View source for High German consonant shift

{{Short description|Series of sound changes affecting some West Germanic languages}}
[[File:German dialectal map.PNG|right|thumb|The [[High German languages]] are subdivided into Upper German (green) and Central German (cyan), and are distinguished from [[Low German]] (yellow) and the [[Low Franconian languages]]. The main [[isogloss]]es – the [[Benrath line|Benrath]] and [[Speyer line|Speyer]] lines – are marked in black. This map shows the modern boundaries of the languages after 1945.]]
{{IPA notice}}
In [[historical linguistics]], the '''High German consonant shift''' or '''second Germanic consonant shift''' is a phonological development ([[sound change]]) that took place in the southern parts of the [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]] [[dialect continuum]]. The shift is used to distinguish [[High German]] from other continental West Germanic languages, namely [[Low Franconian]] (including standard [[Dutch language|Dutch]]) and [[Low German]], which experienced no shift. The shift resulted in the [[affrication]] or [[spirantization]] of the West Germanic voiceless stop consonants /t/, /p/, and /k/, depending on position in a word. A related change, the [[devoicing]] of the voiced stopped consonants /d/, /b/ and /g/, was less widespread, with only the devoicing of /d/ being found in most dialects.

There is no consensus on when the High German consonant shift occurred; it probably began between the 3rd and 5th centuries and was complete before the first written examples in [[Old High German]], the earliest recorded stage of High German, were produced in the 8th century. There is also no consensus on where or how the shift proceeded.

The degree of shift varies within High German. Dialects that experienced the most shift are referred to as [[Upper German]], whereas those that only experienced some are referred to as [[Central German]]. Different dialects within Upper and Central German also received different levels of shift, with [[West Central German]] exhibiting what is known as the [[Rhenish fan]], a gradual reduction of which consonants are shifted, as one moves north.

==General description==

In most accounts, the High German consonant shift consists of two related changes:
#the [[Proto-West Germanic]] voiceless stop consonants /t/, /p/, and /k/ [[spirantization|spirantize]] to /s/, /f/, /x/, or else [[affrication|affricate]] to /ts/, /pf/, /kx/, depending on their position in the word ({{lang|de|Tenuesverschiebung}}).{{sfn|König|1994|p=63}} No shift takes place after a fricative (/sp/, /xt/, /st/, /ft/, etc. all remain unchanged) or in the combination /tr/ (/pr/ and /kr/ are still affected);{{sfn|Pickl|2023}}
#the pre-Old High German voiced stop consonants /d/, /b/, and /g/ (Proto-West Germanic /ð/, /β/, and /ɣ/) [[devoicing|devoice]] to the voiceless stop consonants /t/, /p/, and /k/ ({{lang|de|Medienverschiebung}}).{{sfn|König|1994|p=63}}
All High German dialects have experienced at least part of the shift of voiceless stops to fricatives/affricates.{{sfn|Salmons|2018|p=118}}{{sfn|Höder|2015}} The shift of voiceless stops to fricatives/affricates has traditionally been used to distinguish different German dialects: [[Upper German]] dialects experienced the greatest degree of shift, whereas [[Central German]] dialects only experienced a partial shift (other West Germanic languages experienced no shift).{{sfn|Salmons|2018|pp=119-120}} Only southern dialects experience the shift of voiced to voiceless stops, with the shift of /d/ to /t/ found in Upper German and in some Central German dialects, while the shift of /b/ to /p/ and /g/ to /k/ is only found consistently in (Old) Bavarian.{{sfn|Salmons|2018|pp=124-125}}{{efn|The shift of voiceless to voiced stops is reversed in many Upper and Central German dialects by a process of [[lenition]], beginning around 1300 in parts of Bavarian.{{sfn|Salmons|2018|pp=204, 261-262}}}}

[[German language|Modern standard German]] is based mostly on East Central German dialects and thus features many but not all of the shifted forms.{{sfn|Pickl|2023}} In particular, of the {{lang|de|Medienverschiebung}} consonants, only the shift of /d/ to /t/ is found in almost all instances in the modern standard.{{sfn|Young|Gloning|2004|p=32}} The shift results in characteristic differences between modern standard German and other Germanic languages, such as:{{sfn|Sonderegger|1979|pp=124-126}}
:German {{lang|de|Wasser}} vs. English ''water'', Dutch {{lang|nl|water}}, Swedish {{lang|sv|vatten}} (German /s/ vs. other Germanic /t/)
:German {{lang|de|Zunge}} vs. English ''tongue'', Dutch {{lang|nl|tong}}, Swedish {{lang|sv|tunga}} (German /ts/ vs. other Germanic /t/)
:German {{lang|de|Schiff}} vs. English ''ship'', Dutch {{lang|nl|schip}}, Swedish {{lang|sv|skepp}} (German /f/ vs. other Germanic /p/)
:German {{lang|de|Apfel}} vs. English ''apple'', Dutch {{lang|nl|appel}}, Swedish {{lang|sv|äpple}} (German /pf/ vs. other Germanic /p/)
:German {{lang|de|gleich}} vs. English ''like'', Dutch {{lang|nl|gelijk}}, Swedish {{lang|sv|lik}} (German /x/ vs. other Germanic /k/)
:German {{lang|de|Tochter}} vs. English ''daughter'', Dutch {{lang|nl|dochter}}, Swedish {{lang|sv|dotter}} (German /t/ vs. other Germanic /d/)

