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{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}}
{{Use British English|date=June 2013}}
{{Part of History of India}}

The present-day [[States and union territories of India|state]] of [[Goa]] was established in 1987.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=peOqBgAAQBAJ&q=Goa+was+made+India%27s+twenty-fifth+state&pg=PA454|title=Historical Companion to Postcolonial Literatures – Continental Europe and its Empires|last=Poddar|first=Prem|date=2008-07-02|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=9780748630271|language=en}}</ref> Goa is [[List of states and union territories of India by area|India's smallest state by area]]. It shares a lot of similarities with [[Indian history]], especially with regard to [[Colonial India|colonial influences]] and a [[Multiculturalism in India|multi-cultural aesthetic]].

The [[Usgalimal rock engravings]], belonging to the [[Upper Paleolithic]] or [[Mesolithic]] periods, exhibit some of the earliest traces of human settlement in India. The [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan]] and [[Satavahana dynasty|Satavahana]] Empires ruled modern-day Goa during the Iron Age.{{Cn|date=February 2025}}

During the medieval period, Goa was ruled by the [[Kadambas of Goa|Kadamba kingdom]], [[Vijayanagara Empire]], [[Bahmani Sultanate]] and [[Adil Shahi dynasty|Bijapur Sultanate]]. {{Cn|date=February 2025}}

It was ruled by the Kadambha dynasty from the 2nd century CE to 1312 and by the Deccan from 1312 to 1367. The city was then annexed by the Kingdom of Vijayanagara and was later conquered by the Bahmanī sultanate, which founded Old Goa on the island in 1440.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Goa - History {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Goa/History |access-date=2022-05-08 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

The Portuguese [[Portuguese conquest of Goa|invaded Goa in 1510]], defeated the [[Adil Shahi dynasty|Bijapur Sultanate]]. The Portuguese rule lasted for about 450 years, and heavily influenced Goan [[Culture of Goa|culture]], [[Goan cuisine|cuisine]], and architecture.

In 1961, India took control over Goa after a 36-hour battle and integrated it into India. The area of Goa was incorporated into [[Goa, Daman and Diu]], which included the [[Damaon territory]] in the north of the [[Konkan region]]. In 1987, following the [[Konkani language agitation]] Goa was granted statehood. Goa has one of the highest [[List of Indian states and union territories by GDP per capita|GDP per capita]] {{According to whom|date=February 2025}}and [[List of Indian states and territories by Human Development Index|Human Development Index]] among Indian states.

== Earliest history ==
There is evidence of the [[Tectonics|tectonic]] origins of Goa dating back to 10,000 BC.<ref name="vedic">{{cite book|url=http://purl.pt/17211|title=An historical and archaeological sketch of the city of Goa : preceded by a short statistical account of the territory of Goa|last=Fonseca|first=José Nicolau da|publisher=Thacker & Co.|year=1878|location=Bombay|pages=115}}</ref> Further, evidence of human occupation of Goa dates back at least to the [[Lower Paleolithic|Lower Paleolithic Age]], indicated by the archaeological findings of [[Acheulean]] [[Hand axe|bifaces]] in the [[Mandovi River|Mandovi]]-[[Zuari River|Zuari]] basin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Goudeller|first1=Luther D|last2=Korisettar|first2=Ravi|date=1993|title=The first discovery of Acheulian bifaces in Goa: implications for the archaeology of the west coast of India|journal=Man and Environment|volume=18|issue=1|pages=35–42}}</ref> However, evidence suggesting the region's ancient foundation is obscured by the [[Foundation myth|legend]] of Goa's creation by the [[Rishi|Hindu sage]] [[Parashurama]].<ref name="vedic" />

=== Geological origins ===
Some parts of present-day Goa appear to have been [[Tectonic uplift|uplifted]] from the sea due to geological tectonic plate movement. There is evidence to support this theory as indicated by the presence of [[Fossil|marine fossils]], buried seashells, and other features of reclaimed [[topography]] in the coastal belt.<ref name="vedic" />  fossilized branches have been found later in many villages on the foothills of the [[Sahyadri]] dating back more than 10,000 BC. Thus the geologists concluded that Goa has risen from the seabed as a result of violent [[Tectonics|tectonic movements]]. At the decline of the intensity of ''[[pluvial|population]]'' in the last ''Pleistocene age'' around 10000 BC, the bottom of [[Deccan plateau]] was lifted up and out of sea-waters by the tectonic movements, formed the West-coast of India, Goa being a part thereof.<ref name="dhume5">{{cite book|title=The cultural history of Goa from 10000 B.C.-1352 A.D.|last=Dhume|first=Anant Ramkrishna|publisher=Ramesh Anant S. Dhume|year=1986|pages=355 pages (see pages 9–25)}}</ref>

==Prehistory==

===Paleolithic and Mesolithic era===
Until 1993 the existence of [[human]]s in Goa during the [[Paleolithic]] and [[Mesolithic]] period was highly debated. The discovery of [[rock art]] engravings on lateritic platforms and granite boulders from ''Usgalimal'' on the banks of west-flowing river [[Kushavati|Kushavati River]], has shed light on the [[prehistory]] of Goa.<ref name=usgal>{{cite book|author1=Kalyan Kumar Chakravarty |author2=Robert G. Bednarik |author3=Indirā Gāndhī Rāshṭrīya Mānava Saṅgrahālaya|title=Indian rock art and its global context|year=1997|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn= 9788120814646|pages=228 pages (see page 34)}}</ref> The rock shelter at Usgalimal has enough space for 25 to 30 people. The perennial stream in the vicinity which might have served [[Stone Age]] man for centuries as a source of water.<ref name=us2>{{cite book |title=Goa in the Indian sub-continent: seminar papers |year=2001 |publisher=Directorate of Archives and Archaeology, Govt. of Goa |location=Goa |pages=211 pages (see page 24)}}</ref> An [[anthropomorphic]] figure of [[Mother goddess]] and tectiforms resembling tree-like motifs have been found.<ref name=us2 /> This site was discovered by [[Prakashchandra Pandurang Shirodkar|Dr P.P.Shirodkar]]. Exploration of several Mesolithic sites of the [[Mandovi]]-[[Zuari]] basin, at other sites such as [[Keri]], [[Thane]], [[Anjuna]], ''Mauxim'', ''Kazur'' in [[Quepem]], ''Virdi'', has led to the discovery of several scrapers, points, bores, cones, etc. A hand [[axe]] has also been found at Usgalimal.<ref name=axe>{{cite book|author1=C. R. Srinivasan |author2=K. V. Ramesh |author3=S. Subramonia Iyer |title=Śrī puṣpāñjali: recent researches in prehistory, protohistory, art, architecture, numismatics, iconography, and epigraphy : Dr. C.R. Srinivasan commemoration volume, Volume 1|year=2004|publisher=Bharatiya Kala Prakashan|isbn= 9788180900563|pages=469 pages (see page4)}}</ref> Further ''unifacial'' choppers were recovered on a flat-based pebble of quartzite from a pebble conglomerate at ''Shigaon'' on the [[Dudhsagar Falls|Dudhsagar River]].<ref name=chopper>{{cite book |author=Shantaram Bhalchandra Deo, K. Paddayya |others=Deccan College Post-graduate and Research Institute |title=Recent advances in Indian archaeology: proceedings of the seminar held in Poona in 1983 |year=1985 |publisher=Deccan College Post-graduate and Research Institute |pages=115 pages (see page 33)}}</ref> Shirodakar made a detailed study of the rock engravings and dated them to [[Upper Paleolithic]] and Mesolithic phases, or to 20,000-30,000 BC.<ref name=axe /> These discoveries have demonstrated that the region had been supporting a population of hunter-gatherers well before the advent of agriculture.
Evidence of Palaeolithic cave existence can be seen at Dabolim, Adkon, Shigaon, Fatorpa, Arli, Maulinguinim, Diwar, Sanguem, Pilerne, Aquem-Margaon et cetera. Difficulty in [[carbon dating]] the laterite rock compounds has posed a problem in determining the exact time period.<ref name=NIO>{{cite web|last=Sakhardande|first=Prajal|title=7th National Conference on Marine Archaeology of Indian Ocean Countries : Session V|url=http://www.nio.org/index.php?option=com_eventdisplay&task=view&tid=4&eid=32|work=Heritage and history of Goa|publisher=NIO Goa|access-date=30 March 2011}}</ref>
[[File:Usgal1.jpg|alt=|thumb|One of the [[Usgalimal rock engravings]], belonging to the [[upper Paleolithic]] or [[Mesolithic]] periods. These are some of the earliest traces of human settlement in India.]]

====Kushavati Shamanic culture====
The prehistoric engravings at Usgalimal were discovered by PP Shirodkar in the early 1990s and subsequently studied by the Institute of Oceanography in Goa.<ref>[https://picasaweb.google.com/Nandkamat/PrehistoricGoanShamanismTheKushavatiRockArtGalleryGoaIndia#5469611125567591026 Kushavati Shamanic culture in Goa]</ref> More than 125 forms were found scattered on the banks of river [[Kushavati]] in south-eastern Goa. According to Kamat, these are evidence of a prehistoric Goan [[Shamanism|shamanistic]] practice. For hundreds of years, the Kushavati rock art of Goa was known locally as ''goravarakhnyachi chitram,'' or pictures made by cowherds. But people did not know how ancient the works were, nor could anyone interpret them. After thorough study of these forms, scholars have concluded that these petroglyphs differ from those found elsewhere in Goa. Deeper studies and analysis over a period of ten years showed these petroglyphs were an exquisitely carved ''ocular [[labyrinth]]'', one of the best in India and Asia. Its ocular nature added to the evidence of prehistoric shamanism.

The studies have shown that the Kushavati culture was a [[hunter-gatherer]] culture with deep knowledge of local natural resources and processes – water, fish, plants, game, animal breeding cycles, seasons and natural calamities. The Kushavati culture was greatly concerned with [[water security]], so they set up camps near the streams. The Kushavati found food security in the jungle near the streams. Like every culture, its members confronted the mysteries of illness, death and birth. Kamat believes that this culture dated to 6,000 to 8,000 years ago. On basis of recent DNA-based work on human migration, Dr. [[Nandkumar Kamat]] has ruled out the possibility of Kushavati shamans belonging to the first wave of humans to arrive in Goa. They were not negritoes or austrics. Most probably they were the earliest [[Mediterranean race|Mediterraneans]] who had descended the [[Western Ghats]], probably in their search for sea salt on Goa's coast. As the Kushavati transitioned into a Neolithic society, they began the domestication of animals and were in the last phase of using stone tools. The entire realm of shamanism underwent a radical transition. Today evidence of the metamorphosis in masked dance drama ''Perni jagor'' can be seen in the same cultural region.

