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{{short description|Person or character who combats adversity through ingenuity, courage, or strength}}
{{Other uses|Hero (disambiguation)|Heroine (disambiguation)|Heroes (disambiguation)}}
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[[File:Achilles fighting against Memnon Leiden Rijksmuseum voor Oudheden.jpg|thumb|[[Achilles]] during the [[Trojan War]], as depicted in an ancient Greek polychromatic [[Pottery of ancient Greece|pottery painting]] (dating to {{circa|300 BC}}).]]
[[File:Harold piffard joan of arc.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Joan of Arc]] is considered a medieval Christian heroine of France for her role in the [[Hundred Years' War]], and was canonized as a [[Saint#Catholicism|Roman Catholic saint]]]]
[[File:Wilhelm Tell Denkmal Altdorf um 1900.jpeg|thumb|upright|[[William Tell]], a popular [[folk hero]] of [[Switzerland]].]]
[[File:Giuseppe Garibaldi 1861.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Giuseppe Garibaldi]], celebrated as one of the greatest generals of modern times,<ref name="scholar and patriot">{{Cite web |title=Scholar and Patriot |url={{Google books|iWK7AAAAIAAJ|page=PA133|keywords=Garibaldi+one+of+the+greatest+generals+of+modern+time|text=|plainurl=yes}} |publisher=Manchester University Press |via=Google Books}}</ref> is considered an Italian national hero for his role in the [[Italian unification]], and is known as the "''Hero of the Two Worlds''" because of his military enterprises in South America and Europe.<ref name="Garibaldi on Encyclopædia Britannica">{{Cite web|title=Giuseppe Garibaldi (Italian revolutionary)|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/225978/Giuseppe-Garibaldi|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140226091529/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/225978/Giuseppe-Garibaldi|archive-date=26 February 2014|access-date=6 March 2014}}</ref>]] 
{{Fantasy}}

A '''hero''' (feminine: '''heroine''') is a real person or [[fictional character]] who, in the face of danger, combats adversity through feats of ingenuity, [[courage]], or [[Physical strength|strength]]. The original hero type of classical epics did such things for the sake of [[glory (honor)|glory]] and [[honor]]. [[post-classical history|Post-classical]] and [[modern history|modern]] heroes, on the other hand, perform great deeds or selfless acts for the [[common good]] instead of the classical goal of wealth, [[pride]], and fame. The antonym of ''hero'' is ''[[villain]]''.<ref name=Gölz>{{cite journal|last=Gölz|first=Olmo|url= https://www.academia.edu/41498238 |title=The Imaginary Field of the Heroic: On the Contention between Heroes, Martyrs, Victims and Villains in Collective Memory|journal=<!-- is ejournal --> helden. heroes. héros|year=2019|doi=10.6094/helden.heroes.heros./2019/APH/04|pages=27–38}}</ref> Other terms associated with the concept of ''hero'' may include ''good guy'' or ''[[wikt:white hat|white hat]]''.

In [[Classics|classical literature]], the hero is the main or revered character in [[Epic poetry|heroic epic poetry]] celebrated through ancient [[legend]]s of a people, often striving for military conquest and living by a continually flawed personal honor code.<ref name=":02">{{Cite encyclopedia|title = Hero |url = http://academic.eb.com/EBchecked/topic/263398/hero|encyclopedia=Britannica Online Encyclopedia|access-date = 2015-12-06}}</ref> The definition of a hero has changed throughout time. [[Webster's Dictionary|Merriam Webster]] dictionary defines a hero as "a person who is admired for great or brave acts or fine qualities".<ref>{{Cite dictionary|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hero|title=Definition of HERO|dictionary=Merriam Webster Online Dictionary|access-date=2 October 2017}}</ref> Examples of heroes range from mythological figures, such as [[Gilgamesh]] and [[Iphigenia]], to historical and modern figures, such as [[Joan of Arc]], [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]], [[Sophie Scholl]], [[Alvin York]], [[Audie Murphy]], and [[Chuck Yeager]], and fictional "[[superhero]]es", including [[Superman]] and [[Batman]].

== Etymology ==
[[File:The Coronation of the Hero of Virtue - Peter Paul Rubens (Unframed).jpg|thumb|left|''Coronation of the Hero of Virtue'' by [[Peter Paul Rubens]], {{circa|1612}}–1614]]<!--Something is causing this image and the ones below it to be pushed down into the "Myths and monomyth" section, leaving a blank rectangle where the image of Perseus is supposed to go.-->
The word ''hero'' comes from the [[Greek mythology|Greek]] ἥρως (''hērōs''), "hero" particularly one such as [[Heracles]] with divine ancestry or later given divine honors.<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dh%28%2Frws ἥρως]
Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> Before the [[decipherment]] of [[Linear B]] the original form of the word was assumed to be *{{Lang|grc|ἥρωϝ-}}, ''hērōw-'', but the Mycenaean compound ''ti-ri-se-ro-e'' demonstrates the absence of -w-.

