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{{Short description|Any free-standing Christian cross made of stone – often richly decorated}}
{{For|places|High Cross (disambiguation)}}
{{EngvarB|date=July 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2016}}
[[File:Muiredach s Cross.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Muiredach's High Cross]], [[Monasterboice]], 9th or 10th century]]
[[File:Cloncha cross church.jpg|thumb|A simpler example, [[Culdaff]], [[County Donegal]], Ireland]]
A '''high cross''' or '''standing cross''' ({{langx|ga|cros ard / ardchros}},<ref>[http://www.focal.ie/Search.aspx?term=cros ard&lang=2 Focal]</ref> {{langx|gd|crois àrd / àrd-chrois}}, {{langx|cy|croes uchel / croes eglwysig}}) is a free-standing Christian [[cross]] made of stone and often richly decorated. There was a unique [[early medieval]] tradition in Ireland and Great Britain of raising large sculpted stone crosses, usually outdoors. These probably developed from earlier traditions using wood, perhaps with metalwork attachments, and earlier pagan Celtic memorial stones; the [[Pictish stones]] of Scotland may also have influenced the form. The earliest surviving examples seem to come from the territory of the [[Anglo-Saxon]] kingdom of [[Northumbria]], which had been converted to Christianity by Irish missionaries; it remains unclear whether the form first developed in Ireland or Britain.

Their [[relief]] decoration is a mixture of religious figures and sections of decoration such as [[knotwork]], [[interlace (art)|interlace]] and in Britain [[vine-scrolls]], all in the styles also found in [[insular art]] in other media such as [[illuminated manuscript]]s and metalwork. They were probably normally painted, perhaps over a modelled layer of plaster; with the loss of paint and the effects of weathering the reliefs, in particular scenes crowded with small figures, are often now rather indistinct and hard to read.

The earlier crosses were typically up to about two metres or eight feet high, but in Ireland examples up to three times higher appear later, retaining thick massive proportions, giving large surface areas for carving. The tallest of the Irish crosses is the so-called Tall Cross at Monasterboice, County Louth. It stands at seven metres or twenty-two feet high.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Great Irish Crosses: Meaning and Mystery|last=Crilly|first=Oliver|publisher=Columba Press|year=2013|pages=75}}</ref> [[Anglo-Saxon art|Anglo-Saxon]] examples mostly remained slender in comparison, but could be large; except in earlier Northumbrian examples their decoration is mostly ornamental rather than figures. The crosses often, though not always, feature a stone ring around the intersection, forming a [[Celtic cross]]; this seems to be an innovation of [[Celtic Christianity]], perhaps at [[Iona]].<ref>Wilson, 118</ref>  Although the earliest example of this form has been found on fifth-seventh century Coptic textile.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Werner|first=Martin|date=1990-01-01|title=On the Origin of the Form of the Irish High Cross|url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.2307/767104|journal=Gesta|volume=29|issue=1|pages=98–110|doi=10.2307/767104|jstor=767104|s2cid=192024681|issn=0016-920X|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The term "high cross" is mainly used in Ireland and Scotland, but the tradition across Great Britain and Ireland is essentially a single phenomenon, though there are certainly strong regional variations.

Some crosses were erected just outside churches and monasteries; others at sites that may have marked boundaries or crossroads, or preceded churches. Whether they were used as "[[preaching cross]]es" at early dates is unclear, and many crosses have been moved to their present locations.  They do not seem to have been used as grave-markers in the early medieval period.  In the 19th century [[Celtic Revival]] Celtic crosses, with decoration in a form of insular style, became very popular as gravestones and memorials, and are now found in many parts of the world.  Unlike the Irish originals, the decoration usually does not include figures.

