View source for Hispanidad

{{Short description|Term for the cultural unity of Hispanic peoples}}
{{italic title}}
{| class="wikitable"  style="float:right; width:25%;"
|+''Hispanidad''
|- 
| style="text-align:center;"|
[[Image:Flag of the Hispanic peoples.svg|border|250px]] <br><small>The [[Hispanic flag]]</small>
|-
|'''Independent Hispanic countries:'''
*{{ARG}}
*{{BOL}}
*{{CHI}}
*{{COL}}
*{{CRI}}
*{{CUB}}
*{{DOM}}
*{{ECU}}
*{{ESA}}
*{{GEQ}}
*{{GUA}}
*{{HON}}
*{{MEX}}
*{{NIC}}
*{{PAN}}
*{{PAR}}
*{{PER}}
*{{ESP}}
*{{URU}}
*{{VEN}}
'''Non-independent but self-governing:'''
*{{PUR}}{{Efn|Puerto Rico is an unincorporated territory of the [[United States]].}}
*{{GIB}}{{Efn|Gibraltar is an unincorporated territory of the [[United Kingdom]]. While English is the sole official language, Spanish is widely spoken.}}
'''Countries and regions sometimes included within the concept of ''Hispanidad'''''
*{{BLZ}}{{Efn|The official language is [[English language|English]], but [[Hispanic and Latin American Belizean|Hispanics make up 52.9% of the population]].}}
*{{PHL}}{{Efn|The Philippines is sometimes considered part of the ''Hispanidad''. Spanish was formerly co-official alon with Tagalog and native languages, but has few native speakers today. See [[Spanish language in the Philippines]].}}
*{{SADR}}{{Efn|Spanish is spoken mostly as a [[second language]].}}
*{{HTI}}{{Efn|The official languages are [[Haitian Creole]] and [[Haitian French|French]], but [[Spain]] once had control of the country from 1492–1665 as a part of The [[Captaincy General of Santo Domingo]], [[Spanish Language|Spanish]] is also spoken by some Haitians especially near the [[Dominican Republic|Dominican]] border as a [[second language]].}} 
*{{flagdeco|USA}} [[Florida]]{{Efn|Florida has a significant Hispanic population. Spain colonized Florida from 1513–1822. Hispanics are the ethnic plurality in [[Miami, Florida|Miami]], [[Tampa, Florida|Tampa]], [[Orlando, Florida|Orlando]], [[St. Augustine, Florida|St. Augustine]], and [[Pensacola, Florida|Pensacola]].}}
*{{flagdeco|USA}} [[Louisiana]]{{Efn|Louisiana has a significant Hispanic population with their inhabitants called [[Isleños]]. Spain colonized Louisiana from 1762–1801.}}
*{{flagdeco|USA}} [[Southwestern United States]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Avendaño |first=Fausto |title=The Spanish language in the Southwest: past, present, and future |url=https://open.uapress.arizona.edu/read/the-chicanos/section/4cf244e6-79ee-4e6b-8c96-03ac61f720a3 |access-date=2024-01-19 |website=University of Arizona Press |language=en-US |quote=...the surprising unity of the Spanish language... in the brotherhood of all Spanish-speaking people... was being threatened by the English language at the linguistic borders of the Hispanic world, the Southwest.}}</ref>{{Efn|The southwestern United States has a significant Hispanic population. Hispanics are the ethnic plurality in [[California]], [[Nevada]], [[Arizona]], [[New Mexico]], and [[Texas]].}}
*{{flagdeco|Netherlands}} [[ABC islands (Leeward Antilles)|ABC islands]]{{Efn|Includes: [[Aruba]], [[Bonaire]], and [[Curaçao]]. Spanish is spoken mostly as a [[second language]].}}
|}
'''{{lang|es|Hispanidad}}''' ({{IPA|es|is.pa.niˈðað|lang}}, typically translated as "Hispanicity"<ref>{{cite book | last=Tienda | first=Marta |chapter=3: Defining Hispanicity: E Pluribus Unum or E Pluribus Plures? | title=Multiple origins, uncertain destinies: Hispanics and the American future | publisher=National Academies Press | publication-place=Washington, D.C. | year=2006 | isbn=0-309-09667-7 | oclc=66266997 | page=<!--not needed, chapter title enough-->}}</ref>) is a Spanish term describing a shared cultural, linguistic, or political identity among speakers of the [[Spanish language]] or members of the [[Hispanic]] diaspora. The term can have various, different implications and meanings depending on the regional, socio-political, or cultural context in which it is used.