===Neolithic period===
Archaeological evidence in the form of polished stone axes, suggest the first settlements of Neolithic man in Goa.<ref name=axe2>{{cite book|last=De Souza|first=Teotonio R.|title=Goa to me|year=1994|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn= 9788170225041|pages=176 pages (see page 33)}}</ref> These axes have been found in [[Goa Velha]].<ref name=velha>{{cite book|title=Gazetteer of the Union Territory Goa, Daman and Diu: district gazetteer, Volume 1 Gazetteer of India Gazetteer of the Union Territory Goa, Daman and Diu: District Gazetteer, Goa, Daman and Diu (India). Gazetteer Dept|year=1979|publisher=Gazetteer Dept., Govt. of the Union Territory of Goa, Daman and Diu|location=Goa|pages=57}}</ref> During this period tribes of [[Austric]] origin such as the ''Kols'', ''Mundaris'' and ''Kharvis'' may have settled Goa, living on hunting, fishing and a primitive form of agriculture since 3500 BC.<ref name=axe2/> According to Goan historian Anant Ramakrishna Dhume, the [[Gauda and Kunbi]] and other such castes are modern descendants of ancient Mundari tribes. Dhume notes several words of Mundari origin in the [[Konkani language]]. He describes the deities worshipped by the ancient tribes, their customs, methods of farming, and its overall effect on modern-day Goan culture.<ref name=dhume>{{cite book|last=Dhume|first=Anant Ramkrishna|title=The cultural history of Goa from 10000 B.C.-1352 A.D.|year=1986|publisher=Ramesh Anant S. Dhume|pages=355 pages (see pages 53, 94, 83, 95)}}</ref> The [[Negroid race|Negroids]] were in a Neolithic stage of primitive culture and were food-gatherers. Traces of Negroid physical characteristics can be found in parts of Goa, up to at least the middle of the first millennium.<ref name=dhume />

The [[Proto-Australoid]] tribe known as the ''Konkas'', from whom is derived the name of the region, ''Kongvan or [[Konkan]],'' with the other mentioned tribes, reportedly made up the earliest settlers in the territory.<ref name=gomes>{{cite book|last=Gomes|first=Olivinho|title=Village Goa: A Study of Goan Social Structure and Change|year=1987|publisher=S. Chand|pages=426 pages}}</ref> Agriculture had not fully developed at this stage and was being developed. The Kol and Mundari may have been using stone and wood implements, as iron implements were used by the [[megalithic]] tribes as late as 1200 BC. The Kol tribe is believed to have migrated from [[Gujarat]].<ref name="kamat">{{cite web|url=http://www.navhindtimes.in/panorama/prehistoric-goan-shamanism|title=Prehistoric Goan Shamanism|last=Kamat|first=Nandkumar|work=The navahind times|access-date=30 March 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807142019/http://www.navhindtimes.in/panorama/prehistoric-goan-shamanism|archive-date=7 August 2011}}</ref>

During this period, the people began worship of a mother goddess in the form of [[anthill]] or ''Santer''. The Anthill is called  ''Roen''([[Konkani language|Konkani]]:रोयण), which is derived from the Austric word ''Rono,'' meaning with holes. The later Indo-Aryan and Dravidian settlers also adopted anthill worship, which was translated into Prakrit ''Santara''. They also worshipped the mother earth by the name of ''Bhumika'' in Prakrit. Anthill worship still continues in Goa.<ref name="dhume"/>

== Iron Age (from 16th century BCE) ==
{{more citations needed section|date=January 2018}}

===The Formations of Gaumkaris and the self rule===

{{main|Comunidade}}
The theocratic democracy of Sumer was transformed into the [[oligarchic]] democracy of village-administration in Goa known as ''[[Comunidade|Gaumkari]]'', when it overlapped with the practices of the locals. The agricultural land was jointly owned by the group of villagers, they had right to auction the land, this rent was used for development, and the remainder was distributed amongst the ''Gaukars''. Sumerians view that the village land must belong to the village god or goddess, this was the main feature of the ''Gaumkari'' system where the village's preeminent deity's temple was the centre of all the activities.<ref name=dhume2>{{cite book|last=Dhume|first=Anant Ramkrishna|title=The cultural history of Goa from 10000 B.C.-1352 A.D.|year=1986|publisher=Ramesh Anant S. Dhume|pages=355 pages (see pages 100–150)}}</ref> It consisted of definite boundaries of land from village to village with its topographic detail, its management and social, religious and cultural interaction. Gaumkari thus were in existence long before constitution of the state of Goa itself.<ref name=ccom>{{cite web|last=De Souza |first=Savio |title=THE COMUNIDADES OF GOA |url=http://www.goa-world.com/goa/comunidades/ |access-date=31 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120719060326/http://www.goa-world.com/goa/comunidades/ |archive-date=19 July 2012 }}</ref>

Thus even before any king ruled the territory, oligarchic democracy in the form of Gaumkari existed in Goa. This form of village-administration was called as ''Gaumponn'' ([[Konkani language|Konkani]]:गांवपण), and despite the periodic change of sovereigns, the Gaumponn always remained, hence the attachment and fidelity of the Goans to their village has always surpassed their loyalty to their rulers (most of them were extraterritorial).<ref name=gav>{{cite book|last=Saradesāya|first=Manohararāya|title=A history of Konkani literature: from 1500 to 1992|year=2000|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|location=Delhi|isbn= 9788172016647|pages=317 pages (see pages 6 and 7)}}</ref> This system for governance became further systematised and fortified, and it has continued to exist ever since. Even today 223 comunidades are still functioning in Goa, though not in the true sense.<ref name=ccom/>

===The later migrations===
The second wave of migrants arrived sometime between 1700 and 1400 BC. This second wave migration was accompanied by southern Indians from the Deccan plateau. A wave of ''Kusha'' or [[Indus Valley civilisation|Harappan]] people moved to [[Lothal]] probably around 1600 BC to escape submergence of their civilization which thrived on sea-trade.<ref name=kamat /> With the admixture of several cultures, customs, religions, dialects and beliefs, led to revolutionary change in early Goan society.<ref name=dhume24>{{cite book|last=Dhume|first=Anant Ramkrishna|title=The cultural history of Goa from 10000 B.C.-1352 A.D.|year=1986|publisher=Ramesh Anant S. Dhume|pages=355 pages (see pages 100–185)}}</ref>

=== Maurya Empire ===

[[Chandragupta Maurya]] incorporated the west coast of India in his province of [[Aparanta]], and the impact of [[Magadhi|Magadhan Prakrit]], the official language of the Mauryan Empire, on the local dialects resulted in the formation of early [[Konkani language|Konkani]], as was the case with other Aryan vernaculars. During this era [[Buddhism]] was introduced to Goa. Similarly a native Goan named Purna, also known as Punna in [[Pali]], who traveled to [[Sarnath]] is considered a direct disciple of [[Buddha]], who popularised Buddhism in Goa in the 5th century BC.<ref name=maurya />

===The Satavahanas (c. 2nd century BCE to 2nd CE)===
{{main|Satavahana}}
The Satavahana dynasty ruled Goa through their coastal vassals, the [[Chutu]]s of [[Karwar]]. This period is estimated to have lasted from around the 2nd century BC to 100 AD. The Satavahanas had established maritime power and their contacts with [[Roman Empire]] from the coastal trade from [[Sindh]] to [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra]], from [[Bharuch]] to Sopara to Goa, where [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and Roman ships would halt during voyages. The Bhojas fortified themselves after the end of Satavahana Empire.<ref name=sat>{{cite book|last=Motichandra|title=Sartavaha Ancient indian trade routes|year=1982|publisher=Sahitya academy|location=New Delhi|pages=144–148}}</ref> With the fall of the Satavahanas, the lucrative seaborne trade declined.<ref name=sattr>{{cite book|title=Gazetteer of the Union Territory Goa, Daman and Diu: district gazetteer, Volume 1|year=1979|publisher=Gazetteer Dept., Govt. of the Union Territory of Goa, Daman and Diu, 1979|location=panajim Goa|pages=(see page 70)}}</ref> Many Greek converts to Buddhism settled in Goa during this period. Buddha statues in Greek styles have been found in Goa.<ref>(see Pius Melkandathil,''Martitime activities of Goa and the Indian ocean''.)</ref> It can be seen that they ruled a very small part of Goa. [[Maharashtri]] ''prakrit'' was their language of administration, which influenced medieval Konkani to a great extent.<ref name=maharashtri>{{cite web|title=History of Konkani language|url=http://www.goakonkaniakademi.org/message.htm|publisher=Goa Konkani akademi|access-date=30 March 2011|archive-date=23 February 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090223191207/http://goakonkaniakademi.org/message.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

;Goa under the Western Kshatrapas
In the year 150AD, [[Vashishtiputra Satakarni]] was defeated by his son-in-law, the [[Western Kshatrapas|Kshatrapa]] King [[Rudradaman I]] who established his rule over Goa.<ref name=rudra>{{cite book|last=Yadzani|first=G|title=The early history of the deccan (Girnar inscription of Mahakshatrapa Rudradaman)|year=1960|publisher=Oxford university Press|location=London|pages=97}}</ref> This dynasty ruled the territory until 249AD. Thereafter the dynasty's power seems to have been weakened by their generals, the [[Abhiras]]<ref name=shat>{{cite book|last=Gune|first=Vithal Trimbak|title=Gazetteer of the Union Territory Goa, Daman and Diu: Goa|year=1979|publisher=Gazetteer Dept., Govt. of the Union Territory of Goa, Daman and Diu|location=Goa|pages=12}}</ref>

===The Mauryas of Puri ===
{{main|Mauryas of Puri}}
The history of the Mauryas is almost non-existent. The existing records disclose the names of only three of the dynasty's kings, namely ''Suketavarman'', who ruled some time in the 4th or 5th centuries, ''Chandravarman'' in the 6th century, and ''Ajitavarman'' in the 7th century, who ruled from ''Kumardvipa'' or modern ''Kumarjuve'', but beyond that the records provide no clue as to their mutual relationship. These dates were determined by comparing the style of the [[Nagari script]] in which these records are written with the evolution of this script, which may be dated fairly accurately. It is possible to infer from the places mentioned in these records and their discovery locations that at its zenith, the Western Maurya Kingdom comprised the Lata or South Gujarat, coastal Maharashtra, Goa, and approximately half of the North Kanara district. After the Maurya Empire had passed its meridian in the 2nd century BC its satrap in Aparanta made himself independent. A scion of the imperial Mauryas, he founded a dynasty that ruled over the west coast for nearly four centuries from its capital ''Shurparaka'' or modern [[Sopara]]. This dynasty was known as the ''Konkan Mauryas''. Goa was called ''Sunaparant'' by the Mauryas.<ref name=maurya>{{cite web|last=Moraes|first=Prof. George|title=PRE-PORTUGUESE CULTURE OF GOA|url=http://www.goacom.com/community/associations/goaont/convention/moraes.htm|work=Published in the Proceedings of the International Goan Convention|access-date=28 March 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006190744/http://www.goacom.com/community/associations/goaont/convention/moraes.htm|archive-date=6 October 2011}}</ref>

===Bhojas (c. 2nd century BCE to 4th CE)===
{{main|Bhojas of Goa}}
First existing as vassals of the Mauryas and later as an independent kingdom, the [[Bhojas of Goa|Bhojas]] ruled Goa for more than 500 years, annexing the entirety of Goa. The earliest known record of the Bhojas from Goa dates from the 4th century, it was found in the town of [[Shiroda, Goa|Shiroda]] in Goa. According to Puranik, by tradition the Bhojas belonged to the clan of [[Yadavas]], who may have migrated to Goa via [[Dvārakā|Dwaraka]] after the [[Mahabharata war]].<ref name=nyak>{{cite book|last=Nayak|first=K.D|title=Gomantakachi sanskrutic ghadan(in Marathi)|year=1968|publisher=Gomant Vidya Niketan|location=Margao|pages=37–42}}</ref> Two Bhoja [[Indian copper plate inscriptions|copperplates]] grants dating back to the 3rd century BC were unearthed from [[Bandora, India|Bandora]] village, written by King Prithvimallavarman. Ancient ''Chandrapur'', modern day [[Chandor]], was the capital of the Bhoja Empire.