Excluding loanwords from Low German and foreign borrowings (e.g. {{lang|de|Park}} from French {{lang|fr|parc}}, a doublet of German {{lang|de|Pferch}}, both from Latin {{lang|la|parricus}}), Modern Standard German has retained unshifted /p t k/ only after a fricative (e.g. {{lang|de|Stein}}, English ''stone'') or in the combination /tr/ (e.g. {{lang|de|treu}}, English ''true'').{{sfn|Young|Gloning|2004|p=34}}

Another change, the shift of /þ/ ({{IPA|/θ/}}) to /d/, is sometimes seen as related to the High German consonant shift.{{sfn|König|1994|p=63}} However, it also comes to encompass the other continental West Germanic languages.{{sfn|Höder|2015}} The relation of this change to the second consonant shift, as well as that of another change, that of initial /x/ to /h/, is disputed.{{sfn|Paul|Wiehl|Grosse|1998|p=114}} Braune and Reiffenstein discount a connection entirely.{{sfn|Braune|Reiffenstein|2004|p=84}}

==Detailed description==

===Shifts to voiceless stops===
The result of the shift of the voiceless stops /p t k/ depends on their position in the word. The degree to which the stops are shifted also shows considerable variation between [[Upper German]] and [[Central German]] dialects.{{sfn|König|1994|p=63}}{{sfn|Salmons|2018|pp=119-121}} In particular, the shift of /p/ and /k/ in initial position is subject to dialectal variation.{{sfn|Iverson|Salmons|2006|p=50}}
* {{IPA|/t/}} shifts
:: to /t͡s/ initially, in geminates, and after another consonant:{{efn|Examples from {{harvnb|Schweikle|1996|p=130}}.}}
:::Old Saxon {{lang|sxo|tehan}} : OHG {{lang|goh|zehan}} (English ''ten'', modern German {{lang|de|zehn}})
:::Old Saxon {{lang|sxo|herta}} : OHG {{lang|goh|herza}} (English ''heart'', modern German {{lang|de|Herz}})
:::Old Saxon {{lang|sxo|settian}} : OHG {{lang|goh|sezzen}} (English ''set'', modern German {{lang|de|setzen}}) 
:: to {{angbr|ʒʒ}} after a vowel, simplifying to {{angbr|ʒ}} at the end of a word,{{sfn|Paul|Wiehl|Grosse|1998|p=114}} as well as frequently after a long vowel:{{sfn|Sonderegger|1979|p=128}}{{efn|The examples are from {{harvnb|Schweikle|1996|p=129}}}}
::: Old Saxon {{lang|sxo|etan}} : OHG {{lang|goh|ezzan}} (English ''eat'', modern German {{lang|de|essen}})
:::Old Saxon {{lang|sxo|bîtan}} : OHG {{lang|goh|bîzan}} (English ''bite'', modern German {{lang|de|beißen}})
::: Old Saxon {{lang|sxo|ût}} : OHG {{lang|goh|ûz}} (English ''out'', modern German {{lang|de|aus}})
::Both shifts to /t/ occur in all High German dialects.{{sfn|Salmons|2018|p=122}} However, the Central German Middle Franconian dialects show unshifted final /t/ for neuter pronouns ({{lang|goh|that}}, {{lang|goh|thit}}, {{lang|goh|it}}, {{lang|goh|wat}}, {{lang|goh|allet}}).{{sfn|Braune|Reiffenstein|2004|p=85}}{{sfn|Fulk|2018|p=136}} Beginning in the 13th century, the fricative /ʒ/ merges with /s/ in most German dialects.{{sfn|Paul|Wiehl|Grosse|1998|pp=162-163}}
* {{IPA|/p/}} shifts
:: to /p͡f/ initially, in geminates, and after another consonant:{{efn|Examples from {{harvnb|Schweikle|1996|p=130}}.}}
::: Old Saxon {{lang|sxo|piper}} : OHG {{lang|goh|pfeffar}} (English ''pepper'', modern German {{lang|de|Pfeffer}})