According to ''[[The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language]]'', the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] root is ''*ser'' meaning "to protect". According to Eric Partridge in ''Origins'', the Greek word ''hērōs'' "is akin to" the Latin ''seruāre'', meaning ''to safeguard''. Partridge concludes, "The basic sense of both [[Hera]] and hero would therefore be 'protector'." [[Robert S. P. Beekes|R. S. P. Beekes]] rejects an [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] derivation and asserts that the word has a [[Pre-Greek substrate|Pre-Greek]] origin.<ref>[[Robert S. P. Beekes|R. S. P. Beekes]], ''Etymological Dictionary of Greek'', Brill, 2009, p. 526.</ref> [[Hera]] was a [[Greek mythology|Greek goddess]] with many attributes, including protection and her worship appears to have similar [[Proto-Indo-European language|proto-Indo-European]] origins.

The female term ''heroine'' was taken from the [[Latin]] word ''heroina'', from Greek ''hērōinē'', feminine of ''hērōs''.<ref name="Merriam2">[https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/heroine#h1 Merriam-Webster Dictionary: Heroine]</ref> Its first use in the English language, however, was in 1587 to denote of strong and well-abled women of divine origins, as seen in myths and legends.<ref name="Merriam2"/>

== Antiquity ==
{{See also|Greek hero cult}}
[[File:Perseo in Villa San Marco Stabiae.jpg|thumb|left|Perseus and the head of Medusa in a Roman fresco at [[Stabiae]]]]
A classical hero is considered to be a "[[warrior]] who lives and dies in the pursuit of honor" and asserts their greatness by "the brilliance and efficiency with which they kill".<ref name=":1" /> Each classical hero's life focuses on fighting, which occurs in war or during an epic quest. Classical heroes are commonly semi-divine and extraordinarily gifted, such as [[Achilles]], evolving into heroic characters through their perilous circumstances.<ref name=":02" /> While these heroes are incredibly resourceful and skilled, they are often foolhardy, court disaster, risk their followers' lives for trivial matters, and behave arrogantly in a childlike manner.<ref name=":02" /> During classical times, people regarded heroes with the highest esteem and utmost importance, explaining their prominence within epic literature.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Levin | first1 = Saul | year = 1984 | title = Love and the Hero of the Iliad | journal = Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association | volume = 80 | pages = 43–50 | doi=10.2307/283510| jstor = 283510}}</ref> The appearance of these mortal figures marks the evolution of audiences and writers turning away from [[Twelve Olympians|immortal gods]] to mortal mankind, whose heroic moments of glory survive in the memory of their descendants, extending their legacy.<ref name=":02" />
[[File:Wall painting - two heroes conversing - Herculaneum (ins or II - palaestra) - Napoli MAN 9020.jpg|thumb|left|Two heroes. A Roman fresco in [[Herculaneum]], 30-40 AD]]

[[Hector]] was a [[Troy|Trojan]] prince and the greatest fighter for Troy in the [[Trojan War]], which is known primarily through [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]''. Hector acted as leader of the Trojans and their allies in the defense of Troy, "killing 31,000 Greek fighters".<ref>Hyginus, ''[[Fabulae]]'' 115.</ref> Hector was known not only for his courage, but also for his noble and courtly nature. Indeed, Homer places Hector as peace-loving, thoughtful, as well as bold, a good son, husband and father, and without darker motives. However, his familial values conflict greatly with his heroic aspirations in the ''Iliad,'' as he cannot be both the protector of [[Troy]] and a father to his child.<ref name=":1" /> Hector is ultimately betrayed by the deities when [[Athena]] appears disguised as his ally [[Deiphobus]] and convinces him to challenge Achilles, leading to his death at the hands of a superior warrior.<ref name=":4">Homer. ''The Iliad.'' Trans. Robert Fagles (1990). NY: Penguin Books. Chapter 14</ref>

[[File:The_Rage_of_Achilles,_by_Giovanni_Battista_Tiepolo_(1696-1770),_Italian_Rococo_painter.jpg|thumb|''The Rage of Achilles'', by [[Giovanni Battista Tiepolo]], 1757|302x302px]]
[[Achilles]] was a Greek hero who was considered the most formidable military fighter in the entire Trojan War and the central character of the ''Iliad''. He was the child of [[Thetis]] and [[Peleus]], making him a [[Demigod|demi-god]]. He wielded superhuman strength on the battlefield and was blessed with a close relationship to the [[List of Greek deities|deities]]. Achilles famously refused to fight after his dishonoring at the hands of Agamemnon, and only returned to the war due to unadulterated rage after Hector killed his beloved companion [[Patroclus]].<ref name=":4" /> Achilles was known for uncontrollable rage that defined many of his bloodthirsty actions, such as defiling Hector's corpse by dragging it around the city of Troy seven times. Achilles plays a tragic role in the ''Iliad'' brought about because his ''menis'' (wrath) repeatedly overpowers his ''philos'' (love).<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title = The Mortal Hero: An Introduction to Homer's Iliad|last = Schein|first = Seth|publisher = University of California Press|year = 1984|pages = 58}}</ref>

Heroes in myth often had close but conflicted relationships with the deities. Thus, Heracles's name means "the glory of [[Hera]]", even though he was tormented all his life by Hera, the Queen of the Greek deities. Perhaps the most striking example is the Athenian king [[Erechtheus]], whom [[Poseidon]] killed for choosing [[Athena]] rather than him as the city's patron deity. When the Athenians worshiped Erechtheus on the [[Acropolis of Athens|Acropolis]], they invoked him as ''Poseidon Erechtheus''.