From the Bhoja inscriptions found in Goa and Konkan, it is evidenced that the Bhojas used [[Sanskrit]] and [[Prakrit]] for administration.
According to Vithal Raghavendra Mitragotri, many [[Brahmin]]s and [[Vaishya]]s arrived with Kshatriyas Bhojas from the north.<ref>(see ''A socio-cultural history of Goa from the Bhojas to the Vijayanagara'')</ref> The [[Kshatriya]] Bhojas patronised [[Buddhism]] and employed many Buddhist converts of [[Greeks|Greek]] and [[Persian people|Persian]] origin.<ref name=bus>{{cite book|last=Satoskar|first=Ba.Da|title=Gomantak prakruti ani sanskuti, khand II, in Marathi|year=1982|publisher=Shubhda publishers|location=Pune|pages=106}}</ref>

== Kingdoms to Late Medieval period (1st century CE to 16th) ==
===Table of dynasties (to 16th century)===
Goa was ruled by several dynasties of various origins from circa the beginning of the common era to 1500.{{citation needed|date=October 2011}} Since Goa had been under the sway of several dynasties, there was no organised judicial or policing system in those days, except for traditional arrangements governed by absolute rulers and local chieftains. There may have been more order under Muslim rule.<ref name=dyn>{{cite book|last=D. Banerjea|title=Criminal Justice India Series: Goa, 2002|year=2005|publisher=Allied Publishers|isbn= 9788177645170|pages=see page 3}}</ref>
During this time, Goa was not ruled as a singular kingdom. Parts of this territory were ruled by several different kingdoms. The boundaries of these kingdoms were not clearly defined and the kings were content to consider their dominions as extending over many villages, which paid tribute and owed them allegiance.<ref name=early>{{cite book|last=Sakshena|first=R.N.|title=Goa: Into the Mainstream|year=2003|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn= 9788170170051|pages=156 pages(see page 20–21)}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" border="88"
|+ Dynasties controlling Goa from the 1st century BC to 1500 AD
! Name of the ruler !! Reign
|-
| [[Indo-Parthians]] || 2nd–4th centuries AD
|-
| [[Abhir]]as, Batapuras, [[Bhoja]]s || 4th–6th centuries
|-
| [[Chalukyas]] of Badami || 6th–8th centuries
|-
| [[Rashtrakutas]] of [[Malkhed]], [[Shilahara]]s || 8th–10th centuries
|-|-
| [[Kadambas]] || 1006–1356
|-
| [[Yadavas of Devagiri]] ||12th and 13th centuries
|-|-
|[[Vijayanagar Empire|Vijayanagara Empire]] || 14th and 15th centuries
|-
| [[Bahmani Sultanate]] || 15th century
|-
|}

===Shilaharas (755 – 1000)===
The [[Shilahara]]s of South Konkan ruled Goa from 755 until 1000 AD.  Sannaphulla, the founder of the dynasty, was a vassal of the [[Rashtrakuta]]s. Their copper-plate inscriptions suggest that they ruled from Vallipattana (there is no unanimity amongst the scholars regarding identification of Vallipattana, some identify it with Balli in Goa, or it may either be Banda or Kharepatan in the modern-day state of [[Maharashtra]]), [[Chandor|Chandrapura]] and [[Gopakapattana]].<ref name=shilahara>{{cite book|last1=De Souza|first1=Teotonio R.|title=Goa Through the Ages: An economic history, Volume 2|date=1990|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=8170222591|pages=125–127}}</ref> This was a tumultuous period in Goan history. As the Goa Shilahara power waned during the 11th century, the Arab traders gained increasing control of the overseas trade. They enjoyed autonomy from the Shilaharas. In order to control this decline, Kadamba King Guhalladeva I, ruling from [[Chandor]], established secular, political, and economic partnerships with these Arab states. After the Chalukyas defeated the Rashtrakutas, exploiting this situation to their advantage, the Kadamba King, Shashthadeva II, firmly established his rule in Goa.<ref name=shilahara />

===Kadambas (10th century to 14th)===
{{Main|Kadambas of Goa}}
The Kadambas ruled Goa between the 10th and 14th centuries. In the beginning, the Kadambas ruled only [[Salcette|Sashti]] present day Salcette, a small part of Konkan. They ruled from [[Chandor]], over a large part of Goa, but the port of [[Gopakapattana]] was not included in the early years.<ref name=kadamb>{{cite book|last=De Souza|first=Teotonio R.|title=Goa Through the Ages: An economic history|year=1990|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn= 9788170222590|pages=312 pages (see pages11-15)}}</ref>

====Port of Gopakapattana (10th century to 1345)====
Later King Shashthadeva conquered the island of Goa, including the ports of Gopakapattana and Kapardikadvipa, and annexed a large part of South Konkan to his kingdom. He made Gopakapattana as his secondary capital. His successor, King Jayakeshi I'','' expanded the Goan kingdom. The Sanskrit Jain text ''Dvayashraya'' mentions the extent of his capital. Port Gopakapattana had trade contacts with [[Zanzibar]], [[Bengal]], [[Gujarat]] and [[Sri Lanka]] (mentioned as Zaguva, Gauda, Gurjara, and Simhala in the Sanskrit texts). The city has been described in the contemporary records not only as aesthetically pleasing, but spiritually cleansing as well. Because it was a trading city, Gopakapattana was influenced by many cultures, and its architecture and decorative works showed this cosmopolitan effect. The capital was served by an important highway called Rajvithi or Rajpath, which linked it with [[Old Goa|Ela]], the ruins of which can still be seen. For more than 300 years, it remained a centre for intra-coastal and trans-oceanic trade from Africa to Malaya. Later in the 14th century, the port was looted by the [[Khalji dynasty|Khalji]] general [[Malik Kafur]]. The capital was transferred to Chandor and then back to Gopakapattana because of [[Muhammad bin Tughluq]]'s attack on Chandor.<ref name=kadamb/>
[[File:Spiritual_Nature.jpg|thumb|The [[Mahadev Temple, Tambdi Surla|Mahadeva Temple at Tambdi Surla]], built during the 12th century CE is one of the few surviving medieval temples in Goa.]]
Guhalladeva III, Jayakeshi II, Shivachitta Paramadideva, Vinshuchitta II and Jayakeshi III dominated Goa's political scene in the 12th century. During the rule of Kadambas, the name and fame of Goapuri had reached it zenith. Goa's religion, culture, trade and arts flourished under the rule of these kings. The Kings and their queens built many [[Shiva]] temples as they were devout [[Shaivites]]. They assumed titles like Konkanadhipati, Saptakotisha Ladbha Varaveera, Gopakapura varadhishva, Konkanmahacharavarti and Panchamahashabda.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gune|first=Vithal Trimbak|title=Gazetteer of the Union Territory Goa, Daman and Diu|publisher=Goa, Daman and Diu (India). Gazetteer Dept|year=1979|volume=I|pages=794}}</ref> The Kings had matrimonial relationships with the Kings of Saurashtra, and even the local chieftains. The Kings patronised [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic religion]] and performed major fire sacrifices like ''the horse sacrifice'' or [[Ashvamedha]]. They are also known for patronising [[Jainism]] in Goa.

Though their language of administration was [[Sanskrit]] and [[Kannada]], Konkani and [[Marathi language|Marathi]] were also prevalent. They introduced Kannada language to Goa, which had a very profound influence on the local tongue. [[Nagari script]], [[Kadamba script]], [[Halekannada|Halekannada script]] and [[Goykanadi|Goykanadi scripts]] were very popular. Kadamba Tribhuvanamalla, inscribed a record, dated saka 1028 or AD 1106, that he established a Brahmapuri at Gopaka.<ref>{{cite book|title=Gazetteer of the Union Territory Goa, Daman and Diu : district gazetteer / edited by V.T. Gune|series=Gazetteer of India|year=1979|publisher=Gazetteer Dept., Govt. of the Union Territory of Goa, Daman and Diu|url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000644033|access-date=8 January 2018}}</ref> Brahmapuris were ancient universities run by the Brahmins where the Vedas, astrology, philosophy, medicine, and other subjects were studied.  Such Brahampuris were found in many places in Goa such as Savoi verem and Gauli moula.

Kadambas ruled Goa for more than 400 years. On 16 October 1345<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dwYDPnEjTb4C&q=panjanakhani&pg=PA129|title=Goa Through the Ages: An economic history, Volume 2|last=De Souza|first=Teotonio R.|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|year=1990|isbn=9788170222590|pages=129}}</ref> Goa Kadamba King Suriya Deva was assassinated by Muslim invaders.{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}}

===Bahmani Sultanate (1350-1370, 1469-1492)===
From 1350 to 1370, Goa was ruled by the [[Bahmani Sultanate]]. In 1469 Goa was again conquered by the [[Bahmani Sultanate|Bahmani Sultans]] of [[Gulbarga]]. This Sultanate broke up in 1492.

===Vijayanagara Empire (14th century to 15th)===
In 1370, the [[Vijayanagar Empire|Vijayanagara Empire]] had reconquered Goa. Vijayanagara was a resurgent Hindu state controlling much of south India; its capital was located at modern day [[Hampi]], in [[Karnataka]]. The Vijayanagara rulers then held Goa for nearly a century. During that time its harbours were important ports of arrival for [[Arabian horse]]s destined for the Vijayanagara cavalry.

===Bijapur Sultanate (1492-1510)===
In 1492, Goa became a part of Adil Shah's [[Bijapur Sultanate]], which established [[Goa Velha]] as its second capital. The former Secretariat building in Panaji is a former Adil Shahi palace. It functioned for the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] as the official residence of their [[List of colonial heads of Portuguese India|Viceroys]].

== Portuguese rule (1510–1961) ==
{{Main|Portuguese India}}
[[File:Oda Nobunaga swivel breech loading gun.jpg|thumb|A [[breech-loading swivel gun]] thought to have been constructed in the 16th century in Goa. It was exported to Japan and used in the time of [[Oda Nobunaga]].]]

===Portuguese arrival===
[[Vasco da Gama]] commanded the first circumnavigation of Africa, relying on stories and maps from earlier Portuguese voyages. His fleet of four ships set off from Lisbon in 1497. After island stops at [[Tenerife]] and Cape Verde, the ships made landfall on the West African coast. They then steered southwest into the vast South Atlantic Ocean. Near Brazil, by making an eastward turn, they headed toward the southern cape of Africa which they rounded. After passing by the Rio do Infante described earlier by a fellow explorer, a northward course was set. The ships stopped at the East African ports of Mozambique, Mombasa and Malinda. An Arab pilot, or an Indian, then guided their remaining course across the Arabian Sea. A year out from Lisbon, da Gama's fleet landed in Calicut, India. Their arrival signalled the end of Muslim monopoly over the region's maritime trade.