:::Old Saxon {{lang|sxo|helpan}} : OHG {{lang|goh|helphan/helfan}} (English ''help'', modern German {{lang|de|helfen}}){{efn|The simplification of /lpf/ and /rpf/ to /lf/ and /rf/ began in the 9th century.{{sfn|Paul|Wiehl|Grosse|1998|p=118}}}}
:::Old Saxon {{lang|sxo|skeppian}} : OHG {{lang|goh|skephen}} (English ''scoop'', modern German {{lang|de|schöpfen}})
:: to /ff/ after a vowel, simplifying to /f/ at the end of a word,{{sfn|Paul|Wiehl|Grosse|1998|p=114}} as well as often after a long vowel:{{sfn|Braune|Reiffenstein|2004|p=126}}{{efn|The examples are from {{harvnb|Schweikle|1996|p=129}}}}
:::Old Saxon {{lang|sxo|piper}} : {{lang|goh|pfeffar}} (English ''pepper'', modern German {{lang|de|Pfeffer}}
::: Old Saxon {{lang|sxo|grîpan}} : OHG {{lang|goh|grîf(f)an}} (English ''gripe'', modern German {{lang|de|greifen}})
:::Old Saxon {{lang|sxo|skip}} : OHG {{lang|goh|scif}} (English ''ship'', modern German {{lang|de|Schiff}})
:: In Central German Middle and most Rhine Franconian dialects, the shift only takes place after a vowel:{{sfn|Salmons|2018|p=123}}
:::{| class="wikitable"
|+Different outcomes of /p/, according to {{harvnb|Salmons|2018|p=123}}
|-
! Old Saxon !! (most) Franconian !! Rest of OHG
|-
| {{lang|sxo|pad}} || {{lang|goh|pad}} || {{lang|goh|pfad}}
|-
| {{lang|sxo|appel}} || {{lang|goh|appel}} || {{lang|goh|apful}}
|-
| {{lang|sxo|kamp}} || {{lang|goh|kamp}} || {{lang|goh|kampf}}
|-
| {{lang|sxo|helpan}} || {{lang|goh|helpan/helpfan}} || {{lang|goh|helpfan/helfan}}
|-
| {{lang|sxo|opan}} || {{lang|goh|of(f)an}} ||{{lang|goh|of(f)an}}
|-
| {{lang|sxo|up}} || {{lang|goh|ûf}} || {{lang|goh|ûf}} 
|}
::Additionally, some Middle Franconian dialects retain final /p/ in the preposition {{lang|goh|up}}.{{sfn|Fulk|2018|p=136}}
* {{IPA|/k/}} shifts
:: to /k͡x/ initially, in geminates, and after another consonant:{{efn|Examples from {{harvnb|Schweikle|1996|p=130}}.}}
::: Old Saxon {{lang|sxo|korn}} : Upper OHG {{lang|goh|chorn}} (English ''corn'', modern German {{lang|de|Korn}})
::: Old Saxon {{lang|sxo|werk}} : Upper OHG {{lang|goh|werch}} (English ''work'', modern German {{lang|de|Werk}})
::: Old Saxon {{lang|sxo|wekkian}} : OHG {{lang|goh|wecchan}} (English ''awake'', modern German {{lang|de|wecken}}
:: to {{IPA|/xx/}} after a vowel, simplifying to /x/ at the end of a word,{{sfn|Paul|Wiehl|Grosse|1998|p=114}} as well as often after a long vowel:{{sfn|Sonderegger|1979|p=128}}{{efn|The examples are from {{harvnb|Schweikle|1996|p=129}}}}
::: Old Saxon {{lang|sxo|brekan}} : OHG {{lang|goh|brehhan}} (English ''break'', modern German {{lang|de|brechen}})
::: Old Saxon {{lang|sxo|juk}} : OHG {{lang|goh|joh}} (English ''yoke'', modern German {{lang|de|Joch}})
:: All dialects shift /k/ to /xx/ after a vowel; only the Upper German Alemannic and Bavarian shift it in other positions:{{sfn|Salmons|2018|p=123}}
:::{| class="wikitable"
|+Different outcomes of /k/, according to {{harvnb|Salmons|2018|p=123}}
|-
! Old Saxon !! Central OHG !! Far southern OHG
|-
| {{lang|sxo|kind}} || {{lang|de|kind}} || {{lang|goh|chind}}
|-
| {{lang|sxo|stark}} || {{lang|goh|stark}} || {{lang|goh|starch}}
|-
| {{lang|sxo|makon}} || {{lang|goh|mahhon}} || {{lang|goh|mahhon}}
|-
| {{lang|sxo|ik}} || {{lang|goh|ih}} || {{lang|goh|ih}}
|}