[[Destiny|Fate]], or destiny, plays a massive role in the stories of classical heroes. The classical hero's significance stems from battlefield conquests, an inherently dangerous action.<ref name=":1" /> The deities in [[Greek mythology]], when interacting with the heroes, often foreshadow the hero's eventual death on the battlefield. Countless heroes and deities go to great lengths to alter their destinies, but with no success, as none, neither human or immortal can change their prescribed outcomes by the three powerful [[Fates]].<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url = http://www.auburn.wednet.edu/cms/lib03/WA01001938/Centricity/Domain/2205/Fate%20reading.pdf |title = Articles and musing on the concept of Fate for the ancient Greeks|website = Auburn University}}</ref> A characteristic example of this is found in ''[[Oedipus Rex]].'' After learning that his son, [[Oedipus]], will end up killing him, the King of Thebes, [[Laius]], takes huge steps to ensure his son's death by removing him from the kingdom. When Oedipus encounters his father when his father was unknown to him in a dispute on the road many years later, Oedipus slays him without a thought. The lack of recognition enabled Oedipus to slay his father, ironically further binding his father to his fate.<ref name=":5" />

Stories of heroism may serve as [[moral example]]s. However, classical heroes often did not embody the Christian notion of an upstanding, perfectly moral hero.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Four Conceptions of the Heroic|url = http://www.fellowshipofreason.com/archives/4heroes.htm |website = www.fellowshipofreason.com|access-date = 2015-12-07}}</ref> For example, Achilles's character-issues of hateful rage lead to merciless slaughter and his overwhelming pride lead to him only joining the Trojan War because he did not want his soldiers to win all the glory. Classical heroes, regardless of their morality, were placed in religion. In [[classical antiquity]], cults that venerated deified heroes such as [[Heracles]], [[Perseus]], and [[Achilles]] played an important role in Ancient Greek religion.<ref name=":2">Graf, Fritz. (2006) "Hero Cult". ''[http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/brill-s-new-pauly/hero-cult-e511460?s.num=1&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.brill-s-new-pauly&s.q=hero Brills New Pauly]''.</ref> These ancient [[Greek hero cult]]s worshipped heroes from oral [[Epic Cycle|epic tradition]], with these heroes often bestowing blessings, especially healing ones, on individuals.<ref name=":2" />

== Myth and monomyth ==
[[File:JourneytotheWest.jpg|right|300px|thumb|The four heroes from the 16th-century Chinese novel, ''[[Journey to the West]]'']]

The concept of the "Mythic Hero Archetype" was first developed by [[FitzRoy Somerset, 4th Baron Raglan|Lord Raglan]] in his 1936 book, ''The Hero, A Study in Tradition, Myth and Drama''. It is a set of 22 common traits that he said were shared by many heroes in various cultures, myths, and religions throughout history and worldwide. Raglan argued that the higher the score, the more likely the figure is mythical.<ref>Lord Raglan. ''The Hero: A Study in Tradition, Myth and Drama by Lord Raglan'', Dover Publications, 1936</ref>

[[File:Robert Wilhelm Ekman - Lemminkäinen and the Fiery Eagle - A I 457-307 - Finnish National Gallery.jpg|thumb|''[[Lemminkäinen]] and the Fiery Eagle'', Robert Wilhelm Ekman, 1867]]

The concept of a story archetype of the standard [[Hero's journey|monomythical]] "hero's [[quest]]" that was reputed to be pervasive across all cultures is somewhat controversial. Expounded mainly by [[Joseph Campbell]] in his 1949 work ''[[The Hero with a Thousand Faces]]'', it illustrates several uniting themes of hero stories that hold similar ideas of what a hero represents despite vastly different cultures and beliefs. The monomyth or Hero's Journey consists of three separate stages: the Departure, Initiation, and Return. Within these stages, there are several archetypes that the hero of either gender may follow, including the call to adventure (which they may initially refuse), supernatural aid, proceeding down a road of trials, achieving a realization about themselves (or an apotheosis), and attaining the freedom to live through their quest or journey. Campbell offered examples of stories with similar themes, such as [[Krishna]], [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], [[Apollonius of Tyana]], and [[Jesus]].<ref name=":0">Joseph Campbell in ''The Hero With a Thousand Faces'' Princeton University Press, 2004 [1949], 140, {{ISBN|0-691-11924-4}}</ref> One of the themes he explores is the androgynous hero, who combines male and female traits, such as Bodhisattva: "The first wonder to be noted here is the androgynous character of the Bodhisattva: masculine Avalokiteshvara, feminine Kwan Yin."<ref name=":0" /> In his 1968 book, ''The Masks of God: Occidental Mythology'', Campbell writes, "It is clear that, whether accurate or not as to biographical detail, the moving legend of the Crucified and Risen Christ was fit to bring a new warmth, immediacy, and humanity, to the old motifs of the beloved [[Dumuzid|Tammuz]], [[Adonis]], and [[Osiris]] cycles."<ref>[[Joseph Campbell]]. ''The Masks of God: Occidental Mythology'' Penguin, reprinted, {{ISBN|0-14-004306-3}}</ref>