Before the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] ships came to India, the [[Greater India|seas to the east]] had been dominated by the [[thalassocratic]] [[Chola Empire]] of the [[Tamils]], followed by their [[Shailendra dynasty]] successors and other Indianized seafaring states of [[Java]] and [[Sumatra]]. "Indian ship-building had a high reputation at the time". Yet "by the fifteenth century the navigation of Indian waters was in the hands of the [[Arabs]]" both toward the east and westward toward the [[Persian Gulf|Gulf]] and the [[Red Sea]].<ref>Panikkar (4th 1964), pp. 107-108, 195-198, 195 quote re ships, 197 quote re Arabs. India became "the sole supplier of cotton cloth" to the "Middle East, Burma, Malaya, Java, etc." (p.195 quote). Cf. per the southeast: pp. 77-84, 104-108.</ref>

===Afonso de Albuquerque===
[[File:Afonso de Albuquerque (with Santiago cloak).jpg|thumb|The governor of India Afonso de Albuquerque.]]
{{Further|Portuguese conquest of Goa}}
When [[Francisco de Almeida]] arrived to serve as the first [[List of governors of Portuguese India|Portuguese viceroy]] of the East (1505-1509), already there was a [[6th Portuguese India Armada (Albergaria, 1504)|regional war]] on the [[Malabar coast]]. In 1505 the [[Estado da India]] was established there, in [[Cochin]] considerably south of Goa.<ref>Geneviève Bouchon, "Beginnings of the ''Carreira da India''", pp. 40-54, at 47, in de Souza (1985).</ref> Almeida ended his tenure with a [[Battle of Diu (1509)|naval victory fought off Diu]], far to the north in [[Gujarat]].

The admiral [[Afonso de Albuquerque]] became second viceroy (1509-1515). In 1510 [[Timoji]] requested the Portuguese to take over Goa. The offer was welcomed. The city then was quickly seized from [[Ismail Adil Shah]], ruler of the [[Bijapur Sultanate]], but as quickly lost. Albuquerque, however, returned in force on 25 November.<ref>Winius Diffie, ''Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415-1580'', p. 253. He returned with a renovated fleet.</ref> In a day the gunnery of the Portuguese ships, and armed parties landing on shore, regained possession. Ismail Adil Shah and his [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Egyptian Mamluk]] allies formally surrendered Goa on 10 December. An estimate held that 6,000 of the 9,000 Muslim defenders died, in the battle on the streets or trying to flee.<ref>Kerr, Robert (1824).</ref> Albuquerque gained direct support from the Hindu people, which frustrated Timoji. He had expected to take autocratic command of the city. Albuquerque appointed him instead chief [[Alguacil|Aguazil]], an administrative office whose role included being the Hindu representative. Timoji was a learned interpreter of local customs.<ref>Bhagamandala Seetharama Shastry and Charles J. Borges, ''Goa-Kanara Portuguese Relations, 1498-1763'', p. 34-36.</ref>

By eliminating the [[jizya tax]], Albuquerque secured his victory. "Most of the population of Goa were [[Konkani language|Konkani-speaking]] Hindus [and] Albuquerque had the good sense to cut their taxes in half".<ref>Wolpert (7th 2004), p.137 quote.</ref> In spite of frequent attacks by raiders, Goa became the centre of Portuguese India. The conquest drew deference from several neighboring kingdoms: the [[Sultan of Gujarat]] and the [[Zamorin]] of Calicut dispatched embassies, offering alliances and local concessions, e.g., to build fortifications.

Albuquerque started a Portuguese [[Mint (coin)|mint]] in Goa. Local merchants and Timoji had complained about the scarcity of currency. The new coin served to announce the recent conquests.<ref>Teotonio R. De Souza, ''Goa Through the Ages: An Economic History,'' pp. 220-221, Issue 6, Goa University publication series, {{ISBN|81-7022-226-5}}</ref> Its value was pegged to existing coins.<ref>The [[Portuguese Indian rupia]] had a cross on one side and on the reverse the design of an [[armillary sphere]] (a type of [[astrolabe]]). The armillary sphere was the badge of King [[Manuel I of Portugal]]. Eventually, gold, silver, and bronze coins were issued: gold ''cruzados'' or ''manueis'', ''esperas'' and ''alf-esperas'', and ''leais''.</ref><ref>''Commentarios do grande Afonso Dalboquerque'', p. 157.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=zOufgbY8TbsC&dq=bibliogroup%3A%22Gloss%C3%A1rio%20luso-asi%C3%A1tico%22&pg=PA1 Sebastião Rodolfo Dalgado, Joseph M. Piel, ''Glossário luso-asiático, Parte 1,''], p. 382.</ref> An additional mint was built in Portuguese [[Malacca]].

[[File:"Gestus et habitus tam civium quam militum Lusitanorum in oriente agentium" (26277720302).jpg|thumb|The Portuguese in Asia, in ''Itinerario'', by [[Jan Huyghen van Linschoten|Jan Huygen van Linschoten]].]]

Albuquerque and his successors left the customs and constitutions of the thirty village communities on the island almost untouched, abolishing only the rite of ''[[Sati (practice)|sati]]'', in which widows were burned on their husband's funeral pyre. A register of these customs (''Foral de usos e costumes'') was published in 1526; it is among the most valuable historical documents pertaining to Goan customs.<ref>An abstract of it is given in R. S. Whiteway's ''Rise of the Portuguese Empire in India'' (London, 1898).</ref>

Goa was the base for Albuquerque's conquest of [[Malacca]] in 1511 and [[Hormuz Island|Hormuz]] in 1515. Albuquerque intended it to be a colony and a naval base, distinct from the fortified factories established in certain Indian seaports. Goa was made capital of the Portuguese Vice-Kingdom in Asia, and the other Portuguese possessions in India, [[Malacca]] and other bases in [[Indonesia]], [[East Timor]], the [[Persian Gulf]], [[Macau]] in China and trade bases in Japan were under the suzerainty of its [[Viceroy]]. By mid-16th century, the area under occupation had expanded to most of present-day limits.

===The new Goan polity===
{{More citations needed|date=September 2024}}
====Civil government and jurisdiction====
An initial aim of the rulers of Goa was military security, especially from the threat posed by the [[Adil Shahi dynasty|Bijapur sultanate]]. Goa's head of state, often titled the [[List of governors of Portuguese India|Viceroy]], was appointed directly by the Portuguese King. The viceroy might consult the finance council, the captain of the armed forces, the [[Fidalgo|''fidalgos'']], the [[Archbishop of Goa]], the chief of judiciary, the ''Vereador da Fazenda'' (superintendent of finance), the merchants, and others in informal councils. Commercial success was a primary objective, the purchase in quantity of fine spices to carry back to Europe. Ancillary objectives were creation of a spice-trade monopoly with control over merchant competitors, and levying duties on the cargoes of merchant vessels. Scores of commercial posts and stations were established, not only throughout India, but from [[Island of Mozambique|Mozambique]] (Africa) and [[Hormuz Island|Hormuz]] (the Gulf) to [[Malacca]] (Malaya) and [[Macau]] (China).<ref>Chaudhuri (1985, 1989), pp. 69-71.</ref>

[[File:Codice Casanatense Portuguese Nobleman and Christian Indian.jpg|thumb|Christian maidens of Goa meeting a Portuguese nobleman seeking a wife, circa 1540]]

[[Portuguese India|Portuguese rule in Goa]] endured for four and a half centuries. Its Senate or municipal chamber maintained direct communications with the [[Portuguese royalty|King]] and paid a special representative to attend to its interests at Court. In 1563 the Governor proposed to make Goa the seat of a parliament representing all parts of the Portuguese east, but this was rejected by the King. Eventually Goa was granted the same civic privileges as [[Lisbon]].<ref>See below, section ''Estado da India''.</ref>

The Portuguese rulers in Goa were either [[List of colonial heads of Portuguese India|Viceroys or Governors]]. Their original jurisdiction included those [[Portuguese Empire|possessions of the Portuguese]] from east Africa to south Asia and east Asia. The first viceroy to serve located himself in [[Kochi]] to the south of Goa on the [[Malabar coast]]; in 1510 this Portuguese seat of government was then established at [[Velha Goa]].

====Control of navigation====
[[File:Carrack 1565.jpg|thumb|1565 illustration of a Portuguese carrack.]]
Chief among the rivals of Portuguese Goa were the traders of the [[Zamorin]], ruler of [[Calicut]] (Kozhikode) on the [[Malabar coast]] (northern [[Kerala]]). The Zamorin's merchant ships regularly sailed on the [[Arabian Sea]], also venturing in the [[Bay of Bengal]]. Other formidable sea traders were of [[Gujarat]] to the north. Opponents of the Portuguese in India could then effectively convert their merchant vessels into warships. Early naval battles were [[Battle of Chaul (1508)|Chaul]] (1508), and a decisive one off [[Battle of Diu (1509)|Diu]] (1509) won by the Portuguese.<ref>Boxer (1969), p.46: Chau, and Diu in 1509.</ref>

Naval combat worked to decide the status of the rivals. The distinct advantage of the Portuguese was the [[Naval cannon|cannon]] mounted on their ships. Vasco de Gama's flagship ''San Gabriel'' alone carried twenty guns of quality manufacture. Their mostly Muslim antagonists, lacking ship cannon, could not compete in the [[Sailing ship tactics|sea battles]].<ref>Wolpert (7th 2004), p.135: naval guns.</ref><ref>Cf., ship cannon: [[Portuguese India Armadas]], at 2.4 "Artillery".</ref><ref>Cf., ship cannon: [[Naval artillery]], at 2.1 "Transition" under "Age of Sail".</ref><ref>''Au contraire'', Panikkar (1929, 2016), at pp. 69-71, states that Egyptian gunnery was more than a match for that of the Portuguese in 1508 off Chaul.</ref> Although [[Babur]]'s invasion of India in 1526 used cannon, their use "on ships at sea was not known" before the Portuguese. Further, the well-made sailing ships of India had hulls sewn together not nailed, better in some weather, but unable to absorb the recoil from discharge of onboard cannon. "India was, on most criteria, one of the advanced countries of the world." Yet regarding naval cannon, gunnery, ship design, and nautical skill, the Portuguese had the edge.<ref>Pearson (1989), pp. 56-60 (ship cannon "not known" quote, sewn hulls and recoil, "advanced" quote).</ref><ref>Boxer (1969), pp. 44, 207, 209 (naval artillery, ship construction, seamanship).</ref>

The [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]] also disputed control of the Indian Ocean. At [[Suez]] overland by camel they transported Mediterranean [[galley]]s in pieces for reassembly on the [[Red Sea]], to reinforce their naval forces. From 1538 to 1553 the Turks sent [[Ottoman naval expeditions in the Indian Ocean|battle fleets against the Portuguese]]. In several key engagements, however, the transoceanic [[caravel]]s and [[galleon]]s outmaneuvered the Turkish galleys.<ref>Toussaint (1966), pp. 106-107. The [[age of sail]] had put paid to that of the oar, although the oar-driven galleys had their final act at [[Battle of Lepanto|Lepanto]] in 1571.</ref>

Hence, from Goa the Portuguese were able to [[command of the sea|command]] the Indian Ocean. They instituted a system to tax its trade. Portuguese [[cartaz]]es (permits for navigation) were issued to owners of merchant vessels. The ''cartaza'' obliged the captain to keep to his ship's declared route and stop at the named Portuguese fort to pay duties on merchandise. "Any ship sailing without their ''cartas'' was treated as a pirate and was liable to capture and confiscation. . . . The Arab sea trade with India... passed into the hands of the Portuguese."<ref>Panikkar (4th 1964), p.199, ''cartas'' quote.</ref> During the sixteenth century "some eight hundred Portuguese [[galleon]]s" sailed in Indian waters, which became "virtually a Portuguese monopoly."<ref>Wolpert (7th 2004), pp. 135 (galleons), 136 (monopoly).</ref>

====The spice trade====
[[File:Rua Direita na Cidade de Goa.jpg|thumb|right|450px|[[Joannes van Doetecum the Elder|Johannes van Doetecum]]'s "[[Market of Goa (Van Doetecum)|Market of Goa]]", from [[Jan Huygen van Linschoten|Jan Huygen]]'s 1596 ''Itinerario'']]

Portuguese control of the waters off South Asia enabled them to master the lucrative spice trade during the 16th century. 
They coordinated and consolidated their operations from their base at Goa. At first their merchants, called [[factor (agent)|factors]], were unfamiliar with the local produce markets, and with appraising the quality of different spices. They learned how not to overpay for poor quality. For storage until seasonal ships left for Portugal, they set up warehouses called factories. At strategic positions on many coasts of the Indian Ocean, the Portuguese established well-guarded, [[fortified]] factories.<ref>Wolpert (7th 2004), p.136.</ref>

At the [[bazaar]]s of Goa, goods from all parts of the East were displayed. Separate streets were designated for the sale of different classes of goods: [[Bahrain]] pearls and coral, Chinese porcelain and silk, Portuguese velvet and piece-goods, and drugs and spices from the [[Malay Archipelago]]. Fine peppers came from the nearby Malabar coast. Goa was then called ''Goa Dourada'', i.e., ''Golden Goa''.