/p t k/ remained unshifted in all dialects when following the fricative consonants /s/, /f/, and /x/ (examples: OHG {{lang|goh|spinnan}} Engl. 'spin', OHG {{lang|goh|stein}} Engl. 'stone, OHG {{lang|goh|naht}} Engl. 'night'). /t/ likewise remained unshifted in the combination /tr/ (examples: OHG {{lang|goh|tretan}} Engl. 'tread', OHG {{lang|goh|bittar}} Engl. 'bitter' [from West Germanic ''*bitra'']).{{sfn|Braune|Reiffenstein|2004|p=87}}{{sfn|Fulk|2018|p=134}}

===Shifts to voiced consonants===
In the so-called {{lang|de|Medienverschiebung}}, the voiced consonsants /d b g/ [[devoicing|devoice]] to /t p k/.{{efn| Prior to this shift, the West Germanic fricatives /ð ƀ ʒ/ had shifted to /d b g/ in all positions except in the Central German Middle Franconian dialect, where /ƀ/ and /ʒ/ remained.{{sfn|Fulk|2018|pp=134, 136}} In many other German dialects, /g/ and /b/ [[spirantization|spirantize]] word internally; however, this appears to be later development, as shown by their partaking in [[final devoicing]] as stop consonants rather than fricatives.{{sfn|Paul|Wiehl|Grosse|1998|p=120}}}} Like the shift to the voiceless stops, the shift to the voiced stops varies by dialect and to some degree by position in the word.{{sfn|König|1994|p=63}} In those Upper German dialects that shifted all three stops, there was likely no longer any distinction between voiced and voiceless consonants.{{sfn|Fulk|2018|pp=134-135}}
* /d/ > /t/:{{efn|Examples from {{harvnb|Schweikle|1996|p=131}}.}}
::: Old Saxon {{lang|sxo|dor}} : OHG {{lang|goh|tor}} (English ''door'', modern German {{lang|de|Tor}})
::: Old Saxon {{lang|sxo|biodan}} : OHG {{lang|goh|biotan}} (no English equivalent, modern German {{lang|de|bieten}})
:::Old Saxon {{lang|sxo|biddian}} : OHG {{lang|goh|bitten}} (English ''bid'', modern German {{lang|de|bitten}})
::This shift is found in Upper German and most Central German, but in Rhine Franconian only in geminates and word finally.{{sfn|Salmons|2018|p=125}}{{efn|In Middle High German, the series /nt/ mostly changes to /nd/, as found in modern standard German: {{langx|gmh|binden}} vs. {{langx|goh|bintan}}.{{sfn|Salmons|2018|p=201}}}}
* /b/ > /p/:{{efn|Examples from {{harvnb|Schweikle|1996|p=131}}.}}
::: Old Saxon {{lang|sxo|blōd}} : Upper OHG {{lang|goh|pluat}} (English ''blood'', modern German {{lang|de|Blut}})
::: Old Saxon {{lang|sxo|sibbia}} : OHG {{lang|goh|sippa}} (English ''sib'', modern German {{lang|de|Sippe}})
::This change is found most consistently in Bavarian, where it takes place in all positions.{{sfn|Braune|Reiffenstein|2004|p=88}} In Alemannic, it is consistently found word finally and word initially, but b often occurs word-internally.{{sfn|Salmons|2018|p=125}}{{sfn|Braune|Reiffenstein|2004|p=88}} /bb/ shifts to /pp/ in all dialects except in (Central German) Ripuarian.{{sfn|Paul|Wiehl|Grosse|1998|p=120}}
* /g/  > /k/:{{efn|Examples from {{harvnb|Schweikle|1996|p=131}}.}}
::: Old Saxon {{lang|sxo|geban}} : Upper OHG {{lang|goh|keban/kepan}} (English ''give'', modern German {{lang|de|geben}})
::: Old Saxon {{lang|sxo|hruggi}} : OHG {{lang|goh|rucki}} (English ''ridge'', modern German {{lang|de|Rücken}})
::The change is found in Bavarian and Alemannic, most consistently word-initially, and in Bavarian also word-internally and finally.{{sfn|Braune|Reiffenstein|2004|p=88}} /gg/ shifts to /kk/ in all dialects except in (Central German) Ripuarian.{{sfn|Paul|Wiehl|Grosse|1998|p=120}}

The effects of the {{lang|de|Medienverschiebung}} are most visible in the shift of /d/ to /t/; this is the change with the widest spread and the only one that was not partially reversed in the Old High German period.{{efn| The lack of a return of shifted /t/ (<nowiki>=</nowiki>earlier /d/) to /d/ in those dialects that underwent the shift is likely related to the subsequent shift of /þ/ (<nowiki>=</nowiki>{{IPA|/θ}}) to /d/ throughout the West Germanic area.{{sfn|Young|Gloning|2004|pp=32-33}}}} On the other hand, while early Bavarian and Alemannic both show a shift of /g b/ to /k p/, by the 9th century in Alemannic reverts to writing /g/ and /b/ except for the geminated stops (/kk/ and /pp/ rather than /gg/ and /bb/), and in the 10th century, Bavarian also begins to write /g/ and /b/ more often.{{sfn|Fulk|2018|p=134}} By the Middle High German period, Bavarian only consistently writes /p/ for single /b/ in word-initial position - the state preserved in modern southern Bavarian dialects.{{sfn|Ebert et al.|1993|p=88}}{{sfn|Paul|Wiehl|Grosse|1998|p=120}}{{efn|In modern dialects, the shift is further disguised in northern Bavarian and Alemannic dialects by inner-German lenition, a shift of /t/, /p/, and /k/ to /d/, /b/, and /g/ that takes place after 1350.{{sfn|Salmons|2018|pp=261-262}}}}