== Slavic fairy tales ==
[[File:Vasnetsov samolet.jpg|thumb|left|[[Ivan Tsarevich]], a hero of [[Slavic paganism|Russian folklore]] by [[Viktor Vasnetsov]] (1880)]]

[[Vladimir Propp]], in his analysis of Russian [[fairy tale]]s, concluded that a fairy tale had only eight ''[[dramatis personæ]]'', of which one was the hero,<ref name="Propp">Vladimir Propp, ''Morphology of the Folk Tale'', {{ISBN|0-292-78376-0}}</ref>{{Rp|p. 80}} and his analysis has been widely applied to non-Russian folklore. The actions that fall into such a hero's sphere include:

# Departure on a quest
# Reacting to the test of a [[Donor (fairy tale)|donor]]
# Marrying a princess (or similar figure)

Propp distinguished between ''seekers'' and ''victim-heroes''. A [[villain]] could initiate the issue by kidnapping the hero or driving him out; these were victim-heroes. On the other hand, an antagonist could rob the hero, or kidnap someone close to him, or, without the villain's intervention, the hero could realize that he lacked something and set out to find it; these heroes are seekers. Victims may appear in tales with seeker heroes, but the tale does not follow them both.<ref name="Propp" />{{Rp|36}}

== Historical studies ==<!-- This section is linked from [[Philosophy of history]] -->
{{Further|Philosophy of history|Great man theory}}
[[File:Mestariampuja Simo Häyhä "Saharan kauhun" komppaniasta, SAKuva-9479.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Simo Häyhä]], a Finnish military sniper during the [[Winter War]], achieved the reputation of a pioneering war hero,<ref>[https://theculturetrip.com/europe/finland/articles/story-simo-hayha-white-death-finland/ The Story of Simo Häyhä, the White Death of Finland - The Culture Trip]</ref> despite his modest nature.<ref>[https://www.is.fi/suomi100/art-2000005409481.html IS: Simo Häyhän muistikirja paljastaa tarkka-ampujan huumorintajun – "Valkoinen kuolema" esittää näkemyksensä ammuttujen vihollisten lukumäärästä] (in Finnish)</ref><ref>[url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R948DQAAQBAJ Tapio Saarelainen: The White Sniper]</ref>]]

The philosopher [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]] gave a central role to the "hero", personalized by [[Napoleon]], as the incarnation of a particular culture's ''[[Geist#Volksgeist|Volksgeist]]'' and thus of the general ''[[Zeitgeist]]''. [[Thomas Carlyle]]'s 1841 work, ''[[On Heroes, Hero-Worship, & the Heroic in History]]'', also accorded an essential function to heroes and great men in history. Carlyle centered history on the [[biography|biographies]] of individuals, as in ''[[Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches]]'' and ''[[History of Frederick the Great]]''. His heroes were not only political and military figures, the founders or topplers of states, but also religious figures, poets, authors, and [[captains of industry]].

Explicit defenses of Carlyle's position were rare in the second part of the 20th century. Most in the [[philosophy of history]] school contend that the motive forces in history may best be described only with a wider lens than the one that Carlyle used for his portraits. For example, [[Karl Marx]] argued that history was determined by the massive social forces at play in "[[Class conflict|class struggles]]", not by the individuals by whom these forces are played out. After Marx, [[Herbert Spencer]] wrote at the end of the 19th century: "You must admit that the genesis of the great man depends on the long series of complex influences which has produced the race in which he appears, and the social state into which that race has slowly grown...[b]efore he can remake his society, his society must make him."<ref name=Spencer>Spencer, Herbert. ''[https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=96277756 The Study of Sociology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120515130355/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=96277756 |date=2012-05-15 }}'', Appleton, 1896, p. 34.</ref> [[Michel Foucault]] argued in [[Philosophy of history#Michel Foucault's analysis of historical and political discourse|his analysis of societal communication and debate]] that history was mainly the "science of the [[Sovereignty|sovereign]]", until its inversion by the "historical and political popular discourse".

[[File:Raoul Wallenberg.jpg|thumb|right|150px|The Swedish Diplomat [[Raoul Wallenberg]] saved the lives of tens of thousands of Jews in Budapest during World War II.<ref name="thomas.loc.gov">{{Cite web|title=The Library of Congress: Bill Summary & Status 112th Congress (2011–2012) H.R. 3001|url=http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c112:H.R.3001:|date=2012-07-26|access-date=2013-07-28|archive-date=2012-12-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121215215111/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c112:H.R.3001:|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url = http://www.raoulwallenberg.net/?en/wallenberg/tributes/philately/3368.htm | title = Holocaust Hero Honored on Postage Stamp | year = 1996 | publisher = [[United States Postal Service]]}}</ref>]]

The [[Annales school]], led by [[Lucien Febvre]], [[Marc Bloch]], and [[Fernand Braudel]], would contest the exaggeration of the role of [[Subject (philosophy)|individual subjects]] in history. Indeed, Braudel distinguished various time scales, one accorded to the life of an individual, another accorded to the life of a few human generations, and the last one to [[civilization]]s, in which [[geography]], [[economics]], and [[demography]] play a role considerably more decisive than that of individual subjects.