Especially the Portuguese enjoyed the great rewards to be made by shipping spice cargoes around Africa to Lisbon. The ever increasing demand of Europe meant ready buyers willing to pay top prices. "Arab and Venetian merchants remained in the spice trade throughout the century of Portuguese power in Asia" but the "trade has shifted dramatically". The middle-merchant carriers had been short-circuited by the ships direct to Lisbon.<ref>Wolpert (7th 2004), p.138, quotes.</ref>

[[Image:"Plan de Goa", in Histoire générale des voyages,1750.jpg|thumb|Map of Goa, in ''Histoire générale des Voyages'', de la Harpe, 1750.]]

====Life in Goa====
In 1542, St. [[Francis Xavier]] mentions the architectural splendour of the city. Goa reached the height of its prosperity between 1575 and 1625. Travellers marvelled at ''Goa Dourada'', i.e., ''Golden Goa''. A Portuguese proverb said, "He who has seen Goa need not see [[Lisbon]]." The houses of the rich were surrounded by gardens and [[Palm tree|palm]] groves; they were built of stone and painted red or white. Instead of glass, their balconied windows had thin polished oyster-shells set in lattice-work. The social life of Goa's rulers befitted the capitol of the viceregal court, the army and navy, and the church; luxury and ostentation became a byword before the end of the 16th century.<ref name="The Encyclopedia Britannica">{{cite book|last1=Prizeman|first1=Matthew|title=The Encyclopedia Britannica|date=1903|publisher=The Encyclopedia Britannica Company|location=New York|page=160|edition=11|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9gYkAQAAIAAJ}}</ref> Nonetheless, according to Portuguese records there was a Cholera epidemic in 1543, "It is said that deaths from the disposal of the disease were so numerous that the disposal of bodies was a formidable task"<ref>"A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day"</ref>

[[File:"Hoz habitu, qui e Lusitanis nobilitate aut dignitate clariores in India ... obequitant" (26344165136).jpg|thumb|Portuguese nobleman in Goa accompanied by a retinue.]]

In the main street, African and Indian slaves were sold by auction. Almost all manual labour was performed by slaves. The common soldiers assumed high-sounding titles, and even the poor noblemen who congregated in boarding-houses subscribed for a few silken cloaks, a silken umbrella and a common man-servant, so that each could take his turn to promenade the streets, fashionably attired and with a proper escort.<ref name="The Encyclopedia Britannica"/>

In 1583, Christian missionary activity in the village of [[Cuncolim]] led to conflicts, culminating in the [[Cuncolim Revolt]]. The first massacre happened when [[kshatriya]] villagers killed five Catholic priests (including an Italian nobleman) and fourteen native Christians. The Portuguese authorities then destroyed orchards and attacked the Hindu villagers. Cuncolim village had sixteen chieftains, one for each ward or ''vado'' of the village. The sixteen were called to Assolna Fort, ostensibly to discuss a peace pact. At the fort the Portuguese executed the chieftains, except for one who jumped into the Assolna River and presumably swam to [[Karwar]]. The Hindus of Cuncolim then refused to pay taxes, and the Portuguese confiscated their land. In 1560 the [[Goa Inquisition]] began, ending in 1812. The Hindu villagers who did not want to become Christian then left their villages with their idols before their temples were demolished. Most of these Hindus then settled in the neighbouring areas that were ruled by Bijapur, and again had to pay the jizya tax.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}}

====Printing press and medical college====
In 1556 a [[printing press]] was first installed India at [[Saint Paul's College, Goa|Saint Paul's College]] in Goa. Through publications made on the printing press, Goa opened a window on the knowledge and customs of Europe.<ref>{{Cite conference |conference=Asia-Pacific Economic and Business History Conference |date=2012 |location=Canberra, Australia |url=https://www.academia.edu/1366156 |title=An exploration of the role of Portugal in the economic integration of Asia and Europe with a focus on the pepper market |last1=Barrett |first1=Greg}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=http://goamuseum.gov.in/collections.html?group=14 | title=Goa Museum – Government of Goa | access-date=20 April 2013 | archive-date=1 August 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801155422/http://goamuseum.gov.in/collections.html?group=14 | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>[http://www.goaprintingpress.gov.in/about-us Goa Printing Press]</ref> The Jesuits brought this European-style, metal [[movable type]] technology to [[Macau]] in China in 1588 and to Japan in 1590.<ref>A. J. R. Russell-Wood, ''The Portuguese Empire, 1415-1808: A World on the Move'', p.204.</ref> The Jesuits also founded the [[University of Santo Tomas]] in the Philippines, the oldest existing European-style university in the Far East.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ust.edu.ph/index.php/history.html |title=History |access-date=2012-02-24 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091222000856/http://www.ust.edu.ph/index.php/history.html |archive-date=22 December 2009 }}</ref> In the same period, [[Goa Medical College]] was established as the first European medical college in Asia.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.gmcmec.gov.in/ | title=Medicaleducation Cell-GMC- Bambolim Goa}}</ref>

[[Garcia da Orta]] (1501-1568) wrote in Goa a treatise in Portuguese on the medicinal plants of India, [[Colóquios dos simples e drogas da India]].<ref>Cf., Panikkar (4th 1964), p.200: da Orta's book, the Goa printing press.</ref> It was published in 1563 in Goa on the new printing press, which contained many errors in its type-setting. The author was a physician, an herbalist, a pioneer in [[pharmacognosy]], and originally a [[Sephardic Jew]]. As a ''Cristão Novo'' ([[New Christian]]) he had escaped the [[Inquisition]]; but one of his sisters was not as fortunate.<ref>C. R. Boxer, [https://archive.org/details/b20457248/page/8/mode/2up ''Two pioneers of tropical medicine: Garcia d'Orta and Nicolás Monardes''] (London: Wellcome Historical Medical Library 1963), by ship to Goa in 1534 (p.8), as physician in India (9); publication and contents of his book (12-18), written in Portuguese (14); his sister Catarina in 1569 (11). Accessed 20 October 2020.</ref>

===Christianity in Goa===
[[Image:Churcholdgoa (64).JPG|thumb|right|Chapel of St. Catherine, built during the Portuguese occupation in [[Old Goa]]. <ref group="note">Not to be confused with the [[Se Cathedral|Cathedral of Santa Catarina]], also in Old Goa.</ref>]]

{{Further|History of Goan Catholics|Goa Inquisition|Hinduism in Goa}}
The Crown in Lisbon undertook to finance missionary activity; missionaries and priests converted large numbers of people in all spheres of society, especially in Goa.<ref>''Pilgrims to the Light: Encounters in a Shared Destiny'', edited by Valson Thampu. Har-Anand Publications, 2000. p. 131 ({{ISBN|8124106436}}, 9788124106433).</ref> St Francis Xavier in Goa, pioneered the establishment of a seminary, called [[Saint Paul's College, Goa|Saint Paul's College]]. It was the first Jesuit headquarters in Asia.<ref>''The Jesuits: Cultures, Sciences, and the Arts, 1540-1773'', edited by John W. O'Malley, p. 480</ref> St Francis founded the college to train Jesuit missionaries. He went to the Far East, traveling towards China. Missionaries of the Jesuit Order spread out through India, going as far north as the court of the great Mughal Emperor Jallaluddin [[Akbar]]. Having heard about the Jesuits, he invited them to come and teach him and his children about Christianity.<ref>''Pilgrims to the Light: Encounters in a Shared Destiny'', edited by Valson Thampu. Har-Anand Publications (2000). p. 132 ({{ISBN|8124106436}}, 9788124106433).</ref>

From Goa, the [[Jesuit order]] was able to set up base almost anywhere in Asia for evangelistic missions, including the founding of [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] colleges, universities and faculties of education. Jesuits are known for their work in education, intellectual research, and cultural pursuits, and for their missionary efforts. Jesuits also give retreats, minister in hospitals and parishes, and promote social justice and ecumenical dialogue.;{{citation needed|date=March 2018}} Saint Paul's College Goa was a base for their evangelisation of Macau, and then for their important missionary campaigns into China and Japan. Macau eventually superseded St Paul's College, Goa. They built [[St. Paul's College, Macau|St Paul College]] in 1594 (now the University of Macau), known in Latin as the college of ''Mater Dei''.<ref name="Nunez">''Macao's Church of Saint Paul: A Glimmer of the Baroque in China'' By César Guillén Nuñez. Hong Kong University Press. (2009). p. 70. ({{ISBN|962209922X}}, 9789622099227)</ref> Due to his personal enmity with the Jesuits, the [[Marques de Pombal|Marquês de Pombal]] expelled the order from Portuguese territories in 1762.<ref>''Education and Society in Hong Kong and Macao:Comparative Perspectives on Continuity and Change;'' Volume 7 of CERC Studies in Comparative Education. By M. Bray, Ramsey Koo ({{ISBN|1402034059}}, 9781402034053) p. 113.114</ref> The Macau university combined evangelisation with education.<ref name="Nunez" />

In the year 1600 [[António de Andrade]] made the long voyage from [[Lisbon]] to Goa, where he pursued his higher studies at St. Paul's College and was ordained a Jesuit priest. He eventually became rector of the same college. He made a landmark missionary expedition from Goa, across the length of India and into Tibet. He overcame incredible hardships in the journey as the first European to cross the [[Himalaya mountains]] into Tibet.<ref>[http://www.bdcconline.net/en/stories/a/andrade-antonio-de.php Antonio de Andrade] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130520081349/http://www.bdcconline.net/en/stories/a/andrade-antonio-de.php |date=20 May 2013 }}, BDCC Online</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jesuitsources.com/index.php?main_page=product_info&products_id=114 |title=Tibet: The Jesuit Century &#91;978-1-880810-29-8&#93; - $16.75 : Zen Cart!, the Art of E-commerce |access-date=2013-04-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130411044903/http://www.jesuitsources.com/index.php?main_page=product_info&products_id=114 |archive-date=11 April 2013 }}</ref> There he founded churches and a mission in 1625.<ref>''The Christian Discovery of Tibet'' by Joseph Abdo ({{ISBN|9729985839}})</ref> The body of the co-founder of the Society of Jesus, [[Francis Xavier]], whose example many Goan missionaries tried to emulate by engaging in evangelizing work in Asia, was shipped to Goa on 11 December 1553. Goa has also produced its own saints: the [[martyrs of Cuncolim]]; St. [[Joseph Vaz]], whose missionary exploits in Sri Lanka are remembered with gratitude in that country; and the Venerable [[Agnelo de Souza]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ewtn.com/library/BISHOPS/zpoupindia.htm |title=Challenge of Witnessing the Faith in Indian Cultures |website=ewtn.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121122854/http://www.ewtn.com/library/BISHOPS/zpoupindia.htm |archive-date=2008-11-21}}</ref>