==Ireland and Great Britain==
[[File:VA23Oct10 101-crop-horz.jpg|thumb|left|Three views of the [[Northumbria]]n [[Easby Cross]] of 800–820]]
[[File:King-donierts-stone.jpg|thumb|left|[[King Doniert's Stone]] in East [[Cornwall]], Ninth century]]
High crosses are the primary surviving monumental works of [[Insular art]], and the largest number in Britain survive from areas that remained under [[Celtic Christianity]] until relatively late.  No examples, or traces, of the putative earlier forms in wood or with metal attachments have survived; the decorative repertoire of early crosses certainly borrows from that of metalwork, but the same is true of Insular illuminated manuscripts.  Saint [[Adomnán]], [[Abbot of Iona]] who died in 704, mentions similar free standing ringed wooden crosses, later replaced by stone versions.<ref>''The Archaeology of late Celtic Britain and Ireland, c. 400–1200 AD'', Lloyd Robert Laing, p. 169</ref> Perhaps the earliest surviving free-standing stone crosses are the [[Carndonagh stones]] in [[Carndonagh]], [[Donegal (town)|Donegal]], which appear to be erected by missionaries from [[Iona]].<ref>Henry, Françoise. ''Irish art in the early Christian period'', 1940</ref> fleeing the Viking raiders, "giving Iona a critical role in the formation of ringed crosses".<ref>Catherine E. Karkov, Michael Ryan, Robert T. Farrell, ''The insular tradition'', p.138, SUNY Press, 1997, also citing ''The Chronology and Relationship of some Irish and Scottish Crosses'', J.R.S.A.I 86 [1956], pp. 85–89 by R.B.K Stevenson</ref> The round bosses seen on early crosses probably derive from Pictish stones. High crosses may exist from the 7th century in [[Northumbria]], which then included much of south-east Scotland, and Ireland, though Irish dates are being moved later. However the dates assigned to most of the early crosses surviving in good condition, whether at Ruthwell and Bewcastle, the Western [[Kingdom of Ossory|Ossory]] group<ref>(Nancy Edwards, 1982.) ''A reassessment of the early medieval stone crosses and related stone sculpture of Offaly, Kilkenny and Tipperary.''   http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/7418/1/7418_4483-vol1.PDF</ref> in Ireland, [[Iona]] or the [[Kildalton Cross]] on [[Islay]], have all shown a tendency to converge on the period around or slightly before 800, despite the differences between the Northumbrian and Celtic types. The high cross later spread to the rest of the British Isles, including the Celtic areas of [[Wales]], Devon, Brittany and [[Cornwall]], where [[ogham]] inscriptions also indicate an Irish presence, and some examples can be found on Continental Europe, particularly where the style was taken by Insular missionaries.

Most Irish High crosses have the distinctive shape of the ringed [[Celtic cross]], and they are generally larger and more massive, and feature more figural decoration than those elsewhere. They have probably more often survived as well; most recorded crosses in Britain were destroyed or damaged by [[iconoclasm]] after the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]], and typically only sections of the shaft remain. The ring initially served to strengthen the head and the arms of the high cross, but it soon became a decorative feature as well.

The high crosses were status symbols, either for a [[monastery]] or for a sponsor or patron, and possibly [[preaching cross]]es, and may have had other functions. Some have inscriptions recording the donor who commissioned them, like [[Muiredach's High Cross]] and the [[Bewcastle Cross]].  The earliest 8th- or 9th-century Irish crosses had only ornament, including interlace and round bosses, but from the 9th and 10th century, figurative images appear, sometimes just a figure of Christ crucified in the centre, but in the largest 10th century examples large numbers of figures over much of the surface. A fine example from this time period can be found on the shores of [[Lough Neagh]] in the Irish province of [[Ulster]] at [[Ardboe]], [[County Tyrone]]. This cross stands around 18 feet tall and consists of 22 panels of biblical events.<ref name="GI">{{cite web | title=Ardboe High Cross | work=Geography in Action | url=http://www.geographyinaction.co.uk/Assets/Photo_albums/Seven/pages/Ardboe.html | access-date=2025-02-15 | archive-date=11 August 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100811073834/http://www.geographyinaction.co.uk/Assets/Photo_albums/Seven/pages/Ardboe.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> Some late Irish examples have fewer figures (often Christ accompanied by a local bishop or abbot),<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Skurdenis|first=Julie|date=1987|title=Passport: Silent Sentinels: The High Crosses of Ireland|journal=Archaeology|volume=40| issue = 1|pages=64–65, 83}}</ref> approaching life-size, and carved in very high relief.  The Irish tradition largely died out after the 12th century, until the 19th-century [[Celtic Revival]], when the Celtic cross form saw a lasting revival for gravestones and memorials, usually just using ornamental decoration and inscriptions.  These are now found across the world, often in contexts without any specific link to the Insular Celts or Britain.
[[File:Gosforth cross.jpg|thumb|[[Gosforth, Cumbria]]]]