===Table of changes===
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Examples of consonant changes resulting from the High German consonant shift, according to {{harvb|Polenz|2020|pp=44-45}} and {{harvb|Schweikle|1996|pp=129-131}}
|-
|-
! Type of stop !! Position !! Proto-Germanic/Pre-Old High German Phoneme !! Old High German Phoneme !! Old High German word !! modern standard German equivalent !! Old Saxon equivalent !! modern English equivalent
|-
| rowspan="18" | Voiceless || rowspan="9" | After vowels || rowspan="3" | /t/ || rowspan="3" | /ʒ(ʒ)/<ref group="note" name="TableNotes1"/> || {{lang|goh|e'''ʒʒ'''an}} || {{lang|de|e'''ss'''en}} ||  {{lang|osx|e'''t'''an}} || ''ea'''t'''''
|-
| {{lang|goh|bî'''ʒ'''an}} || {{lang|de|bei'''ß'''en}} || {{lang|osx|bî'''t'''an}} || ''bi'''t'''e''
|-
| {{lang|goh|wa'''ʒ'''}} ||  {{lang|de|wa'''s'''}} || {{lang|sxo|wa'''t'''}} || ''wha'''t'''''
|-
| rowspan="3" | /p/  || rowspan="3" | /f(f)/  || {{lang|goh|o'''ff'''an}} || {{lang|de|o'''ff'''en}} ||  {{lang|sxo|o'''p'''an}} || ''o'''p'''en''
|-
| {{lang|goh|grî'''f'''an}} || {{lang|de|grei'''f'''en}} || {{lang|osx|grî'''p'''an}} || ''gri'''p'''e''
|-
| {{lang|goh|û'''f'''}}  || {{lang|de|au'''f'''}} || {{lang|osx|û'''p'''}} || ''u'''p'''''
|-
| rowspan="3" | /k/ || rowspan="3" |  /χ(χ)/ || {{lang|goh|ma'''hh'''ôn}} || {{lang|de|ma'''ch'''en}} || {{lang|osx|ma'''k'''ôn}} || ''ma'''k'''e''
|-/
| {{lang|goh|bre'''hh'''an}} || {{lang|de|bre'''ch'''en}} || {{lang|osx|bre'''k'''an}} || ''brea'''k'''''
|-
| {{lang|goh|i'''h'''}} || {{lang|de|i'''ch'''}} || {{lang|osx|i'''k'''}} || ''I'' (Old English {{lang|ang|i'''c'''}})
|-
| rowspan="9" | Initially, after consonants, and geminated || rowspan="2" | /t/ || rowspan="3" | /ts/  || {{lang|goh|'''z'''unga}} || {{lang|de|'''Z'''unge}} || {{lang|osx|'''t'''unga}} || '''''t'''ongue''
|-
| {{lang|goh|her'''z'''a}} || {{lang|de|Her'''z'''}} || {{lang|osx|her'''t'''a}} || ''hear'''t'''''
|-
| /tt/ || {{lang|goh|se'''zz'''en}} || {{lang|de|se'''tz'''en}} || {{lang|osx|se'''tt'''ian}} || ''se'''t'''''
|-
| rowspan="2" | /p/ || rowspan="3" | /pf/ || {{lang|goh|'''ph'''ad}} || {{lang|de|'''Pf'''ad}} || {{lang|osx|'''p'''ad}} || '''''p'''ath''
|-
| {{lang|goh|hel'''ph'''an}} || {{lang|de|hel'''f'''en}} || {{lang|osx|hel'''p'''an}} || ''hel'''p'''''
|-
| /pp/ || {{lang|goh|a'''ph'''ul}} || {{lang|de|A'''pf'''el}} || {{lang|osx|a'''pp'''ul}} || ''a'''pp'''le''
|-
| rowspan="2" | /k/ || rowspan="3" | /kχ/ || Upper German {{lang|goh|'''ch'''orn}} || {{lang|de|'''K'''orn}} || {{lang|osx|'''k'''orn}} || '''''c'''orn''
|-
| Upper German {{lang|goh|wer'''ch'''}} || {{lang|de|Wer'''k'''}} || {{lang|osx|wer'''k'''}} || ''wor'''k'''''
|-
| /kk/ || Upper German {{lang|goh|we'''c(c)h'''en}} || {{lang|de|we'''ck'''en}} || {{lang|osx|we'''kk'''ian}} || Old English {{lang|ang|we'''cc'''en}}
|-
| rowspan="13" | Voiced ||rowspan="13" | All positions || rowspan="4" | /d/<ref group="note" name="TableNotes2"/> || rowspan="4" | /t/ || {{lang|goh|'''t'''ohter}} || {{lang|de|'''T'''ochter}} || {{lang|osx|'''d'''ohtar}} || '''''d'''aughter''
|-
| {{lang|goh|we'''t'''ar}} || {{lang|de|We'''tt'''er}} || {{lang|sxo|we'''d'''ar}} || ''wea'''th'''er''
|-
| {{lang|goh|bin'''t'''an}} || {{lang|de|bin'''d'''en}} || {{lang|sxo|bin'''d'''an}} || ''bin'''d'''''
|-
| {{lang|goh|al'''t'''}} || {{lang|de|al'''t'''}} || {{lang|sxo|al'''d'''}} || ''ol'''d'''''
|-
| /dd/<ref group="note" name="TableNotes2"/> || /tt/ || {{lang|goh|bi'''tt'''en}} || {{lang|de|bi'''tt'''en}}  || {{lang|sxo|bi'''dd'''ian}} || ''bi'''d'''''
|-
|rowspan="3" | /b/<ref group="note" name="TableNotes2"/> || rowspan="3" | /p/ || Upper German {{lang|goh|'''p'''eran}} || {{lang|de|(ge)'''b'''ären}} || {{lang|sxo|'''b'''eran}} || '''''b'''ear''
|-
| Upper German {{lang|goh|si'''p'''un}} || {{lang|de|sie'''b'''en}} || {{lang|sxo|si'''b'''un}} || ''se'''v'''en''
|-
| Upper German {{lang|goh|lî'''p'''}} || {{lang|de|Lei'''b'''}} || {{lang|sxo|lî'''f'''}} || ''li'''f'''e''
|-
| /bb/<ref group="note" name="TableNotes2"/> || /pp/ || {{lang|goh|si'''pp'''a}} || {{lang|de|Si'''pp'''e}} || {{lang|sxo|si'''bb'''ia}} || Old English {{lang|ang|si'''b'''}}
|-
|rowspan="3" | /g/<ref group="note" name="TableNotes2"/> || rowspan="3" | /k/ || Upper German {{lang|goh|'''k'''ast}} || {{lang|de|'''G'''ast}} || {{lang|sxo|'''g'''ast}} || '''''g'''uest''
|-
| Upper German {{lang|goh|stî'''k'''an}} || {{lang|de|stei'''g'''en}} || {{lang|sxo|stî'''g'''an}} || Old English {{lang|ang|stî'''g'''an}}
|-
| Upper German {{lang|goh|ta'''c'''}} || {{lang|de|Ta'''g'''}} || {{lang|sxo|da'''g'''}} || ''da'''y'''''
|-
| /gg/<ref group="note" name="TableNotes2"/> || /kk/ || {{lang|goh|ru'''ck'''i}} || {{lang|de|Rü'''ck'''en}} || {{lang|sxo|hru'''gg'''i}} || ''ri'''dg'''e''
|}

