 5, 2020, [[2020 Malian protests|street protests]] calling for the resignation of President Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta began in [[Bamako]]. On August 18, 2020, [[2020 Malian coup d'état|mutinying soldiers]] arrested President Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta and Prime Minister [[Boubou Cissé]]. President Keïta resigned and left the country. The [[National Committee for the Salvation of the People]] led by Colonel [[Assimi Goïta]] took power. This was the fourth coup since independence from France in 1960.<ref>{{cite news| url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-54134614| title = Mali coup: Military agrees to 18-month transition government | work = BBC News| date = September 12, 2020}}</ref> On September 12, 2020, the National Committee for the Salvation of the People agreed to an 18-month political transition to civilian rule.<ref name=":0">{{cite web|date=January 28, 2021|title=Mali: President Bah N'Daw decrees the dissolution of the CNSP|url=http://www.theafricareport.com/62102/mali-president-bah-ndaw-decrees-the-dissolution-of-the-cnsp/|website=The Africa Report.com}}</ref> Shortly after, [[Bah Ndaw|Bah N'Daw]] was named interim president.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mali: Bah N'Daw sworn in as interim president |date=September 25, 2020 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/mali-bah-ndaw-sworn-in-as-interim-president/a-55052414 |work=dw.com |publisher=Deutsche Welle |access-date=July 27, 2024}}</ref>

On May 25, 2021, Colonel Assimi Goïta [[2021 Malian coup d'état|dismissed the transitional president Bah N'Daw and the transitional prime minister Moctar Ouane from their positions]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Mali's coup leader Assimi Goïta seizes power again |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-57239805 |work=BBC News |date=May 25, 2021}}</ref> On June 7, 2021, Mali's military commander Assimi Goïta was sworn into office as the new interim president.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mali's military leader Goita sworn in as transitional president |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/6/7/assimi-goita-mali-military-leader-sworn-in-as-interim-president |work=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref> According to [[Human Rights Watch]] (HRW) Malian troops and suspected Russian mercenaries from the [[Wagner Group]] executed around 300 civilian men in central Mali in March 2022. France had withdrawn French troops from Mali in February 2022.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mali troops and suspected Russian fighters accused of massacre |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-60997602 |work=BBC News |date=April 5, 2022}}</ref>

In 2023, Burkina Faso proposed a federation with Mali to bolster their political and economic clout by uniting their resources, territories, and populations, aligning with a broader movement among African nations to form regional alliances to tackle common challenges and promote collective interests. This initiative evolved into the [[Alliance of Sahel States|Alliance of Sahel States (AES)]], formalized in September 2023 with Niger's inclusion, following military coups in all three countries (Mali in 2020 and 2021, Burkina Faso in 2022, and Niger in 2023).

The AES aimed to enhance security, economic integration, and sovereignty, with plans for a confederation by July 2024, including a joint biometric passport, a common currency, and shared infrastructure to foster trade, energy, and agricultural self-reliance. However, the proposal sparked concerns over cultural, historical, and economic disparities between Burkina Faso and Mali, alongside fears of unequal power distribution and eroded national sovereignty. Critics also highlighted the challenges of political instability, ongoing jihadist insurgencies, and the juntas' alignment with Russia over traditional Western partners, which strained relations with ECOWAS, leading to their withdrawal in January 2024. The AES's ambitious goals face hurdles due to limited funding, vast territorial challenges, and escalating violence, with over 8,000 deaths in Burkina Faso alone in 2023, raising doubts about its ability to deliver stability and integration.<ref>{{Cite web |last=clarke |first=simone |date=March 4, 2025 |title=Mali, Niger & Burkina Faso: The Alliance of Sahel States Reshaping Africa & Rejecting Western Influence |url=https://www.mefeater.com/mali-niger-burkina-faso-the-alliance-of-sahel-states-reshaping-africa-rejecting-western-influence/ |access-date=July 23, 2025 |website=MEFeater |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Niger, Mali and Burkina Faso military leaders sign new pact, rebuff ECOWAS |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/7/6/niger-mali-and-burkina-faso-military-leaders-sign-new-pact-rebuff-ecowas |access-date=July 23, 2025 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=AfricaNews |date=December 2, 2023 |title=Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger look to form a federation |url=https://www.africanews.com/2023/12/02/burkina-faso-mali-and-niger-look-to-form-a-federation/ |access-date=July 23, 2025 |website=Africanews |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=February 2, 2023 |title=Burkina urges 'federation' with Mali for joint clout |url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20230202-burkina-urges-federation-with-mali-for-joint-clout |access-date=February 3, 2023 |website=France 24 |language=en}}</ref>
{{Further|Battle of the Wagadou Forest (2024)}}

== See also ==
* [[Bamako#History|Bamako history]] 
* [[Timeline of Bamako]]
* [[History of Africa]]
* [[History of West Africa]]
* [[List of heads of government of Mali]]
* [[List of heads of state of Mali]]
* [[Politics of Mali]]
* [[History of Timbuktu]]
* [[Mali National Archives]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Mali topics}}
{{Years in Mali}}
{{History of Africa}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Mali}}
[[Category:History of Mali| ]]