Modern examples of heroic leaders associated with transformative change have included [[Martin Luther King Jr]], [[Nelson Mandela]], [[Mahatma Gandhi]] and [[Albert Einstein]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Allison |first1=Scott T. |last2=Goethals |first2=George R. |title=Heroic Leadership: An Influence Taxonomy of 100 Exceptional Individuals |date=4 July 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-23273-2 |page=25 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uWnRs5wCpJsC&dq=nelson+mandela+global+hero&pg=PA25 |language=en}}</ref> Other individuals considered to be historical heroes include [[Anne Frank]], [[Harriet Tubman]]<ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies |date=1 October 2024 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-031-48129-1 |page=1157 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ALklEQAAQBAJ&dq=heroes+historical+examples&pg=PA1157 |language=en}}</ref> and Raoul Wallenberg.<ref>{{cite web |title=Raoul Wallenberg: The Swede in Budapest {{!}} About the Hero |url=https://www.lowellmilkencenter.org/programs/projects/view/raoul-wallenberg-the-swede-in-budapest/hero |website=Lowell Milken Center |date=10 August 2023}}</ref>

Among noticeable events in the studies of the role of the hero and [[Great man theory|great man]] in history, one should mention [[Sidney Hook]]'s book (1943) ''[[Sidney Hook#Hero in History|The Hero in History]]''.<ref>Hook, S. 1955 [1943]. The Hero in History. A Study in Limitation and Possibility. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.</ref> In the second half of the twentieth century such male-focused theory has been contested, among others by feminists writers such as [[Judith Fetterley]] in ''The Resisting Reader'' (1977)<ref>{{Cite book |title = The Resisting Reader|last = Fetterley|first = Judith|publisher = Indiana University Press|year = 1977|location = Bloomington, IN}}</ref> and literary theorist [[Nancy K. Miller]], ''The Heroine's Text: Readings in the French and English Novel, 1722–1782''.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Heroine's Text: Readings in the French and English Novel, 1722–1782|last = Miller|first = Nancy K.|publisher = Columbia University Press|year = 1980|location = New York}}</ref>

In the era of [[globalization]] an individual may change the development of a country and of the whole world, so this gives reasons to some scholars to suggest returning to the problem of the role of the hero in history from the viewpoint of modern historical knowledge and using up-to-date methods of historical analysis.<ref>[[Leonid Grinin|Grinin, Leonid]] 2010. The Role of an Individual in History: A Reconsideration. Social Evolution & History, Vol. 9 No. 2 (pp. 95–136)  http://www.socionauki.ru/journal/articles/129622/</ref>

Within the frameworks of developing [[counterfactual history]], attempts are made to examine some hypothetical scenarios of historical development. The hero attracts much attention because most of those scenarios are based on the suppositions: what would have happened if this or that historical individual had or had not been alive.<ref>Thompson. W. The Lead Economy Sequence in World Politics (From Sung China to the United States): Selected Counterfactuals. Journal of Globalization Studies. Vol. 1, num. 1. 2010. pp. 6–28 http://www.socionauki.ru/journal/articles/126971/</ref>

== Modern fiction ==
{{Further|Vanity Fair (novel)|Superhero}}
[[File:Batman_and_Robin_1966.JPG|thumb|[[Batman]] ([[Adam West]]) and [[Robin (character)|Robin]] (Burt Ward) in the 1966–1968 television series, ''[[Batman (TV series)|Batman]]'']]

The word "hero" is sometimes used to describe the [[protagonist]] or the [[List of stock characters|romantic interest]] of a story, a usage which may conflict with the superhuman expectations of heroism.<ref name=":3" /> A good example is [[Anna Karenina]], the lead character in the novel of the same title by [[Leo Tolstoy]]. In modern literature the hero is more and more a problematic concept. In 1848, for example, [[William Makepeace Thackeray]] gave ''[[Vanity Fair (novel)|Vanity Fair]]'' the subtitle, ''A Novel without a Hero'', and imagined a world in which no sympathetic character was to be found.<ref>[[Northrop Frye]], ''[[Anatomy of Criticism]]'', p. 34, {{ISBN|0-691-01298-9}}</ref> ''Vanity Fair'' is a satirical representation of the absence of truly moral heroes in the modern world.<ref>Shmoop Editorial Team. (2008, November 11). ''Vanity Fair Theme of Morality and Ethics''. Retrieved December 6, 2015, from http://www.shmoop.com/vanity-fair-thackeray/morality-ethics-theme.html</ref> The story focuses on the characters, Emmy Sedley and Becky Sharpe (the latter as the clearly defined anti-hero), with the plot focused on the eventual marriage of these two characters to rich men, revealing character flaws as the story progresses. Even the most sympathetic characters, such as Captain Dobbin, are susceptible to weakness, as he is often narcissistic and melancholic.

The larger-than-life hero is a more common feature of [[fantasy]] (particularly in [[comic book]]s and [[High fantasy|epic fantasy]]) than more realist works.<ref name=":3">[[L. Sprague de Camp]], ''[[Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers]]: The Makers of Heroic Fantasy'', p. 5 {{ISBN|0-87054-076-9}}</ref> However, these larger-than life figures remain prevalent in society. The superhero genre is a multibillion-dollar industry that includes comic books, movies, toys, and video games. Superheroes usually possess extraordinary talents and powers that no living human could ever possess. The superhero stories often pit a [[Supervillain|super villain]] against the hero, with the hero fighting the crime caused by the super villain. Examples of long-running superheroes include [[Superman]], [[Wonder Woman]], [[Batman]], and [[Spider-Man]].