{{reflist|group="note"|refs=
<ref name="TableNotes1"> The precise value of this sound is unknown, but it was distinct from the sound written <nowiki><</nowiki>s<nowiki>></nowiki> {{harv|Braune|Reiffenstein|2004|pp=167-168}}. Although often written as <nowiki><</nowiki>ʒ<nowiki>></nowiki> in modern grammars and textbooks, in original Old High German and Middle High German texts, it was usually written <nowiki><</nowiki>z<nowiki>></nowiki> and thus not distinguished from the affricate /ts/ {{harv|Braune|Reiffenstein|2004|p=15}}{{harv|Paul|Wiehl|Grosse|1998|p=31}}.</ref>
<ref name="TableNotes2"> The pre-Old High German phonemes /d/, /b/, /g/ are the results of an earlier shift of West Germanic /ð/ /β/ and /ɣ/ in all positions {{harv|Fulk|2018|p=134}}.</ref>
}}

==Chronology==
There is no agreement about the time period in which the High German consonantal shift took place.{{sfn|Braune|Reiffenstein|2004|p=82}} Its completion is usually dated to just before the earliest attestations of Old High German (8th century CE).{{sfn|Salmons|2018|p=123}} The change affects geminate consonants in a different manner than simple consonants, indicating that [[West Germanic gemination]] predated it; the gemination is usually dated to the 5th century CE.{{sfn|Young|Gloning|2004|p=35}} Additionally, Latin loanwords adopted into the language prior to the 6th century display the shift, whereas those adopted from the 8th century onward do not.{{sfn|Braune|Reiffenstein|2004|p=82}} The relative chronology of the different changes remains poorly understood.{{sfn|Salmons|2018|p=124}} It is usually argued to have begun with /t/, then moved to /p/, then to /k/.{{sfn|Young|Gloning|2004|p=35}}

==Geographical distribution==
{{also|Rhenish fan}}
[[File:Rheinischer faecher.png|250px|thumb|right|The Rhenish fan: <br/> 1 North [[Low Franconian]], <br/> 2 [[South Low Franconian]], <br/> 3 Ripuarian Franconian, <br/> 4 & 5 Moselle Franconian, <br/> 6 Rhine Franconian]]

Although the boundaries of the dialects have shifted since the Old High German period, the degree to which dialects underwent the High German consonant shift continues to form the basis for differentiating the different modern [[German dialects]], and, in particular, for the division between [[Central German]] dialects, which have fewer shifted consonants, and [[Upper German]] dialects, which have more.{{sfn|Polenz|2020|p=46-48}} The gradually increasing application of the shift from north to south is most extensive in the west. Here, the isoglosses defined by the occurrence of individual shifts are spread out in a fan-like manner, forming the ''Rheinischer Fächer'' ('[[Rhenish fan]]').{{sfn|Polenz|2020|p=47–48}}{{sfn|Schrijver|2014|pp=101–103}}

The northern border for the occurrence of the shift of /t/ to /(t)s/ in all positions (except in absolute final position in pronouns like ''dat'', ''wat'' and the neuter ending ''-t'') and the shift of /p/ and /k/ to /f/ and /x/ in intervocalic and root-final position is the [[Benrath line]] that separates the High German dialects to the south from the Low Saxon and Low Franconian dialects to the north.{{sfn|Schrijver|2014|pp=101–103}} Further north, the consonant shift is only found with the adverb ''auch'' 'also' and a handful of pronouns that have final /k/ shifted to /x/  (''ich'' 'I', ''dich'' 'thee', ''mich'' 'me') in the [[South Low Franconian]] dialect area, with the [[Uerdingen line]] as its northern border.{{sfn|Schrijver|2014|p=104}}{{efn|A special case is observed with the dialect of [[Wermelskirchen]] spoken right where the Benrath and Uerdingen lines meet. Here, next to the South Low Franconian shift of absolute final /k/ to /x/ in ''ich'' etc, intervocalic and root-final /p/, /t/ and /k/ only undergo a shift when preceded by a historically short high or mid vowel (e.g. ''etan'' > ''esən'' 'eat'); after long vowels, diphthongs and the low vowels /a/ and /aː/, and also in all other positions, they remain unshifted (e.g. ''laːtan'' > ''lɔːtən'' 'let').{{sfn|Schrijver|2014|p=104}} This phonologically conditioned distribution of shifted and unshifted voiceless stops is highly regular and not the result of [[lexical diffusion]]; it even occurs in the conjugation paradigms of [[Germanic strong verb|strong verbs]], e.g. ''riːtən'' 'tear' vs. ''jəresən'' 'torn'; ''jriːpən'' 'seize' vs. ''jəjrefən'' 'seized'.{{sfn|Davis|2005|pp=266–268}}}}