'''Hispanidad''', which is independent of race, is the only ''[[ethnic]]'' category, as opposed to racial category, which is officially collated by the [[U.S. Census Bureau]]. The distinction made by government agencies for those within the population of any official race category, including "Black", is between those who report Hispanic backgrounds and all others who do not. ''Non-Hispanic Blacks'' consists of an ethnically diverse collection of all others who are classified as Black or African American that do not report [[Hispanic]] ethnic backgrounds.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lopez |first1=Mark Hugo |last2=Krogstad |first2=Jens Manuel |last3=Passel |first3=Jeffrey S. |title=Who is Hispanic? |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/09/23/who-is-hispanic/ |access-date=2022-03-31 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US}}</ref>

== History ==
{{Essay-like|section|date=June 2025}}
The [[Spanish Empire|Hispanic]] model of identity and representation has been historically characterized by its multi-faceted nature, which transcends strict racial categorizations. Numerous figures exemplify this complexity, including [[Martín de Porres]], [[Beatriz de Palacios]], [[Conquistador|Spanish conquistador]] [[Juan Garrido]] that established the first commercial [[Wheat farmer|wheat farm]] in the Americas,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Review {{!}} February 2012: 1493 by Charles Mann '76 {{!}} Amherst College |url=https://www.amherst.edu/alumni/learn/amherstreads/pastfeatures/2012-features/1493/review |access-date=2024-10-28 |website=www.amherst.edu}}</ref> [[Estevanico]], [[Francisco Menéndez (black soldier)|Francisco Menendez]], Juan de Villanueva, [[Juan Valiente]], {{ill|Juan Beltrán de Magaña|es}}, Pedro Fulupo, Juan Bardales, Antonio Pérez, Gómez de León, Leonor Galiano, [[Teresa Chikaba|Teresa Juliana de Santo Domingo]] and Juan García. Additionally, [[Juan Latino]] stands out as a significant figure in this discourse; he is recognized as the first black African to attend a European university, ultimately achieving the status of professor. This highlights the notion that the [[Spanish Empire|Hispanic]] identity is not monolithic and is instead enriched by diverse contributions across racial and ethnic lines. Such examples serve to challenge simplistic perceptions of race within the historical narrative of Hispanic culture.

== Early use ==
The term has been used in the early modern period and is in the {{lang|es|Tractado de orthographía y accentos en las tres lenguas principales}} by Alejo Venegas, printed in 1531, to mean "style of linguistic expression". It was used, with a similar meaning, in the 1803 edition of the ''Dictionary of the [[Spanish Royal Academy]]'' as a [[synonym]] of ''Hispanismo'' (Hispanism), which, in turn, was defined as "the peculiar speech of the Spanish language".<ref name="Filosofía-Hispanidad">{{cite journal|url=http://www.filosofia.org/ave/002/b033.htm|title=Hispanidad|journal=Filosofía en Español|location=Buenos Aires|access-date=2015-12-15}}</ref>

==Revival==
In the early 20th century, the term was revived, with several new meanings. Its reintroduction is attributed to [[Miguel de Unamuno]] in 1909, who used the term again on 11 March 1910, in an article, ''La Argentinidad'', published in a newspaper in [[Argentina]], ''[[La Nación]]''. He compared the term to other similar expressions: ''{{Wikt-lang|es|argentinidad}}'', ''{{Wikt-lang|es|americanidad}}'', ''{{Wikt-lang|es|españolidad}}'' and ''{{Wikt-lang|es|italianidad}}''.<ref name="Filosofía-Hispanidad"/><ref>{{cite book|first=Miguel de|last=Unamuno|author-link=Miguel de Unamuno|editor=Víctor Oiumette|title=De patriotismo espiritual. Artículos en "La Nación" de Buenos Aires (1901–1914)|year=1997|publisher=[[University of Salamanca]]|location=Salamanca|isbn=847481880X|page=24}}</ref>

Unamuno linked the concept to the multiplicity of peoples speaking the Spanish language, which encompassed in turn his idea of [[La Raza]], gave it an egalitarian substrate and questioned the very status of [[motherland]] for Spain; he claimed the need of approaching [[Hispanic America|Hispanic American republics]] in terms of sisterhood (opposing "primacies" and "maternities").<ref name="Unamuno-Adelanto">{{cite journal|journal=Miguel de Unamuno. Estudios Sobre Su Obra|volume=II|editor=Ana Chaguaceda Toledano|first=Jean-Claude|last=Rabaté|title=Miguel de Unamuno frente a las conmemoraciones del 12 de octubre|year=2005|publisher=[[University of Salamanca]]|location=Salamanca|page=247|isbn=8478006834}}</ref>