[[Anglo-Saxon cross]]es were typically more slender, and often nearly square in section, though when, as with the [[Ruthwell Cross]] and [[Bewcastle Cross]], they were geographically close to areas of the Celtic Church, they seem to have been larger, perhaps to meet local expectations, and the two 9th century [[Mercia]]n [[Sandbach Crosses]] are the largest up to that period from anywhere.  The heads tend to be smaller and usually not Celtic crosses, although the majority of cross-heads have not survived at all.  Carved figures in these large examples are much larger and carved in deeper relief than the Irish equivalents with similar dates – only some very late Irish crosses show equally large figures.  Anglo-Saxon decoration often combines panels of vine-leaf scrolls with others of interlace, although the placement and effect from a distance is similar to Celtic examples.  Smaller examples may have only had such decoration, and inscriptions, which are much more common on Anglo-Saxon than Irish crosses.

After the [[Viking]] invasions, the settled [[Norse language|Norse]] population of the [[Danelaw]] adopted the form, and a number of crosses combine Christian imagery with pagan [[Sagas|Norse myths]], which the Church seems to have tolerated, and adopted at least as metaphors for the period when conversion was bedding down.  The [[Gosforth Cross]], a very rare almost-complete cross in England, is an example.  By the 10th century such Anglo-Norse crosses were the bulk of the production in England, as the high cross seems to have been abandoned further south, although the simple and practical [[Dartmoor crosses]], no doubt an essential aid to navigating [[Dartmoor]], appear to have continued to be made for centuries after.  Given the tough [[granite]] used, decoration is mostly slight and they are hard to date confidently. [[Market cross]]es, many once dating to the early medieval period, have continued to be erected and replaced until modern times.

In [[Pict]]ish Scotland the cross-slab, a flat stone with a cross in relief or incised on an essentially rectangular stone, developed as a hybrid form of the [[Pictish stone]] and the high cross.  The cross is normally only on one side of the stone and the remaining areas of the stone may be covered with interlace or other decoration.  These are usually distinguished from true high crosses.

==Scandinavia==
The tradition of raising high crosses appeared at a time when Norse settlers appeared in the British Isles and met a Christian culture.<ref name=stenkors/> A fragmentary cross has been discovered in Granhammar in Vintrosa parish in [[Närke]], [[Sweden]] and testify to the English mission in the central Swedish provinces.<ref name=stenkors/> The Swedish cross was very similar to [[:commons:File:Saxon cross, Leek.JPG|a cross]] in [[Leek, Staffordshire]], and may have been made by an English immigrant.<ref>"[https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1225113/FULLTEXT01.pdf Gravstenen från Botkyrka och korset från Granhammar]", in ''[[Fornvännen]]''.</ref> In Norway the British tradition was more widely accepted and some 60 stone crosses are known from the country, but only four of them can be safely dated to the Viking Age thanks to runic inscriptions on the crosses. Many of the crosses have probably been raised on pagan grave fields when the family was baptised. Later, they were moved to cemeteries.<ref name=stenkors>[http://histvarld.historiska.se/histvarld/sok/artikel.asp?id=11102 The entry ''Stenkors'' in ''Vikingatidens ABC'' by Göran Tegnér.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090819054426/http://histvarld.historiska.se/histvarld/sok/artikel.asp?id=11102 |date=19 August 2009 }}</ref> The high cross tradition also probably helped increase the popularity of raising [[runestone]]s (often with engraved crosses) in Sweden.<ref>Harrison, D. & Svensson, K. (2007). Vikingaliv. Fälth & Hässler, Värnamo. {{ISBN|978-91-27-35725-9}} p. 192</ref>