Research indicates that male writers are more likely to make heroines superhuman, whereas female writers tend to make heroines ordinary humans, as well as making their male heroes more powerful than their heroines, possibly due to sex differences in valued traits.<ref>Ingalls, Victoria. "Who creates warrior women? An investigation of the warrior characteristics of fictional female heroes based on the sex of the author." Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences 14, no. 1 (2020): 79.</ref>

== Psychology ==

[[File:Mandela Bust at Southbank.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Bust of [[Nelson Mandela]] erected on London's [[South Bank]]. Mandela is widely considered a global hero for his role in opposing the [[apartheid system]] and inaugurating a [[multiracial democracy]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Legacy of Madiba |url=https://www.nobelpeacecenter.org/aktuelt/the-legacy-of-madiba |website=www.nobelpeacecenter.org |language=nb}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Allison |first1=Scott T |title=Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies |date=1 October 2024 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-031-48129-1 |page=2068 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ALklEQAAQBAJ&dq=nelson+mandela+widely+considered+a+hero&pg=PA2068 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Allison |first1=Scott T. |last2=Goethals |first2=George R. |title=Heroic Leadership: An Influence Taxonomy of 100 Exceptional Individuals |date=4 July 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-23273-2 |page=25 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uWnRs5wCpJsC&dq=nelson+mandela+global+hero&pg=PA25 |language=en}}</ref>]]

[[Social psychology]] has begun paying attention to heroes and heroism.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Rusch | first1 = H. | year = 2022 | title = Heroic behavior: A review of the literature on high-stakes altruism in the wild | journal = Current Opinion in Psychology | volume = 43 | pages = 238–243 | doi=10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.07.024| pmid = 34454246 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Zeno Franco and [[Philip Zimbardo]] point out differences between heroism and altruism, and they offer evidence that observer perceptions of unjustified risk play a role above and beyond risk type in determining the ascription of heroic status.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Franco | first1 = Z. | last2 = Blau | first2 = K. | last3 = Zimbardo | first3 = P. | year = 2011 | title = Heroism: A conceptual analysis and differentiation between heroic action and altruism | journal = Review of General Psychology | volume = 5 | issue = 2| pages = 99–113 | doi=10.1037/a0022672| citeseerx = 10.1.1.366.8315| s2cid = 16085963 }}</ref>

Psychologists have also identified the traits of heroes. Elaine Kinsella and her colleagues<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Kinsella | first1 = E. | last2 = Ritchie | first2 = T. | last3 = Igou | first3 = E. | year = 2015 | title = Zeroing in on Heroes: A prototype analysis of hero features | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 108 | issue = 1| pages = 114–127 | doi=10.1037/a0038463| pmid = 25603370 | hdl = 10344/5515 | url = https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/19829134 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> have identified 12 central traits of heroism, which consist of brave, moral integrity, conviction, courageous, [[self-sacrifice]], protecting, honest, selfless, determined, saves others, inspiring, and helpful. Scott Allison and George Goethals<ref>{{Cite book | last1 = Allison | first1 = S. T. | last2 = Goethals | first2 = G. R. | title = Heroes: What They Do & Why We Need Them | year = 2011 | publisher = Oxford University Press| isbn = 9780199739745 }}</ref> uncovered evidence for "the great eight traits" of heroes consisting of wise, strong, resilient, reliable, charismatic, caring, selfless, and inspiring. These researchers have also identified four primary functions of heroism.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Allison | first1 = S. T. | last2 = Goethals | first2 = G. R. | year = 2015 | title = Hero worship: The elevation of the human spirit | journal = Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour | volume = 46 | issue = 2| pages = 187–210 | doi=10.1111/jtsb.12094}}</ref> Heroes give us wisdom; they enhance us; they provide moral modeling; and they offer protection.

An [[evolutionary psychology]] explanation for heroic risk-taking is that it is a [[Handicap principle|costly signal]] demonstrating the ability of the hero. It may be seen as one form of [[altruism]] for which there are several other evolutionary explanations as well.<ref name=AEP1>Pat Barcaly. The evolution of charitable behaviour and the power of reputation. In {{Cite book | last1 = Roberts | first1 = S. C. | editor1-last = Roberts | doi = 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199586073.001.0001 | editor1-first = S. Craig | title = Applied Evolutionary Psychology | year = 2011 | publisher = Oxford University Press| isbn = 9780199586073 }}</ref><ref name=EEPS1>Hannes Rusch. High-cost altruistic helping. In {{Cite book | editor1-last = Shackelford | editor2-last = Weekes-Shackelford | doi = 10.1007/978-3-319-16999-6_1556-1 | editor1-first = T. K. | editor2-first = V. A. | title = Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Psychological Science | year = 2016 | publisher = Springer| isbn = 9783319196510 }}</ref>

Roma Chatterji has suggested that the hero or more generally protagonist is first and foremost a symbolic representation of the person who is experiencing the story while reading, listening, or watching;<ref name=Chatterji>{{Cite journal |last=Chatterji |first=Roma |date=January 1986|title=The Voyage of the Hero: The Self and the Other in One Narrative Tradition of Purulia|journal=Contributions to Indian Sociology|issue=19|pages=95–114|doi=10.1177/006996685019001007|volume=19|s2cid=170436735}}</ref> thus the relevance of the hero to the individual relies a great deal on how much similarity there is between them and the character. Chatterji suggested that one reason for the hero-as-self interpretation of stories and myths is the human inability to view the world from any perspective but a personal one.