[[File:Zacarias de Vizcarra.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.6|The priest [[Zacarías de Vizcarra]] spread the term in 1926]]
Further development of the concept had to wait for the 1920s, when a group of intellectuals was influenced by the ideas of ultranationalist French thinker [[Charles Maurras]] and rescued the term.{{Sfn|Colom González|2013|p=9}} The term was used by Spanish priest [[Zacarías de Vizcarra]], who was living in [[Buenos Aires]].{{Sfn|Ramón Solans|2014|p=364|ps=&nbsp;«Zacarías de Vizcaya»{{sic}}}} He proposed in 1926 that the expression ''[[Fiesta de la raza española|Fiesta de la Raza]]'' should be changed to ''Fiesta de la Hispanidad''.{{Sfnm|González Cuevas|2003|1p=244|Marcilhacy|2014|2p=75}}

During the reign of King [[Alfonso XIII]] of Spain, the [[Virgin of Guadaloupe]] was proclaimed "Queen of the Hispanidad" in Spain.{{Sfn|Pastor|2010|p=259}} In the later years of the decade, vanguard writer [[Ernesto Giménez Caballero]] began to elaborate a neo-imperialist narrative of the {{lang|es|Hispanidad|italic=no}} in ''[[La Gaceta Literaria]]''.{{Sfn|Friedman|2011|pp=38–39}} The doctrine of {{lang|es|Hispanidad|italic=no}} would also become a core tenet of the [[reactionary]] thought in Spain in the coming years.{{Sfn|Juan-Navarro|2006|p=392}}

[[File:Defensa Hispanidad.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.6|Cover of the first edition of ''Defensa de la Hispanidad'' (1934), by Ramiro de Maeztu.]]
During the [[Second Spanish Republic]], Spanish monarchist author [[Ramiro de Maeztu]], who had been the ambassador to Argentina between 1928 and 1930,{{Sfn|Núñez Seixas|2013|p=870}} considered the concept of Hispanidad, motivated by the interests aroused on him by Argentine-related topics,{{Sfn|Martínez de Velasco Farinós|1981|p=180}} and the meetings between him and the attendants to the courses of [[Catholic culture]] as nationalist, Catholic and [[Conservatism|anti-liberal]].{{Sfn|González Calleja|2007|p=612}} Maeztu explained his doctrine of Hispanidad in his work ''Defensa de la Hispanidad'' (1934);<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.spainisculture.com/en/obras_culturales/defensa_de_la_hispanidad.html |title=In Defense of Spanishness|publisher=Ministry of Culture and Sport (Spain) |website=Spain is Culture|date=  |author= |language=en|accessdate= 21 December 2021}}</ref> he thought it was a spiritual world that united [[Spanish Empire|Spain and its former colonies]] by the Spanish language and Catholicism.{{Sfn|Perfecto|2012|p=65}} He attributed the concept to Vizcarra, instead of Unamuno.{{Sfn|González Cuevas|2003|p=244}} In the Hispanidad of Maeztu, the Christian and humanist features that would identify Hispanic peoples would replace rationalism, liberalism and democracy, which he called alien to the Hispanic ''[[ethos]]''.{{Sfn|González Calleja|2007|p=619}} His work "relentlessly" linked [[Catholicism]] and Hispanidad and was highly influential with [[Argentine nationalism|Argentine nationalists]]{{Sfn|Saborido|2007|pp=425–426}} and the Spanish far right, including [[Francoism]].{{Sfn|Rodríguez Jiménez|1994|p=45}} Although declaredly anti-racist because of its Catholic origin, the sense of racial egalitarianism in Maeztu's idea of Hispanidad was restricted to the scope of heavenly salvation.{{Sfn|Álvarez Chillida|2014|pp=111–112}}
[[File:Goma y Thomas.JPG|thumb|left|upright=0.6|Primate [[Isidro Gomá y Tomás]] defended the ideas of Vizcarra and Maeztu.{{Sfn|Martini|2015|p=58}}]]
Spanish [[Primate (bishop)|Primate]] [[Isidro Gomá y Tomás]] issued in Argentina, on 12 October 1934, a Maeztu-inspired manifesto, ''In Support of Hispanidad'':