==Notable examples==
[[File:High Crosses of Ireland (map).png|thumb|Distribution of high crosses in Ireland.]]
Amongst the most famous are:<!-- Those with articles about, or with GOOD information on, the actual cross at the top -->
* [[Muiredach's High Cross|Muiredach's Cross]] and West Cross at [[Monasterboice]], [[County Louth]]
* The [[Clonmacnoise]] crosses: Cross of the Scriptures (the original 9th century cross is housed in a museum, but a copy stands on the original site), and the North and South Crosses.
* The Nether (or Lower) Cross, a 9th-century granite cross with ornate carving, in the graveyard of St. Canice's Church, established by St. Canice, Finglas village, Dublin.  The Cross was taken from its original location in the grounds of St. Canice's Abbey and buried to prevent damage by Cromwellian forces in 1649. It was found 160 years later intact and moved to its present location.
* The Anglo-Saxon [[Ruthwell Cross]] from Scotland, 8th century, with relatively large figures.
* The Anglo-Saxon [[Bewcastle Cross]] Northumbrian
* The Anglo-Saxon [[Irton Cross]], Cumbria showing affinity to the style of Bewcastle
* The [[Pictish]]/[[Scotland in the Early Middle Ages|Early Medieval]] [[Dupplin Cross]] in [[Perth and Kinross|Strathearn]], Scotland
* The Pictish/Early Medieval [[Camus Cross]] in Angus, Scotland
[[File:Graiguenamanach High Crosses East Side 1997 08 27.jpg|thumb|Graiguenamanach crosses, [[County Kilkenny]], east side]]
* Classic examples of 9th-century [[Pictish]] cross-slabs: [[Aberlemno Sculptured Stones|Aberlemno 2 and 3]] at [[Aberlemno]], Angus
* The 8th century [[Kildalton Cross]] from the [[Hebrides]]
* [[Iona Abbey]] has two crosses, with others on the island.
* [[:image:dysert cross.jpg|Saint Tola's High Cross]]. A 12th-century cross at [[Dysert O Dea monastery|Dysert O'Dea]] near [[O'Dea Castle]] showing Christ and a bishop carved in high relief on the east side, with geometric motifs and animal ornament on the other sides. On the west side of the base are shown the Temptation, with Adam and Eve beneath the tree of knowledge, while on the north side is some ceremony with several figures holding croziers. This is a particularly finely preserved twelfth-century example, that does not use the circle of the Celtic cross.
* The [[Ahenny]] High Crosses. The two sandstone Ahenny crosses date from the 8th to 9th centuries and are among the earliest of the ringed high crosses. Ahenny, County Tipperary, near the Kilkenny border, and the Monastic site of Kilclispeen, or the church of [[St. Crispen]]
* [[Ardboe High Cross]], a 10th-century cross near [[Cookstown, County Tyrone|Cookstown]], eroded, showing 22 panels with scenes from the Old and New Testaments.
* St. Kevin's Cross, [[Glendalough]], a 12th-century cross, well preserved, made of granite.
* South Cross, [[Kells, County Meath]], the best preserved of several 10th century crosses in the town.
* Doorty Cross, [[Kilfenora]], [[County Clare]]; 12th century, has a bishop and two other clerics carved on it.
* [[Kilree]] High Cross, 9th century high cross said to be the burial place of [[Niall Caille]], located 4&nbsp;km southeast of [[Kells Priory]], [[County Kilkenny]].
* [[Kilkieran High Crosses]], three crosses near [[Ahenny]], [[County Tipperary]]: Plain Cross (unadorned), West Cross (with much ornamentation), Long Shaft Cross (has a long shaft with decoration).
* The two [[Moone]] High Crosses, in [[County Kildare]] near Moone. The large cross is believed to have been carved between 900 and 1000 AD. It is highly decorated and 5.33 m. high

==Modern period==
From the 19th century, many large modern versions have been erected for various functions, and smaller Celtic crosses have become popular for individual grave monuments, usually featuring only abstract ornament, usually [[interlace (visual arts)|interlace]].