The shift of /p/ to /f/ after consonants (e.g. ''helpan'' > ''helfen'' 'help') sets off [[Moselle Franconian]] dialects from [[Ripuarian language|Ripuarian]] dialects with the latter having retained unshifted /p/. The shift of /t/ to /s/ in ''wat'', ''dat'' > ''was'', ''das'' etc. characterizes Rhine Franconian.{{sfn|Schrijver|2014|pp=101–103}} The shift of root-initial and historically geminated /p/ to /pf/ (''Pund'' > ''Pfund'' 'pound', ''Appel'' > ''Apfel'' 'apple') marks the transition from the West Central German to the Upper German dialects. East Central German is separated from West Central German through having shifted initial p (the "Pund-Fund" line); only far southern East Central German dialects retain initial /pf-/, whereas other East Central German dialects have simplified it to initial /f-/.{{sfn|Schrijver|2014|pp=99–100}}{{sfn|Paul|Wiehl|Grosse|1998|p=4}}{{sfn|Ebert et al.|1993|p=129}} The shift of root-initial and historically geminated /k/ to /kx/ (and further to /x/, as in ''Kind'' > ''Chind'') occurs in the southern part of the Upper German dialect area.{{sfn|Schrijver|2014|pp=99–100}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+caption | Scope of the High German consonant shift in the major continental West Germanic dialect groups {{harv|Schrijver|2014|pp=97–104}}
|-
!
! -C(-)<br/>/t/{{&nbsp}}>{{&nbsp}}/s/
! #C-<br/>/t/{{&nbsp}}>{{&nbsp}}/ts/
! -CC-<br/>/tt/{{&nbsp}}>{{&nbsp}}/ts/
! -[l/r]C-<br/>/tt/{{&nbsp}}>{{&nbsp}}/ts/
! -C#{{efn-lr|Only in *wat, *dat etc.}}<br/>/t/{{&nbsp}}>{{&nbsp}}/s/
!
! -C(-)<br/>/p/{{&nbsp}}>{{&nbsp}}/f/
! #C-<br/>/p/{{&nbsp}}>{{&nbsp}}/pf/
! -CC-<br/>/pp/{{&nbsp}}>{{&nbsp}}/pf/
! -[l/r]C-<br/>/p/{{&nbsp}}>{{&nbsp}}/pf/{{efn-lr|In most dialects /f/}}
! -C#{{efn-lr|Only in *u(ː)p}}<br/>/p/{{&nbsp}}>{{&nbsp}}/f/
!
! -C(-)<br/>/k/{{&nbsp}}>{{&nbsp}}/x/
! #C-<br/>/k/{{&nbsp}}>{{&nbsp}}/kx/
! -CC-<br/>/kk/{{&nbsp}}>{{&nbsp}}/kx/
! -[l/r]C-<br/>/k/{{&nbsp}}>{{&nbsp}}/kx/
! -C#{{efn-lr|Only in *ik, *dik, *mik, *auk}}<br/>/k/{{&nbsp}}>{{&nbsp}}/x/
|-
! Low Saxon / North Low Franconian
| {{n}}
| {{n}}
| {{n}}
| {{n}}
| {{n}}
!
| {{n}}
| {{n}}
| {{n}}
| {{n}}
| {{n}}
!
| {{n}}
| {{n}}
| {{n}}
| {{n}}
| {{n}}
|-
! South Low Franconian
| {{n}}
| {{n}}
| {{n}}
| {{n}}
| {{n}}
!
| {{n}}
| {{n}}
| {{n}}
| {{n}}
| {{n}}
!
| {{n}}
| {{n}}
| {{n}}
| {{n}}
| {{y}}
|-
! Ripuarian
| {{y}}
| {{y}}
| {{y}}
| {{y}}
| {{n}}
!
| {{y}}
| {{n}}
| {{n}}
| {{n}}
| {{n}}
!
| {{y}}
| {{n}}
| {{n}}
| {{n}}
| {{y}}
|-
! Moselle Franconian
| {{y}}
| {{y}}
| {{y}}
| {{y}}
| {{n}}
!
| {{y}}
| {{n}}
| {{n}}
| {{y}}
| {{n}}/{{y}}{{efn-lr|Only in the southeastern half of the Moselle Franconian area}}
!
| {{y}}
| {{n}}
| {{n}}
| {{n}}
| {{y}}
|-
! Rhine Franconian
| {{y}}
| {{y}}
| {{y}}
| {{y}}
| {{y}}
!
| {{y}}
| {{n}}
| {{n}}
| {{y}}
| {{y}}
!
| {{y}}
| {{n}}
| {{n}}
| {{n}}
| {{y}}
|-
! East Central German
| {{y}}
| {{y}}
| {{y}}
| {{y}}
| {{y}}
!
| {{y}}
| {{y}}{{efn-lr|/pf/ only in the south, northern and central dialects have /f/}}
| {{n}}{{efn-lr|A small transitional area in Thuringia has shifted /pf/}}
| {{y}}
| {{y}}
!
| {{y}}
| {{n}}
| {{n}}
| {{n}}
| {{y}}
|-
! Upper German
| {{y}}
| {{y}}
| {{y}}
| {{y}}
| {{y}}
!
| {{y}}
| {{y}}
| {{y}}
| {{y}}
| {{y}}
!
| {{y}}
| {{n}}/{{y}}{{efn-lr|Only in the southern part, in Swiss varieties mostly /x/}}
| {{n}}/{{y}}{{efn-lr|Only in the southern part}}
| {{n}}/{{y}}{{efn-lr|Only in the southern part}}
| {{y}}
|-
| colspan=18| {{notelist-lr|30em}}
|}