{{Blockquote|text="America is the work of Spain. This work by Spain is essentially of Catholic nature. Hence, there is a relation of equality between Hispanidad and Catholicism, and any attempt at Hispanisation which rejects it is madness".<br /><br />"''América es la obra de España. Esta obra de España lo es esencialmente de catolicismo. Luego hay relación de igualdad entre hispanidad y catolicismo, y es locura todo intento de hispanización que lo repudie.''"{{Sfnm|Roberts|2004|1p=62|Colom González|2006|2p=64}}|author=[[Isidro Goma y Tomas|Isidro Gomá]] |source=fragment of «Apología de la Hispanidad» (Buenos Aires, 1934), collected in ''[[Acción Española]]'' (1 November 1934).}}

According to Stephen G. H. Roberts, Gomá linked the ideas of Maeztu and the ideology that was developed by the [[Francoist Spain|dictatorship of Franco]].{{Sfn|Roberts|2004|p=62}}

According to the philosopher and writer [[Julián Marías]], the [[Spanish America|Spanish American territories]] were not only colonies but also extensions of Spain that mixed with the native American peoples, with whom Europeans [[Mestizo|intermarried]], creating a multicultural society.<ref>{{cite book|last=González Fernández|first=Enrique|title=Pensar España con Julián Marías|date=2012|publisher=Ediciones Rialp|isbn=978-8432141669}}</ref>

==Francoist Spain==
{{Falangism sidebar|expanded=Ideology}}
That narrative was heavily featured in Nationalist propaganda during the [[Spanish Civil War]],{{Sfn|Pasamar|2010|p=197}} being used as war tool.{{Sfn|Pardo Sanz|1992|p=211}} Spanish philosopher and Francoist propagandist {{ill|Manuel García Morente|es}} would make [[Francisco Franco]] the saviour of the legacy of the Hispanidad from an "invisible army" that was sent by the [[Communist International]] of [[Moscow]].{{Sfn|Nicolás Marín|1998|pp=39–40}} García Morente would synthesize the essence of Hispanidad in the archaistic ideal of "[[Miles Christianus|Christian knight]]", half-monk and half-soldier;{{Sfn|Colom González|2006|p=66}} that figure was used in the pages of student books during the beginning of the Francoist dictatorship.{{Sfn|Núñez Seixas|2006|p=205}}

After the Spanish Civil War, the [[Our Lady of the Pillar]] became a symbol of Hispanidad in Spain and was linked to the [[National Catholicism]] of the Franco´s regime to the ideas of patriotism and "Hispanic essences".{{Sfn|Cenarro|1997|pp=92, 97 y 98}}

Franco created the [[Council of the Hispanidad]] on 2 November 1940.{{Sfnm|Payne|1987|1p=360|Barbeito Díez|1989|2p=117}} It was thought at first to be a sort of supranational institution,{{Sfn|Barbeito Díez|1989|p=118}} and it ended up being a council of 74 members, charged with the task of coordinating the relations with Latin America.{{Sfn|Payne|1987|p=360}} The Hispanidad became the source of an expansive nationalism (first imperialist and then cultural).{{Sfn|Marcilhacy|2014|p=101}} Besides its character both as national identity element and as stalwart of Catholicism, Francoism used the Hispanidad in international relations.{{Sfn|Calle Velasco|2004|p=170}}

The Council of the Hispanidad would become the {{ill|Institute of Hispanic Culture|es|Instituto de Cultura Hispánica}} in 1946 and change from a more [[Falangist]] profile to a more Catholic one.{{Sfn|Fernández de Miguel|2012|p=360}} That happened within a framework of a general change in the doctrine of the Hispanidad between 1945 and 1947, with [[Alberto Martín-Artajo]] at the helm of the Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The message then became more defensive and less aggressive, with fewer mentions of "empire" and "race" (biological).{{Sfn|Sepúlveda Muñoz|2005|p=174}} Afterwards, later in the Francoist dictatorship, the regime, then less constrained by the international community, recovered more aggressive rhetorics, but it failed to reach the full extent of when Ramón Serrano Suñer was Minister of Foreign Affairs.{{Sfn|Sepúlveda Muñoz|2005|pp=174–175}}

In 1958, the Day of the Race was renamed to Day of the Hispanidad in Spain.{{Sfn|Marcilhacy|2014|p=100}}