The 16th-century monument, the cathedral or Sé, was constructed during Portugal's Golden Age, and is the largest church in Asia, as well as larger than any church in Portugal. The church is 250&nbsp;ft in length and 181&nbsp;ft in breadth. The frontispiece stands 115&nbsp;ft high. The cathedral is dedicated to [[St. Catherine of Alexandria]] and is also known as St. Catherine's Cathedral.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://knowindia.gov.in/knowindia/culture_heritage.php?id=63 |title=Monuments - Se´ Cathedral - Culture and Heritage - Know India: National Portal of India |access-date=2013-04-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121214080901/http://knowindia.gov.in/knowindia/culture_heritage.php?id=63 |archive-date=14 December 2012 }}, Know India</ref><ref>[http://www.goatourism.gov.in/destinations/churches/134-se-cathedral Se Cathedral], Goa Tourism</ref> It was on her feast day in 1510 that Afonso de Albuquerque defeated the Muslim army and took possession of the city of Goa.
[[File:The procession of the Inquisition in Goa entering th Wellcome V0041645.jpg|thumb|The [[Auto-da-fé]] procession of the [[Goa Inquisition|Inquisition at Goa]]. The Goa Inquisition, which was established in 1560 and abolished in 1820, persecuted [[Hindus]], [[Muslims]], and other religious minorities]]
The [[Goa Inquisition]] was the office of the Inquisition acting within the Indian state of Goa and the rest of the Portuguese empire in Asia. It was established in 1560, briefly suppressed from 1774 to 1778, and finally abolished in 1812. Based on the records that survive, H. P. Salomon and I. S. D. Sassoon state that between the Inquisition's beginning in 1561 and its temporary abolition in 1774, some 16,202 persons were brought to trial. Of this number, only 57 were sentenced to death and executed; another 64 were burned in effigy. Most were subjected to lesser punishments or penances.

The Inquisition was established to punish [[New Christians]] who continued practicing their ancestral religion in secret. Many Sephardic Jews (as falsely-converted Catholics) had immigrated to Goa from the Iberian peninsula. Due to persecution by the Inquisition, most left and migrated to [[Fort St. George]] (later [[Madras]]/Chennai) and [[Cochin]], where the English and the Dutch allowed them to be openly Jewish.<ref name="Saraiva">{{cite journal |last1=Starr-LeBeau |first1=Gretchen |last2=Saraiva |first2=António José |last3=Salomon |first3=H. P. |last4=Sassoon |first4=I. S. D. |title=The Marrano Factory: The Portuguese Inquisition and Its New Christians, 1536-1765 |journal=The Sixteenth Century Journal |date=1 October 2003 |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=827 |doi=10.2307/20061561 |jstor=20061561 }}</ref>
In Goa the Inquisition also scrutinised Indian converts from Hinduism or Islam who were thought to have returned to their original ways.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}} It prosecuted non-converts who broke prohibitions against the observance of Hindu or Muslim rites, or interfered with Portuguese attempts to convert non-Christians to Catholicism.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}} Goan Inquisition was abolished in 1812.

===Relations with neighboring powers===
[[File:Portuguese Goa 1620 - Manuel Godinho de Herédia.png|thumb|1620 map of Goa.]]

;Bijapur 
{{see also|Adil Shahi-Portuguese conflicts}}
When the Portuguese arrived in Goa, they encountered the established regime of the [[Sultanate of Bijapur]] under [[Yusuf Adil Shah]] (1450-1510). The Adil Shah (written ''Hidalcão'' by the Portuguese) controlled Goa (and significant territory of the Sultanate) from his distant, inland capital. Led by [[Afonso de Albuquerque]], in alliance with Timoji, their 1510 attack ended in Portuguese victory. Bijapur lost Goa, but continued as a large, local power.<ref>See above section on Albuquerque.</ref><ref>De Souza (1979, 2d 2009), pp. 10-13.</ref> In 1565 Bijapur and other [[Deccan Sultanates]] in a [[jihad]] [[Battle of Talikota|destroyed the capital]] of the Hindu Empire [[Vijayanagar]]a, an ally of the Portuguese. From the spoils Bijapur doubled its size.<ref>Wolpert (7th 2004), pp. 138-139. In 1686 Bijapur itself was absorbed into the Mughal Empire by [[Aurangzeb]] (p.167).</ref><ref>Davies (2d 1949), pp. 44-47 (Maps 21 & 22).</ref> In 1571 Bijapur in an alliance of mostly Muslim sultanates ([[Sultanate of Ahmadnagar|Ahmadnagar]], [[Sultanate of Bijapur|Bijapur]], [[Zamorin of Calicut|Calicut]], [[Sultanate of Aceh|Aceh]]) launched [[War of the League of the Indies|determined attacks]] on Goa, which failed. The defeat of this siege of Goa proved decisive.<ref>Boxer (1969), pp. 58-59: siege of Goa in 1571.</ref><ref>Pearson (1987), p.57: Muslims unite to attack Goa.</ref><ref>Wolpert (7th 2004), pp. 167: In 1686 Bijapur itself was absorbed into the Mughal Empire by [[Aurangzeb]].</ref>

;Kanara
The [[Kanara]] coastal regions lay immediately south of Goa. Many small principalities, largely autonomous, were under Vijayanagara, then Bijapur. [[Timoji]], who played a role in the 1510 capture of Goa, was from Kanara, e.g., [[Honavar]]. Goa traded with various Kanara rulers, which was an important source of rice for domestic consumption; other goods were pepper for export and timber for ships building. The Portuguese had built a fort and ran a factory in Kanara, and were often in effective local control. The [[Nayak (caste)|Nayak]] rulers of the Keladi ruling family, however, began to dispute with Goa over the prices paid for trade goods, and other issues. Goa was not able to pay the increases demanded. A series of treaties were nonetheless negotiated. Then hostile Dutch influence increased and Arabs from [[Muscat]] began to compete with Goa for the Kanara trade.<ref>De Souza (1979, 2d 2009), pp. 13-16.</ref><ref>Pearson (1987), p.20, Map 2: Honavar, [[Bhatkal]].</ref> 
  
;Mughal
When [[Akbar]] (r. 1555–1605) ruled the [[Mughal Empire]], he endeavored to harmonize the empire's conflicting religions. At Akbar's court, rival Muslim clerics had heated debates. At his new capital [[Fatehpur Sikri]], meetings at his [[Ibadat Khana]] [''House of Worship''] more variously included "Muslim scholars, Hindu [[pandit]]s, Parsi [[mobed]]s, and Jain [[sadhu]]s". Akbar "invited Jesuits from Goa" but no Buddhists were in proximity. Conferring privately with Jesuits, Akbar discussed Christianity and Abrahamic theology.<ref>De Souza (1979, 2d 2009) at p.7, writes that Akbar's "pretensions were so well disguised that it took even the wise Jesuits some time to realize that the Mughal emperor was playing a political game."</ref> In 1682 Akbar promulgated a syncretic [[Din-i-Ilahi]] [''Divine Faith''].<ref>Or alternatively ''Tawhid-i-Ilahi'' ["Divine Monotheism"].</ref> "The crucial question about Akbar's religious activity is whether he established a new religion or new spiritual order." Either way, his efforts came to nought.<ref>Ikram (1964), pp. 160 (''Ibadat'' quote), 161 ("crucial" quote), 151-161 (Akbar's 'religious biography'), 158-159 ('Infallibility Decree'), 160-165 (Akbar remained a Muslim), 164 (did not claim to be a prophet).</ref><ref>Smith (3d ed. 1958), ''au contraire'', pp. 350 (promulgation), 149-50 & 157-158 (Akbar rejected Islam), 347-348 (first Jesuit Mission), 357-359 (Akbar's religious biography), 358, n1 (no Buddhists at ''Ibadat''). Akbar's eyes were "vibrant like the sea in sunshine" remarked a Jesuit (p.356).</ref><ref>Cf., Vincent Smith, ''Akbar the Great Mogul'' (Oxford, Clarendon 1917).</ref>

Goa enjoyed a flourishing trade with [[Gujarat]], when Akbar annexed it in 1573. Agreeable relations were worked out, however, allowing the Portuguese at [[Diu, India|Diu]] to continue to issue [[cartaz]]es and collect duties on the sea trade. In 1602 the English arrived in Asia and pirated a loaded Portuguese merchant ship off [[Malacca]]. In 1608 with 25,000 pieces of gold an English captain arranged for rights at [[Surat]], the Mughal Empire's principle trading port. This led to a two-year war between the Mughals and the Portuguese, ending with a feckless treaty in 1615. The Mughals, then dominate in India but weak at sea, began to play the Europeans off against each other. Under Emperor [[Aurangzeb]] (r. 1658–1707), the Mughals became frustrated by their war against the [[Maratha Empire|Maratha]]s. Goa remained neutral, but once praised [[Shivaji]]'s valor.<ref>De Souza (1969, 2d 2009), pp. 7-9.</ref><ref>Pearson (1987), pp. 51-56.</ref><ref>Wolpert (7th 2004), 163-167: Shivaji.</ref><ref>Goa and the Maratha: see herein below.</ref>

;Dutch
[[File:Battle at Goa.jpg|thumb|Naval battle at Goa between Dutch and Portuguese warships in 1639.]]
In 1595 there first appeared in Indian waters ships of the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[Dutch East India Company|United East India Company]] (Dutch: ''Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie or VOC'').<ref>Krishna Ayyar (1966), p.99.</ref> Until then, for almost a century, the Portuguese had managed to keep secret their "more detailed information about India," especially their "priceless Portuguese navigation maps". Yet [[Jan Huygen van Linschoten]], who had worked in Goa, in 1592 came away with the coveted knowledge which "taught the Dutch how to use the monsoon winds to their best advantage."<ref>Wolpert (7th 2004), p.141, map quotes.</ref> Also unfortunately for Portugal, Spain had initiated the [[Iberian Union]], which united the two countries. Additionally, the Dutch and the Spanish were then fighting their [[Eighty Years' War]]. In 1600 against Goa the Dutch allied with regional Muslim forces (the [[Sultanate of Bijapur]]); then the Dutch [[Dutch-Portuguese War|made war on Goa]]. The long-term result of these hostilities was the undoing of [[Portuguese presence in Asia|Portuguese naval dominion in the Indian Ocean]] and a loss of [[Portuguese India Armadas|its preeminence in sea trade]].<ref>Boxer (1069), pp. 106-111. Fighting between Dutch and Portuguese lasted from 1602 to 1663; the stakes included the East Indies, Africa, and the West Indies. In the east, it pitted Portuguese Goa against the Dutch in [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]] (since 1619, what is now [[Jakarta]] in Indonesia). The prosperous Dutch, who drew on soldiers from Germany and Sweden, greatly outnumbered the Portuguese. Cf., pp. 113-127.</ref> In 1603 and 1639, the city was blockaded by Dutch fleets, though never captured. The Dutch East India Company were defeated at the [[Travancore–Dutch War]], which stifled their influence in the region.