In the [[Pulitzer Prize]]-winning book, ''[[The Denial of Death]]'', [[Ernest Becker]] argues that human civilization is ultimately an elaborate, symbolic defense mechanism against the knowledge of our mortality, which in turn acts as the emotional and intellectual response to our basic [[Anti-predator adaptation|survival mechanism]]. Becker explains that a basic duality in human life exists between the physical world of objects and a symbolic world of human meaning. Thus, since humanity has a dualistic nature consisting of a physical self and a symbolic self, he asserts that humans are able to transcend the [[dilemma]] of mortality through heroism, by focusing attention mainly on the symbolic self. This symbolic self-focus takes the form of an individual's "[[immortality]] project" (or "''[[causa sui]]'' project"), which is essentially a symbolic belief-system that ensures that one is believed superior to physical reality. By successfully living under the terms of the immortality project, people feel they can become heroic and, henceforth, part of something eternal; something that will never die as compared to their physical body. This he asserts, in turn, gives people the feeling that their lives have meaning, a purpose, and are significant in the grand scheme of things. Another theme running throughout the book is his belief that humanity's traditional "hero-systems", such as [[religion]], are no longer convincing in an [[Age of Enlightenment|age of reason]]. Science attempts to serve as an immortality project, something that Becker believes it can never do, because it is unable to provide agreeable, absolute meanings to human life. The book states that we need new convincing "illusions" that enable people to feel heroic in ways that are agreeable. Becker hopes that gradual realization of humanity's innate motivations, namely death, may help to bring about a better world. [[Terror management theory|Terror Management Theory]] (TMT) has generated evidence supporting this perspective.