==Mexico==
Already in the 1930s, conservative Mexican writer {{ill|Alfonso Junco|es}} had become an active propagandist of the Hispanidad.{{Sfn|Urías Horcasitas|2010b|p=615}} One of the key parts of the ideology of [[National Action Party (Mexico)|''"Panista"'' Mexican politician]] {{ill|Efraín González Luna|es}}, who strongly supported [[miscegenation]], was the Hispanidad, which he conceived in terms of a united community of sovereign states that defended their own values from foreign threats like communism.{{Sfn|Gómez Peralta|2010|p=172}} Other opponents of [[History of Mexico#Consolidation of revolution, 1920–1940|post-revolutionary Mexico]], who spread the doctrine of the Hispanidad were {{ill|Miguel Palomar y Vizcarra|es}}, {{ill|Jesús Guisa y Azevedo|es}}, [[Salvador Abascal Infante|Salvador Abascal]], and [[Salvador Borrego]].{{Sfn|Urías Horcasitas|2010a|p=196}} The [[National Synarchist Union]] saw in the Hispanidad a key component of the vitality of the Mexican nation.{{Sfn|Ard|2003|p=44}}

== Spanish exiles ==
The idea of Hispanidad was also featured with new meanings in authors of the [[Spanish Republic in exile]], such as [[Fernando de los Ríos]], [[Joaquin Xirau Palau|Joaquín Xirau]], [[Eduardo Nicol]] and [[Américo Castro]].{{Sfn|Sánchez Cuervo|2014|pp=17, 25 y 30}} [[Salvador de Madariaga]], also exiled, defended the Hispanidad as a positive factor towards cultural ontogeny; he believed its miscegenation was much better than the Anglo-Saxon example.{{Sfn|Rojas Mix|1997|p=187}}

==Argentina==
In Argentina, one of the few countries with good relations with Francoist Spain after the end of [[World War II]], President [[Juan Domingo Perón]] defended the concept of Hispanidad by highlighting the Hispanic roots of Argentina. However, [[Peronism]] began to detach itself from the idea from 1950 to 1954 period to replace it with {{lang|es|[[Latinidad]]}} (Latinity).{{Sfn|Rein|1991}}

==Other countries==
In [[Colombia]], {{ill|Eduardo Carranza|es}} used the idea of Hispanidad in his work.{{Sfn|Carranza|2006|pp=6–7}}
In [[Chile]], [[Jaime Eyzaguirre]] would do the same.{{Sfn|Campos Harriet|1983|p=49}} In [[Peru]], diplomat [[Víctor Andrés Belaúnde]] held that Peru was essentially a [[mestizo]] and [[Spanish people|Spanish]] nation and due to this its people "gravitated" towards what was "Hispanic".<ref name="Montoya1998">{{cite journal |last=Montoya Iriarte |first=Urpi |date=1998 |title=Hispanismo e Indigenismo: o dualismo cultural no pensamento social peruano (1900-1930). Uma revisão necessária |url=http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0034-77011998000100005 |journal=Revista de Antropologia |language=pt |volume=41 |issue=1 |access-date=30 January 2016}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Panhispanism]]
* [[Spanish nationalism]]
* ''[[Breve Historia de México]]''
* [[Hispanismo]]
* [[Hispanic eugenics]]
* ''[[Limpieza de sangre]]''
* [[Spanish-speaking world]]
* [[Traditionalist conservatism]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist|30em|group=lower-alpha}}