;Vijayanagara
The [[Vijayanagar Empire|Vijayanagara Empire]] (1336-1646) ruled vast lands in [[South India]] when the Portuguese arrived in Goa. The empire's rise as a great power was said to encompass a "mission of upholding the Hindu cause against Islam." Vijayanagara had earlier governed Goa; its ruler [[Viranarasimha Raya|Vira Narasimha Raya]] (r. 1505–1509) contemplated retaking it, but soon died. [[Krishnadeva Raya|Krishna Deva Raya]] (r. 1509–1529) then succeeded as ruler, said to be the empire's best. The Portuguese then were aggressively establishing control of maritime trade routes and coastal ports in [[Kochi|Cochin]] and Goa. The regional political rivalries developed so that Vijayanagara and Goa remained aligned as friendly powers. The Portuguese supplied Vijayanagara with Persian horses.<ref>Panikkar (4th 2004), p.201: Persian horses.</ref> A Portuguese engineer improved irrigation for lands of Krishna Deva Raya.<ref>Sastri (4th ed. 1975), pp. 215 (mission quote), 250 ([[Tuluva dynasty]]), 252 (friends), 258 (irrigation).</ref> Vijayanagara was [[Battle of Talikota|ultimately defeated]] in 1646 by an alliance of [[Deccan sultanates]]. So vital was this alliance to Goa, that Goa lost much of its importance after the fall of Vijayanagara.<ref>Smith (3d ed. 1958), p.332.</ref><ref>Shastri (4th ed. 1975), p.256: "Goa rose and fell simultaneously with the rise and fall of the [[Tuluva dynasty|third Vijayanagar dynasty]]."</ref><ref>Wolpert (7th 2004), pp. 138-139 (Vijayanagar-Goa diplomacy and trade, horses).</ref><ref>De Souza (2009), pp. 6, 13, 27, 50, 66, 77.</ref>

There began a gradual drop in Goa's prosperity. In 1635 Goa was ravaged by an [[epidemic]].{{Vague|date=September 2024}}{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}} [[Jean de Thévenot]] in 1666, [[Philip Balde|Baldaeus]] in 1672, and Fryer in 1675 described Goa in decline.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}}
[[File:The_Basilica_of_Goa.jpg|alt=|right|thumb|[[Basilica of Bom Jesus]]]]

;Maratha
;{{See also|Maratha–Portuguese War (1683–1684)}}
The [[Maratha Empire]] (1674-1818) to the north grew steadily in strength, far surpassing that of the Mughal Empire, let alone Goa. After his escape from [[Aurangzeb]] in [[Agra]], the Maratha ruler Chhatrapati [[Shivaji]] (1627-1680) started a counterattack to recoup lands lost to the [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]] through the [[Treaty of Purandar (1665)]]. Against Goa, Chhatrapati Shivaji mounted an invasion that subdued the region adjoining the Old Conquestas. He captured [[Pernem]], [[Bicholim]], [[Sattari]], [[Ponda, Goa|Ponda]], [[Sanguem]], [[Quepem]] and [[Canacona]] from the Portuguese. Sawantwadi Bhonsale and Saudekar Rajas became his vassals.

The Maratha Chhatrapati [[Sambhaji]] (1657-1689), the son of C. Shivaji, tried in 1683 to conquer all of Goa. Chh. Sambhaji almost ousted the remaining Portuguese, but suddenly a [[Army of the Mughal Empire|Mughal army]] appeared which prevented the Maratha from completing their conquest, resulting in the culmination of the [[Deccan wars]]. In 1739-1740 the territory of [[Bardez]] in north Goa was attacked by the Marathas, in order to pressure the Portuguese at [[Vasai]]. The plan of conquest, however, was forestalled with "the payment of a large war indemnity."<ref>Boxer (1969), p.136 (1683 Mughal army, 1740 payment quote).</ref><ref>Another version of 1740 had the conquest forestalled because of the unexpected arrival of the new Viceroy with a Portuguese fleet.</ref>

In June 1756 a Maratha Army invading Goa killed in action Luís Mascarenhas, Count of Alva (Conde de Alva), the Portuguese Viceroy. The Marathas, however faced an invasion from [[Durrani Empire|Afghan]], resulting in their defeat at the [[Third Battle of Panipat]] (1761). The Maratha [[Peshwa]]'s overall control slackened throughout India.<ref>Smith (3d ed. 1958), pp. 488-490 (Panipat).</ref> The Portuguese then defeated the regional Rajas of [[Sawantwadi]] and the Raja of Sunda to reconquer an area from Pernem to Canacona. This territory formed the Novas Conquistas, within the boundaries of present-day Goa. Following the Battle of Panipat, the Mughals retained their friendly relationship with the Portuguese.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}}

;English
The long Dutch war described above led Portugal to seek an alliance with the English, which proved costly. The Dutch war did finally end in 1663.<ref>Compare: three naval wars: [[First Anglo-Dutch War]] (1652-1654) and the [[Second Anglo-Dutch War]] (1665-1667) and the [[Third Anglo-Dutch War]] (1672-1674).</ref> In 1665 the English demanded in payment the cession of [[Bombay]]. Officially it was part of the dowry of [[Catherine of Braganza]] on her ill-starred marriage to [[Charles II of England|Charles II]]. Though at first active rivals in India after the [[English East India Company]] arrived in 1601,<ref>Boxer (1969), p.146 (the Marathas refrained from taking Goa, preferring it as a counterweight to the English).</ref><ref>Smith (3d ed. 1958), p. 367-368 ([[Jahangir]] "perceived that the English could now be used as a counterpoise to the Portuguese").</ref> the two latter attempted to coordinate against common enemies. The Maratha-derived "pirate" fleet led by the independent [[Kanhoji Angre]] inspired such an uneasy alliance. The 1721 Anglo-Portuguese naval attack on Culaba, the Angria stronghold, was repulsed. It was a fiasco that then embittered the partnership.<ref>Boxer (1969), pp. 111 (rivalry); 136, 137 (Bombay); 136-137 (naval fiasco).</ref>

===Estado da India: 18th and 19th centuries===
In 1757, King [[Joseph I of Portugal]] issued a decree, developed by his minister [[Marques de Pombal|Marquês de Pombal]], granting Portuguese citizenship to all subjects in the Portuguese Indies, with the right to be represented in the Portuguese Parliament. Pombal (1699-1782), an anti-Catholic [[Freemason]], served the King as the ''de facto'' leader of Portugal, 1750–1777.<ref>In 1759 the [[Expulsion of the Jesuits|Jesuits were expelled]] from Portugal and the [[Távora affair]] reduced aristocratic power, both benefiting Pombal. Critics also denounced his [[enlightened absolutism]].</ref> The enclaves of Goa, [[Damão]], [[Diu, India|Diu]], [[Dadra and Nagar Haveli]] became collectively known as the ''Estado da Índia Portuguesa''. The first election was held in Goa on 14 January 1822. Three local citizens were elected as members of the Portuguese parliament.<ref>Charles J. Borges, Hannes Stubbe, ''Goa and Portugal: history and development''.</ref> From their first arrival, the Portuguese intermarried among the converted natives of Goa. They produced Luso-Indian offspring, who were also Catholic.<ref>Chaudhuri (1985, 1989), p.73.</ref><ref>Wolpert (7th 2004), p.138. Intermarriages were "officially encouraged".</ref>

In 1787, some disgruntled priests attempted a rebellion against Portuguese rule. It was known as the [[Conspiracy of the Pintos]].

Goa was peacefully [[British occupation of Goa|occupied by the British]] between 1812 and 1815 in line with the [[Anglo-Portuguese Alliance]] during the [[Napoleonic Wars]].

The viceroy transferred his residence from the vicinity of Goa city to New Goa (in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] ''Nova Goa''), today's [[Panaji]]. In 1843 this was made the official seat of government; it completed a move that had been discussed as early as 1684. [[Old Goa]] city's population fell steeply during the 18th century as Europeans moved to the new city. Old Goa has been designated a [[World Heritage Site]] by UNESCO because of its history and architecture.<ref>[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/234 "World Heritage Sites"], UNESCO</ref>

The [[Goa civil code]] was introduced in 1869 after Portuguese Goa and Damaon were elevated from being mere Portuguese colonies to the status of a [[Província Ultramarina]] (Overseas possession).

===Second World War===
Goa was neutral during the conflict like Portugal.  As a result, at the outbreak of hostilities a number of Axis ships sought refuge in Goa rather than be sunk or captured by the British Royal Navy. Three German merchants ships, the ''Ehrenfels'', the ''Drachenfels'' and the ''Braunfels'', as well as an Italian ship, took refuge in the port of [[Mormugao]]. The ''Ehrenfels'' began transmitting Allied ship movements to the [[U-boat]]s operating in the Indian Ocean, an action that was extremely damaging to Allied shipping.

But the British [[Royal Navy]] was unable to take any official action against these ships because of Goa's stated neutrality. Instead the Indian mission of [[Special Operations Executive|SOE]] backed a covert raid using members from the [[Calcutta Light Horse]], a part-time unit made up of civilians who were not eligible for normal war service.  The Light Horse embarked on an ancient Calcutta riverboat, the ''Phoebe'', and sailed round India to Goa, where they sunk the ''Ehrenfels''. The British then sent a decrypted radio message announcing it was going to seize the territory. This bluff made the other Axis crews scuttle their ships fearing they could be seized by British forces.

The raid was covered in the book ''Boarding Party'' by [[James Leasor]].  Due to the potential political ramifications of the fact that Britain had violated Portuguese neutrality, the raid remained secret until the book was published in 1978.<ref>{{cite book | last =Leasor | first =J. | title =Boarding Party | publisher =Heinemann | year =1978 | location =London | url =http://www.jamesleasor.com/boarding-party-filmed-and-republished-in-paperback-as-the-sea-wolves/ | oclc =4191743 | isbn =0-434-41026-8 | access-date =4 November 2011 | archive-date =7 August 2020 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20200807210000/http://www.jamesleasor.com/boarding-party-filmed-and-republished-in-paperback-as-the-sea-wolves/ | url-status =dead }}</ref> In 1980 the story was made into the film, ''[[The Sea Wolves]]'', starring [[Gregory Peck]], [[David Niven]] and [[Roger Moore]].