In 1887, the Rev. [[William Slater Calverley]] commissioned a replica life-sized copy of Gosforth cross and had it erected in the churchyard at Aspatria, Cumbria.[3]

In the early 21st century, Irish sculptor Brendan McGloin was commissioned by the Ancient Order of Hibernians, Portland to handcraft a full size replica of the Clonmacnoise Cross of the Scriptures. The 13-foot, 5 tonne sandstone cross was completed in 2007 and shipped from [[Donegal (town)|Donegal]] to [[Portland, Oregon]], where it will stand as a Famine memorial. In 2016, a high cross was erected outside [[Wakefield Cathedral]], West Yorkshire, England, carved from stone quarried in [[Holmfirth]] and carved by Celia Kilner. This was based on the remains of a Saxon high cross, dated 930 A.D.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.pontefractandcastlefordexpress.co.uk/news/local-news/saxon-cross-raised-at-wakefield-cathedral-1-7816824|title=Saxon cross raised at Wakefield Cathedral|website=www.pontefractandcastlefordexpress.co.uk|access-date=19 May 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://seiyaku.com/customs/crosses/wakefield.html|title=Wakefield Cathedral Cross|website=seiyaku.com|access-date=19 May 2016}}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery widths="200" heights="200">
Image:Clonmacnois Cross of the Scriptures South West View 2003 09 02.jpg|Cross of the Scriptures (Clonmacnoise, Ireland)
Image:West cross Kilfenora.jpg|West cross ([[Kilfenora]], Ireland)
Image:KildaltonCross-Islay-Scotland-1987-1.jpg|[[Kildalton Cross]] ([[Islay]], Scotland)
Image:Dysert_cross.jpg|Saint Tola's Cross ([[Dysert O Dea monastery|Dysert O Dea]], Ireland)
Image:Aberlemno.jpg|Kirkyard Stone, Class II Pictish cross-slab, [[Aberlemno]], Scotland
Image:Celtic Cross, Down Cathedral.JPG|Downpatrick Cross ([[Downpatrick]], Northern Ireland)
File:Cadover Cross (portrait).JPG|Cadover Cross, one of the [[Dartmoor crosses]] ([[Dartmoor]], England)
File:Ruthwell Cross - Project Gutenberg eText 16785.jpg|[[Ruthwell Cross]] ([[Ruthwell]], Scotland)
File:Irton Cross, Irton, Cumbria.JPG|Irton, Cumbria
Image:Sir Henry Lawrence Memorial.jpg |Sir Henry Lawrence Memorial in [[The Residency, Lucknow]]
File:Ahenny High Crosses, North Cross.jpg| Ahenny high cross, North
File:Ahenny High Cross - geograph.org.uk - 475968.jpg|Ahenny high cross
File:Killamery High Cross.jpg| [[Killamery High Cross]]
File:Ullard High Cross East Face 1997 08 28.jpg|[[Ullard Church|Ullard]] high cross
File:Detail Kilkieran High Crosses, Kilkenny.jpg|[[Kilkieran High Crosses]]
File:Monasterboice_12.jpg|A high cross at [[Monasterboice]] in Ireland
File:Ardboe High Cross - geograph.org.uk - 5522971.jpg|Ardboe High Cross
</gallery>

==See also==
{{Commons category|High crosses}}
* [[Atrial cross]] – post-Conquest Mexico
* [[Khachkar]] – Armenian cross-stones
* [[Image stone]] – Pagan Scandinavian memorials
* [[Manx Runestones]] – hybrid Christian Viking Age relief slabs
* [[Celtic knot]] – decorative element common on High crosses
* [[Calvary (monument)]]
* [[Wayside cross]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* [[David M. Wilson|Wilson, David M.]]; ''Anglo-Saxon Art: From The Seventh Century To The Norman Conquest'', Thames and Hudson (US edn. Overlook Press), 1984.

==External links==
* [http://www.megalithicireland.com/High%20Cross%20Home.htm MegalithicIreland.com]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070918204058/http://www.giftofireland.com./Articleone.htm Celtic Crosses – Symbolisim and History.]

{{high cross}}
{{Christian crosses}}
{{European Standing Stones}}
{{Insular art}}
{{Celts}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:High cross}}
[[Category:Christian art]]
[[Category:Crosses by form]]
[[Category:High crosses| ]]
[[Category:Culture of Ireland]]