== References ==

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===
* {{Cite journal|journal=Imaginarios y Representaciones de España Durante el Franquismo|others=In: Stéphane Michonneau and Xosé M. Núñez-Seixas (Eds.)|publisher=[[Casa de Velázquez]]|year=2014|isbn=978-84-15636-65-6|issn=1132-7340|title=Epígono de la Hispanidad. La españolidad de la colonia de Guinea durante el primer franquismo|pages=103–126|first=Gonzalo|author-link=Gonzalo Álvarez Chillida|last=Álvarez Chillida}}
* {{cite book|title=An Eternal Struggle: How the National Action Party Transformed Mexican Politics|first=Michael J.|last=Ard|publisher=Praeger|location=Westport & Londres|year=2003|isbn=0-275-97831-1}}
* {{cite book|title=Política exterior de España y relaciones con América Latina: iberoamericanidad, europeización y atlantismo en la política exterior española|first=Celestino del|last=Arenal|publisher=Fundación Carolina y Siglo XXI de España Editores|location=[[Madrid]] & [[Tres Cantos]]|year=2011|isbn=978-84-323-1486-5}}
* {{Cite journal|title=El Consejo de la Hispanidad|first=Mercedes|last=Barbeito Díez|journal=Espacio, tiempo y forma. Serie V, Historia contemporánea|issn=1130-0124|volume=2|year=1989|pages=113–140|publisher=[[Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia]]|location=[[Madrid]]}}
* {{Cite journal|journal=Jirones de Hispanidad. España, Cuba, Puerto Rico y Filipinas, en la Perspectiva de Dos Cambios de Siglo|others=In: Mariano Esteban de Vega, Francisco de Luis Martín y Antonio Morales Moya (Eds.)|publisher=[[Universidad de Salamanca|Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca]]|year=2004|isbn=84-7800-609-5|location=[[Salamanca]]|title=Hispanoamericanismo. De la fraternidad cultural a la defensa de la Hispanidad|pages=151–172|first=María Dolores de la|last=Calle Velasco}}
* {{Cite journal|title=Cristianismo e Hispanidad en la obra de Jaime Eyzaguirre|last=Campos Harriet|first=Fernando|author-link=Fernando Campos Harriet|journal=Boletín de la Academia Chilena de la Historia|issn=0716-5439|publisher=Academia Chilena de la Historia|volume=50|year=1983|pages=49–58}}
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* {{Cite journal|title=La Hispanidad en Colombia: Eduardo Carranza y el Instituto de Cultura Hispánica|first=Jerónimo|last=Carranza|pages=2–15|volume=43|issue=73|year=2006|location=[[Bogotá]]|journal=Boletín Cultural y Bibliográfico|publisher=Banco de la República|issn=0006-6184|url=http://publicaciones.banrepcultural.org/index.php/boletin_cultural/article/view/486/488}}
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* {{Cite journal|first=Francisco|last=Colom González|title=Political Catholicism and the Secular State: a Spanish Predicament|journal=Recode Working Paper Series|volume=20|publisher=European Science Foundation – Research Networking Programme  
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* {{cite book|title=El enemigo yanqui: Las raices conservadoras del antiamericanismo español|first=Daniel|last=Fernández de Miguel|publisher=Genueve Ediciones|location=[[Zaragoza]]|year=2012|isbn=978-84-940186-3-3}}
* {{Cite journal|first=Michael|last=Friedman|journal=Journal of Spanish Cultural Studies|volume=12|issue=1|year=2011|pages=35–60|issn=1463-6204|title=Reconquering 'Sepharad': Hispanism and proto-Fascism in Giménez Caballero's Sephardist Crusade|location=[[Abingdon-on-Thames|Abingdon]]|publisher=[[Routledge]]|doi=10.1080/14636204.2011.556876|s2cid=146484297}}
* {{Cite journal|journal=Estudios Políticos|issn=0185-1616|issue=20|year=2010|title=El humanismo político de Efraín González Luna|first=Héctor|last=Gómez Peralta|url=http://www.scielo.org.mx/pdf/ep/n20/n20a10.pdf }}
* {{Cite journal|title=From the self to the nation, willpower in José María Salaverría|first=Iker|last=González-Allende|journal=Romance Notes|issn=0035-7995|volume=49|issue=1|year=2009|pages=61–69|publisher=[[University of North Carolina]]|url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1039&context=modlangspanish|doi=10.1353/rmc.2009.0033 |s2cid=171027918|url-access=subscription}}
* {{Cite journal|journal=[[Hispania. Revista Española de Historia]]|year=2007|volume=62|issue=226|pages=599–642|issn=0018-2141|title=El Hispanismo autoritario español y el movimiento nacionalista argentino: balance de medio siglo de relaciones políticas e intelectuales|first=Eduardo|last=González Calleja|author-link=Eduardo González Calleja|location=[[Madrid]]|publisher=[[Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas]]. Instituto de Historia|doi=10.3989/hispania.2007.v67.i226.55|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite book|title=Maeztu: biografía de un nacionalista español|first=Pedro Carlos|last=González Cuevas|publisher=Marcial Pons Historia|year=2003|location=[[Madrid]]|isbn=84-95379-65-1}}
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{{Countries and languages lists}}

[[Category:Hispanidad| ]]
[[Category:Spanish-speaking countries and territories|*]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Francoist Spain]]
[[Category:Miguel de Unamuno]]