===Independence Movement===
{{more citations needed section|date=August 2011}}
{{See also|Goan independence movement}}
<!-- This section is linked from [[Annexation]] -->
[[Image:Goa 1955 invasion.ogg|thumb|In 1955 a group of unarmed civilians, the Satyagrahis, demonstrated against Portugal. At least twenty-two of them were killed by Portuguese gunfire.{{citation needed|date=May 2021}}]]

When India became independent in 1947, Goa remained under Portuguese control. The Indian government of [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] demanded that Goa, along with a few other minor Portuguese holdings, be turned over to India. However, Portugal refused due to Goa being an integral part of Portugal since 1510. By contrast, France, which also had small enclaves in India (most notably [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]]), surrendered all its [[French India|Indian possessions]] relatively quickly.<ref>{{harvnb|Asian recorder|1962|p=4371|Ref=as}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Asian recorder|1962|p=4440|Ref=as}}</ref>

In 1954, a horde of armed Indians flooded into and took over the tiny land-locked enclaves of [[Dadra and Nagar Haveli]]. This incident led the Portuguese to lodge a complaint against India in the [[International Court of Justice]] at [[The Hague]]. The final judgement on this case, given in 1960, held that the Portuguese had a right to the enclaves, but that India equally had a right to deny Portugal access to the enclaves over Indian territory.{{citation needed|date=May 2021}}

In 1955 a group of unarmed civilians, the Satyagrahis, demonstrated against Portugal. At least twenty-two of them were killed by Portuguese gunfire.{{citation needed|date=May 2021}}

Later the same year, these non-Goan Satyagrahis took over a fort at Tiracol and hoisted the Indian flag. They were driven out of Goa by the Portuguese with a number of casualties. On 1 September 1955, the Indian consulate in Goa was closed using this incident as an excuse; Nehru declared that his government would not tolerate the Portuguese presence in Goa. India then instituted a blockade against Goa, Damão, and Diu in an effort to force a Portuguese departure. Goa was then given its own airline by the Portuguese, the [[Transportes Aéreos da Índia Portuguesa]], to overcome the blockade.{{citation needed|date=May 2021}}

== Indian annexation of Goa ==
{{Main|Annexation of Goa}}

On 27 February 1950, the Government of India asked the Portuguese government to open negotiations about the future of Portuguese colonies in India.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite web |title=Operação Vijay 18 a 19/12/1961 |url=http://www.supergoa.com/pt/40anos/vijay.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080226040732/https://www.supergoa.com/pt/40anos/vijay.asp |archive-date=26 February 2008 |language=pt}}</ref> Portugal asserted that its territory on the Indian subcontinent was not a colony but part of metropolitan Portugal and hence its transfer was non-negotiable, and that India had no rights to this territory because the Republic of India did not exist at the time when Goa came under Portuguese rule.<ref>Goa was first recognised as equal to the metropolis in the Royal Charter of 1518, and affirmed in subsequent legislation. The term 'province' was first used in 1576, and the term 'overseas provinces' used in virtually all legislation and constitutions thereafter, e.g. Art.1–3 & Art. 162-64 of 1822 Constitution [http://www.arqnet.pt/portal/portugal/liberalismo/const822.html online], 1826 constitution [http://www.arqnet.pt/portal/portugal/liberalismo/carta826.html online], Art. I & Title X of the constitution of 1838 [http://www.arqnet.pt/portal/portugal/liberalismo/const838.html online], Title V of the Republican constitution of 1911 [http://www.arqnet.pt/portal/portugal/liberalismo/const911.html online] and the 1932 Constitution of the Estado Novo.</ref> On 18 December 1961, Indian troops crossed the border into [[Annexation of Goa|Goa and annexed it]]. Operation Vijay involved sustained land, sea and air strikes for more than thirty-six hours; it resulted in the unconditional surrender of Portuguese forces on 19 December 1961 by [[Manuel António Vassalo e Silva]].<ref name="Major K C Praval">{{Cite book |last=Praval |first=Major K.C. |title=Indian Army after Independence |publisher=Lancer |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-935501-10-7 |location=New Delhi |pages=214}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Times |first=Navhind |date=2011-12-13 |title=Goa to honour Operation Vijay heroes |url=https://www.navhindtimes.in/2011/12/14/goanews/goa-news-goa-honour-operation-vijay-heroes/ |access-date=2024-08-26 |website=The Navhind Times |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Faleiro |first=Valmiki |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GYLyEAAAQBAJ&dq=panjim+brigadier+gurbux+singh&pg=PT154 |title=Goa, 1961: The Complete Story of Nationalism and Integration |date=2023-07-24 |publisher=Penguin Random House India Private Limited |isbn=978-93-5708-175-7 |language=en}}</ref>

A United Nations resolution condemning the invasion was proposed by the United States and the United Kingdom in the [[United Nations Security Council]], but it was vetoed by the [[USSR]].<ref>{{cite journal
|title=International Reactions to Indian Attack on Goa – Soviet Veto of Western Cease-fire Resolution in Security Council
|journal=Keesing's Record of World Events
|volume=8
|date=March 1962
|publisher=Keesing's Worldwide, LLC
}}</ref> Goa celebrates Liberation Day on 19 December every year, which is also a state holiday.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-12-23|title=Explained: Goa Liberation Day and PM Narendra Modi's visit|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-goa-liberation-day-pm-modi-7679860/|access-date=2021-12-23|website=The Indian Express|language=en}}</ref>

== Post-Annexation (1961 – present) ==
[[File:Shubhankar_Shah_-_Goa_University_Library_-_8_March_2018-1.jpg|thumb|The [[Goa University]] was established in 1985, although its affiliated colleges date back to as early as the 17th century.]]

=== As a Union Territory (1961-1987) ===
{{Unreferenced section|date=February 2025}}{{Main|Goa, Daman and Diu}}
{{See also|1967 Goa status referendum}}
{{See also|Konkani language agitation}}
The territory of [[Goa, Daman and Diu]] was a [[union territory]] of [[India]] from 19 December 1961 to 30 May 1987. Its official language was declared to be [[Marathi language|Marathi]], much to the anger of the majority of the native Goans.{{According to whom|date=February 2025}}

After a brief period of military rule, on 8 June 1962, military rule was replaced by civilian government when the [[List of governors of Goa|Lieutenant Governor]] [[Kunhiraman Palat Candeth]] nominated an informal [[Goa Legislative Assembly|Consultative Council]] of 29 nominated members to assist him in the administration of the territory. [[Dayanand Bandodkar]] of the [[Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party]] was elected as the first Chief Minister of Goa, Daman and Diu. He attempted to merge Goa with Maharashtra by importing Marathi immigrants from the neighbouring state{{Cn|date=February 2025}} (Goa's population increased by almost 35% in the 1960s due to heavy immigration of Marathi people), but his plans were foiled by the [[Goa Opinion Poll]].{{According to whom|date=February 2025}}

=== State of Goa (1987 -present) ===
In February 1987, the Indian government finally recognized Konkani as the official language of Goa. Goa was later admitted to Indian statehood in May 1987. [[Pratapsingh Rane]], who had previously served as Chief Minister of [[Goa, Daman and Diu]], was elected as the first Chief Minister of the newly formed state.

Goa has a high [[List of Indian states and union territories by GDP per capita|GDP per capita]] and [[List of Indian states and territories by Human Development Index|Human Development Index]] compared to most Indian states.<ref name="report">{{cite book |title=Reports of the finance commissions of India: First Finance Commission to the Twelfth Finance Commission: the complete report|publisher=Academic Foundation |year=2005|page=268|isbn=978-81-7188-474-2}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Sister project links|Goa|v=no}}
*[[Portuguese conquest of Goa]]
*[[Goa Inquisition]]
*[[Goan Catholics under the British Indian Empire]]
*[[Sackings of Goa and Bombay-Bassein]]
*[[History of Goan Catholics]]
*[[Timeline of Goan history]]
*[[Battle of Goa (1638)]]
*[[Annexation of Goa]]
*[[List of peers and fidalgos in Portuguese India]]

==Notes==
* Gune, Vithal Trimbak (1979) ''Gazetteer of the Union Territory Goa, Daman and Diu: Goa'' (Goa)
* Nayak, K.D (1968) ''Gomantakachi sanskrutic ghadan'' [in Marathi] (Margao: Gomant Vidya Niketan)

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist|group="note"}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book |ref=as |title=Asia Recorder |date=1962 |publisher=K. K. Thomas at Recorder Press}} 
* Banerjea, D., ''Goa, 2002'' (Allied Publishers 2005) Criminal Justice India Series {{ISBN|9788177645170}}.
* Bhagamandala Seetharama Shastry & Charles J. Borges, ''Goa-Kanara Portuguese Relations, 1498-1763''
* De Souza, Teotonio R., ''Goa Through the Ages: An economic history'', vol. 2. (Concept Publishing Co. 1990)
* De Souza, Teotonio R., ''Medieval Goa. A socio-economic history'' (Goa: Goa,1556 1979, 2d ed. 2009)
* Krishna Ayyar, K. V., ''A short history of Kerala'' (Ernakulam: Pai & Co. 1966)
* Nayak, K. D., ''Gomantakachi sanskrutic ghadan'' ['''Marathi'''] (Margao: Gomant Vidya Niketan 1968)
* Panikkar, K. M., ''Malabar and the Portuguese'' (1929; reprint New Delhi: Voice of India 2016)
* Pearson, M. N., ''The Portuguese in India'' (Cambridge University 1988)
* Priolkar, Anant, ''The Goa Inquisition, Being a Quatercentenary Commemoration Study of the Inquisition in India'' (Bombay University Press)
* Rao, R. P., ''Portuguese rule in Goa: 1510-1961'' (Bombay: Asia Publishing House 1963)
* Sakshena, R. N., ''Goa: Into the Mainstream'' (Abhinav Publications 2003) {{ISBN|9788170170051}}.
* Satoskar, Ba. Da, ''Gomantak prakruti ani sanskuti, khand II'' ['''Marathi'''] (Pune: Shubhda publishers 1982)
** De Souza, Teotonio R., editor, ''Indo-Portuguese History. Old issues, new questions'' (Delhi: Naurang Rai Concept 1985)
;Articles
* {{cite journal| doi =10.1177/0376983613499680 | volume=40 | title=History of Goa with Special Reference to its Feudal Features | year=2013 | journal=Indian Historical Review | pages=249–266 | last1 = Bhat | first1 = N. S.| issue=2 | s2cid=145048379 }}
* Boxer, C.R. "Golden Goa 1510-1954." ''History Today'' (Nov 1954) 4#11 pp 754–763. 
*Gune, Vithal Trimbak (1979) ''Gazetteer of the Union Territory Goa, Daman and Diu: Goa'' (Goa)
;Secondary
* Boxer, C. R., ''The Portuguese Seaborne Empire, 1415-1825'' (New York: Knopf 1969)
* Chaudhuri, K. N., ''Trade and Civilisation in the Indian Ocean'' (Cambridge University 1985)
* Davies, C. Collin, ''An Historical Atlas of the Indian Peninsula'' (Oxford University 2d ed. 1949)
* De Mendonça, Délio. ''Conversions and Citizenry: Goa under Portugal, 1510-1610'' (2002) [https://books.google.com/books?id=Mh3kKf0VSfQC&dq=Goa+history&pg=PR5 online].
* Diffie and Winius, ''Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415-1580'' (University of Minnesota 1977)
* Henn, Alexander. ''Hindu-Catholic encounters in Goa: Religion, colonialism, and modernity'' (Indiana University Press, 2014) [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFZ_BAAAQBAJ&dq=Goa+history&pg=PP1 online].
* Ikram, A. J., ''Muslim civilization in India'' (New York: Columbia University 1964)
* Jayasuriya, Shihan de Silva. ''The Portuguese in the East: A Cultural History of a Maritime Trading Empire'' (2008)
* Panikkar, K. M., ''A survey of Indian History'' (New York: Asia Publishing House 1947, 4th ed. 1964)
* Russell-Wood, A. J. R., ''The Portuguese Empire, 1415-1808: A World on the Move''
* Sarker, Himansu Bhusan, ''Trade and commercial activities of Southern India in the Malayo-Indonesian world'' (Calcutta: Firma KLM 1986)
* Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta, ''A History of South India. From prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagara'' (1947; New Delhi: Oxford University 4th ed. 1975)
* Smith, Vincent, ''Oxford History of India'' (3d ed. 1958), edited by Percival Spear. 
* Subrahmanyam, Sanjay, ''The Portuguese empire in Asia, 1500-1700: A political and economic history'' (2012)
* Wolpert, Stanley, ''A New History of India'' (Oxford University 1977, 7th ed. 2004)
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