== Mental and physical integration ==
Examining the success of resistance fighters on [[Crete]] during the [[Axis occupation of Greece|Nazi occupation in WWII]], author and endurance researcher [[Christopher McDougall|C. McDougall]] drew connections to the [[Ancient Greek]] heroes and a culture of integrated physical self-mastery, training, and mental conditioning. Skills established an "ability to unleash tremendous resources of strength, endurance, and agility that many people don't realize they already have."<ref>{{cite book |last=McDougall |first=Christopher |title=Natural Born Heroes: Mastering the Lost Secrets of Strength and Endurance |page=12 |author-link=Christopher McDougall |publisher=Penguin |date=2016 |isbn=978-0-307-74222-3 }}</ref>
McDougall cites examples of heroic acts, including a ''[[scholium]]'' to [[Pindar]]'s Fifth Nemean Ode: "Much weaker in strength than the [[Minotaur]], [[Theseus]] fought with it and won using {{lang|grc-Latn|[[pankration]]}}, as he had no knife." {{lang|grc-Latn|Pankration}}, a martial art that featured in the ancient Olympic Games, means "total power and knowledge", one "associated with gods and heroes&nbsp;... who conquer by tapping every talent".<ref>{{cite book |last=McDougall |first=Christopher |title=Natural Born Heroes: Mastering the Lost Secrets of Strength and Endurance |page=91 |author-link=Christopher McDougall |publisher=Penguin |date=2016 |isbn=978-0-307-74222-3 }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Action hero]]
* [[Antihero]]
* [[Byronic hero]]
* [[Carnegie Hero Fund]]
* [[Culture hero]]
* [[Folk hero]]
* [[Germanic hero]]
* [[Hero of Socialist Labour]]
* [[Heroic fantasy]]
* [[List of female action heroes and villains]]
* [[Randian hero]]
* [[Reluctant hero]]
* [[Romantic hero]]
* [[Soter]]
* [[Tragic hero]]
* [[Youxia]]
{{Div col end}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite book
| last = Allison | first = Scott
| author-link = Scott Allison
| title = Heroes: What They Do and Why We Need Them
| location = [[Richmond, Virginia]]
| publisher = [[Oxford University Press]]
| year = 2010
}}
*{{Cite book|last=Bell|first=Andrew|title=British-Canadian Centennium, 1759–1859: General James Wolfe, His Life and Death: A Lecture Delivered in the Mechanics' Institute Hall, Montreal, on Tuesday, September 13, 1859, being the Anniversary Day of the Battle of Quebec, fought a Century before in which Britain lost a Hero and Won a Province|publisher=J. Lovell|location=Quebec|year=1859|pages=52|author-link=Andrew Bell (journalist)}}
* {{Cite book
| last = Blashfield
| first = Jean
| author-link = Jean Blashfield Black
| title = Hellraisers, Heroines and Holy Women
| location = [[New York City|New York]]
| publisher = [[St. Martin's Press]]
| year = 1981
}}
* {{Cite book
| last = Burkert
| first = Walter
| author-link = Walter Burkert
| chapter = The dead, heroes and chthonic gods
| title = Greek Religion
| location = [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge, Mass.]]
| publisher = [[Harvard University Press]]
| year = 1985
}}
* {{Cite book
| last = Calder | first = Jenni
| year = 1977
| title = Heroes. From Byron to Guevara
| location = London | publisher = Hamish Hamilton
| isbn = 978-0-241-89536-8
}}
* {{Cite book
| last = Campbell | first = Joseph
| author-link = Joseph Campbell
| title = The Hero with a Thousand Faces
| location = [[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]]
| publisher = [[Princeton University Press]]
| year = 1949 | title-link = The Hero with a Thousand Faces
}}
* {{Cite journal
| last = Chatterji | first = Roma
| title = The Voyage of the Hero: The Self and the Other in One Narrative Tradition of Purulia
| journal = Contributions to Indian Sociology
| volume = 19
| year = 1986
| pages = 95–114
| doi = 10.1177/006996685019001007
| s2cid = 170436735
}}
* Carlyle, Thomas (1840) ''[https://archive.org/details/heroesheroworshi00carl On Heroes, Hero Worship and the Heroic in History]''
* Craig, David, ''Back Home'', Life Magazine-Special Issue, Volume 8, Number 6, 85–94.
* {{Cite book
| last = Dundes | first = Alan | author2 = Otto Rank| author3 = Lord Raglan
| year = 1990
| title = In Quest of the Hero
| location = [[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]]
| publisher = [[Princeton University Press]]
}}
* {{Cite book
| last = Hadas | first = Moses |author2=Morton Smith
| year = 1965
| title = Heroes and Gods
| publisher = [[HarperCollins|Harper & Row]]
}}
* {{Cite journal | last1 = Hein | first1 = David | year = 1993 | title = The Death of Heroes, the Recovery of the Heroic | url = https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5000242002 | journal = Christian Century | volume = 110 | pages = 1298–1303}}
* {{Cite book
| last = Kerényi | first = Karl
| author-link = Károly Kerényi
| year = 1959
| title = The Heroes of the Greeks
| location = [[London]]
| publisher = [[Thames & Hudson]]
}}
* Hook, Sydney (1943) ''The Hero in History: A Study in Limitation and Possibility''
* {{Cite book
| last = Khan | first = Sharif
| author-link = Sharif Khan
| year = 2004
| title = Psychology of the Hero Soul
}}
*{{Cite book | last= Lee |first=Christopher |title= Nelson and Napoleon, The Long Haul to Trafalgar |author-link=Christopher Lee (historian) |publisher=headline books |pages=560 |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7553-1041-8}}
* [[Henry Liddell|Lidell, Henry]] and [[Robert Scott (philologist)|Robert Scott]]. ''[[A Greek–English Lexicon]].'' &nbsp; [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057 link]
* {{Cite book
| last = Rohde | first = Erwin
| author-link = Erwin Rohde
| year = 1924
| title = Psyche
}}
*{{Cite book|last=Price|first=John|title=Everyday Heroism: Victorian Constructions of the Heroic Civilian|publisher=Bloomsbury|location=London|year=2014|isbn=978-1-4411-0665-0}}
* {{Cite book
| author = Lord Raglan
| author-link = FitzRoy Somerset, 4th Baron Raglan
| year = 1936
| title = The Hero: A Study in Tradition, Myth and Drama
| location = Mineola, NY
| publisher = Dover Publications
}} (Republished 2003)
* {{Cite journal
| last = Smidchens | first = Guntis
| title = National Heroic Narratives in the Baltics as a Source for Nonviolent Political Action
| journal = Slavic Review
| volume = 66,3
| issue = 3
| year = 2007
| pages = 484–508
| doi = 10.2307/20060298
| jstor = 20060298
| s2cid = 156435931
}}
* {{Cite book |title=What Makes a Hero?: The Surprising Science of Selflessness |last=Svoboda |first=Elizabeth |year=2014 |publisher=Current |isbn=978-1617230134 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/whatmakesherosur0000svob }}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Heroes|hero}}
{{Wiktionary|hero}}
{{Wikiquote|Heroes}}
*[http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tours/heroes/tour1.html ''The British Hero'']&nbsp;— online exhibition from [[screenonline]], a website of the [[British Film Institute]], looking at British heroes of film and television.
*[https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p004y282 Listen to BBC Radio 4's ''In Our Time'' programme on Heroism]
*[http://rootsofaction.com/blog/role-of-heroes-for-children/ "The Role of Heroes in Children's Lives"] by [[Marilyn Price-Mitchell]], PhD
*''[https://vimeo.com/ondemand/10percent 10%&nbsp;— What Makes A Hero]'' directed by [[Yoav Shamir]]

{{Fantasy fiction}}
{{Stock characters}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Heroes| ]]
[[Category:Epic poetry]]
[[Category:Good and evil]]
[[Category:Fantasy tropes]]
[[Category:Jungian archetypes]]
[[Category:Literary archetypes]]
[[Category:Mythological archetypes]]
[[Category:Mythological characters]]
[[Category:Protagonists by role]]
[[Category:Glory (honor)]]