==See also==
* [[Glottalic theory]]
* The [[Tuscan gorgia|Tuscan {{lang|it|gorgia|nocat=y}}]], a similar evolution differentiating the [[Tuscan dialect]]s from [[Standard Italian]].

==Notes==
{{notelist|20}}

==References==
{{reflist|20}}

==Sources==
*{{cite book |last1=Braune |first1=Wilhelm |last2=Reiffenstein |first2=Ingo |title=Althochdeutsche Grammatik |edition=15 |year=2004 |publisher=Niemeyer}}
*{{cite journal |last=Davis |first=Garry W. |year=2005 |title=Entstehung und Alter der Hochdeutschen Lautverschiebung in Wermelskirchen |journal=Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=257–277 |jstor=40505392}}
*{{cite book| last1=Ebert |first1=Robert P. |first2=Oskar |last2=Reichmann |first3=Hans-Joachim |last3= Solms |first4=Klaus-Peter |last4=Wegera |editor-first1=Robert P. |editor-first2=Oskar |editor-first3=Hans-Joachim |editor-first4=Klaus-Peter |editor-last1=Ebert |editor-last2=Reichmann |editor-last3=Solms |editor-last4=Wegera |title=Frühneuhochdeutsche Grammatik |year=1993 |doi=10.1515/9783110920130 |publisher=de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-484-10672-7 |ref={{harvid|Ebert et al.|1993}}}}
*{{cite book |last=Fulk |first=R.D. |title=A Comparative Grammar of the Early Germanic Languages  |series=Studies in Germanic Linguistics |year=2018 |volume=3 |publisher=John Benjamins |doi=10.1075/sigl.3|isbn=978-90-272-6312-4 }}
*{{cite encyclopedia |last=Höder |first=Steffan |year=2015 |title=Zweite Lautverschiebung |encyclopedia=Wörterbücher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft (WSK) Online |orig-year=2013 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/database/WSK/entry/wsk_id_wsk_artikel_artikel_15212/html}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Iverson |first1=Gregory K. |last2=Salmons |first2=Joseph C. |title=Fundamental Regularities in the Second Consonant Shift |journal=Journal of Germanic Linguistics |volume=18 |issue=1 |year=2006 |pages=45–70|doi=10.1017/S147054270600002X }}
*{{cite book |last=König |first=Werner |title=dtv-Atlas zur deutschen Sprache |publisher=Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag |edition=10 |year=1994}}
*{{cite book|last1=Paul |first1=Hermann |last2=Wiehl |first2=Peter |last3=Grosse |first3=Siegfried |title=Mittelhochdeutsche Grammatik |edition=24 |year=1998 |publisher=Niemeyer}}
*{{cite encyclopedia |last=Pickl |first=Simon |title=(High) German |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics |year=2023|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.939|isbn=978-0-19-938465-5 }}
*{{cite book|last=Polenz |first=Peter von |title=Geschichte der deutschen Sprache |edition=11 |year=2020 |publisher=de Gruyter |doi=10.1515/9783110485660}}
*{{cite book|last=Salmons |first=Joseph |title=A History of German: What the Past Reveals about Today's Language |edition=2 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2018}}
*{{cite book |last=Schrijver |first=Peter |year=2014 |title=Language contact and the origins of the Germanic languages |publisher=Routledge}}
*{{cite book| last=Schweikle |first=Günther |title=Germanisch-deutsche Sprachgeschichte im Überblick |edition=4 |publisher=J. B. Metzler |year=1996}}
*{{cite book |last=Sonderegger |first=Stefan |title= Grundzüge deutscher Sprachgeschichte. Diachronie des Sprachsystems |volume=1 |year=1979 |publisher=de Gruyter |doi=10.1515/9783110842005 }}
*{{cite book|last1=Young |first1=Christopher |last2=Gloning |first2=Thomas |title=A History of German Through Texts |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge}}

{{Germanic languages}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:High German Consonant Shift}}
[[Category:History of the German language]]
[[Category:Old High German]]
[[Category:Germanic sound laws]]